EARTH 101 Why do sea turtles eat plastic? Plastic has only been mass-produced since the 1940s, but it’s having a devastating impact on sea turtles. Research suggests that %52 of the world’s turtles have eaten plastic waste. The reasons are simple: a floating plastic bag can look like a lot of jellyfish, algae, or other species that make up a large component of the sea turtles’ diets. All sea turtle species are at risk from plastic. The carnivorous loggerhead and mainly plant-eating green turtle both were shown to be con-suming plastic in alarming quantities, according to a study from the University of Tokyo. In fact, loggerheads ate plastic %17 of the time they encountered it, likely mistaking it for jelly-fish. This figure rocketed to %62 for green turtles probably on the hunt for algae. However, it’s not just ingesting plastic that causes problems for turtles. Entanglement in aban-doned fishing nets can easily kill them through drowning or preventing individuals from escap-ing predators or hunting. Tragically, the accumulation of plastics at key nesting beaches means that baby turtles are among the most at risk from plastic entanglement, preventing them from reaching the sea. What happens to sea turtles that eat plastics? The outlook for turtles that eat plastic is bleak: for %22 ingesting just one plastic item can be a death sentence. Sharp plastics can rupture internal organs and bags can cause intestinal block-ages leaving turtles unable to feed, resulting in starvation. Even if they survive, consuming plastic can make turtles unnaturally buoyant, which can stunt their growth and lead to slow reproduction rates. What can I do? With the odds stacked so heavily against sea turtles, it can be difficult to know how you can help. Many of us are doing our part to reduce plastic pollution by recycling and reducing single-use items, but it’s just not enough on its own. Governments must step up to take accountability and end this pollution epidemic.
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EARTH 103 Article Oceans cover 71 % of the Earth's surface and are a life-support system for the planet, regulating the global climate and providing us with free goods and services. However, the interaction between the oceans and the atmosphere is changing, and the exchange is intensifying. As a result, the oceans have absorbed a third of CO2 produced by human activities and 90 % of the extra heat trapped by the rising concentration of greenhouse gases. This is causing more extreme weather events, changing ocean currents, rising sea levels and temperatures, and melting of sea ice and ice sheets. The basic chemistry of the oceans is also changing, with acidity levels increasing and coral reefs dying off. However, solutions are possible to secure a healthy global climate. Overview: How climate change relates to oceans Worldwildlife.org
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EARTH 105 Original Article Oceans are a global force of nature that form the foundation of the blue planet on which we live. They cover 71 % of our planet’s surface and make up 95 % of all the space available to life. They are a life-support system for Earth and a global commons that provide us with free goods and services, from the food we eat to the oxygen we breathe. The oceans also regulate the global climate; they mediate temperature and drive the weather, determining rainfall, droughts, and floods. They are also the world’s largest store of carbon, where an estimated 83% of the global carbon cycle is circulated through marine waters. But the interaction between these two natural forces is altering, and the exchange is intensifying. We’re seeing the consequences of this around the world. In the last 200 years, the oceans have absorbed a third of the CO2 produced by human activities and 90% of the extra heat trapped by the rising concentration of greenhouse gases. As the climate responds to decades of increasing carbon emissions, the store of energy and heat from the atmosphere builds up in the ocean. If we reach a tipping point, we will likely see more extreme weather events, changing ocean currents, rising sea levels and temperatures, and melting of sea ice and ice sheets—all of which aggravate the negative impacts of overfishing, illegal fishing, pollution, and habitat degradation.
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EARTH 107 But perhaps of greatest concern is that the basic chemistry of oceans is changing faster than it ever has over the past 65 million years. The continual absorption of CO2 increases acidity levels, and—when combined with the warming of our oceans—more coral reefs are dying off and can no longer offer a healthy ocean habitat for the species that rely on them for food and protection. Scientists estimate if the current rates of temperature increase continue, the oceans will become too warm for coral reefs by 2050. But even though the challenge of addressing climate change seems immense, solutions are possible to secure a living ocean for a healthy global climate. We’re off to a good start: more than 100 countries responsible for 90% of global emissions have already made national climate commitments to slash their carbon pollution. World leaders gathered in Paris in 2015 to work together in drafting next steps to act responsibly on climate change. By taking this head-on, we can ensure the security and resilience of the most vulnerable people, places, and wildlife. WWF has and will continue to actively participate in these climate negotiations, urging leaders, businesses, and communities to take the necessary steps to save our planet.
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EARTH 109 Article The phrase 'ocean protection' usually conjures up images of the destruction caused by human activities and climate change to marine life. Humans, on the other hand, are equally dependent on healthy oceans for their survival. More than 3 billion people rely on the ocean for a living, and many more consume seafood as an important part of their diet. Coastal communities around the world have strong cultural and spiritual ties to the ocean, and many Indigenous Peoples have placed the sea at the centre of community life for generations. However, some people are profiteering from our oceans, endangering the livelihoods of others worldwide. Destructive industries, such as industrial fishing, are depleting our oceans of life, even in international waters where there are few laws to prevent this. This is having a devastating effect on coastal communities, as well as the workers on these ships. Even if you live far away from the oceans, they are vital to your future. Healthy oceans are critical to combating climate change. Overview: World Oceans Day: Why protecting the oceans means protecting people Greenpeace, Rima Sonigara 08 June 2022
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EARTH 111 Original Article The phrase ‘ocean protection’ will usually conjure up images of how human activities and our rapidly changing climate are impacting marine life. From fishing vessels with nets the size of football fields decimating fish populations, to turtles trapped in plastic debris or marine wildlife caught up in the destructive race to drill for oil or mine the seafloor, there are many critical issues facing the millions of species which call our oceans home. However, there is another group of creatures whose survival is equally dependent on healthy oceans, but aren’t always mentioned in conversations around ocean conservation: Humans. How humans depend on the ocean: More than 3 billion people rely on the ocean for their livelihoods, the vast majority of which are in the Global South. The ocean provides coastal communities with jobs in small-scale fishing, a practice that has been passed down through generations, as well as newer industries, like tourism. The oceans also keep us fed. Seafood is a key part of billions of people’s diets, and many people rely on it to survive. Communities all over the world have deep cultural and spiritual connections to the ocean, and many Indigenous Peoples in particular have put the sea at the centre of community life for generations. How humans are impacting the oceans: While some people are working hard to protect our oceans, other members of our species are exploiting our oceans for profit, threatening the livelihoods of
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EARTH 113 other people globally. Destructive industries like industrial fishing are emptying our oceans of life, including in international waters which have very few laws to stop these activities. This fishing free-for-all in international waters is having a devastating impact on coastal communities. The UN estimates that around 60 million people are employed worldwide in fishing and fish farming. Most are in developing countries, and are small-scale, artisanal fishers and fish farmers. Often, there aren’t enough fish being caught to make a living out of or feeding families so people have to fish for more days of the week. For example, we spoke to Oke, a fisherman in Nigeria who said, “Our children are not able to frequently go to school anymore. It has affected our wives’ being able to sell their wares, the cost of living has skyrocketed.”. The industrial fishing companies don’t just harm coastal communities – their own workers are suffering too. Recent investigations revealed that migrants from the Philippines, Indonesia, Ghana, Sri Lanka and India working on boats in UK waters reported shocking conditions, working 20 hour shifts while having to endure violence and racism. We all need healthy oceans: Even if you live thousands of miles from the oceans, they’re still crucial to your future. Healthy oceans are key to tackling climate change. Our oceans have absorbed 30-20 % of recent emissions, buying us a little more time to avoid the worst impacts of climate breakdown. But unless we protect the habitats and systems that keep ocean life healthy, they’ll stop being able to absorb carbon dioxide, and climate change will accelerate. That’s why World Oceans Day isn’t just about marine wildlife. When we fail to protect the oceans, we’re failing to protect ourselves. From coastal communities to migrant workers on ships to everyone who relies on a stable climate, we all lose out when the oceans are being exploited. A strong Global Ocean Treaty would help keep parts of the high seas off limits to destructive industries. Sign the petition today, to tell world leaders to act now to protect our oceans and people.
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EARTH 115 Analysis challenges slew of studies claiming ocean acidification alters fish behavior Three-year effort fails to replicate findings that spurred widespread concern Science.org, Martin Enserink 08 January 2020 Article Marine scientists published a series of studies warning that carbon dioxide emissions could cause profound changes in the behavior of fish on tropical reefs. Nature published an article mentioning researchers from Australia, Canada, Norway, and Sweden could not replicate three widely reported behavioral effects of ocean acidification, leading them to argue that the original studies may have been misled by ‘methodological or analytical weaknesses’. While some scientists have applauded the new study, Philip Munday of James Cook University in Australia, one of the authors of the original research, has said that there were ‘fundamental methodological differences’ between the two sets of experiments. Overview:
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EARTH 117 Original Article Over the past decade, marine scientists published a series of studies warning that humanity's burgeoning carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions could cause yet another devastating problem. They reported that seawater acidified by rising CO2—already known to threaten organisms with carbonate shells and skeletons, such as corals—could also cause profound, alarming changes in the behavior of fish on tropical reefs. The studies, some of which made headlines, found that acidification can disorient fish, make them hyperactive or bolder, alter their vision, and lead them to become attracted to, rather than repelled by, the smell of predators. Such changes, researchers noted, could cause populations to plummet. But in a Nature paper published today, researchers from Australia, Canada, Norway, and Sweden challenge a number of those findings. In a major, 3 year effort that studied six fish species, they could not replicate three widely reported behavioral effects of ocean acidification. The replication team notes that many of the original studies came from the same relatively small group of researchers and involved small sample sizes. That and other "methodological or analytical weaknesses" may have led the original studies astray, they argue. "It's an exceptionally thorough replication effort," says Tim Parker, a biologist and an advocate for replication studies at Whitman College in Walla Walla, Washington. Marine
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EARTH 119 scientist Andrew Esbaugh of the University of Texas, Austin, agrees that it's "excellent, excellent work." But marine biologist Philip Munday of James Cook University, Townsville, in Australia, a coauthor of most of the papers the Nature study tried to replicate, says there are "fundamental methodological differences" between the original and replication studies. "Replication of results in science is critically important, but this means doing things in the same way, not in vastly different ways," he wrote in an email. Munday helped launch research on the behavioral impacts of ocean acidification together with Danielle Dixson, now at the University of Delaware. In 2009, their paper in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences showed that orange clownfish (Amphiprion percula) reared in seawater with elevated CO2 levels no longer recognized the chemical cues that could help them find a suitable habitat on the reef. ("Losing Nemo" was a popular headline for stories about the paper.) That study was followed by dozens of others showing similarly striking, and often large, behavioral effects in clownfish and other species, mostly from tropical waters. Timothy Clark, the first author on the Nature paper and a marine scientist at Deakin University, Geelong, in Australia, says he initially set out to probe the physiological mechanisms behind those behavior changes. But after he failed to reproduce the changes—let alone explain them—he invited other scientists to set up a systematic replication attempt. It focused on three reported effects of acidified waters: making reef fish prone to swim toward their predators' chemical cues rather than fleeing them, increasing their activity, and altering the fish's tendency to favor either their left or right sides in some behaviors. The researchers didn't seek to repeat each previous experiment one for one, but Clark estimates the entire effort covers the research reported in at least 20 studies. Overall, the group reports, exposing fish to seawater with acidification levels predicted for the end of the century had "negligible" effects on all three behaviors. The Nature paper also reports the results of a statistical analysis called a bootstrapping simulation, designed to calculate the probability that Munday and co-authors could have found the striking data on chemical signal preference presented in seven papers. The authors say the odds are exceedingly low: "0 in 10,000," as they put it. Clark declined to elaborate on the implications of the bootstrap finding, but says he "would encourage any other avenues of investigation to find out what has caused the stark differences between our findings and theirs." Esbaugh calls the bootstrap analysis "a little concerning," but he objects to the "somewhat nefarious undercurrent" in the Nature paper. "I know both of these research groups," he says, "and they're both very, very good." Munday stands by his papers and plans to detail many "critically important" differences
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EARTH 121 in the designs of the two sets of experiments in a response to the Nature paper. For instance, he notes the replication group didn't study clownfish, used different water volumes and experiment durations, and used a different setup to study chemical cue avoidance. Dixson—who presented her findings at a 2015 White House meeting—also says methodological differences make a direct comparison between the studies "inappropriate." But the Nature authors say some methods had to be adapted because they didn't work as described in the original papers. They add that they could not catch enough clownfish, so used six other species also used in the previous studies. Replication studies often cause quibbles about methods, Parker says. But, he argues, "If the original finding is reasonably robust," then researchers using even somewhat different methods should be able to replicate it. And he notes that the replication team went to great lengths to be transparent. Unlike the original authors, the team released video of each experiment, for example, as well as the bootstrap analysis code. "That level of transparency certainly increases my confidence in this replication," Parker says. Researchers say the Nature paper allays one fear about the impact of ocean acidification. But Josefin Sundin of Uppsala University in Sweden, the Nature paper's last author, stresses that climate change still poses a serious threat to sea life. "If the oceans were as acidic as we have been testing, it would also be much warmer, and that's a huge issue," she says. Although replication efforts have blossomed in psychology, biomedicine, and other fields, they're still rare in ecology, says biologist Shinichi Nakagawa of the University of New South Wales in Sydney. The new paper "sets a great example," says Nakagawa, who hopes it "will instigate and inspire more replication studies—not to prove previous results wrong but to make our science more robust and trustworthy."
122 TERRAFORMS I Image Credit: Liittschwager, David. "Pteropod Dissolution Stack To Grid Of 9 Larger."
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EARTH 125 Effects of Ocean and Coastal Acidification on Marine Life U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 09 November 2022 Article Carbon dioxide emissions from human activities are rapidly changing the chemistry of the ocean, causing acidification and harming marine life. The acidity of the ocean has increased by about 25 % since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, more than at any other time in the last two million years. This rapid change means that marine plants and animals may not have enough time to adapt or migrate as they have in the past. Acidification has two major effects on marine life: decreased carbonate availability and increased acidity. According to laboratory studies, this can harm calcifying organisms, acid-sensitive organisms, and organisms higher up the food chain that feed on these sensitive organisms. The effects on larvae can be especially harmful. Overall, the effects of acidification on marine ecosystems are still unknown. Overview:
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EARTH 127 Original Article By releasing carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, humans are rapidly altering the chemistry of the ocean and affecting marine life. The acidity of the ocean has increased by about 25% since before the Industrial Revolution, greater than any other time within the last two million years. Given the speed at which humans are altering ocean chemistry, marine plants and animals may not have time to adapt or migrate as they did in the past to cope with changes to ocean chemistry over the history of the Earth. As a consequence of acidification, marine life face a two-fold challenge: decreased carbonate availability and increased acidity. Laboratory studies suggest changing ocean chemistry will 1) harm life forms that rely on carbonate-based shells and skeletons, 2) harm organisms sensitive to acidity and 3) harm organisms higher up the food chain that feed on these sensitive organisms. However, we do not yet know exactly how ecosystems will be impacted. Building Shells & Skeletons: Calcifying Organisms Many ocean plants and animals build shells and skeletons out of two chemicals that exist in seawater, calcium and carbonate. Organisms combine calcium and carbonate to form hard shells and skeletons out of the mineral calcium carbonate. Therefore, the plants and animals that use calcium carbonate for structure and protection are called calcifying organisms. Increased acidity slows the growth of calcium carbonate structures, and under severe conditions, can
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EARTH 129 dissolve structures faster than they form. The Struggle to Stay Healthy Under Increased Acidity Just like humans, marine organisms require optimal conditions inside their bodies to stay healthy. If the acidity of seawater is beyond the optimum range for that organism, its body must use more energy to maintain healthy body fluid chemistry. Organisms can often compensate when faced with increased acidity, but this comes at the expense of using energy to grow critical body parts like muscle or shell. For example, scientists have found that mussels, sea urchins, and crabs start to dissolve their protective shells to counter elevated acidity in their body fluids. So even if an organism can adjust to survive increasing acidity its overall health can be impaired. Effects on Larvae Many marine fish and invertebrates have complex life cycles. They spend their early lives as larvae while they develop and disperse to distant areas on ocean currents. Larvae are very small, which makes them especially vulnerable to increased acidity. For example, sea urchin and oyster larvae will not develop properly when acidity is increased. In another example, fish larvae lose their ability to smell and avoid predators. The vulnerability of larvae means that while organisms may be able to reproduce, their offspring may not reach adulthood. Vulnerable Ocean Life: • Clams • Oysters • Scallops • Mussels • Corals • Starfish • Sea urchins • Sea butterflies • Shell-forming algae and amoebas
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EARTH 131 By 2500 earth could be alien to humans: Climate projections should not stop at year 2100. McGill Newsroom, McGill University 13 October 2021 Article A team of scientists have warned that unless CO2 emissions significantly drop, global warming by 2500 will make the Amazon barren, the American Midwest tropical and India too hot to live in. The researchers, based in the UK and Montreal, ran global climate model projections based on time-dependent projections of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations up to the year 2500. Their findings, which have been published in ‘Global Change Biology’, reveal an Earth that is alien to humans. In addition to the Amazon, the Midwest and India, the study warns that, under low and medium mitigation scenarios, vegetation and the best crop-growing areas may move towards the poles. Heat stress may also reach fatal levels for humans in tropical regions that are highly populated. Overview:
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EARTH 133 Original Article To fully grasp and plan for climate impacts under any scenario, researchers and policymakers must look well beyond the 2100 benchmark. Unless CO2 emissions drop significantly, global warming by 2500 will make the Amazon barren, the American Midwest tropical, and India too hot to live in, according to a team of international scientists. “We need to envision the Earth our children and grandchildren may face, and what we can do now to make it just and liveable for them,” says Christopher Lyon, formerly of University of Leeds and now a Postdoctoral Researcher at McGill University. “If we fail to meet the Paris Agreement goals, and emissions keep rising, many places in the world will dramatically change.” The scientists from Montreal and the United Kingdom ran global climate model projections based on time dependent projections of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations for low, medium, and high mitigation scenarios up to the year 2500. Their findings, published in Global Change Biology, reveal an Earth that is alien to humans. Vegetation moves to the poles Under low and medium mitigation scenarios – which do not meet the Paris Agreement goal to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius – vegetation and the best crop-growing areas may move towards the poles. The area suitable for some crops would also be reduced. Places with long histories of cultural and ecosystem richness, like the Amazon Basin, may become barren.
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EARTH 135 Tropical regions uninhabitable They also found that heat stress may reach fatal levels for humans in tropical regions that are highly populated. Even under highmitigation scenarios, the team found that the sea level keeps rising due to expanding and mixing water in warming oceans. “These projections point to the potential magnitude of climate upheaval on longer time scales and fall within the range of assessments made by others,” says Lyon. Looking beyond 2100 Although many reports based on scientific research talk about the long-term impacts of climate change – such as rising levels of greenhouse gases, temperatures, and sea levels – most of them don’t look beyond the 2100 horizon. To fully grasp and plan for climate impacts under any scenario, researchers and policymakers must look well beyond the 2100 benchmark, says the team. “The Paris Agreement, the United Nations, and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s scientific assessment reports, all show us what we need to do before 2100 to meet our goals, and what could happen if we don’t,” says Lyon. “But this benchmark, which has been used for over 30 years, is short-sighted because people born now will only be in their 70s by 2100.” Climate projections and the policies that depend on them, shouldn’t stop at 2100 because they cannot fully grasp the potential long-term scope of climate impacts, the scientists conclude.
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EARTH 137 Description: This mixed media collage was created by Reem Qushmaq to illustrate the devastating impact of wildfires on our planet›s forests.
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EARTH 139 Article The Amazon rainforest is currently experiencing unprecedented levels of destruction, as evidenced by the 33,116 illegal fire hotspots detected in August 2022, the highest number in 12 years. These fires, often started for the purpose of clearing land for cattle ranching and illegal logging, contribute to the ongoing problem of deforestation in the region. It is important for the international community to address the root causes of these issues and to protect the lands and rights of Indigenous Peoples and traditional communities, as the health of the Amazon rainforest is vital for the well-being of all inhabitants of Earth. Overview: Amazon rainforest fires 2022: Facts, causes, and climate impacts. Greenpeace, Chris Greenberg 05 September 2022
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EARTH 141 The Amazon rainforest is shrinking. The fires in the Amazon are growing. Just six weeks before the crucial 2022 Brazilian presidential election, a historic day of Amazon burning was detected by satellite monitoring. On 22 August, 3,358 fires were detected in the Brazilian Amazon, according to the Brazilian space agency, INPE. This was the highest number of fires recorded for any 24 hour period since 2007. That alarming day of fire was no anomaly, but simply another day in a tragic trend of destruction in the Amazon rainforest since Jair Bolsonaro became president of Brazil in 2019. Just in the month of August 2022, there were 33,116 illegal fire hotspots registered in the Amazon, the highest level in 12 years. The world must do more than watch in horror as the world’s largest intact forest is being pushed toward a Original Article climate tipping point. Despite its greenwashing claims, the anti-environment agenda of Bolsonaro’s government has catalyzed historic burning and deforestation by emboldening land grabbers and dismantling the agencies responsible for environmental protection. The rainforest, the Indigenous and traditional communities who call it home, the unparalleled biodiversity of the region, and the global climate need real, sustainable solutions. Around the world, we must work together in whatever ways we can to stand with the Guardians of The Forest and to protect the Amazon from those who value profits over people and the planet. Let’s start building our people power by getting familiar with the basics facts about the burning of the Amazon rainforest, the root causes, and the consequences for us all.
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EARTH 143 Are fires in the Amazon naturally occurring? No! It’s important to understand that fires are not a natural phenomenon in the Amazon rainforest. The fires generating headlines around the world for the last several years are ignited by people. Generally, untouched moist rainforests do not burn. Unlike the wildfires experienced in places like California or the Mediterranean that can be naturally occurring or ignited by accident, the fires in the Amazon are often ignited intentionally. Why are people starting fires in the Amazon on purpose? The fires in the Amazon are often started intentionally. Many of those starting fires are illegal land grabbers emboldened by the anti-environment policies of Bolsonaro’s government. They are burning forests to clear land for other uses, such as cattle ranching, growing animal feed, or illegal logging. This process of destroying trees to clear forested land is known as deforestation. Deforestation and fires are linked. They are intertwined threats to the lives and livelihoods of Indigenous Peoples and traditional communities in the Amazon, to the biodiversity of the forest, and to the global climate. The widespread forest burnings associated with deforestation are carried out by those who put short-term profits over people and the planet. While Indigenous Peoples and traditional communities have understood responsible uses of fire in land stewardship for generations, the fires generating global headlines in the Amazon are often ignited by those people who do not care about the longterm health of the ecosystem or the communities who live there. Why is the Amazon being burned and deforested? The primary drivers of deforestation in the Amazon — and other biomes in Brazil such as the Pantanal and the Cerrado — are agribusiness and meat consumption. This destructive economic development model has long been practiced in the Amazon, but it has been reinforced by the Bolsonaro government. A survey released by the Amazon Environmental Research Institute (IPAM) in October 2021 showed that cattle pastures occupied 75% of the deforested area on public lands in the Amazon. Other causes of deforestation include the construction of new highways, logging roads, dams, and mines. Where are the fires in the Amazon? The world’s largest intact forest, the Amazon rainforest covers 2.6 million square miles across nine countries in South America: Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana. Approximately 60 percent of the Amazon Basin is in Brazil, where Greenpeace Brazil has been working for 30 years to protect it. In the Brazilian Amazon, the states of Amazonas, Acre, and Rondônia — collectively known as the AMACRO region — have suffered sizable fires and deforestation in recent years. Not only does the southern region of the Amazon known as AMACRO hold vast and still underexplored biodiversity, it is also the gateway to one of the most well-preserved parts of the largest tropical forest in the world. In this crucial region, greedy agribusiness interests are behind an advancing front
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EARTH 145 of deforestation and related burning. According to data from the Brazilian National Space and Research Institute (INPE), there was a 16.7% increase in fire hotspots in the Amazon from January through August 2022 compared to the same time period the previous year. Forty-three percent of those hotspots were identified in only 10 municipalities, five of them located in the AMACRO region. Is it even legal to start fires in the Amazon? No! This is against the law! Even if one has a vegetation clearing permit (i.e., an authorization for deforestation), the use of fire is not allowed by Brazilian law for that purpose. Moreover, these are illegal fires being started in the Amazon to clear land that is often stolen either from the Brazilian public or from Indigenous Peoples are traditional communities. This illegally seized and illegally burned forest is often cleared to create more cattle pasture and animal feed for the global meat industry. Of course, laws against burning are only impactful if they’re enforced. In Bolsonaro’s Brazil, this criminal activity is rewarded by climate-wrecking Brazilian politicians, candidates as well as major banks and buyers of animal feed or beef around the world who continue to look the other way. How has the Bolsonaro government made it easier to get away with illegal burning and land grabbing? The undeniable and devastating surge in fires and deforestation in the Amazon is a result of the Bolsonaro administration’s antienvironmental agenda. One of the ways in which the Bolsonaro government has made it easier for illegal land grabbers to break environmental law is by taking money away from agencies responsible for enforcement. In 2021, the Brazilian government budget for the environment was the lowest in 21 years, as shown in a report by the Brazilian Climate Observatory. Don’t be distracted by the Bolsonaro government’s greenwashing or grandstanding but toothless decrees: The area deforested each year in the Amazon increased by 52.9% in the first three years of the Bolsonaro administration (average of 11,405 km² between 2019 and 2021) compared to the previous three-year average (average of 7,458 km² between 2016 and 2018). This uptick in deforestation has been accompanied by increases in fires recorded: From January to August 2022, there was a 16.7% increase in fire hotspots in the Amazon compared to the same time period in 2021 – the highest rate since 2019. The numbers don’t lie. When is the burning season in the Amazon? The land grabbers and deforesters who are illegally starting fires in the Amazon tend to sync up with the natural dry season in the region which extends from July through November. Unfortunately, due to intentionally diminished enforcement of environmental laws under Bolsonaro as well as increasingly dry conditions due to the climate crisis, there are fires in the Amazon all year round now.
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EARTH 147 Is the Amazon still burning? Sadly, it is increasingly likely that fires are burning in the Amazon at any time of the year, even outside of the dry season. To stay up to date with recent data on deforestation and fires, make sure that you follow Greenpeace Brazil. A key source of data on fire hotspots is the Brazilian National Space and Research Institute (INPE). In addition to monthly reports on the number of fire hotspots — any area with recorded temperatures above 47C° — INPE also produces the PRODES and DETER deforestation monitoring that is integral to tracking the rate of destruction in the rainforest. With more than 30 years of experience working in the Amazon, Greenpeace Brazil closely monitors and shares the most recent data on deforestation and fires. Furthermore, Greenpeace Brazil conducts flyovers of fires and deforested areas in the Amazon in order to chronicle the destruction and ensure it is seen throughout the world. How do fire and deforestation impact the global climate? The rampant destruction of the Amazon is pushing the rainforest toward a climate tipping point of no return. In the last 40 years, the Amazon has already had approximately 17% of its total area deforested, according to Brazil’s National Institute for Space Research (INPE). Scientists have warned that further deforestation could push the Amazon rainforest beyond a tipping point where the moisture and carbon balance of much of the Amazon biome would become broken. According to some studies, this tipping point would be reached when 20% to 25% of the forested area is lost to deforestation. Beyond this tipping point, the Amazon could effectively fail as a rainforest and begin to become a much dryer ecosystem, similar to a savannah. The Amazon rainforest is vital to the planet’s climate, playing a role in regulating or balancing regional and global climate and bringing rain to distant regions. Moreover, the Amazon also stores large amounts of carbon. When the forest is cut down or burnt down, the carbon is released into the atmosphere, contributing to global warming. Allowing the Amazon to reach such a tipping point would bring disastrous consequences for the climate, people, and biodiversity. What are the impacts of fires in communities in the Amazon? Some of the first images to garner international attention for the Amazon fires of 2019 were those of smoke-filled skies in Brazilian cities like Sao Paulo, far from the forest. The health impacts of the toxic smoke from the Amazon fires on local populations are another tragic aspect of forest destruction. Not only do those who live closest to the fires have their homes and livelihoods jeopardized by burning and deforestation but they also face grave health impacts due to smoke inhalation, a danger only exacerbated by the global Covid-19 pandemic. The reckless burning of the Amazon can have a global impact, but it’s important never to forget the severe consequences faced by those closest to the forest.
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EARTH 149 How can we actually fight fires in the Amazon? The key to fighting fires in the Amazon is preventing them from being started in the first place. Once the burning has started, the challenges of combating active fires in the vast rainforest are extremely high. Fire-fighting techniques that may work in other contexts such as creating fire breaks or dousing flames from above with planes become logistically complex or cost prohibitive given the scale and remoteness of the Amazon. The difficulties in combating already raging fires combined with the unpleasant reality that these are man-made disasters underscores the necessity of preventing fires before they ignite. Stopping intentionally ignited fires in the Amazon means stopping deforestation. How do we stop the deforestation driving fires in the Amazon? In order to combat fires, deforestation and the rapid loss of biodiversity caused by forest destruction, there are a few actions the Brazilian government must take: Reverse the dismantling of environmental law enforcement that has occurred in recent years. Use the effective tools it already has available for forest protection. Data indicates that legally designated “Protected Areas” are an effective tool to prevent deforestation in Brazil. The government can create these legal conservation units by designating the public land it already holds. Recognize Indigenous Lands as well as the rights of traditional communities and quilombola territories. Unfortunately, under Bolsonaro, the Brazilian national congress has been considering legislation like Marco Temporal that benefit land grabbers and threaten to wipe Indigenous communities off the map. In addition to these clear steps to be taken within Brazil, all together around the world we must fix our broken food system if we hope to end Amazon fires and deforestation. Industrial agriculture is the biggest driver of deforestation in the world. In Brazil, cattle ranchers and land-grabbers set the Amazon on fire to illegally clear land and expand their destructive business. They do this because the global meat industry and its paying customers have historically been willing to sacrifice forests and our futures for profits. Stand with Indigenous Peoples and local environmental organizations! The battle against reckless fires and runaway deforestation in the Amazon rainforest is one we must win. And there’s only one way to win it: Together. Wherever you are, you can educate yourself and support Indigenous Peoples and environmental organizations advocating for forests. Greenpeace Brazil has three decades of experience working to protect the Amazon and has the support of a global network of Greenpeace organizations, many also pressuring leaders and companies in their local regions to stop encouraging deforestation and the accompanying burning through climate-wrecking business practices and trade deals.
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