The Road Map 2015 - 2025

• Educational technologies and textbook materials play support the materials are trying to help children to learn, and the children
roles for language learning, and should not determine the must be learning something useful and relevant. In the teaching of
curriculum (British Columbia Ministry of Education, 2011, p. 1). a language, there must be no gaps or lacunae.

It is already too late at the time of writing to do much about On the other hand, the materials must be free of learner errors.
teaching and learning for Wave 1, and these issues will have to be It is important to bear in mind that children will acquire poor
addressed in Waves 2 and 3 and reflected in teacher education. models of a language just as effectively as good models. Children
What can be done in the shorter term is to reconsider the who do not have independent access to English outside school are
curriculum and its influence on classroom practices. particularly vulnerable if they are given an inappropriate model
of English to learn. It is essential to set up a strict and effective
For example, Speaking has emerged in the baseline study as an system of quality control for English language learning materials.
area of weakness (p. 6 and p. 9), and yet students are required to
learn to pronounce English words correctly and speak English with Assessment
appropriate stress, rhythm and intonation. The question is how they
can do this either (a) from a printed textbook or (b) from teachers Assessment has to reflect the values of the language programme
who cannot do these things for themselves. In this case, classroom as a whole. What is taught in the classroom is determined by the
practices have important consequences for learning materials. curriculum and ultimately by national needs. The purpose of the
assessment is to ascertain to what extent students have been
Learning materials successful in achieving the goals set by the curriculum. Current
practice needs to be considered in the light of the comments in the
Learning materials reflect the learning culture for which they baseline study (p. 15). If our goal is communicative competence in
are designed. If we change our classroom culture, we shall also English, then this needs to be reflected in the forms of assessment
need learning materials of a new and different kind. The baseline adopted.
study (p. 16) outlines the strengths and weaknesses of a sample of
primary and secondary materials (see Chapters 5 and 6). The person in the best position to assess students is the
classroom teacher. As students develop new skills, their progress
Learning materials must be fit for purpose. There are two sides can be recorded by the teacher. If the progress is genuine, and
to fitness for purpose. On the one hand, it must be clear what

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English Language Education Reform in Malaysia

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the assessment properly carried out, students should be able to Preschool A1
demonstrate their skills in a ‘snapshot’ type of test. The problem
with this, as pointed out in the baseline study (p. 13), is that Primary school A2
teachers are already “overwhelmed by administration”.
Secondary school B1/B2
1.3.4 Targets
Post-secondary B2
The national agenda sets as the overall target for our English
language programme the production of school leavers and graduates University B2/C1
with the level of English proficiency they need to make themselves
employable in the modern globalised world. It is not enough to Teacher Education C1
hope that students will reach the required level by the end of
their education: a quality system needs to set interim targets for Figure 1.7 CEFR TARGETS FOR
each successive stage. Here for example are some common-sense EACH STAGE OF EDUCATION
interim targets:

• Preschool: raised awareness of English, the ability to say simple
things in English and the first steps to English literacy;

• Primary: basic functional English literacy and some limited
ability to communicate in English in familiar social situations;

• Secondary: the ability to use English as a matter of course in
everyday situations with the potential to use English at the
place of work;

26

• Post-secondary: sufficient command of English to meet the Obviously not all students will reach the target set at each
challenge of English at university; stage; but on condition that the programme is reformed in
accordance with the principle of equity, we can reasonably expect
• Graduate: the skilled use of English in the context of that between now and 2025, an increasingly large proportion of
employment for those joining the workforce on graduation, our students from all social backgrounds will be achieving the
and in an academic context for those studying for a higher CEFR target set for each stage of education.
degree at home or abroad;

• Teacher education: a high level of English proficiency 1.3.5 Research
(combined with pedagogical expertise) leading to effective
English teaching in the classroom. A danger that inevitably accompanies highly standardised or
integrated education systems is that they are difficult to change. The
These common-sense targets are presented here for purposes last thing we want is a juggernaut that creates its own momentum
of illustration, and the more carefully considered targets on the and careers out of control and proves impossible to stop, or steers
CEFR scale are presented above. to a different course. This is how new ideas are stifled and the
opportunity to make useful innovations is lost. We therefore need
A major advantage of using the CEFR is that common-sense to build flexibility into our English language programme.
targets have already been considered in great detail and linked
to a standard scale. The CEFR scale enables us to convert our The way to do this in an educational context is to take account
common-sense targets into formally defined targets which are of relevant research undertaken elsewhere, and to promote
understood internationally for each stage of our English language research of our own. We need a research culture to ensure that
programme (see the CEFR Global Scale in Chapter 3). The relevant new knowledge, wherever it is created anywhere in the
targets set to be achieved by 2025 for our children to reach as world, is made available here in Malaysia, and used effectively to
they progress through our English language programme are shown keep our programme up among the international leaders.
in Figure 1.7.
The CEFR gives us a running start as it is itself based on the
research findings of several decades. At the same time, we need

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English Language Education Reform in Malaysia

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to build up an English language research tradition of our own, and teachers and go on to speak English effectively in work situations
become creators of international knowledge. Research at this level requiring English, or in international situations. Teachers are not
is properly the responsibility of our research universities. ordinary language learners, because they need to be aware of what
they are learning in order to teach their students effectively.
Educational research can be carried out at different levels,
and much useful work can be done by people who do not think 1.4.1 Creating a high-performing English education system
of themselves as researchers at all. For example, no matter
how carefully a new programme is devised, we have to expect It has become internationally known in recent years that in order
problems arising from imperfect integration and uncoordinated to create a high-performing education system, it is first necessary
implementation. We need a mechanism in place to ensure that any to produce a high-calibre teaching workforce. This subsection
such problems are systematically reported and solved. outlines the challenge we face in the provision of education for
English teachers. A report published by McKinsey & Company
Any teacher can report problems, and they can be solved by in September 20076 presents the findings of research into how
experienced teachers with the necessary expertise. Innovations countries create high-performing education systems. It was found
should not be introduced in the belief that they might work, and that there were three major success factors that matter most:
they need to be tested. After initial testing, they need to be beta
tested using an appropriate sample of teachers and students. The 1. Getting the right people to become teachers;
creation of a research-led English language programme is essential
if the government is to achieve its ambition to make Malaysia an 2. Developing them into effective instructors;
educational hub for the region and perhaps beyond.
3. Ensuring that the system is able to deliver the best possible
1.4 Teacher education instruction for every child.

While current levels of teacher English proficiency may be Getting the right people begins with effective mechanisms for
sufficient for internal communication within Malaysia, they are very selecting teachers for training. Trainees are ideally recruited from
far from sufficient if students are to learn spoken English from their

6 “How the world’s best-performing school systems come out on top” accessed 28 May 2015 at
http://mckinseyonsociety.com/downloads/reports/Education/Worlds_ School_ Systems_ Final.pdf

28

the top third of each cohort graduating from the school system, Finland, the highest achieving
and are characterised by high academic achievement, good country in the world in reading,
communication skills, and high motivation for teaching. mathematics and science, have no
standardised tests that resemble
Starting off with high calibre recruits is important, because the ours whatsoever, though they
negative impact of low-performing teachers is severe, particularly use teacher made tests in their
during the earlier years of schooling. Top performing systems select classroom and school accountability
before training, and limit places in the training programme to those system. Their system uses high
selected, and are able in this way to match supply to demand. standards for allowing teachers
into the profession, awards high
This avoids wasting money on trainees who drop out, fail to pay and bestows high status to
find teaching jobs or for other reasons do not become teachers. those that enter teaching, provides
The smaller number of trainees leaves more money to spend rigorous and extensive professional
on training each trainee teacher. The most successful model for development for the teachers, and
salaries is frontloading compensation, with good initial salaries, depends on trusting relationships
which in top performing systems tend to be between 95% and 99% to improve academic achievement.
of GDP per capita and in line with other graduate starting salaries.
Salary progression was found to be less important in attracting
recruits and in retaining teachers.

The second major factor is to turn trainees into effective
classroom teachers and improve classroom instruction. This
should include practical training to close the gap between what
trainees do in training and what they are expected to do in the
classroom. Success in this case relies on the ability of teachers to
take responsibility for their own development, including (a) being
aware of specific weaknesses in their own practice; (b) individually

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gaining an understanding of specific best practices; and (c) having provides rigorous and extensive professional development for
the motivation to make the necessary improvements. the teachers, and depends on trusting relationships to improve
academic achievement (pp. 165-166).
Success in the classroom also includes placing teaching coaches
in schools, appointing principals who are also instructional leaders, Finland has set up a system of interventions to support
and creating a situation in which teachers are able to learn from each individual students in schools, employing special education
other. Good teacher training makes it possible to reduce total spending teachers in a ratio of one to seven class teachers. A large number
on school systems. The OECD average in 2002 was 20% of GDP per of students are given support, which in itself lessens the stigma
capita per student; but top performers spent less than the average, and of being perceived to be falling behind, and on occasion the best
were able to save money further by increasing class size. students are provided with additional instruction.

The third major factor is that high-performing systems provide 1.4.2 English teaching in Malaysia
the best possible instruction for every child. In the case of the top
performers in PISA, there is a low correlation between outcomes It is clear from the Cambridge Baseline, which considered teacher
and the home background. Finland is an example of a country performance at some length (pp. 9-14), that the standard of English
with a top-performing education system. The Finnish experience teaching in our schools falls far short of what is required in a high-
underlines the value of high quality teacher training. High teacher performing education system. The most serious cause for concern
standards and professional development have brought about a is the general level of English language proficiency among teachers,
transformation in the performance of Finnish students. According which in some cases could be affecting their effectiveness as teachers.
to Nichols and Berliner (2005):
The greatest weakness is in Speaking, and as pointed out
Finland, the highest achieving country in the world in reading, elsewhere in the report, this affects what students learn. It is also
mathematics and science, have [sic] no standardi[s]ed tests that clear from the report that in addition to improved proficiency,
resemble ours whatsoever, though they use teacher made tests in teachers need to develop further their professional knowledge and
their classroom and school accountability system.Their system uses skills. This aspect of the teaching of English in Malaysia is discussed
high standards for allowing teachers into the profession, awards in more detail in Chapter 9.
high pay and bestows high status to those that enter teaching,

30

Frequent mention is made of the need for additional teacher status of teaching to a graduate profession. In this way, teacher
training; but what is meant by training is in some cases left vague. It is training has joined other kinds of training at university level, such
not, as is sometimes implied in the materials that have been consulted as medical training or training in scientific method, which require
in the preparation of this Roadmap, a kind of all-purpose medicine to be high levels of ability and academic acumen.
applied in doses, so that if teachers are insufficiently trained, they must
need another dose of training. Teachers’ needs are in many cases highly Outside the university context, the term training usually refers to
specific, and so it is necessary to spell out in sufficient detail what their the development of low level skills which offer little or no intellectual
precise needs are in order to identify appropriate solutions. challenge. People are trained to drive a car, develop physical fitness,
operate a factory machine or use a piece of computer software. The
There is a hidden semantic problem in the use of the word very phrase teacher training can be interpreted to imply that teachers
training. In the days before mass higher education, intending are trained to do simple things in the classroom.
teachers attended teacher training colleges, such as the Malayan
Teachers’ Training College at Kirkby near Liverpool, and received If we are to develop a high-performing English education
an education different in kind from the academic training on offer system, we have to begin with a fundamental change in the
in universities. In recent decades, there have been huge advances attitude towards the preparation of teachers for a career in
in our understanding of learning in general, of the learning of education. What teachers need is not low-level training but high-
languages, and of the learning of English in particular. Teachers level education. Teachers are not to be trained to do a job, and
need this new knowledge and associated skills if they are to succeed they need education to perform as professionals.
in the classroom, and so the modern teacher needs a much more
advanced academic education than the teacher of fifty years ago. 1.5 Preparing the Roadmap

In the research-led environment of universities worldwide, the This introductory chapter has reconnoitred the road ahead to
changing needs of teachers have been taken for granted, so that anticipate the consequences of using the CEFR to benchmark our
although the old term teacher training has been retained, the actual English language programme, and taking into account the findings of the
content of courses has changed to include much more academic Cambridge Baseline Study. This final section is divided into two parts.
university-level material. This is reflected in the raising of the

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The first is concerned with anticipated problems in implementation. Officers in the Curriculum Development Division and the
The second is concerned with the seven steps that have to be taken. Examinations Syndicate have in particular a legitimate interest in
the development of the kind of integrated agenda-driven programme
1.5.1 Implementing the Roadmap that has been proposed, and in order for the implementation to
be successful, it is vital that they take ownership of the plans put
In this connection, there are a number of important issues to forward in the Roadmap. However, dealing with any problems
which attention is drawn in the Roadmap, but which will have to that might arise in this connection is not within the remit of the
be addressed in the course of implementation. writers of this Roadmap, and will have to be addressed by those
responsible in the course of the implementation process itself.
Curriculum, Teaching and learning and Assessment
This Roadmap has been developed in accordance with the A third problem arises from the report in the Cambridge
Baseline Study on standards of proficiency in English among English
policy decision that the CEFR is to be used in the development of teachers. This is a matter that requires delicacy and tact, because
our English language programme. The actual implementation of the cooperation of the teachers is essential if the development plan
the Roadmap will inevitably encounter practical problems which is to be successful. We have a systemic problem with regard to our
will require attention to be paid to the legitimate interests of the national standards of English, and we have to start by understanding
many stakeholders involved. how and why we have a problem. While it would be very easy to
seek to blame the teachers for not teaching English properly, such an
For example, teachers have a legitimate interest in ensuring attitude is unhelpful, since it takes a logical shortcut that is consistent
that any proposals made can be implemented in practice in the neither with fairness nor with an understanding of the problem.
classroom. It goes without saying that at some stage we need
to go through a consultation process giving all stakeholders an A systemic problem does not come about overnight, and the
opportunity to react to the Roadmap as proposed, with a view to problem we have with standards of English is a chronic problem, in
producing an improved final version. the sense that it has grown gradually over the years and decades.
The next chapter deals with the historical development of English
teaching in Malaysia, and it would be difficult to identify a historical

32

period when the teaching profession as a whole could reasonably While it is appropriate to set general targets for all our students,
be said to be blameworthy. the Roadmap will have to be implemented with sensitivity to ensure
that all our students achieve the highest level of proficiency in
It would be equally difficult to identify a stage in the career of English that is within their capabilities. Reform in education “must
individual teachers when they can reasonably be said to have been be taken in compassionate, generous and nurturing ways where
negligent in the development of their own personal proficiency. In fact, care for the individuals becomes a genuine core value“ (Galway,
it makes no sense at all to blame our teachers for their own lack of 2012, p. 22).
proficiency, and they have to be seen not as people who are failing to
do a proper job, but as people who need support and a higher level of 1.5.2 The seven steps
education in order to carry out the job now required of them.
In accordance with the agenda-driven planning model outlined
This point is repeated several times in the course of this above, what we need to do in order to transform our English language
Roadmap. The historical reality is that changes in the outside programme can be summarised in the form of seven steps:
world have led to much more being demanded of our teachers, and
the reasonable response is to provide them with effective training 1. Establishing evidence-based and realistic targets. The
and expertise to do a quality job as professionals in the classroom. first task will be to establish agreed realistic targets at different
It is also true that more is now required of our students. Different educational levels so that the English language programme as a
groups of learners will in practice have to be specially catered for whole makes the intended contribution to the national agenda.
as the Roadmap is implemented. While some students will use These targets will be associated with matching levels on the
English routinely at home, for others English may be a second or CEFR scale A1 to C2, and the initial targets will be determined
third language that they encounter only in the classroom. in accordance with the findings of the Cambridge Baseline
Report, and will be achievable in the immediate or short term.
The learning situation is different for students in national and Targets are dealt with further in the Editorial Introduction to
national-type schools, and for students in rural and urban schools. Section B.
We also have to cater for children with different learning abilities
and those with special needs. As explained in chapter 2, some of
these differences have a long history.

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2. Revising the curriculum. The national curriculum will need 6. Intervention. Although teaching is typically aimed at
to be revised to enable the maximum number of students to students in the middle range, due attention needs to be paid to
achieve the targets set on the CEFR scale. Particular attention the needs of underachieving students, and of those who excel.
will have to be paid to the handover from preschool to This will require special intervention for both extremes, and
primary school and from primary school to secondary school. also training for teachers to enable them to deal appropriately
Independently of the curriculum, it will also be necessary to for these two groups of students.
manage the handover from school to post-secondary and
tertiary education. 7. Training teachers. Teacher education needs to be reorganised
to ensure that teachers are provided with the knowledge and
3. Reviewing classroom practices. Classroom teaching and expertise to facilitate student learning in accordance with
culture will need to be revised to maximise student success the revised curriculum. Particular attention needs to be paid
according to the agreed CEFR scale. to (a) the teaching of English grammar, and (b) the teaching
of spoken English both in connection with beginning literacy
4. Providing appropriate learning materials. Textbooks and and with the development of spoken communicative skills.
other learning materials will need to provide help and support Teachers will also need sufficient knowledge of spoken English
to both students and teachers, and facilitate student learning to help students with the development of receptive skills.
and progress to the targets set on the CEFR scale. In order
to ensure the quality of learning materials, a quality control
mechanism will have to be established and maintained.

5. Assessing student achievement. The aim of examinations
and other forms of assessment will be to measure the extent
to which students have achieved the proficiency targets set on
the CEFR scale. Assessment outcomes (including grades and
marks) need to be aligned to international standards.

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English Language Education Reform in Malaysia

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2

The Historical Background to
English Language Education in Malaysia

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English Language Education Reform in Malaysia

The Roadmap 2015-2025

Chapter 2: The Historical Background to English Language Education in Malaysia

T he aim of this chapter is to explain how the present English
language programme came to be the way it is, and to
ascertain our starting off point for future developments.
We trace the development of the education system as a whole,
with the focus on language education and on English language
education in particular. The perceived purpose of education has
changed fundamentally over the decades, and taking into account
changes in the perceived purpose in response to changes in the
outside world, we can divide the historical account into four main
periods (Zuraidah Mohd Don, 2014):

1. Before Independence

2. After Independence

3. Globalisation

4. The contemporary situation

Our concern here is not just with historical facts, interesting
in themselves though these may be. We need to understand the
circumstances that led from one historical period to another, in
order to understand the contemporary situation with sufficient
depth to make informed plans for the future. A matter of particular
interest is what sort of people education was intended for, and
what sort of education they were given. The material is presented
in such a way that we can now learn and benefit from our own
educational history.

36

English language
education was first
introduced to the future
Malaysia – and indeed to
South East Asia – on the
opening of the Penang
Free School in 1816.

In tracing the history of education in Malaysia, we are not Institution2. Following the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824, Penang and
concerned with mere historical facts, but to look for clues Singapore were joined by Melaka to form the Straits Settlements,
which point to the main historical issues, including who receives and 1826 saw the foundation of Malacca High School. There are
education, and what the education involves. This enables us to few details about the curriculum taught at this time, but we do
place current initiatives now taking place in the fourth of these know that these schools were open to children regardless of race
periods – including this roadmap – in their historical context, and or religion, and that Malacca High School admitted girls as well as
build on the successful initiatives of the past. boys, followed in this respect in 1844 by the Singapore Institution.

2.1 Before Independence The Straits Settlements were at this time governed by the
East India Company, and would be affected by Macaulay’s Minute
English language education was first introduced to the future on Indian Education of 1835, which introduced English language
Malaysia – and indeed to South East Asia – on the opening of the education to India. British interests in the region extended to
Penang Free School in 18161. Soon afterwards, in 1823, Stamford Perak following the Pangkor Treaty of 18743, and eventually the
Raffles founded the Singapore Institution, now the Raffles Malay College was founded in Kuala Kangsar4 in 1905.

1 http://www.pfs.edu.my/ 3 D.G.E. Hall (1994) A History of South East Asia, p. 595. London: Macmillan.
2 http://www.ri.edu.sg/ 4 http://www.mckk.edu.my/

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English Language Education Reform in Malaysia

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Students could take the Cambridge Overseas School Certificate groups with an international outlook and excellent English, drawn
Examination, and go on to such higher education as was available from all races, and including men and women.
anywhere in the Empire. Local higher education began with the
Medical School in Singapore which was founded in 1905, and later Some education was available for Malays in Islamic schools and
became the King Edward VII College of Medicine before merging with government-funded village schools known as sekolah pondok ‘hut
Raffles College to form the University of Malaya. The outcome was schools’ (Mior Khairul 2011, p. 35). These schools typically provided
that long before the foundation of present-day Malaysia, high quality four years of education in practice, in contrast to the officially claimed
English language education was already in place and open to children seven years, and used Malay as the medium of instruction for reading
of all races, and at least in some cases open to girls as well as boys. and writing, simple arithmetic, and geography (Ozay, 2011). This
was a practical kind of education designed to provide poor children
Although English-medium schools were open in principle to with the knowledge they would need to follow in the footsteps of
all ethnic groups, they depended in practice on the population their parents and grandparents as farmers or fishermen.
within their catchment areas. Since they were typically located
in towns, they recruited mainly from an urban and substantially There were also rapidly growing immigrant groups including
Chinese population, and included many fewer urban Indians and Indians recruited to work on the estates, and Chinese workers in
urban Malays (Ozóg, 1993). The introduction of English language the tin mines. For children in these communities, it was important
education had the effect of creating a largely urban privileged class to maintain ties with their home country, and this was achieved
drawn in different proportions from each community, but ultimately through elementary education. As in England, those interested
separate from the rest of the community (see e.g. Asmah, 1995). in providing education were allowed to set up their own schools
(Powell, 2002; Watson, 1980).
Having English as a common language, Malays, Indians
and Chinese from privileged backgrounds would share more of The education system was thus made up of different strands
their values and way of life with each other than their separate with different educational goals and brought about by different
communities. English was already becoming associated with initiatives. Chinese schools in towns benefited from financial
economic opportunity and social mobility, and taking on the role support from private individuals and organisations, and from
of the language of prestige in education, law and government. The the assistance of mainland Chinese authorities concerned with
long term consequence of this is that Malaysia still has privileged Chinese education overseas, which gave them access to the

38

well-developed education system of mainland China, complete of Wilkinson can be traced to efforts after independence to build
with curricula, textbooks and teachers supplied directly from a new nation with Malay as the national language (Ozay, 2011).
China. They remained independent until the introduction of
the registration of schools in 1920 (Kua, 1999, pp. 23–37) which We now take for granted that education should be available for
brought them under government control. all children, whether their families are rich or poor, and whether
they live in the town or the countryside, and that education should
For the Indians, by contrast, a rudimentary Tamil education give children from less privileged backgrounds a better start in life.
was provided at primary level by rubber estate owners, often in In the United kingdom, the 1944 Education Act made provision for
dilapidated buildings. As Asmah (1993) points out, some of the free secondary education for all children up to the age of 15, and
teachers sent from India to maintain ties with the old country paved the way for mass higher education later in the century. This
were ill trained, and the education did little more than prepare the came alas too late for British Malaya, for the final years leading up
children to work on the rubber estates. to independence were dominated not by education but by national
security. It fell to the new independent government to usher in
In the later nineteenth century, the government in London post-primary education for all5.
began to take more seriously its responsibility to educate all of its
people. This was reflected in a new attitude that emerged after 2.2 After Independence
the formation in 1895 of the Federated Malay States, and the
establishment of vernacular schools for the Malays, including a The government that took over the newly independent Federation
limited number of secondary schools. of Malaya in 1957 was faced with a seemingly impossible task. Apart
from the substantial minorities that would have to be catered for,
An important figure at this time was the Malay scholar R. J. the new government was facing the internal troubles known as the
Wilkinson, who having been appointed Acting Inspector of Schools Malayan Emergency. In 1963 the former British territories of North
in 1899, set out to provide the new Malay schools with libraries Borneo and Sarawak were added to Malaya to form Malaysia. If the
(Lim, 2008), and went on to serve as Federal Schools inspector new country was to survive at all, it was essential to bring these
from 1903 to 1906. Wilkinson promoted publications in Malay, and disparate and far-flung populations together to form some kind of
established a Malay Literature Series for schools published by the
company that in 1906 came to be known as MPH. The influence 5 According to the former Minister of Education, only 7% of the population had
secondary education or more in 1957, compared with 76% in 2013. Source: http://
www.themalaymailonline.com/malaysia/article/muhyiddin-education-blueprint-to-
put-malaysia-within-top-countries, 9 November 2013. Accessed 25 April 2014.

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English Language Education Reform in Malaysia

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Sekolah pondok or ‘hut
schools’ typically provided
four years of education in
practice, in contrast to the

officially claimed seven
years, and used Malay as the

medium of instruction for
reading and writing, simple
arithmetic, and geography.

national unity. This situation posed a major challenge for education in independence in 1957, Malay was officially given the status of the
general, and for language education in particular. national language under the terms of the Malaysian constitution,
while English was to be the co-official language for ten years.
English was still needed for practical reasons, but as the former During this period, English was to be used for official purposes
colonial language it was singularly ill-fitted for a role in creating amongst others in Parliament and in state legislative assemblies.
national unity. The only language which could do this was Malay.
Just before independence, the Razak Report of 1956 proposed that The Rahman Talib Report of 1960 took an important step to
English should be retained at least for a time, but that Malay should raise the status of Malay. Although English was retained alongside
be phased in as the national language, particularly in education and Malay for use as the official languages of education, the ultimate
in connection with government, for example as a qualification for intention was to make Malay the main medium of instruction
entry into government service (Gaudart, 1987). (Gaudart, 1987). Public examinations at secondary level were
to be in English or Malay, so that other schools were put under
The report also proposed education at secondary level, pressure to adopt English or Malay as the medium of instruction.
with either Malay or English as the medium of instruction.
English remained the medium of instruction at tertiary level. On

40

The Education Act of 1961 went further, and foresaw “an The consequence of the legislation was that English was
educational system in which the national language is the main medium replaced by Malay as English-medium schools were converted to
of instruction” (cited by Gill, 2007, p. 114). The emphasis was now Malay-medium schools, and reduced to the status of a language
clearly on Malay as the national language and as the medium of taught as a school subject and used in universities for the teaching
instruction. The co-official status of English was brought to an end of science and technology. The next generation went through their
by further legislation in 1963 and 1967, although it was retained for education in Malay, and as a result had less access to English than
certain official purposes in education and administration. their parents. The inevitable outcome was a decline in national
standards of proficiency in English, and as Asmah put it (1983, p.
Following the events of May 1969, the decision was taken 338), “It is unrealistic to aim for a level of proficiency equivalent
to replace English by Malay as the medium of instruction, and to that attained by students in English schools when learning and
to convert English-medium schools to Malay-medium (Gaudart, teaching is done in Malay…”.
1987). According to the Second Malaysia Plan of 1971, Malay was
to be introduced progressively for the teaching of all subjects apart 2.3 Globalisation
from English and other languages, in primary schools by 1975 and
in secondary schools by 1982 (Asmah, 1985, p. 42). By a historical accident, the phasing out of English in Malaysia
coincided with two other developments, namely the rapid
The 1970s saw the implementation of ideas developed earlier for a improvement of the education system, and accelerating globalisation.
national education system which provided for “national schools” using The growth of education in Malaysia enabled many people to obtain
Malay as the medium of instruction alongside “national-type schools” a good education and even gain entrance to university, with the
using English, Mandarin or Tamil as the medium of instruction, but result that the number of qualified people rapidly increased.
including English and Malay as compulsory subjects (Asmah, 1985,
pp. 41–42). Malay took precedence over English following the New The creation of a generation of educated young people
Education Policy of 1971, and in 1983, Malay became the official meant that Malaysia could aim higher, and raise its profile on the
medium of instruction in institutions of higher education. international stage. The new climate was epitomised by Vision
2020 put forward in 1991 by Tun Mahathir Mohamed during his

41

English Language Education Reform in Malaysia

The Roadmap 2015-2025

time as Prime Minister, with the aim of getting Malaysia recognised Those who were disadvantaged most by the new requirements
as a developed nation by the year 2020. for English were young people who had benefited from the
extension of education to the extent of obtaining academic
It was clearly recognised from the time of the Razak Report qualifications, but who discovered that the English they had learnt
in 1956 that Malaysia would continue to need English. The Third at school was not sufficient to get them a suitable job or support
Malaysia Plan (1976 – 1980) included measures“to ensure that English them in their careers. The switch to Malay made little difference
is taught as a strong second language” (Government of Malaysia, to children from wealthy families, because they could still be sent
1976, p. 386), in order “to keep abreast of scientific and technological abroad for an English education. Nor did it make much difference for
developments in the world and to participate meaningfully in many people whose need for English was minimal in any case.
international trade and commerce”(p.391). According to Gaudart
(1987) although intentions were expressed in national plans and Scholarships enabled some bright children from less privileged
elsewhere to train teachers and maintain standards of English, there backgrounds to go to residential school and obtain a quality grounding
were no actions to put the good intentions into effect. in English, but for many, insufficient English proficiency was to prove
a serious handicap. Nor was the problem shared equally between
Since the 1980s, increasing investment by multinational the town and the countryside. A quarter of a century ago, Rosli and
companies had created a growing need for skilled workers, and Malachi (1990) found a huge difference in performance in English
since these companies used English, their recruits also needed between rural and urban schools, so that the extension of education
English. The international requirement for Malaysians able to to rural areas had done little for the poor.
communicate in English at an international level was increasing at
the very time when the phasing out of English as the medium of 2.3.1 The return of English
instruction was reducing national levels of proficiency in English
and the number of Malaysians able to use the language effectively. In the new century, English was to be brought back for the
The problem was that without sufficient English, it was becoming teaching of Mathematics and Science, and then phased out again.
increasingly difficult for educated people – including teachers and Policy changes were clearly required, as low levels of proficiency
academics – to perform appropriately or even to obtain employment in English were making it difficult for Malay-educated graduates to
commensurate with their qualifications and aspirations.

42

... there was no step-by-step or find employment in the private sector. Phan, Kho and Chng (2013)
year-by-year changeover schedule see this as the impetus behind the change of policy announced in
as was the case when the English 2002 by the then Prime Minister Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamed.
schools were converted into Malay-
The supply of textbooks, whether by writing original
medium national schools. Nor textbooks in Malay or translating them from English, had not
was there any warning given to kept up with demand; and since the textbooks and the results of
teachers, parents, textbook writers, scientific research were written in English, the best solution was
and publishers on the change that for Malaysian students to use English textbooks. The new policy
was suddenly to come. Teachers Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Sains dan Matematik dalam Bahasa
instead experienced hands-on Inggeris ‘the teaching and learning of Science and Mathematics
on-the-job training in teaching in English’ (“PPSMI”) required Science and Mathematics to be
taught in English with effect from 2003, and applied from the first
these subjects in English and year of education to tertiary education.
retired teachers fluent in English
were brought back to teach in the The success of the policy would depend on the ability of teachers
schools. Textbooks were written to teach Mathematics and Science in English; but most teachers
belonged to the generation that had been educated in Malay, and
as the teaching proceeded. would therefore need special training in English. Textbook writers
educated in Malay would also need training in English.

Students would need sufficient proficiency in English to
benefit from being taught in English. The teaching of Mathematics
and Science would need to be closely monitored to check that the
new policy was yielding the improved results hoped for, and that
mechanisms were in place to deal with any problems that might
arise in the course of its implementation.

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English Language Education Reform in Malaysia

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2.3.2 The reversal of policy Teachers were also forced to teach in Malay to help students
understand the subject matter better. This problem was especially
In the longer term, the manner in which the PPSMI policy was prevalent in the rural areas, and a widening gap in academic
introduced may have compromised its viability and implementation. performance for both subjects emerged between the rural and
Asmah (2007), for example, commented on the haste with which the urban areas during the period of the implementation of this policy.
PPSMI policy was implemented, which resulted in poor structural
implementation: A second change of policy was made public on 8 July 2009,
in the face of immense pressure from mother-tongue education
… there was no step-by-step or year-by-year changeover lobbyists and despite support from urban educated Malaysians,
schedule as was the case when the English schools were when the Education Minister announced that the teaching of
converted into Malay-medium national schools. Nor was there Science and Mathematics in English would be phased out from
any warning given to teachers, parents, textbook writers, and 2012. Students who had started learning these subjects in English
publishers on the change that was suddenly to come. Teachers would be allowed to continue to do so until they completed
instead experienced hands-on on-the-job training in teaching Form 5. The government adduced research findings and public
these subjects in English and retired teachers fluent in English consultation outcomes to argue that the teaching of Mathematics
were brought back to teach in the schools. Textbooks were and Science in English was not effective.
written as the teaching proceeded. (pp. 355–356).

Having themselves studied Mathematics and Science in Malay, 2.4 The Contemporary Situation
the majority of teachers were unable to conduct effective content-
based teaching and learning in English. According to the Ministry The reversal of policy which took place in 2009 meant that
of Education (2010), many schools continued to use Malay despite some other means had to be found to make an appropriate response
the PPSMI policy in the teaching of both subjects. The problem to the continuing challenge of global English. The response – or
identified by Asiah Sharif (2013) was that the teachers lacked rather the series of responses – that was made has already been
proficiency in English. described in some detail in the first section of Chapter 1, which
traces the provenance of this document. Our perspective here is

44

rather different, since the intention is to relate recent developments is timetabled, and planned to be implemented in three waves
to their historical context. from 2015 until 2025, each wave having a different focus (see the
English Language Education Roadmap in Section C).
The first step was to formulate the new MBMMBI policy to
redefine the respective national and international roles of English The MEB stimulated a number of initiatives designed to put
and Malay. English is now increasingly viewed as a facilitator some flesh on the bones, and aiming to improve learning on the
of economic development. The repositioning of English as the part of students, or teaching on the part of teachers, or both.
driver of national development and global competitiveness under Many initiatives were of course already in place, and some of these
MBMMBI policy coincided with the implementation of a number were continued. The main initiatives are listed in the Editorial
of National Key Result Areas (NKRAs) under the Government Introduction to Section B, and some are mentioned in the chapters
Transformation Programme (GTP). of that section.

Given that the objectives of many NKRAs are related to In order for any reform of our education system to succeed, it is
national economic development, much emphasis has been placed essential to pay attention to quality. The first step was to evaluate
on programmes to enhance the teaching and learning of English, the quality of the existing English language education system, and
especially under GTP 2.0, with the intention that English should this was done by commissioning a baseline report from Cambridge
contribute more effectively to the economic well-being of the English. The outcome of the study was that the existing system
country. It may be that, in this new role, English will carve out a more was benchmarked against international standards by means of
stable and strategic position in the Malaysian education system. the CEFR, so that the system was henceforth de facto open to
international comparison and so to external quality evaluation.
The new policy led to a comprehensive review of the Malaysian
education system undertaken by the MoE in October 2011, the While the MEB was in preparation, approval was given
eventual outcome of which was the Malaysian Education Blueprint, for the establishment of the English Language Standards and
the“MEB”, which appeared in September 2013.The MEB identifies Quality Council (ELSQC), which came into being in 2013. The
eleven shifts which need to be undertaken in order to transform the establishment of this body put in place an internal mechanism
education system. The shifts most relevant to English language for quality assurance. The ELSQC was given the task among its
education are discussed in Section C. The programme of reform many responsibilities to “prepare policy papers, concept papers,

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English Language Education Reform in Malaysia

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proposals papers, information papers and executive summaries”. 2.5.1 The changing purpose of education
It was therefore fitting that the first major task assigned to the
ELSQC was the preparation of this Roadmap for English language When evaluating education systems and policies, it is necessary
education in Malaysia. to start with the purpose of education. The contemporary purpose
of education may be so obvious to us that it is scarcely necessary
2.5 History and planning: why history matters to make it explicit; but later generations have to reconstruct
it according to the evidence that happens to have survived. An
It has been said that the only lesson to be learnt from the abundantly clear finding from the study of earlier education
study of history is that the lessons of history are never learnt. In systems that the purpose of education is not fixed, but changes in
the present case, in our attempt to reform the English language the course of time.
programme, we have in fact much to learn from the history of
English teaching in our country. Moreover, we have to understand All governments need a workforce to carry out the business
and learn from our own history if we are to devise an effective of government, and one of the real-world goals of education is
reform plan for the coming years. to produce people who can do government work. When Britain
had an empire, one of the purposes of the public schools was to
There are three important lessons to be learnt. The first is produce an administrative class for service at home and overseas,
that education, including language education, has a purpose, but and those stationed in Malaya set up schools of the kind with which
this purpose is not fixed and immutable, and changes in the course they were familiar to educate local people in their own image.
of time. The second is that in order to understand contemporary
problems, it is essential to approach them in the spirit of historical The government needed workers proficient in English, and so
realism. The third lesson concerns the important moral aspect of English was the medium of instruction. Independent governments
education. after 1957 also needed a government workforce, but they faced
the pressing question of national unity, and this is reflected in a
change of emphasis in education policy to contribute to nation
building.

46

Further change followed the challenge posed by globalisation In order to understand why, it is essential to grasp the concept
towards the end of the century. In this new situation, the perceived of discontinuous change (Handy, 1989). There is likewise no
purpose of the national education system is to contribute to specific point in time when English ceased to be the colonial
national goals, and this is the driving force behind the agenda- language and began to be the global language, or when it ceased
driven planning model for English language education outlined in to be in the national interest to phase English out and it came
chapter 1. The reform of our English language education system to be in the national interest to phase English back in. But when
has to be undertaken in order to provide our young people with the the change has been completed, we can look back and see that a
English language skills they need to maximise their contribution to change has indeed taken place. And when we look back, we see
national goals. with the perfect 20-20 vision that comes with retrospect.

Change does not happen suddenly, and even the British Of course while the change is taking place, things are not so
Period did not come to an abrupt end on 31 August 1957 to be clear at all. We can now look back and see clearly that Malaysia‘s
replaced by the Independence Period on 1 September. There was need for English was going to increase rapidly to meet the
time to prepare for and manage the changes that would follow demands of globalisation. We can also see that Malaysia would
independence. Changes began to take place after the Second need a workforce able to use global English not only for external
World War, and were reflected in the Barnes Report of 1951, and purposes, but also – as globalisation came to Malaysia – within the
the change was not completed until the phasing out of English country itself.
many years after 1957.
The successful management of change includes awareness of
Similarly, globalisation did not happen overnight, but took place its discontinuous nature, and acting proactively as change is taking
incrementally over a long period. There is, of course, no specific point place instead of delaying a response until the change has been
in time at which an independent Malaysian language policy took over, completed. In this connection, it is greatly to Tun Dr Mahathir’s
or when English became a global language, although in both cases it credit that he became aware of the major changes that were taking
is clear in retrospect that a major change has taken place. place in the global status of English during his time as Prime Minister.

47

English Language Education Reform in Malaysia

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We now have in place the educational infrastructure to Malaysian government has raised standards of mass education to the
support the reform of English language education, starting with extent that it is now taken entirely for granted.
the MBMMBI policy and other developments reported above, and
we are ready to implement reform. Understanding the changing Governments in the decades following independence are
nature of education enables us to grasp the problem we are trying routinely blamed for the decline in standards of English which
to solve. We are no longer trying to solve the problems of the past, followed as an inevitable consequence of the language policy. The
and we are preparing our young people to compete successfully in context in which this has to be seen is one in which the government
the world of the future (see e.g. Chapter 8). was seeking to create a nation out of disparate and far-flung
populations; and while there is a long list of newly independent
2.5.2 Historical realism nations that have fallen apart in the course of the last fifty years,
Malaysia is mercifully not on that list.
When we compare the present with the past, we have to start
with a realistic understanding of conditions in the past. A typical It is not logically possible to criticise the language policy without
unrealistic approach is to look back with the benefit of hindsight, at the same time implying that the government should not have set
and see with perfect clarity the shortcomings of past times. as its priority the creation of a viable nation. Again, the main story
is one of success and not one of failure. If English had not risen to
It is true, for example, that the British authorities only provided global dominance in the way it has, we might well now be praising
rudimentary primary education for the rural poor in the period before the phasing out of English as a great success.
independence; but mass secondary and higher education across the
world is a product of the second half of the last century. Equally A matter that has to be considered seriously but critically is
unrealistic is the opposite tendency to look back to a past when all the routine complaint that standards of English in Malaysia are in a
was well, and students learnt their lessons and did their homework, state of chronic decline. If this is true, then it follows logically that
and teachers knew exactly what to teach and how to teach it. These there must be at least one sector of Malaysian society that has
two together contribute to the prevailing but unjustified negative experienced the decline. The historical question we have to ask is
evaluation of the state of Malaysian education. The real story is one which sector or sectors of Malaysian society this applies to.
of progress and success, for it is a matter of fact that since 1957 the
As observed above, when we trace the history of education in
Malaysia, we have to ask who was receiving it. Education before

48

independence was largely for the privileged few, not for ordinary lecturer. It may be that some of those who take their places come
people. Malaysia still has privileged people with excellent English, from social backgrounds without the same advantages.
and it would be difficult to argue that their standards of English
have declined. Although the purpose of education has changed over the
decades, this does not mean that what young people need to get
The introduction of mass education has given students from out of their education has changed. Education involves very much
less privileged backgrounds who in previous generations would more than transmitting to the next generation the content of
have had no access to English at all at least some opportunity to academic subjects. Young people need to be prepared for the adult
learn it. Although the results may be regarded as insufficient, it world in which they are going to spend their careers and live their
would be impossible to argue logically that standards of English social lives. This includes the soft skills that have traditionally been
among the unprivileged have actually gone down. This leaves the associated with education, and in the case of English it includes
people in the middle. It is surely this group that has benefited most the ability to use the language interactively in real social situations.
from greater access to education.
The expansion of our education system has led to the social
Far from experiencing a decline, it is in this group that the mobility expected of a modern education system, but the
greatest advances have been made since 1957 in raising standards provision of academic content needs to be complemented by the
of English. It is very unlikely that there has been an absolute rest of personal education. This is the context in which we have to
national decline in standards of English, which would mean that the consider the problem of graduate employability.
number or proportion of Malaysians able to use English effectively
has gone down over the last fifty or hundred years. When people There is only a problem at all because of our success in creating
complain about declining standards of English, what they are really mass higher education, and enabling larger numbers of young
talking about is a relative decline. people to study for a degree. When access to higher education
is restricted to the privileged, then of course graduates have
As in other countries, mass education creates opportunities at the command of English and other social skills associated with
the top. The school leaver who would formerly have worked in a privilege. The few ordinary people who get into higher education
shop is now at university, and the bright youngster whose ambition are under pressure to adopt the manners and style of those from
was formerly to teach in the local school is now a university more privileged backgrounds.

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English Language Education Reform in Malaysia

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Those who need support
most urgently are perhaps
those young people from less
privileged backgrounds who
have the potential to escape
from poverty but who now
find themselves vulnerable
on account of their lack of
proficiency in English.

The introduction of mass higher education, however, has had same time as opportunities for bright young people are greatly
the inevitable consequence that some of the new graduates will increased, it is inevitable that some of those drawn into teaching
have the academic ability to get a degree, but not the social skills to will have less opportunity than their predecessors to develop the
succeed in an international world formerly and to some extent still language proficiency and teaching skills that they need to perform
dominated by privilege. The failure to provide the new graduates effectively in the classroom.
with the English skills they need undermines to a considerable
extent the success of the extension of higher education. The education system is clearly succeeding if young people
from humble backgrounds are enabled to go into teaching and
Similar arguments apply to the familiar complaints about other professions; but their education needs to prepare them for
standards of English teaching. When the education sector is the role they are expected to play. Social mobility could, taken out
small, and opportunities for bright young people are limited, of context, give rise to the widespread impression that standards of
bright young people from favourable social backgrounds will go English are in chronic decline among graduates, English teachers,
into education, bringing their social skills with them. But if, as and others. There might even appear prima facie to be objectively
has happened, the education sector expands massively at the measurable evidence of decline.

50

If the University of Malaya recruits students from privileged beyond repair, then there is no solution to be found. On the other
backgrounds, standards of English in the university will be very hand, if we accept that we have a system designed a long time ago
high; but if the university recruits students on merit, including for a purpose very different from the one required in the twenty-
students from less privileged backgrounds with no tradition first century, then the solution is to reform our present system and
of speaking English, then the mix of new students will include bring it up to date.
some without the traditional high levels of proficiency in English.
Students from privileged backgrounds who cannot get into the Many countries have much the same problems as Malaysia,
University of Malaya will still have good English, and so the overall and thanks to research undertaken over the last 70 years or so,
net effect is a national rise in standards of English. there are internationally known solutions already available for us
to use. The whole of our English language programme has to be
The real problem is that our standards of English have not kept benchmarked and aligned to prevailing international standards,
pace with the advance of our own education system and the social and these are de facto defined by the CEFR, which is the topic of
advance that it has helped to bring about. From a national point Chapter 3.
of view, what is important is that young Malaysians have much
greater opportunities open to them than former generations. An It is also known that the key to a top-performing education
optimist will point to the increasing number of graduates, while system is to recruit a high calibre teaching force, and this is dealt
a pessimist will point to their inadequate English; and both will with in Chapter 9. In sum, the important lesson to be learnt from
be right. The supply of teachers must also be seen in the wider history is that while we face a difficult task, it is not an impossible
historical context. It is easy to complain about our teachers and one. We have to build on the successes of the past, and complete
lose sight of the important fact that we have succeeded in building the task of creating a top-performing English language education
up a large teaching workforce that makes universal secondary system as part of a world class education sector.
education possible.

Tracing the problem to a failure to keep pace has important
consequences for the solution we adopt. If we take the pessimistic
view that our present English language system is broken and

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English Language Education Reform in Malaysia

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We have to ensure that the new
programme enables children
from poor rural backgrounds
to succeed in English, that the
style of teaching and learning is
appropriate for boys as well as girls,
and that the programme makes
equitable provision for children
from different ethnic backgrounds.

2.5.3 Education and morality and sometimes conflicting legitimate interests, but also with
a horizontal stratification with different layers made up of the
The third lesson is that education has an important moral side. privileged, the poor, and those in between. The first group has
The provision of education is unusual and possibly unique in its always been able to look after itself, and can continue to do so
moral consequences. It is not a zero-sum game, so that one party without government support.
gains at the expense of some other party, but creates a win-win
situation, in which both education providers and those provided The word school derives from Greek skhole meaning ‘leisure’,
with education have much to gain as a result. Even though the which reflects the fact that until very recently, only the rich had
provision and extension of education may initially be motivated by the leisure and the means to obtain and benefit from an education.
practical real-world goals, the implementation of an enlightened Today’s privileged children can be sent abroad to the UK or
education policy brings with it substantial moral benefits. Australia to enjoy a complete English language education.

Malaysian education policy has not only to provide for The poor, especially the rural poor, who traditionally had very
diverse groups within the population, each with their different little access to education, need support, and while much has been

52

achieved since 1957, the task has not yet been completed. We 2.6 Conclusion
no longer take the condition of the poor to be part of the natural
order of things, or take for granted that the children of the poor will It is something of an irony that as educational standards
follow in their parents’ footsteps, without the hope of improving have been forced up by economic necessity and other practical
the conditions in which they live. considerations, the scope for developing the moral side of education
has greatly increased. Mass education provides the government
While it might seem from their way of life that they have little with a more effective workforce; but a quality education system
or no need for English, this is not true: these are the very people would also enable young Malaysians from humble backgrounds
for whom English has most to offer in providing opportunities for – almost certainly for the first time in history – to improve their
a better life. It is therefore a matter of concern that the baseline situation in life.
study found significant differences between urban and rural and
remote schools both in performance in English, and in provision for In planning changes to our English language programme, we
English language education. have to understand and address the problems that we have inherited
from our history. We have to ensure that the new programme
The life chances of children in the middle group are reduced enables children from poor rural backgrounds to succeed in
by their insufficiency in English. Without the growth of this group English, that the style of teaching and learning is appropriate for
there would be no problem at all, especially if Malaysia were boys as well as girls, and that the programme makes equitable
content to survive indefinitely as a sleepy nation growing rice and provision for children from different ethnic backgrounds. Taking
making nails. A problem only exists because Malaysia has with good a moral approach, and balancing the national advantage with the
reason come to demand more of itself, and has greater ambitions, needs of the students themselves, is built into the very fabric of
which are to be achieved by satisfying the needs of the middle the Education Blueprint, and is accordingly taken for granted in
group and enabling them to contribute to national development. the preparation of this Roadmap.

The three important lessons to be learnt from our educational
history lead to three important insights to guide the reform of our
English language system. The first is that the task we face is to build

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English Language Education Reform in Malaysia

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something new. Whatever the merits or demerits of our existing
system, it was designed for the decades following independence,
and we now have to design a system to respond to the demands of
global English in the twenty first century.

The second insight is that if our current provision for English is
perceived to be inadequate, it is because the teaching of English has
failed to keep up with the advance of our own education system.
The solution to this part of the problem is in our own hands, and
we have every reason to be confident that we can solve it.

The third insight is that we can make the greatest contribution
to the national economy, and bring about the greatest benefit to
the people of Malaysia, by concentrating on the needs of the most
vulnerable groups in the population, so that by taking advantage
of education they cease to be vulnerable. These include the poor,
and those in rural and remote locations. Those who need support
most urgently are perhaps those young people from less privileged
backgrounds who have been able to take advantage of the advances
in our education system, and who have the potential to escape
from poverty for the first time in our history, but who now find
themselves vulnerable on account of their lack of proficiency in
English.

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English Language Education Reform in Malaysia

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3

The CEFR

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English Language Education Reform in Malaysia

The Roadmap 2015-2025

Chapter 3: The CEFR

T his chapter explains some of the references to the Common
European Framework of Reference for Languages
(“CEFR”) made in chapter 1, and develops further some
of the points made there. It also provides the background to the
proposed use of the CEFR in the development of the English
language programme discussed in some detail in the chapters of
Section B. In this way, this chapter is intended to provide a link
between chapter 1 and Section B.

3.1 What the CEFR is all about

This section begins with the two best known components
of the CEFR, namely the global proficiency scale and the “can
do” statements, and ends with an explanation of the common
framework.

3.1.1 The global proficiency scale

Language teachers have always categorised learners as
beginners, intermediate or advanced learners, and on the CEFR
scale these stages or levels are referred to respectively as A (“basic
user”), B (“independent user”), and C (“proficient user”)1. Each
level is subdivided into level 1 and level 2, giving the full scale A1,
A2; B1, B2; C1, C2 (CEFR, pp. 23-4)2. These levels are also given
labels (see below):

1 On this scale, A is least advanced and C most advanced. This differs from typical marking
scales in which A is highest and C lowest.
2 Note that the phrase “the CEFR” refers to the framework itself, and that “CEFR” in
italics and without the article is used here to refer to the Council of Europe document.

56

CEFR NAME USER The scale is so designed that it can be subdivided further as
LEVEL required. Discussion in the literature suggests that the need for
Mastery } Proficient user further subdivision is greatest at the lower end, especially when
C2 Effective } Independent the scale is used for small children. The examples illustrated on
C1 Operational CEFR pages 32-3 follow a binary branching tree structure, so that
B2 Proficiency user A1 is divided into A1.1 and A1.2, and A2 is divided into A2.1 and
B1 Vantage A2.2, and so on.

Threshold These levels are referred to as “common reference levels” since
they are not tied to any context. They can be used for children or
adults, and in connection with curriculum, teaching and learning,
or testing, and intended uses of the CEFR include the planning
of language learning programmes, language certification, and self-
directed learning (p. 6).

}A2 Waystage Basic user 3.1.2 “Can do” descriptors

A1 Breakthrough To be of value, the common reference levels need objective
definitions, so that meaningful comparisons can be made between
(The term Waystage is peculiar to the CEFR and seems to mean students in different sectors or in different countries. This is done by
‘a low to middle level of ability in a foreign language’. Vantage is a means of positive “can do” descriptors, e.g. a student at level A1 “can
shortened form of advantage, and is used in the expression vantage interact in a simple way provided the other person talks slowly”, and
point, ‘a favourable position providing a good view’.) “can introduce him/herself and others” (see Figure 3.1 below).

The evaluation is essentially positive, and contrasts with a
more conventional approach that assesses learners according to

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English Language Education Reform in Malaysia

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Common Reference Levels: Global scale

Proficient C2 Able to understand with ease virtually everything heard or read. Able to summarise information
User C1 from different spoken and written sources, reconstructing arguments and accounts in a coherent
B2 presentation. Able to express himself/herself spontaneously, very fluently and precisely,
Able to fully B1 differentiating finer shades of meaning even in more complex situations.
participate in A2
professional and A1 Able to understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts, and recognise implicit meaning.
academic life. Able to express himself/herself fluently and spontaneously without much obvious searching for
expressions. Able to use language flexibly and effectively for social, academic and professional
Independent purposes. Able to produce clear, well-structured, detailed text on complex subjects, showing
User controlled use of organisational patterns, connectors and cohesive devices.

Able to express Able to understand the main ideas of complex text on both concrete and abstract topics, including
views and hold technical discussions in his/her field of specialisation. Able to interact with a degree of fluency
and spontaneity that makes regular interaction with native speakers quite possible without strain
one’s own in for either party. Able to produce clear, detailed text on a wide range of subjects and explain a
social discourse. viewpoint on a topical issue giving the advantages and disadvantages of various options.

Basic Able to understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar matters regularly
User encountered in work, school, leisure, etc. Able to deal with most situations likely to arise whilst
travelling in an area where the language is spoken. Can produce simple connected text on topics,
Able to carry out which are familiar, or of personal interest. Able to describe experiences and events, dreams,
“real life” tasks of hopes & ambitions and briefly give reasons and explanations for opinions and plans.
a touristic nature.
Able to understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of most
immediate relevance (e.g. very basic personal and family information, shopping, local geography,
employment). Able to communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a simple and direct
exchange of information on familiar and routine matters. Can describe in simple terms aspects of
his/her background, immediate environment and matters in areas of immediate need.

Able to use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases aimed at the satisfaction of
needs of a concrete type. Able to introduce himself/herself and others, and can ask and answer
questions about personal details such as where he/she lives, people he/she knows and things he/
she has. Able to interact in a simple way provided the other person talks slowly and clearly and is
prepared to help.

Figure 3.1 Common Reference Levels: Global Scale

58

what they are unable to do. These “can do” descriptors are not combined, e.g. a conversation requires both listening and speaking
tied to any particular theory or method of teaching and learning, skills. The CEFR statements do not refer to linguistic form, but
but resonate naturally with the action-oriented approach outlined they do presuppose that the learner has sufficient knowledge of
on CEFR pages 9-16. form – including vocabulary, grammar and relevant aspects of the
spoken language – to interact in the manner described. However,
The global scale presented is the model for several more the CEFR does not necessarily specify the means of achieving
specific tables with their own sets of “can do” descriptors. The these goals. For example, the CEFR document (p. 26) sets the
self-assessment grid presented on pages 26-7 addresses “can do” goals for reading at level A1, but in order to get there, children
statements to learners so that they can work out their own positions have to develop a basic literacy infrastructure, crucially including
on the proficiency scale. Table 3 on pages 28-9 reformulates the word recognition.
“can do” statements as qualitative aspects of language use under
the headings range, accuracy, fluency, interaction and coherence. 3.1.3 A common framework

Tables relating to language skills spell out in more detail what The expression “common framework of reference” might
the “can do” statements of the global scale mean at the level of initially seem somewhat forbidding, but the idea behind it is
individual skills, including oral production (pp. 58-60), written familiar enough in education and in other areas of cooperation.
production (pp. 61-2), listening (pp. 66-8), reading (pp. 68-71), and Two teachers teaching the same course will not necessarily teach
interaction (pp. 73-87), including turn taking. Particular emphasis exactly the same things, but will normally come to a general
is placed on interactive skills first because they presuppose and agreement on what they are going to teach. A teacher designing a
involve the integration of the traditional four language skills, and test for a course taught by colleagues will normally find out what
secondly because that is what learners can be presumed to be they have been teaching, and test using related examples rather
learning the language for in the first place. than the same examples. These are simple examples of referring
to a common framework.
The CEFR “can do” statements are concerned with the
learner’s ability to interact successfully in social situations using
the target language. This goes beyond the traditional four skills,
because social interaction typically requires different skills to be

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At a higher level, a curriculum provides a common framework What is possible is to find corresponding tasks in different
for the many different courses in which it is implemented, possibly languages, e.g. how to introduce oneself or order a meal in a
in many different educational institutions. A national curriculum restaurant, or read aloud the formula 5 + 3 = 8. These common
lists topics to be covered in all schools, and can take the form of a learning outcomes are then interpreted as appropriate for different
recipe laying down exactly what is to be taught when and how, so languages. Although what is taught in the classroom differs for
that the government knows what all teachers are teaching at three different languages, teaching and learning are linked to a common
o’clock on a Thursday afternoon. framework. In the case of the CEFR, these corresponding tasks
are expressed in the form of “can do” statements.
Alternatively, the curriculum – as in the case of the Malaysian
curricula – can amount to a set of guidelines on what is to be 3.2 Where the CEFR comes from
covered in the course of a school year, leaving schools and teachers
free to use their own judgement on how best to implement it. The The CEFR belongs to a research paradigm concerned with the
guidelines type of curriculum acts as a kind of common framework measurement of language proficiency which has been underway
used by all schools in planning their courses. since the 1950s, and which has led to the development of a number
of common frameworks. It is the outcome of work undertaken
In the case of language teaching, it is obviously impossible since 1971 by European scholars involved in language teaching and
to lay down a precise recipe for teaching two or more different drawing on the pooled resources of the countries of Europe.
languages, because languages are formally structured in different
ways. A curriculum for a single language will include the topics to be Although originally devised to improve language teaching in
covered, and in the case of English, this will include for example the Europe, the CEFR is now being implemented worldwide. Many
“sh” spelling, the present continuous tense, and perhaps a learner countries – including Japan, South Korea, Vietnam, Ecuador,
vocabulary. It is also possible to devise a common framework for Canada, Sweden, Spain and Finland – have made use of the CEFR
two or more languages, for example for English and Malay, but in as a basis for reforming English language education in their own
this case the framework has to be more abstract. This is because countries3.
Malay does not have “sh” spellings or a present continuous tense,
and the vocabulary is different from English.

3 See §3.5 below.

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The relevance of the CEFR to The details of the CEFR framework are written up in a Council
language education is firstly of Europe document entitled “Common European Framework of
that the descriptive scheme Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment”4. The
offers a starting point to review framework is of course designed for any language, not just English,
curriculum content, and secondly but a further document entitled “English Profile: Introducing the
that the common reference CEFR for English” has been produced specifically for English5.
levels provide a framework for
putting curriculum objectives, Although described as a framework, the CEFR is actually very
entry testing, syllabus definition, much more, because it brings together the knowledge gained from
materials organisation, progress research on language teaching and learning over many decades,
testing and certification of and also best practice in the teaching of many languages in different
proficiency into one coherent parts of the world. It is best known for its detailed proficiency
local system that is appropriate descriptions for beginners and intermediate and advanced learners,
but it encompasses a whole philosophy of language teaching and
to the context, related to learning. To quote North, Ortega and Sheehan (2011, p. 6):
real world language ability,
and easily communicated, The relevance of the CEFR to language education is
internally and externally. firstly that the descriptive scheme offers a starting point
to review curriculum content, and secondly that the
common reference levels provide a framework for putting
curriculum objectives, entry testing, syllabus definition,
materials organisation, progress testing and certification
of proficiency into one coherent local system that is
appropriate to the context, related to real world language
ability, and easily communicated, internally and externally.

4 published in Strasbourg by the Language Policy Unit of the Council of Europe (www.coe.int/lang-CEFR)
5 produced by a consortium including Cambridge ESOL Examinations and Cambridge University Press

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The CEFR is a planning tool which provides a common and There is no point at which the CEFR suddenly became the
comprehensive framework for language teaching and learning, leader in its field – for this is another instance of discontinuous
and for the development of language teaching programmes, and change as described in chapter 2 (§2.5.1) – but in preparing this
provides the means to communicate more easily what we mean roadmap, we recognise that an important change has taken place
and understand by language competencies and proficiencies in language planning, and that countries now increasingly align
(North, 2007, p. 659). their language programmes to international standards.

3.3 The reasons for choosing the CEFR The CEFR was originally developed to support language
teaching and learning in Europe, a continent in which many
The adoption of the CEFR as the exemplar of international different national languages and minority languages are spoken.
standards gives access to a sequence of procedures which can Although it is in practice often used in connection with English, it
be guaranteed to lead to a substantial improvement in language has in principle no particular connection with English at all.
education, and which if carried out with sufficient determination
and rigour, can also lead to excellence at the international level. While we are proposing the use of the CEFR to develop the
English language programme, it could equally well be used for the
3.3.1 The need for international standards teaching and learning of Malay, Mandarin or Tamil or indeed any
other language. It is of course vitally important that if the CEFR is
It is in the context of establishing international standards that to be regarded as an international measure, the principles that lie
attempts have been made since the end of the Second World War behind it must apply equally to any language.
to find appropriate ways of setting standards for language teaching
and learning. The approach taken by the CEFR has received Any country or other body that makes use of the CEFR is
international recognition as by far the leader in its field, and the free to take as much or as little from it as is desired. But as in the
CEFR has been used increasingly over the last ten years in the case of the metric system, it makes sense to adopt the system as
planning of language education in many countries across the world. a whole. For example, in adopting the metric system, it would be
possible – but pointless and foolish – to adopt metric weights but
retain imperial miles and furlongs for distances.

62

We can likewise take what we want from the CEFR and ignore against internationally recognised standards” (CEFR, p. 3). Using
the rest; but in practice it would be wise to ignore parts of the the CEFR to benchmark our English language programme tells us
CEFR only if there is a cogent reason for doing so. What we cannot how good it is compared to programmes in other countries across
do is to ignore constitutive rules; for example, if we were to set up the world. This is the important first step which needs to be taken
a Malaysian kilogramme of 900 grammes we would not in fact be before implementing a reformed English language programme.
using the metric system at all. In the same way, we cannot use the
language and terminology of the CEFR without the key concepts 3.3.3 Alignment
that make up the common framework, and simultaneously claim
to be using the CEFR. Benchmarking leads on to alignment. This term is used in a
variety of senses, and so it is necessary to explain its uses. To begin
3.3.2 Benchmarking with, a Malay text is aligned with its English translation when we
know which sections of the one correspond to which sections of
An important reason to set up and follow international the other. We can align originals and translations because we know
standards is that they can be used to compare different language in advance that their parts are intended to correspond.
education systems, and to assess a single country’s language
education system relative to international best practice. This Using this understanding of alignment, we might look for
process is referred to as benchmarking. correspondences between our existing curriculum or assessment
procedures and the skills associated with different points on the
Since the term benchmarking is used in several different and CEFR scale. However, this is to assume that reasonably close
overlapping senses, it is essential to be clear about the way it is correspondences already exist, and we know that there are some
used in connection with the CEFR. To begin with, benchmarking fundamental differences, because for example the curriculum is
has lost all connection with the original sense concerned with concerned in detail with how students achieve such things as basic
literally making marks on a bench, and refers to the measurement literacy and a command of English grammar, whereas the CEFR
of current performance with respect to some objective standard. is concerned with the ability of students to use language skills and
knowledge in communication.
In the case of education systems, this involves obtaining a
clear picture of how an education system “is currently performing

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When we talk of aligning an existing language education system 3.3.4 Calibration
to the CEFR, we are using the term alignment in the different sense
of bringing it into alignment. This involves very much more than Alignment opens up the possibility of calibration. Calibration
a one-to-one matching, and requires the overhaul of the existing involves comparing a test instrument with a standard instrument
system. It is in this sense that alignment is the obvious next step for some known measurement; for example a shopkeeper’s scales
following benchmarking. may be calibrated with standard statutory weights, in which
case the kilogramme on the shopkeeper’s scales has to match the
The purpose of benchmarking is to find ways of improving statutory kilogramme. The condition for calibration is that different
performance, inter alia by recognising shortcomings and making instruments measure the same things. A barometer, for example,
them good. The management of a three-star hotel, for example, cannot be calibrated with a thermometer. On the other hand,
needs to know what it has to do to upgrade, and bring its standards different measures can be used as long as the one can be converted
into alignment with those of four-star hotels. A hotel might have into the other: metric and imperial scales can be calibrated, as can
to, for example, open a restaurant, install lifts, or construct a Celsius and Fahrenheit thermometers.
swimming pool. The benchmarking of an education system brings
to light what has to be done to align it to international standards. In the case of education systems, calibration is essential
whenever there is a need to compare educational qualifications
Alignment in this sense implicitly includes quality. The awarded in different countries. Without calibration it is impossible
restaurant is expected to serve acceptable food, lifts are expected to assess the value of a B grade, or interpret a transcript reporting
to be in working order, and the swimming pool is expected to be safe. “good” performance. Different countries can use any grading
The alignment of an education system to international standards system, but as long as their programmes and assessments are
similarly takes a quality culture for granted. Alignment ideally has aligned to the CEFR, their grades can be calibrated with the CEFR
a target, for example, to be in the top third of comparable systems scale, so that reasonably accurate equivalents can be ascertained.
internationally, or to come up to the standards of top-performing
systems worldwide.

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3.4 The CEFR and language teaching and learning Students might talk occasionally in class, usually in answer to
the teacher’s questions, but in view of the emphasis on accuracy,
Although the CEFR may be associated in the first place with they might also be reluctant to do so for fear of making a mistake.
testing and assessing achievements, it is based on a whole philosophy Teaching in this paradigm involved transferring knowledge from
of language teaching and learning. While it would be possible to adopt teacher to student, which is the source of the metaphor that treats
just the assessment part of the CEFR, and ignore the philosophy, to learners as empty vessels to be filled with knowledge. Learning
do so would miss much of the point of using the CEFR. It would also was typically tested by written exercises, especially translation
be counterproductive, because the philosophy itself sets international into the target language or from the target language into the
standards of practice for language teaching and learning. mother tongue, which is the source of the slightly derogatory term
the grammar-translation method.
In sketching the background to the CEFR, John Trim (2012)
makes a distinction between “Classical” and “Modern” paradigms In this approach, learning the language was separated from learning
of language teaching and learning. The Classical paradigm to speak it. Students would learn how to analyse or parse the grammar
stretches back many centuries, and as the name implies, was of written sentences in order to extract their meaning. Teacher and
originally devised for the teaching of Latin and Ancient Greek in student would have to share some rudimentary understanding of
Europe. The Modern paradigm, although newer, still has a long how words were pronounced in order to know what words they
history, being traced back to the work of the seventeenth century were talking about; but this fell far short of what we now think of as
Czech education reformer usually known by the Latinised name pronouncing the words of a language.
Comenius (Trim, 2012, pp. 14-15).
Since very little was actually known about the spoken form of the
The aim of the Classical paradigm was to provide the learner language, learners were left to rely on their innate language learning
with sufficient knowledge of the target language to read works of ability. In the case of modern languages, students from privileged
ancient literature. In the days before students could be provided with backgrounds might have a tutor who was also a native speaker of the
books, the teacher had the knowledge and the students started with target language, or travel to a country where the language was spoken
no knowledge at all, and so learning was inevitably directed by the and so learn to speak it; but for many – and for nearly all students of
teacher, and the teacher did most of the talking. dead languages – language learning meant reading and writing.

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The Modern paradigm has always put much greater emphasis on Chomsky (1965) developed the idea of linguistic competence,
the problems faced by the student in learning the everyday form of the which refers to the intuitive knowledge native speakers have about
target language. A major step forward in the teaching and learning of their own language which enables them to produce grammatically
the spoken language was taken by the introduction of phonetics. well-formed sentences in that language. He dismissed performance,
the actual use of language, as unworthy of serious study. Language
The study of phonetics can be traced to the work of Hindu teachers may attempt to help their students develop competence in
grammarians in ancient India, but in late nineteenth century Europe it this sense, but they also have to pay close attention to performance
was applied to the teaching of modern languages (Trim, 2012, pp. 16- whenever they teach in class or mark an exercise.
19). In this and other ways, new findings about the nature of spoken
languages were beginning to find their way into language teaching in Whatever the value of competence in mainstream linguistics,
the first half of the last century. it was of little practical value in the classroom. In 1968, Chomsky
contributed to a new emerging discipline known as generative
After the Second World War, language teaching was brought phonology (Chomsky & Halle, 1968) which contained rules of a
into the ambit of applied linguistics, to the extent that applied kind we might now say belong in a computer program, but which
linguistics became virtually synonymous with language teaching. in any case have little to do with the teaching of pronunciation in
By the 1970s, applied linguists were developing the Communicative the classroom.
Approach to language teaching and learning, which as the name
implies put the emphasis on enabling the student to develop Some universities introduced the new ideas from mainstream
communicative skills. linguistics into MA courses for language teachers, which inevitably
and understandably resulted in resistance to the study of grammar
Among the ideas now increasingly taken for granted are and the spoken language. Although the Communicative Approach
student-centred learning, the notion that learners should do some represented in principle a major step forward in the teaching
of the talking and practise speaking the target language in realistic and learning of languages, it also in some respects took a step
situations, and that students should be allowed to make mistakes as backwards in the teaching of linguistic form.
part of the learning process. However, this development coincided
in the most unfortunate manner with new ideas in mainstream
linguistics.

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If the Classical approach represents the thesis, and the Modern Communicative language
approach the antithesis, then the CEFR represents the synthesis. competence can be considered as
The CEFR neatly sidesteps a number of potentially divisive issues comprising several components:
by not adopting any position at all on how languages should be
taught, and concentrating instead on the abilities that learners linguistic, sociolinguistic and
need to develop, expressed in the form of “can do” statements. pragmatic. Linguistic competences

There has been much comment on the positive nature of these include lexical, phonological,
statements, which is felt preferable to focusing on what learners syntactical knowledge and skills
cannot do or have failed to do. But if learners are to develop and other dimensions of language
communicative abilities, it is self-evident that they need the
infrastructure of linguistic form to enable them to do so. as system…. Sociolinguistic
competences refer to the
Basic to the CEFR approach is the notion of “Communicative sociocultural conditions of language
Competence”, first put forward by Dell Hymes in 1972 (Hymes, use…. Pragmatic competences are
1972). It is not enough to produce grammatically well-formed concerned with the functional use
sentences, and speaking another language also includes knowing of linguistic resources (production
the appropriate things to say in different social contexts. In order of language functions, speech acts)
to succeed with the CEFR, Malaysian learners will not only have and also the mastery of discourse,
to acquire the knowledge associated with the Classical approach, cohesion and coherence, the
but also to apply it interactively in different social situations as identification of text types and forms,
envisaged by the communicative approach and other variants of irony, and parody (CEFR, p. 12).
the Modern paradigm.

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3.5 The CEFR around the world 3.5.1 The use being made of the CEFR

Before embarking on a project of the scale of implementing A point that quickly emerges is that the problems and
the CEFR in our English language programme, it is as well to opportunities faced by Malaysia are shared with other countries.
consider the experience of other countries, and where possible The CEFR is often brought in at a time of curriculum change (Byram
learn from their experience. This section takes a Malaysian view & Parmenter, 2012a, p. 114), and is typically imposed from above
of the experience of the CEFR elsewhere. The task is greatly following a government decree or other decision of the central
lightened thanks to the publication of an edited book (Byram & government intended to overhaul the existing programme (Peña
Parmenter, 2012b) recounting the experiences of no fewer than Dix & de Mejía, 2012, p. 140; Porto & Barboni, 2012, p. 119). The
eleven different countries around the world. motivation is in some cases to deal with perceived shortcomings in
the existing language programme; for example, Goullier (2012, p.
Perhaps the first important insight this book provides is into the 38), states quite candidly that “Language teaching in France does
international status of our current English language initiative. From not achieve the results that society expects of it.” The decision to
an internal point of view, we are taking a major stride forward in use the CEFR can thus be taken as a positive sign of the intention
developing the potential of our young people, with especial regard to improve the existing language programme.
to English. But so, apparently, is the rest of the world. As Wu
(2012, p. 213) puts it, “Influenced by the force of globalization, It is not always clear from the different contributions to what
every country in the world has made the cultivation of human extent the CEFR has been used to bring about genuine reform
talent a priority in the 21st century.” Our aim is to move forward, in language education. Reporting on Taiwan, Wu (2012, p. 221)
but we also have to take a major initiative just in order to maintain points out that
our current international position.
Having noted the problems and issues that have emerged
from the adoption of the CEFR since 2005, we realize
that simply making a decision to adopt the CEFR and
mandating its use as a policy are absolutely insufficient to
serve the overall educational purpose.

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which suggests that in some cases the use of the CEFR may be form, this approach has some similarity to the Classical paradigm in
essentially cosmetic, disguising unchanged practices with a thin veneer. Europe. Teaching is oriented towards testing (p. 187), and focuses
on vocabulary and grammar:
In most cases, as in the case of Japan (Sugitani & Tomita,
2012, pp. 201-203), the use of the CEFR includes the “can do” Our past practice was to focus on something quantitative
statements and general proficiency levels. In Germany, in the state in assessment. For instance, what is your reading speed?
of North-Rhine Westphalia (Rönneper, 2012, p. 55), it has been How much is your vocabulary? How many words can you
used for the development of teaching and of the curriculum. In write each minute? (p. 191)
Poland, it has influenced the curriculum and assessment, but has
had less effect on teaching methods (Poszytek, 2012, p. 102). The implementation of the CEFR can be partial not only with
regard to what parts of the language programme are modified,
In Taiwan, it is used mainly for English language assessment but at what level it is implemented. In Japan, it is implemented
for students, English teachers and civil servants, with an emphasis predominantly in universities (Sugitani & Tomita, 2012, p. 198). Taken
on finding score equivalents for Taiwanese internal assessments positively, this could suggest a procedure for phased implementation.
(Wu, 2012, pp. 215-218), which is difficult unless the internal
assessments test the same things as international assessments The CEFR is already in use for the teaching of some languages
based on the CEFR. Wu (2012, p. 219) also points to the need to in some Malaysian universities, and universities have the means to
bridge the gap with teaching. The experience of Taiwan confirms move ahead with the CEFR irrespective of what is happening in the
the need for coordination in implementing the CEFR at different rest of the language programme. If implementation were to start
educational levels (Cheung, 2012, p. 225), including textbooks only at preschool level, it would take many years for the effects to
(p. 226), and what they call occupational domain (p. 227), e.g. be observable at tertiary level; but if a push at preschool level were
‘General English’ or ‘Business English’. to be complemented by a pull at tertiary level, implementation
could be completed in a much shorter time.
The report from China is perhaps of particular interest
to Malaysia. Chinese language education traditionally takes a
quantitative approach, for example concentrating on such things as
word lists (Zou, 2012, pp. 184-185). In concentrating on linguistic

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3.5.2 Attitudes towards the CEFR Some complain that the CEFR takes a utilitarian or instrumental
approach to language learning. Here are two views, from France and
The introduction of the CEFR is received in different ways Germany respectively:
ranging from enthusiasm to suspicion and fear. Commenting on
the reaction in France, Goullier (2012, p. 42) refers to two sides, a utilitarian conception of language, to the detriment of the
the one feeling educational and cultural dimensions (especially literary)
which are highly prized in France. (Castellotti, 2012, p. 47)
...an understandable concern about the required evolution
in their practices by reference to an instrument known to The underlying concept of language was considered to
very few be one-sidedly instrumental-functional; the aesthetic,
affective, creative, moral and cultural dimensions of
and the other filled with language and language learning seemed underdeveloped.
(Hu, 2012, p. 68)
enthusiasm... for a text to which many tended to attribute,
almost with a sense of ‘magical thinking’, all the qualities of Argentina claims to have gone on from a “product-oriented
innovation. approach” to one that allows “children and young people to become
‘citizens of the world’” (Porto & Barboni, 2012, pp. 120-121). Porto
It is essential to disseminate accurate information about the (2012, pp. 135-136) outlines two world models of education:
CEFR, allaying fears on the one hand, and modifying exaggerated
expectations on the other. One is the human capital education model that views
(language) education as a tool for learners to open up the
Negative reactions to the CEFR have led to a number of world and have access to knowledge, information, health,
criticisms which have been reported in the country contributions. education, employability, economic growth and social
An important caveat to bear in mind is that the authors cited below and economic mobility. … The second model of education
are reporting on conditions in their respective countries; they are is Progressive Education, the main tenets of which are
not reporting their own views, and it cannot be assumed that they education for active citizenship, for social justice and for
share the views they report.

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the protection of local languages, celebrating the students’ Some criticisms are self-revealing in ways that are no doubt
interests and participation. unintended. For example, Zou (2012, p. 193) reports two interesting
complaints from China:
From a Malaysian point of view, far from being a shortcoming,
this is a positive virtue of the CEFR. For the government and for The CEFR is not easy to understand, and very few people
students alike, English is studied for utilitarian purposes in the first know about this document.
instance, and successful students can go on if they so wish to read the
works of Shakespeare. Malaysia also subscribes to values associated Besides it is hard to design a test based on ‘can-do’ statements,
with education, and takes into account aesthetic, affective, creative, and you still need something quantitative for testing.
and moral considerations; and these are written up in the proper
place in the MEB. However, values of this kind are not specific to Komorowska (2012, p. 109) reports from Poland a complaint
English or to language, and while they will be appropriately reflected concerning “insufficient dynamics of phonological competence
as a matter of course in our English language programme, it is not the development” referring to page 117 of the CEFR document. The
business of the CEFR or of our English language programme to act reference is actually to part of a brief discussion of pronunciation
as sole champion for these values. and prosody on pages 116-7. The CEFR is perfectly clear to anyone
who understands this area, just as references to English grammar
Related to this is the objection that the CEFR is foreign are clear to anyone familiar with English grammar. It does not
(de Mejía, 2012, p. 151; Peña Dix & de Mejía, 2012, p. 147). In suggest how to teach pronunciation and prosody for the same
a globalised world, the best ideas and best practice are adopted reason as it does not recommend methods for teaching grammar
worldwide irrespective of where they originate. One imagines that and vocabulary.
the objectors are quite happy to use the foreign metric system,
and type out their objections using foreign software installed on The inadequacy of complaints and criticisms is not of course
foreign computers. The criterion is whether the CEFR is fit for its evidence of the excellence of the CEFR. However, if there were
purpose, and its foreignness is entirely irrelevant. serious shortcomings, they would surely have come to light in the
years since the document was published in 2001, and they would
be reflected in Byram and Parmenter (2012b). The absence of

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serious criticisms is a good sign, and Malaysia can go ahead with Vietnam has initiated a National Foreign Languages 2020 Project,
some confidence in using the CEFR. which includes among its aims the target for teachers to achieve B2
in English. An interesting detail from a Malaysian point of view is that
3.5.3 The Vietnamese experience some teachers will be expected to teach Mathematics in English.

Vietnam is not one of the countries included in Byram and According to the executive manager of the project, the target is
Parmenter (2012b), and is accordingly dealt with here in its own set to find out how many teachers need government-funded language
subsection, having been compiled from materials available on the training; but the teachers naturally fear that if they fail they will lose
internet. Vietnam is important because it is a fellow member of their jobs. According to others described as “officials”, teachers need
ASEAN, and a suitable comparator country for Malaysia. B2 in order to read academic papers to contribute to their professional
development. The current success rate is 18% in Hanoi, 61 out
Tien (2013, pp. 67-68) reports that the Ministry of Education and of 700 in Ben Tre province, and only 1 in 700 in a province that
Training has issued the Common Framework of Levels of Foreign remains unnamed. The highest rate was achieved in Hue following
Language Proficiency based on the CEFR, and set the targets A1 for screening by the British Council.
the end of primary school, A2 for lower secondary school, and B1
for general school leavers. The target seems to be still B1 for most At this point we have to consider what the targets actually
university graduates, although those graduating from language colleges mean. The matching of primary school with A1, lower secondary
are expected to get B2 or C1. Tien discusses a number of problems (p. with A2 and upper secondary with B1 is neat and intuitively
67) including an improved curriculum which is nevertheless “beyond satisfying, but this is beside the point. The first question is whether
the reach of the majority of students at general school”, poor teacher the students can achieve the targets. Given the very low success
quality, the traditional “teaching of grammar rules … grammar rate of teachers reaching their target of B2, this seems unlikely.
exercises … and vocabulary”, insufficient classroom facilities, and
testing that “focuses only on checking language knowledge rather than The second question is what percentage of students are
language skills”. expected to reach the targets. In the real world it is impossible for
100% of students to succeed, and if no percentage target is set, if just
1% succeed, the target could be said to have been met. Targets are

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actually meaningless unless they are accompanied by percentages. Press comment has pointed to the unrealistic nature of the
The third question concerns the consequences of success or failure. project. Thanh Nién News8 suggests that Vietnam is trying to
do in seven years something that took Singapore thirty years. An
A target set for university entrance could mean that students not article in the UK Guardian Weekly9 suggests that a miracle will be
reaching the target would be denied university entrance, and language required. What seems to be missing is a plan commensurate with
graduates failing to reach B2 could be denied their degrees. But primary the size of the problem – or one might suggest a roadmap – to
school children failing to reach A1 would presumably not be denied enable aspirations to become a reality.
entrance to secondary education. The fact that teachers appear not
to know the consequence of not reaching their target does not give 3.6 The CEFR in Malaysia
confidence that the consequences have been thought through. In
short, judging by the information available on the internet, it is not The purpose of this section is to draw attention to the
clear what the targets are for, they would appear to be unrealistic, and consequences for Malaysia of adopting the CEFR, and to the
there is no way of ascertaining whether they have been met or not. advantages that will accrue as a result.

Huge amounts of money are budgeted to improve standards of 3.6.1 Adopting a common framework
English. Project 2020 is said to have a budget of USD443 million.
According to TuoitreNews6, Long An Province set aside some The introduction of a common framework can be expected to
USD20.8 million to enable students to speak English after graduating bring with it a new culture of English language teaching and learning.
from high school, while Binh Dinh Province plans to spend some
USD8.4 million to improve the teaching and learning of English by The CEFR and the English language programme
2020. A new curriculum taught by retrained teachers should be in The CEFR approach to the curriculum complements the
place in 70% of Grade 3 classes (age 8-9) by 2015 and throughout by
2019. Other initiatives include a workshop organised by the British approach taken in the present curriculum. It specifies the outcomes
Council7 in 2013 to provide input “on how teachers might better to be achieved, but does not indicate how they are to be achieved,
integrate the CEFR and its “can do”statements into their teaching whereas the present curriculum specifies what is to be taught, but is
as well as classroom based exam preparation techniques”. less clear on the outcomes of teaching. For example, the basic level

6 http://tuoitrenews.vn/education/11052/central-vietnam-province-to-spend-4-mln-on-english-teaching, accessed 17 May 2014.
7 http://www.britishcouncil.org/accessenglish-news-bringing-cefr-to-vietnam.htm, accessed 17 May 2014.
8 http://thanhniennews.com/special-report/pygmalion-effect-unlikely-to-propel-vietnams-english-upgrade-plans-1921.html, accessed 17 May 2014
9 November 2011; http://www.theguardian.com/education/2011/nov/08/vietnam-unrealistic-english-teaching-goals, accessed 17 May 2014.

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English Language Education Reform in Malaysia

The Roadmap 2015-2025

of reading at A1 is described (p. 69) as “Can understand very short, The CEFR levels and descriptors are already available, and can
simple texts a single phrase at a time, picking up familiar names, be used by all parties, including curriculum designers. teachers,
words and basic phrases and rereading as required”. materials producers and assessors alike. For example, at level A1,
teachers know they have to teach students to introduce themselves,
The corresponding pages 8-9 of the KSSR for years 1 and 2 materials producers have to create materials to support the teachers,
(SK) include references to phonics and to phonemic awareness, and assessors can appropriately test whether the students can do it.
and the curriculum (pp. 16-17) deals with such things as letter
recognition, phoneme recognition and production, and segmenting International standards
and blending. Although these components undoubtedly contribute
to early reading, the question is how they fit logically together to The current educational initiative of which the preparation
form a consistent pedagogical approach, and how they enable the of this roadmap constitutes a part is timely since it comes at the
learner to understand short simple texts. In this case, the CEFR confluence of two long term historical developments outlined in
greatly facilitates the task of upgrading the curriculum, as task chapter 2. On the one hand, the Malaysian education system has
which has to be undertaken in any case. advanced to the point where it is both feasible and desirable to take
the quantum leap required to achieve national goals: if Malaysia
The common framework brings with it the advantage that it can is to be recognised as a developed country, then we need the
be used by all parties working on the English language programme. educational infrastructure to support developed country status.
It would be difficult enough for assessors and curriculum developers On the other hand, we have to come to terms with English as the
to integrate their work without a common framework to work to, global language. If we take the right steps now, English will support
and well-nigh impossible to bring teachers and materials developers our development and keep us in touch with the international
into line. The possibility of getting assessors, curriculum developers, network.
teachers and materials developers to produce a pedagogically
ordered and internally consistent programme from preschool to The last two centuries or so have seen the emergence of
tertiary level would be zero without a common framework, and not international standards of all kinds. Independent countries have the
worth even considering. It might be possible to devise a framework right to decide on their own standards, but it is of advantage to
ad hoc, but it is obviously preferable to use a framework which has all countries to use the same standards. For example, it is much
already been developed, and tried and tested. to our advantage – and to the advantage of countries that trade

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