The Road Map 2015 - 2025

Agencies within the Ministry of Education should be working level, and as described in the CEFR, this independent user should
in a co-ordinated and concerted manner to provide conducive be someone who is “able to effectively express views and hold
conditions for the teaching and learning of the English language as one’s own in social discourse”.
well as for students to meet the targeted levels.
At the same time, the MEB emphasises student ability in
6.4. Conclusion international communication (MEB, p. 4-10). Secondary school
leavers are expected to be able to use the language in seeking
This chapter has identified some of the major gaps and issues employment as well as performing in academic contexts. Achieving
that impact the successful implementation of the Roadmap ranging B1 on exit from secondary school is an appropriate target, as it is a
from more basic needs and considerations to more elaborate proficiency level that allows students to venture confidently into
concerns that involve structural change and change in mindset. an English speaking workplace or higher education environment.
These issues and gaps have been described according to three
areas, namely, curriculum, teaching and learning practices as well The Roadmap for secondary school also acknowledges that
as assessment. some students are already proficient and can achieve B2, which
indicates greater ability to deal with more complex language-
Suggestions and recommendations on overcoming these related tasks.
challenges are also presented as a means to ensure the success
of the roadmap and are reflected in a process that involves three
phases of implementation from 2015 to 2025. The Way Forward
section in this chapter has outlined various actions that need to be
taken and proposes outcomes that may be used as milestones and
measures of success. It is for all relevant agencies in the Ministry of
Education to act upon these recommendations in order to realise
the intended goal of secondary school English education

The goal of learning the English Language at Malaysian
secondary schools is to attain a B1 “independent user” proficiency

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7

Post-secondary

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Chapter 7: Post-secondary

T his chapter presents a roadmap for post-secondary English
in accordance with the MEB Waves. Post-secondary
education refers to schooling after Form 5, when the Sijil
Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) has been taken, and before tertiary
education at college or university. Options for students include
a two-year Sixth Form programme leading to the Sijil Tinggi
Pelajaran Malaysia (STPM), a one- or two-year Matriculation
programme or a foundation programme for a university degree, or
a Polytechnic vocational programme.

This chapter is divided into five sections: 7.1 provides a historical
overview of English education at post-secondary level, and draws
attention to implications for decision making; 7.2 highlights issues
relating to teacher competence and student performance, and
draws on four key sources: the MEB, the Cambridge Baseline1,
recent Malaysian University English Test (MUET) results, and
the Cambridge English evaluation of MUET 20152; 7.3 presents
a roadmap to facilitate effective English learning and improved
teacher performance; 7.4 focuses on the implications and
recommendations to be considered, and 7.5 summarises and
concludes the chapter.

1 Robinson M, Galaczi E D, Docherty C, King , A & Khalifa H. (2014). Supporting national
education reform: The Cambridge Malaysia Baseline Project. Cambridge English: Research Notes,
58, 50-44. See also the full report available at Cambridge Baseline 2013 Technical Report.pdf
2 Cambridge English Evaluation of MUET 2015, Ministry of Education, Malaysia & Cambridge
English Language Assessment, University of Cambridge.

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7.1 Background routes to university such as the post-SPM Matriculation programme
and university degree-foundation programmes in private colleges
Before 1980, English was the medium of instruction in most became available, the number of students entering Form 6 also
public schools, and Malay was a compulsory subject. Proficiency declined considerably, resulting in a further decrease in the number
in English at post-secondary level was assessed by the Form 5 of students taking Literature in English. In 2013, for example, only
Cambridge English Language 121 paper, and in Forms 5 and 6 by 51 out of a total of 46,241 candidates took the STPM Literature in
the optional English Literature paper. The selection of English English (1) paper 3. There was clearly a need for a reliable means
teachers, and recruitment for employment requiring English, often to assess the English proficiency of the many students who did not
relied on performance in these two subjects. To a lesser extent, take the literature paper.
a pass in the compulsory Form 6 General Paper was used as an
indicator of English proficiency for Sixth Formers. Concerns about the English proficiency of Malaysian students
led to calls for improvement 4. Since most learning resources
Between 1977 and 1980, English was replaced by Malay as were available only in English, academics were concerned about
the medium of instruction in all public schools. The Malaysian the ability of post-secondary students to cope with the demands
Certificate of Education (MCE) was replaced by the SPM, and of tertiary education. Students needed to be taught to retrieve,
the Higher School Certificate (HSC) was replaced by the STPM, interpret and apply information from English texts. Intensive
and a new national syllabus was introduced for English. Although English programmes were accordingly designed by all universities
English Language 1119 was still available, SPM English became the and colleges, while privately-run English language centres sprang up
national standard of English proficiency for both career decisions throughout the country to support post-secondary programmes 5.
and post-secondary education. However, these measures proved insufficient to raise standards of
English among post-secondary students.
The transition from English-medium to Malay-medium
education led to a sharp decrease in the number of students taking In 1999, the Malaysian Examinations Council introduced the
the optional Literature in English paper in Form 6. As alternative MUET for post-secondary students 6. As a criterion-referenced

3 Laporan Tahunan 2013: Majlis Peperiksaan Malaysia, Indeepreneur. Available: https://books. 5 Hala Tuju Penajian Komunikasi dan Media di Malaysia, 2010, Majlis Ketua-ketua Pengajian
google.co.uk/books Komunikasi (COHECS), Jabatan Pengajian Tinggi Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi http://www.
4 Chai Hon Chan, 1977, Education and Nation-building in Plural Societies: The West Malaysian mohe.gov.my/portal/images/penerbitan/JPT/Pengurusan_ Pembangunan_ Akademik/Buku-
Experience, Canberra: The Australian National University. Buku_ Kajian Accessed January 2014.

6 For details refer to Malaysian Examinations Council 2006. Available http://www.mpm.edu.
my/documents/ Accessed August 2014

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proficiency test, the MUET was designed to measure the English tertiary education. It was thus hoped that the MUET would serve
language ability of students intending to take first degrees in as the Malaysian standard for post-secondary or pre-university
Malaysian institutions of higher learning. English proficiency, and provide higher education institutions with
a singular measure of English proficiency for programmes of study.
The test covers the four language skills: listening, speaking,
reading and writing. Performance in the four skills is aggregated In practice, as post-secondary English education takes a variety of
and rated on a six-point scale, Band 6 indicating high proficiency in forms, individual institutions choose how they wish to use the MUET,
English and Band 1 indicating low ability. Candidates also receive and decide on the minimum MUET band for their own programmes of
a statement of results for each of the four skills. study. As the MUET is the only Form 6 English language examination
administered by the Malaysian Examinations Council, it has become
The implementation of the MUET was swift, and soon all the essential requirement for post-secondary English qualifications in
students intending to take first degrees were required to take the test. Malaysia. The discussion in the next section presents a rationale for a
These included Form 6 students from government and state-owned reliable set of national English proficiency standards.
schools, private school students, private-individual candidates,
undergraduates as well as matriculation and diploma students. 7.2 Issues and Gaps

Preparation for the test came in the form of in-class instruction Changes in language policy and new routes to tertiary
for those in formal post-secondary programmes (e.g. STPM, Diploma education have created a number of problems in post-secondary
or Certificate) as well as optional private tuition. It is important to English language education. This section is concerned with
note that while the MUET is required for entry and/or exit from the implications for post-secondary English. The discussion of
tertiary education, there is no curriculum available from either the teaching and learning draws on three significant studies, namely
Malaysian Examinations Council or the Curriculum Development MUET results from 2010 to 2013; the Cambridge Baseline; and
Centre of the Ministry of Education. The MUET remains just a test, the Cambridge evaluation of the MUET which appeared in 2015.
and classroom instruction prepares students for it. The findings of the baseline study that are relevant here are test
results and questionnaire responses from the 86 Form 6 teachers
The introduction of the MUET was intended to provide a and 1,913 Form 6 students who took part.
measure of English proficiency, and lead to the provision of the
intensive language instruction needed by pre-university students for

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7.2.1 Curriculum The absence of a reliable set of curricular standards for the MUET
has led to varied interpretations of the MUET result. Some higher
Two significant curricular issues involving the MUET are the education institutions regard the MUET as a mere formality, and
absence of a teaching-learning curriculum and the absence of clearly admit students into their programmes of study irrespective of their
defined standards for interpreting MUET results. The consequence grade. Other institutions admit candidates who are classified as
of having no teaching-learning curriculum is that instruction is Modest Users of English (Band 3) into TESL programmes, or to teach
often reduced to preparation for the examination. Although the English in schools or tertiary institutions.
recommendation of the Malaysian Examinations Council is for
students to be given at least 240 hours of instruction in English to In some institutions, the MUET result is used as an entry
prepare for the MUET, many schools and tertiary institutions do not requirement while in others it is used as an exit requirement. Still
keep to the guidelines. In the absence of a syllabus, post-secondary others use the MUET results for placement, i.e. to stream students
English learners may also not benefit from best practice in teaching for English. In the absence of a reliable curricular standard, the all-
and learning, or in the use of resources. important question remains unanswered whether students with
Band 2 (Limited User) or Band 1 (Very Limited User) are able to fully
In addition, MUET test specifications do not include language participate in post-secondary and university studies.
requirements for post-secondary or higher education. There is no
instructional guide for language components such as linguistic range, It follows that the role of the MUET has become indeterminate.
vocabulary range, grammatical accuracy, phonological control, There is now a need for reliable and internationally benchmarked
orthographic control and sociolinguistic appropriateness. English language curricular and proficiency standards to support
progression from secondary to post-secondary education.
There are also insufficient teaching and learning resources,
possibly due to the absence of a post-secondary English curriculum 7.2.2 Teaching and Learning
to inform the design of appropriate teaching and learning materials.
The over-reliance on the part of students and teachers on model The baseline study findings regarding the performance of Form
MUET tests and commercialised test-preparation materials is not 6 students, together with the MUET results, indicate a worrying
only an indication of poor instructional practice but also a reflection of trend in post-secondary teaching and learning. The baseline study
a neglected component in post-secondary English education.

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examined teachers’ pedagogical • On average at CEFR level A2/B1
• 41% at A1/A2 and below; 53% at B1/B2; 6% at C1/C2
knowledge, their use of concept, Form 6

terminology and resources for lesson

planning, and their management of Form 5 • On average at CEFR level A2
• 55% at A1/A2 and below; 43% at B1/B2; 2% at C1/C2
the teaching and learning process.

The study found that a number of

teachers had poor knowledge of Form 3 • On average at CEFR level A2
• 12% below A1, 57% at A1/A2, 30% at B1/B2; 1% at C1/C2
instructional content, only 65%

demonstrating comprehensive • On average at CEFR level A1
• 32% below A1, 56% at A1/A2, 13% at B1/B2
knowledge. Classroom observations Year 6

showed that instructional practice

was generally poor, and that lessons Pre-school • On average at CEFR level A1
• 78% below A1, 22% at A1/A2
tended to be teacher-centred, giving

learners few opportunities to be

involved in meaningful and engaging Table 7.1 Results of Cambridge Baseline Study 2013 (n=1,913)

communication.

According to the baseline study, the English proficiency of allocating funds towards the factors that have the highest impact on
teachers is insufficient to provide learners with a good model. The student outcomes, such as the training and continuous upskilling of
teachers averaged B2 on the CEFR scale, which just makes them teachers.” (MEB, p. E-8.)
‘independent users’ with ‘upper-intermediate’ proficiency. Only 52%
could be described ‘proficient users’ of English. Speaking also emerged Secondly, the baseline study identifies weak performance by Form
as the weakest skill among English teachers. 6 students, only 10% achieving CEFR B2. As shown in Table 7.1, a
significant 41% obtained A1 or A2 or below. More than 70% of the
This lack of English proficiency highlights the urgent need to build Form 6 students were performing below B2, (see Figure 7.2), which
capacity among post-secondary English teachers. It also confirms is the expected standard for English. Listening emerged as one of the
the suggestion that the Malaysian education system “may not be weakest skills, 17% being still at A1 or below. For speaking, 31% were
at A1 or below, and another 24% at A2.

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Form 6  Below A1
Form 5  A1
Form 3  A2
Year 6  B1
Preschool  B2
 C1
0%  C2

10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
% learners achieving CEFR level

Figure 7.1 Student Performance at different levels of
Education in Cambridge Baseline Study 2013 (n=1,913)

The study also found that while students recognised the importance Monitoring and observation were found to be done often for
of English for employment and educational opportunities, they lacked administrative and documentation purposes required by education
the motivation to learn English. Feedback from their teachers showed departments, rather than to improve classroom practice. Teachers
that students do not in general put much effort into learning English, also pointed out that teaching quality and effectiveness is often
and that some have negative attitudes and low motivation. measured through student performance in MUET examinations, which
could lead to an overemphasis on examination preparation instead
The monitoring of instructional quality in Form 6 classrooms of language learning. Although the time recommended for MUET is
has done little to contribute to teachers’ professional development.

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... some post-
secondary students
are proficient users
of English, others
are still operating
at a very basic or
beginner level ...

320 minutes a week for eighteen months, few schools implement this 54.6% for Reading. Just 17% reached at least Band 3 for Listening.
recommendation or keep to this aspect of instructional policy. In the year-end results for 2010, 46% of 91,154 candidates obtained
at least Band 3, and of these only twelve reached Band 6.
These results from the Cambridge Baseline Study are
confirmed by MUET results over a four year period. The analysis Less than half (45.54%) obtained at least Band 3 for Listening,
of the MUET results from 2010 to 2013 indicates that most post- 47% for Speaking and 55.46% for Reading. However, for Writing,
secondary students fall below the expected levels of performance only 33.23% obtained Band 3 or higher. Similarly, in 2011 the mid-
for tertiary education. Less than half of the students taking the year MUET results showed that only 41.86% of 85,490 candidates
MUET reach Band 3, which is set by most universities as the obtained at least a Band 3, and of these only nine reached Band 6.
minimum requirement for entry or exit.
The English performance of post-secondary students has not
Of the 81,743 candidates taking the test in mid-2010, only improved with time. As shown in Table 7.2, performance in the
33.89% reached Band 3 or higher, and of these only four reached November 2013 MUET was rather dismal, with two-thirds of all
Band 6. The results for each skill were equally discouraging: only candidates (66.86%) remaining in Bands 1 or 2, and more than half
28.31% reached at least Band 3 for Writing, 41.1% for Speaking, and (50.94%) in Band 2. This calls for immediate steps to improve
support for students in English at pre-university level.

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Band Listening Speaking Reading Writing Total
% % % % %

6 - Highly Proficient User 0.20 0.16 0.13 0.02 0.00

5 - Proficient User 2.01 1.21 2.45 0.66 0.41

4 - Satisfactory User 7.57 9.09 12.78 4.43 5.22

3 - Modest User 11.73 33.79 35.75 21.27 27.52

2 - Limited User 33.20 40.19 39.77 50.87 50.94

1 - Very Limited User 45.29 15.57 9.12 22.75 15.92

Table 7.2 Performance of candidates in November 2013 MUET(n=72,101)
S o u r c e : M a l ay s i a n E x a m i n at i o n s C o u n c i l , 2 0 1 3 A n n u a l R e p o r t

A possible explanation for these results is that students have not For example, many were unable to distinguish relevant from
learnt – or have not been taught – the language and thinking skills irrelevant information, make inferences, and paraphrase or
required for higher education. A close analysis of the November summarise information. Candidates were reportedly hesitant in
2013 MUET results shows that the majority of the candidates speaking English, and they lacked the vocabulary to express their
failed to demonstrate competence in tests of a number of language thoughts and elaborate their ideas. Ideas were often confined to
and higher order thinking skills. home, school or daily experience, and candidates revealed a lack

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of general knowledge and awareness of current affairs. Many secondary students are proficient users of English, others are still
candidates were unable to use accurate sentence structures or operating at a very basic or beginner level. If we do not identify and
appropriate registers in writing. address the English language needs of learners from a young age, we
will continue to face this enormous disparity among post-secondary
They were also unable to draw links between two or more students. Even the best teachers are unable to plan appropriate
texts, give commentaries or develop or support their opinions. The lessons to cater for such disparity in the same classroom.
analysis underlines the need to teach post-secondary students “to
be able to reason, to extrapolate, and to creatively apply their It has also been highlighted in the MEB that low English
knowledge in novel, unfamiliar settings” (MEB, p. E-11). proficiency among teachers results in low student performance.
Compounding the problem is the mismatch between subjects in
These figures raise concerns about educational equity, in which teachers are trained, and the subjects that they are assigned
view of the large differences in achievement according to locality to teach: 30% of English teachers have reportedly not been trained
(urban-rural schools), socio-economic status, gender, ethnicity to teach English. The MEB also reports (p. 110) that a significant
and discipline of study. In both the MUET and the baseline study, number of English teachers (n=7,500) who took the Cambridge
students from urban areas perform significantly better than those Placement Test (CPT) did not reach the minimum standard
from remote and rural schools, and those in science perform required to teach English.
significantly better than those in other fields.
Teaching and learning issues warrant immediate attention,
This highlights the need to raise standards for teaching and particularly because teacher quality influences the quality of the
learning English at post-secondary level. If we aspire to make language used in English lessons, and directly impacts learning
every post-secondary student proficient in English by 2025, as effectiveness. Despite several decades of instructional problems at the
proposed in the MEB, English programmes must develop student post-secondary level, we have disregarded the need to enable teachers
capacity in the language to equip them to work in the globalized to meet the demands of post-secondary English education.
economy (MEB, p. 108).
It should also be pointed out that current teacher education
The first issue is the range of performance: students in the programmes in IPGs and universities do less for post-secondary
same year are performing at vastly different levels; while some post- teaching than for pre-school, primary and secondary teaching. We

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need high impact programmes for post-
secondary English language education
to give direct support to teachers and
students.

7.2.3 Assessment

Figure 7.2 Cambridge English evaluation of MUET 2015 against The call to revamp national
Cambridge Certificate in Advanced English test examinations and school-based
assessments, and to benchmark student
outcomes and learning practices to
international standards (MEB, p.
E-11) has led to a number of studies at
the national level. The evaluation of
the MUET by Cambridge English in
2015 is relevant here, since it aimed
to make a comprehensive evaluation
of the MUET against international
standards of performance at the post-
secondary level. The study compared
the results of 500 candidates in the
MUET and the Cambridge Certificate in
Advanced English (CAE) test in order to
recommend changes for improvement.

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Group discussions
and presentations

provide students
with the platform

to express and
elaborate on
their ideas

The main finding of the evaluation was that the MUET over others. The range of Listening aspects is narrow, 85% of all
overemphasises grammatical structures, and gives little emphasis to items requiring expeditious listening. In addition, several issues
communication. It also overemphasises Reading at the expense of reduce the validity of the listening test: items have been found to
Listening, Speaking and Writing. More importantly, the study found have unclear keys, to be guessable, to assume knowledge, and to
that the MUET is an appropriate measure only for Bands 3 and 4; be based on incoherent test or personal opinion.
the same cannot be said for Bands 1, 2, 5 and 6 (see Figure 7.2).
There is a greater variety of items in the Reading component,
It was also found that there were some possible measurement including items testing inferencing, establishing propositional
errors in the MUET examination. For both Speaking and Writing, meaning, building a mental model, and involving word recognition
task and topic requirements reflect varying levels of difficulty, too and lexical access. However, the Reading component is also
much emphasis being placed on spelling and grammatical accuracy. problematic as it contains items that are guessable, based on
For Speaking, the wording of questions gives candidates insufficient personal opinion, as well as unclear keys and incoherent text.
scope to produce suitable language at the required level.
Cambridge English has recommended that the design of the
The Speaking test also offers a narrow range of topics, so that MUET be updated with reference to the CEFR and that steps be taken
familiarity with the topic could possibly advantage some candidates towards quality assurance in the design of test items and tasks used. It

238

is also important to note that student performance in the MUET may performance in English, poor assessment practices and a lack of
not be an accurate measure of their proficiency, in view of the many teacher confidence or knowledge of assessment must be addressed
design problems highlighted in the evaluation by Cambridge English. in order to bring about effective educational practices.
For instance, testing irregularities in the Listening component may
have caused poor performance in this component (see 7.2.2 above). 7.3 The Way Forward
The failure to assess performance accurately in the higher bands
(5 and 6) could cause problems for institutions that attach a great deal This section is concerned with conditions for the reform of
of significance to the MUET. This highlights the need for reliability post-secondary English education, together with details of actions
and validity in tests used in English education, especially those used for and outcomes at each phase of the implementation plan.
entrance requirements to tertiary education.
The following are the conditions for the reform of English
A related issue is the absence of ongoing formative assessment language education at the post-secondary level.
for post-secondary students. The MUET is a summative criterion-
referenced proficiency test with no emphasis on coursework (1) Curriculum: the design and development of an internationally-
or formative assessment. Coursework requirements such as aligned teaching and learning curriculum for post-secondary
portfolios, analysis of readings and classroom presentations serve English education, and its effective implementation and delivery.
as a means to help students identify their strengths and limitations,
and provide a guide to develop skills needing improvement. (2) Teaching and Learning: the implementation of CEFR-informed
pedagogy; the availability of CEFR-trained English language
Finally, the role of the teacher in formative and summative teachers in every post-secondary classroom; and the availability
assessment has to be addressed. The baseline study found that of internationally-aligned teaching and learning materials and
while teachers understand the role of assessment, they often face resources for every post-secondary English teacher and learner.
challenges in terms of time, resources and confidence in their own
assessment practices. (3) Assessment: the availability of internationally benchmarked
English language tests for assessing the proficiency of
The study also found that teachers expressed their lack of candidates at post-secondary level; and the inclusion of on-
knowledge of assessment with regard to the validity, reliability going, formative assessment formats to support learning.
and fairness of tests. These underlying conditions leading to poor

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7.3.1 The Roadmap Teaching and Learning

The Roadmap for post-secondary English education is organised in In phase 1, efforts to build capacity among key deliverers will be
accordance with the three MEB Waves. Plans are presented in detail scaled up. This means that all post-secondary teachers, coaches,
for each phase for curriculum, teaching and learning, and assessment. MoE officers and administrators will be trained to implement the
CEFR-aligned curricula, and for formal teaching and assessment.
Phase 1: Preparing For Structural Change – 2015 to 2016 The requirement for teachers and trainers to achieve at least CEFR
C1 will be enforced. There will also be a need to build capacity
Curriculum for Master Trainers to use CEFR-informed pedagogy in training
and in the development of post-secondary teacher education
The key action is to develop a CEFR-informed curriculum for programmes.
post-secondary English language education, with staged target
proficiency levels based on the outcomes of the baseline study In view of the immense variation in the performance of
and the evaluation of the MUET. With this curriculum in place, post-secondary students, teachers will have to be trained in the
classroom instruction will benefit from best practices in the field, methodology of differentiated teaching. This will be accompanied
and appropriate instructional guides can be developed for teachers. by large-scale efforts to adopt online learning materials and a
concrete ICT platform to support learning for all practitioners.
In addition, academic and technical language requirements for
tertiary education and differentiated teaching can be included in Assessment
post-secondary English education. This could be accompanied
by the setting up of an independent body responsible (a) for the The first stage is to develop a standardised CEFR-informed
implementation and monitoring of the reform process at the post- assessment system for post-secondary English. This will involve the
secondary level, (b) for enforcing compliance with the stipulated use of coursework and formative assessment to provide feedback
language engagement time in the classroom, and (c) for strategising to teachers and learners about areas of weakness or areas requiring
methods to encourage an immersive English language learning intensive learning or remedial support. At this point it will also be
environment in post-secondary schools and institutions. important to establish the extent of teacher knowledge in terms of
content and assessment practices with reference to the CEFR.

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Phase 2: Implementing and Monitoring Structural techniques, and on the development by teachers and trainers of
Change – 2017 to 2020 the content and pedagogical skills required for post-secondary
education. It will also be important to ensure that textbooks
Curriculum and other learning materials are aligned with CEFR instructional
pedagogies, content coverage and the skills emphasised in post-
In the second phase of the Roadmap, the focus will be on secondary English.
implementing and monitoring the CEFR-informed curriculum for post-
secondary education. Post-secondary teachers will need training to Teachers will also be required to integrate online learning
understand, implement and use the CEFR-aligned English curriculum, materials into their daily lessons so that learners receive a broad
and the training sessions must be monitored. Teachers have to be experience with the language. Special coaches and mentors will
made aware of the need to give equal emphasis to all four language monitor the ways in which in-class instruction integrates learning
skills, and to use language to develop higher order thinking skills. materials and online resources with CEFR pedagogy while meeting
the requirements of the new CEFR-aligned curriculum.
Finally, this phase will involve the development and
implementation of school and institution-based initiatives to Finally, the action plan will require a policy making at least C1
encourage the active use of English among students. proficiency obligatory for all post-secondary teachers, and improving
the language and teaching skills of teachers where necessary.
Teaching and Learning
Assessment
The focus of phase two for in-class instruction will be to build
capacity for teachers to use CEFR-informed pedagogy as they Efforts to raise the standard of assessment in post-secondary
engage with students. CEFR-informed pedagogy will also be used English education will include the implementation of a standardised
by Master Trainers as they implement a standardised curriculum CEFR-informed assessment framework. This will be monitored
for post-secondary English teacher education. closely to examine the nature of questions, and to ensure that
higher-order thinking skills are tested in the target language, and
As part of the initiative to engage every learner, the focus will be that a more varied form of testing is utilised. In this case, it will be
on monitoring and evaluating teacher use of differentiated learning necessary to upskill teacher knowledge of content and assessment

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practices in accordance with the post-secondary CEFR-aligned Teaching and Learning
curriculum, instruction and assessment practices.
Phase 3 will continue the emphasis on capacity building for
To complete the exercise, the monitoring of assessment practices teachers based on the evaluation of the effectiveness of post-
will benefit from research into the impact of CEFR-aligned curricula secondary teacher education programmes.This will involve
and pedagogy on learner proficiency, and to determine whether monitoring and evaluating the standardised curricula for English
variation in performance outcomes is reduced over time. teacher education, and evaluating the English proficiency of
teachers and trainers. The use of teaching and learning materials
Phase 3: Scaling Up Structural Change – 2021 to 2025 and ICT facilities will be reviewed to check the implementation of
appropriate pedagogy including differentiated learning.
Curriculum
Assessment
In the final phase of the Roadmap, the effectiveness of the
CEFR-informed curriculum will be evaluated with a view to The final phase of the Roadmap will require an evaluation of the
revising target levels for post-secondary education. This will standardised CEFR-informed assessment of post-secondary English.
involve reviewing and revising CEFR descriptors, continuing The resulting understanding of the assessment framework will provide
capacity building for all post-secondary teachers, as well as an insight into ways of benchmarking student performance in English
monitoring, reviewing and improving school and institution-based against international standards, and how the framework itself has
initiatives relating to post-secondary English education. impacted student performance in English at the post-secondary level.

The action plan will focus on evaluating and revising 7.4 Implications and Recommendations
CEFR-aligned teacher training by Master Trainers, the CEFR-
aligned English curriculum, teaching and learning practices, and This section draws attention to some of the implications of
assessment. All of this will provide an insight into the effectiveness the Roadmap outlined above, and makes recommendations for the
of the reform in post-secondary education. improvement of our post-secondary English education.

242

A variety of
activities such
as jigsaw reading
and gallery walks
cater for different
learning styles.

i. Develop a core CEFR-informed curriculum to meet the demands iv. Ensure that the agency responsible for monitoring practices
of post-secondary education. This requires a change of policy within the learning space is empowered to monitor and evaluate
from a ‘test curriculum’ to a ‘teaching curriculum’, and calls curricular goals through the assessment of instructional practice,
for close collaboration between the Curriculum Development student achievement and the assertive use of performance data.
Division and the Malaysian Examinations Council.
v. Enlarge the pool of post-secondary English language experts
ii. Enforce CEFR C1 as the minimum proficiency level for all post- by building pedagogical capacity among present secondary
secondary English teachers. To make this possible, teacher teachers and by attracting English proficient pre-service
proficiency has to be improved by means of appropriate in- teachers. In addition, plan for ways to allow for greater
service training, remedial support and the provision of teaching flexibility in private-public mobility for seasoned educationists
and learning resources. and to offer more prestigious career opportunities for teachers.

iii. Establish a minimum proficiency level for post-secondary
students using a single internationally-recognised test. Individual
higher education institutions will retain the right to decide on
their own entry requirements for English.

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Language games
and enrichment
activities keep
lessons interesting
and motivate
students to
learn English.

7.5 Conclusion as well as the need for monitoring and reviewing current and future
practices concerning curricula, instruction and assessment.

This chapter has made a detailed description of post-secondary This Roadmap also promotes bilingual and intercultural education
English education in Malaysia. The first two sections highlighted a through curricular action7 aiming to raise competencies for students
number of issues relating to recent developments in the field, teacher as they enter an important phase in their education. It is hoped that
competence, student performance and the assessment of post- this chapter will support the teaching and learning process in order
secondary students. The third section has drawn on the findings of to “encourage learners to think more about the components of their
recent studies and on the issues raised to provide a Roadmap for the [linguistic] repertoire, their intercultural competencies, the ways in
future of English education at the post-secondary level. which languages and cultures work, and the best ways of profiting from

The chapter has raised significant areas for development, such their personal or collective experience of using and learning” English8.

as the need to develop a teaching curriculum, the need to establish All in all, it is envisaged that the CEFR will provide the means to
minimum levels of proficiency for teachers, trainers and students, bring together all such competencies that are required for teaching

and working not only in Malaysia but also internationally.

7 Beacco JC, Byram M, Cavalli M, Coste D, Cuenat M E, Goullier F and Panthier J, (Language
Policy Division), 2010, Guide for the development and implementation of curricula for
plurilingual and intercultural education. Document prepared for the Policy Forum ‘The right of
learners to quality and equity in education – The role of linguistic and intercultural competences’
Geneva, Switzerland, 2-4 November 2010, page 20.

244 8 Ibid.

English Language Education Reform in Malaysia

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8

University

245

English Language Education Reform in Malaysia T his chapter is concerned with English Language learning and
teaching in public universities, and focuses on the production
The Roadmap 2015-2025 of graduates equipped with sufficient proficiency in English
to meet the needs of a developed and globalised Malaysia in 2020.
Chapter 8: University It deals with undergraduate degree programmes other than degree
programmes in the Teaching of English, leaving the teaching
of English, along with other aspects of teacher training, to be
treated separately in Chapter 9. The Roadmap covers only public
universities at tertiary level, and so the contents of this chapter do
not necessarily apply to other institutes of higher learning such as
colleges and private universities.

8.1 BACKGROUND

This section considers the national problem of the poor English
communication skills of graduates from the point of view first of
universities themselves, secondly of employers, and thirdly of the
national agenda.

8.1.1 University English Language Learning and Employment

The essence of the problem at university level is that less than
half of the graduates produced each year by our public universities
achieve the level of communicative ability in English that is

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required by potential employers. A national study, namely The The pressure to raise standards of English has been brought
Graduate Employability Blueprint 2012-2017 (henceforth “GE about not only by changes in the world outside, but also by
Blueprint”), commissioned by the Ministry of Higher Education, developments within the university sector itself. Universities in
found that more than half (54%) of undergraduate students from Malaysia are undergoing the twin processes of internationalisation
six Malaysian universities had only a limited command of English. and globalisation as universities across the globe form networks of
links in what is rapidly becoming a global higher education system.
English education at university level has in the past been They are under increasing pressure to produce graduates capable
designed largely to enable students to handle academic content of using English not only for local purposes within Malaysia, but
and activities in English, and for the student’s own personal also for a variety of purposes at an international level.
development. In the present century, in the wake of globalisation
and the emergence of English as the global language, the purpose The increase in the number of overseas students brings
of English language education has to include making the students globalisation on to the campus and into the lecture room.
employable. The kind of graduate we now want to produce in our Universities now have to respond to the needs of a broad range
public universities is one who is employable in a globalised economy of stakeholders and take on additional responsibilities, including
in which English is the most important language of communication. the development of communication skills and other soft skills.
Although communication skills and other language-based skills are
While there is evidence that poor English competency not linked specifically to English in principle, the practical reality
hampers the ability of graduates to communicate effectively in in the modern world is that at an international level these skills do
the workplace, studies by Bennet (2014), Metcalfe (2011) and have to be exercised in English.
others have consistently demonstrated that those who have a
good command of English are much more likely to advance in their There is a need to develop effective learning, language
careers, and enjoy the advantages of more highly paid jobs, more and communication skills for reasons of employability, career
social mobility, and greater social success. It is in the interests development and life-long learning. This means that high standards
of the students themselves to achieve the standard of English of English have to be complemented by a set of soft skills which
required for immediate employment on graduation commensurate are increasingly highly valued in universities worldwide.
with their academic qualifications, longer-term international
marketability, and life-long learning.

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8.1.2 The Expectations of Employers are related to the lack of English skills. According to the 2011 report
by Ainol Madziah Zubairi et al., English Language Competency for
There is a comprehensive body of literature dealing with the Entry Level Employment: A Market Research on Industrial Needs,
attributes required of graduates on graduation and moving directly Malaysian employers have expressed their dissatisfaction with the
into employment or on to postgraduate studies (Bridgstock, 2009; general level of preparedness of graduates as prospective entry-level
Gedye, Fender & Chalkley, 2004; Kaur & Kaur, 2008; Omar, M.K. employees. They have considerable reservations regarding graduates’
et al., 2012; Rasul & A.P. Puvanasvaran, 2009; Trigwell & Dunbar- nontechnical abilities or employability skills, particularly English
Goddet, 2005). These studies list attributes gathered through surveys language proficiency.These concerns have been the subject of earlier
of former students in employment or through initiatives and research studies (Isarji et al., 2008, Stapa et al., 2008; Suan, 2004).
conducted by universities driven by the employability agenda.
8.1.3 The National Agenda
In the Malaysian context, industry players and employers are
specific about the need for proficiency in English. A study by Kahirol The definitive document on graduate employability is the GE
Mohd Salleh et al. (2010) found that communication skills in English Blueprint, which clearly states that universities have always been
are necessary for effective communication and information sharing, considered “the cornerstone of a country’s supply of quality and
and are essential in international business circles. Several other talented human resources” (p. 4). The GE Blueprint analyses this
studies involving engineering and the service industry cite proficiency role of universities in the context of the demands of today’s complex
in English as an important skill for candidates for higher positions global employment market, and identifies urgent issues and challenges
in a company. Rozila Ahmad and Noor Azimin Zainol (2011) found for graduate employability arising from these changes, in particular
work experience and proficiency in English to be requirements for problems encountered by employers taking on fresh graduates. The
managerial posts in Malaysian five-star hotels. In order to achieve most common problem for employers, reported by 55.8% of the
international employability, Malaysian graduates need a level of companies surveyed, is a poor command of English. In view of the
proficiency in English that will enable them to interact effectively with crucial role played by universities in not only providing graduates with
other speakers of English. qualifications but also making them employable, it is imperative for
the universities to acknowledge and address the issue of poor English
Given the importance of English in the workplace, it is not
surprising to find that employers’complaints about graduates’inabilities

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language proficiency among their graduates. Universities should, as far the existing English language programmes and courses offered
as possible within the constraints of time and resources, ensure that at university, and existing initiatives to improve student language
the English language proficiency of their graduates on exit meets the proficiency in higher education.
demands of the current employment market. In fact, the GE Blueprint
emphasises the need for universities to take the lead and initiate a 8.2.1 English Language Curricula
review of current university curricula.
English language education in universities can generally be divided
The role of universities in producing employable graduates requires into three categories: English Language proficiency courses, English
a system that encourages students to become more competent, Language degree programmes, and Teaching of English as a Second
knowledgeable and creative, and to develop the necessary social and Language (TESL) degree programmes. The concern in this chapter
personal attributes. Students have to acquire these attributes as they is with proficiency courses. Traditionally, English language courses
progress through university. It is important that universities incorporate were offered in most universities to equip students with the necessary
the development of these core attributes into their curricula, to ensure language skills for general, social, academic and occupational purposes;
that graduates are equipped with the required fundamentals before but nowadays they tend to include more precisely targeted proficiency
leaving their universities. The onus is on universities to develop the courses designed to prepare undergraduates for employment. These
Employability Attributes Framework (EAF), a holistic and integrated courses are offered at different proficiency levels, and may be general,
curriculum based on GE core skills and on Graduate Employability specific or academic in nature.
Competencies (GEC) aligned with the needs of industry, and to bear
this responsibility in mind in the development of the English language Although these language courses usually come under the category
curriculum (GE Blueprint, 2012). of university-required courses, they differ in content and contact
hours from university to university, and as such there is no common
8.2 A REVIEW OF UNIVERSITY ENGLISH LANGUAGE curriculum for English language learning across public universities.
PROGRAMMES The report on English Language Teaching and Learning at University
Level (2013) highlights the wide range in English language curricula
Before identifying the issues related to English language teaching offered by public universities. Some universities offer only general
and learning at tertiary level, there is a need to examine critically English courses, some skills-based courses, and others a mixture of

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the two. The minimum number of credit hours allocated for English described as essential for entry-level employment. Recognising that a
language learning ranges from two to eight, generally to be completed learner’s active participation ensures greater success, universities have
within three to four years of undergraduate study. made considerable efforts to encourage learner autonomy in many
language programmes with the introduction of learner-centred, self-
Given the realities of the English language learning situation directed and blended learning. However, Thang (2001, 2003 & 2005)
in public universities, it would be difficult to design and establish a found that undergraduates from three public universities in Malaysia
common curriculum. What is possible, however, is to specify clear were very much teacher-centred, which seemed to be the result
guidelines which would be regarded as desirable for any university of a school system in which language teaching is itself still teacher-
language curriculum, and which if met will ensure that students centered and students have been nurtured in a culture of exams
graduating from our public universities are more employable. through formulaic learning.

The above-mentioned 2013 report also highlights the findings of A paradigm shift is therefore required for undergraduates to move
a needs analysis carried out by UM, UiTM, UKM and UPM, which away from being spoon-fed and embrace self-directed learning and full
confirms the findings of earlier studies that, in general, employers feel learner autonomy. In line with such autonomy, students will be able,
university-level English language courses do not adequately prepare at the end of their studies, to build their own language portfolios along
undergraduate students for the workplace, and that their English the lines of the European Language Portfolio (henceforth “ELP”)
grades are not a true reflection of their English language ability in the real suggested by the Council of Europe. At this juncture, the Common
world. This concern was also part of the reason for the GE Blueprint’s European Framework of Reference (henceforth “CEFR”) descriptive
recommendation that universities review their existing curricula. scheme offers a useful starting point for revised English curricula at
universities (see Chapter 3 for a detailed description of the CEFR).
8.2.2 Teaching and Learning In this framework, “a task-based approach to teaching and learning in
which use of the target language plays a central role” is emphasised,
In response to the intiative by the Ministry of Higher Education in while “its understanding of the learner’s role suggests that the
encouraging universities to move towards Outcome-Based Education development of learner autonomy (learning how to learn, assuming
(henceforth“OBE”) in order to ensure quality, the focus on teaching and proactive responsibility for the learning process) should be a priority”
learning needs to be on learner autonomy. Learner autonomy produces (Little, 2009, p. 4).
independent graduates with the soft skills that most employers have

250

The proposed language portfolio fosters learner autonomy and from that for language teachers in schools; it has to address the specific
contains a scaled checklist of “I can” descriptors. Following Little’s challenges confronting them as their students are young adults and
seminal paper at the ALTE Conference in November 2009, other require different approaches to learning and forms of assessment.
studies have been conducted on the use of the CEFR for curriculum,
pedagogy, and assessment (see e.g. Papageorgiou, 2014; Santiago, 2012; Materials used for teaching and learning also differ from one
Faez et al., 2011; Turnbull, 2011; Westhoff, 2007; Wu & Wu, 2007). university to another. Some produce their own teaching materials,
while others adopt or adapt materials that are available commercially.
In many universities, English language courses are taught by However, it is not known whether or not materials in current use draw
language teachers, language instructors and lecturers. Many but on the resources of the CEFR, and this highlights the need for clear
not all of these have some kind of teaching certification, and each guidelines to help universities review and align their teaching materials
university has its own criteria for employing language teaching staff, in accordance with a CEFR-aligned curriculum.
with the result that there are no common, specific, language teaching
qualifications or minimum English proficiency level required of To improve their English, university students need continuous
teaching staff across universities. Language teachers are assumed to engagement with the language. In the absence of a situation in
be the language role model for students, and so in order to achieve which students can be immersed in the language, universities
the aspirational target for graduates’ English language on exit, it is must create language engagement through an increase in learning
necessary for those teaching university English language courses to hours combined with a programme offering incidental learning
have a higher level of proficiency. In addition to a minimum level of in addition to planned instruction. At the present time, English
proficiency as a criterion for initial employment, the English language language education in most universities mainly takes the form
proficiency of teachers in service needs to be evaluated at appropriate of structured, credited courses that constitute part of a formal
intervals. However, this evaluaton is not known to be carried out by curriculum. Teaching and learning are carried out in formal classes,
any university. There is an assumption that language proficiencies do guided by carefully structured learning objectives and content
not change, and this is the possible reason for a lack of institutional outlines that have to meet MQA requirements.
emphasis on continuous professional development (henceforth
“CPD”) specifically for language teaching staff. It is also important to While there is a need for such formal, structured learning,
note that CPD for language teachers in universities has to be different students would also benefit from additional incidental learning
(i.e. learning a language while engaging in another primary

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Informal, stress-free
English language

activities outside the
classroom encourage
incidental learning while
increasing engagement
time with the language.

activity). Structured language courses should be complemented however, not every university is currently prepared to make the
by language activities beyond the classroom focused on the same kind of commitment.
communication of content rather than on specific aspects of the
language. One currently available example of an approach that In addition to an increase in learning hours and activities
combines structured courses with more project-oriented courses beyond the classroom, there is also a need to create an English-
as well as activities beyond the classroom is the English Language rich environment in every university. Students would have greater
Experience (ELEx) package being implemented in Universiti Putra engagement with the language if English could be used as the
Malaysia. The three components of ELEx are designed to provide medium of communication for more content courses, co-curricular
formal, structured learning, and to encourage incidental learning. activities, university bulletins and other informational materials.
Introduced in September 2013, it needs three years before the first English teaching and learning are currently the sole responsibility
cohort of ELEx learners can be adequately assessed to evaluate of a language centre or unit assigned with the task, but creating an
the effectiveness of the approach (Mardziah H. Abdullah et al., English-rich environment requires collaboration between a language
2015). Initiatives of this kind require institutional commitment to centre or unit and other entities in a university. To make such efforts
an increase in learning hours focused on English language learning; possible and successful, institution-wide support is essential.

252

8.2.3 Assessment employers. At present, however, there is no common exit test to
provide employers with the English language profile of prospective
Since there is no common curriculum used by universities recruits. It would be useful, therefore, to have the results of an exit
in Malaysia, there is also no common form of English language test as a record of the students’ proficiency in English to accompany
assessment for graduates. In view of the variety of English language their degree. It must be noted that there is no intention to make a
courses offered by different universities, assessment tends to be certain level of proficiency a condition for the award of a degree.
based on the learning outcomes for particular courses, and these do This means that a good student with poor English could graduate
not necessarily reflect the language proficiency or the communicative with, for example, a CGPA of 3.1 in Engineering and a CEFR Level
competence of the graduate. Graduates who obtain As in their English of A2 in English. The design and content of such a profile will require
language courses may nevertheless not have the ability to use English close liaising with employers to ensure that the language skills being
proficiently in real-life situations. Currently, universities use a variety developed and assessed correspond to the requirements of employers.
of methods to assess the English language abilities of undergraduates. Such liaisons will also provide useful feedback to universities on the
What is needed is a common framework of reference for assessing effectiveness of their English language programmes with respect to
English language proficiency across all universities, so that all the employability of their graduates.
stakeholders, including students and employers, know what their
grades and qualifications actually mean. For graduates seeking to Ultimately, the target is to produce graduates whose English
enter the international job market, it is absolutely essential to use language performance is benchmarked against international standards.
instruments of assessment and qualifications benchmarked against To achieve this target, the responsibiilty for monitoring progress
appropriate internationally accepted standards, in this case the CEFR, towards a quality English language education system must lie with
which will not only help to define language proficiency but also to the universities themselves and with lead agencies such as Majlis
interpret students’ language qualifications. Peperiksaan Malaysia or the Malaysian Examinations Council to have
a standardised internationally benchmarked exit test of English.
The intended outcome of English language programmes in general
is to provide students with the necessary skills to make themselves The CEFR has an important role to play in assessment at this
employable. The general proficiency of students should be assessed level. The proposal for a test before graduation should focus on
at the exit point, and a profile description made available to potential the alignment of skills required for employment with the CEFR
descriptors in order to frame and develop appropriate assessment

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criteria. Central to the CEFR concept, and more important 8.2.4 An existing initiative for University English Language
than reliability, is the accuracy of decisions made in relation to a Programmes
standard, which in turn depends on the validity of the particular
standard, the criteria used to reach the decision, and the validity Universities differ from schools in that whereas all schools are
of the procedures used to develop those criteria. required to follow a common curriculum laid down by the Ministry of
Education (MoE), the curriculum to be followed in universities is the
Thus, what is assessed, and how performance is interpreted are key prerogative of the individual university. Each university has the right to
concerns for the Framework. There are three main ways in which decide what kind of English language programme to offer, if any, and
the CEFR can be used in assessment (Common European Framework what assessment tools are to be used to measure the English language
of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment, Council of proficiency of its students.
Europe, p. 178):
This situation has resulted in problems addressed in the report
1. Specifying the content of tests and what is assessed entitled English Language Teaching and Learning at University Level
examinations: (MoE, 2012), which highlights the need for some general framework
how performance is to promote and facilitate cooperation in the organisation of English
2. Stating the criteria to determine interpreted language education across public universities in Malaysia. To facilitate
the attainment of a learning this cooperation, the MoHE proposed a general structure for English
objective: how comparisons languageeducation,presentedinthereportandsummarisedinFigure8.1.
can be made This guide enables universities to decide according to their own
3. Describing the levels of proficiency particular circumstances how best to plan, construct and evaluate
in existing tests and examinations courses geared to the characteristics and needs of their students
thus enabling comparisons to be and targeted at a sufficient level of communication skills in English to
made across different systems of satisfy language requirements for employability.
qualifications:

Even though assessments may take many forms in different parts
of the world, having a set of common standards – such as the CEFR
– gives an advantage as it makes it possible to relate different forms
of assessment and their results to one another using these common
standards.

254

MUETSTUDENT INTAKE 4-6 CREDIT • Immersion in English GRADUATE
BANDS FORMAL LEARNING HOURS English (Bands Language EMPLOYABILITY
BEYOND CLASSROOM LEARNING 1 & 2) PROFILING FOR
• Intensive English EMPLOYABILITY
(Bands 1 & 2) • Extra-curricular (OPTIONAL)
activities
• General English
(Bands 3 & 4) • Self-Access
Learning
• English for
Employability • Industrial
(Bands 5 & 6) Placements

• English for Specific • Icon Programme
Disciplines (On and Peer Support
request) Programme

• Native Speaker
Support
Programme

AWARENESS-RAISING PROGRAMMES PUBLICITY NEW MEDIA

Figure 8.1 The Proposed Structure for English Language Education at University

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English Language Education Reform in Malaysia

The Roadmap 2015-2025

Immersive activities
focusing on

communication provide
the experience of

learning English in
a non-threatening

environment.

The bands referred to in the diagram are those used in any university and includes the four components designed for students
connection with the MUET, which measures English proficiency, at different levels of proficiency as measured by the MUET Bands:
and which provides entrance requirements for all Malaysian public
universities (for a detailed description of the MUET, see Chapter 1. Immersion in English is offered to students in Bands 1 and 2.
7). The MUET has been and will continue to be the examination The aim is to provide the experience of learning English in a
for entry into public universities. non-threatening environment. The focus is on communication
rather than formal details of the language.
The decision on the appropriate band(s) to be used as entrance
requirements for particular university degree programmes is the 2. Intensive English provides support for students in MUET
prerogative of the individual universities themselves. Often, Bands 1 and 2 before they go on to general proficiency. It is
students’ MUET bands are used for placement purposes, in order designed to help incoming students who have problems with
to start them off at the appropriate level of language learning. their English, and enable those not yet proficient in English to
improve their basic language abilities. The focus is on developing
The general structure for this initiative has employability as its accuracy and fluency in speaking, writing and understanding,
target, using English as the means to achieve it. It can be adopted by with the necessary support in basic grammar and vocabulary.

256

3. General English is designed for students in MUET Band 3, and and interact as members of a particular social-cultural group, for
for those who have completed the Intensive English Course. example, as university students when they are at university, as
The aim is to help students improve their overall command members of a working community when they are employed, and as
of English in terms of general proficiency. The emphasis is on members of the international community when they communicate
the kind of English that they need in order to communicate with people from other countries, either locally or overseas.
either in speech or writing. The contents of these courses will
focus on general topics so that students will become more The task of raising standards has been made clearer by the
interested in the lessons, leading in turn to an increased sense CEFR. To ensure that the levels of proficiency attained by
of motivation in their studies. Malaysian graduates are consistent with international standards,
the CEFR will be used as a framework of reference for English
4. English for Specific Disciplines (ESD) is designed to improve language learning and teaching in public universities in Malaysia.
and refine students’ knowledge of English, and their ability to
function in an academic environment and other professional An important matter that needs attention is the common
settings, and in specific subject-matter areas such as business, national exam, MUET, used presently by all universities as
medicine, law, science and technology, built environment, an entrance or exit requirement for a programme of study.
engineering etc. The notion of formality in language use Different programmes specify different MUET Band levels as the
is to be explored at this level, and it is hoped that students English language entrance requirement. Although the MUET is
will become better equipped to use English appropriately and conceptually close to the spirit of the CEFR in that it is concerned
professionally. about language proficiency in real situations, it was developed
with greater emphasis on reading skills, as reading was perceived
5. English for Employability (EfE) is designed to develop further as the skill most required by undergraduates.
the English language and communication skills that students
need in order to communicate effectively in their social lives However, as universities align their language courses and
and in their professional careers. programmes to the CEFR standards, it is clear that necessary
modifications or changes are required to align the MUET with
Underlying the structure is a consistent philosophy. The overall the CEFR as well, and to ensure that the MUET bands match
purpose of learning English is to enable students to communicate closely with corresponding CEFR levels. With these changes and

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alignment of the MUET, it will be CURRICULUM TEACHING & LEARNING ASSESSMENT
possible for universities to use MUET
results for placement in CEFR- No common Teacher-centred Discrepancy
aligned courses and the MUET as an curriculum across pedagogy in most between graduates’
exit test for graduates. all universities universities English competency
Programmes Teacher based on their
8.3 ISSUES AND GAPS and courses not Competence: no English language
informed by a common minimum scores in university
Malaysian universities are largely common standard proficiency level language courses
autonomous with regard to the or reference and competencies and their actual
academic programmes they offer, Course Credits range for teachers performance during
and since this autonomy extends from 2-8 (80-320 Instructional job interviews
to the range and types of English notional hours) Materials: original, No common
language courses that are offered to - insufficient for adapted materials denominator
undergraduates within each university, mastery of higher or textbooks based for comparison
issues relating to English language levels of proficiency on individual or reference
learning and teaching in the university Minimum MUET syllabi and course No alignment
are equally varied. However, as in Band entrance outcomes with international
schools, there are common issues that requirement not standards
plague English language curricula, implemented for
teaching and learning and assessment all programmes
(Figure 8.2). Lack of systemic
institutional support
for English language
development

Figure 8.2 Issues at University Level

258

8.3.1 The Need for Reform: Common Issues programmes. However, these minimum requirements are not
always adhered to, resulting in the admission of students whose
In reviewing English language education at university level, a English proficiency is inadequate for the demands of the academic
number of common issues and needs have been identified in the programmes in which they are enrolled. This situation presents
three key areas of language curriculum, teaching and learning, and a great challenge to the curriculum, teaching staff and students
assessment. themselves, as such students will require more contact hours
and more help in order to achieve proficiency levels expected by
At present, there is no common English Language curriculum employers on leaving university.
across the universities, and having a common one may not be
viable as public universities have different programmes and are Although language teachers in universities are seasoned
largely independent of one another. In addition, existing English practitioners familiar with different types of curriculum and teaching
Language curricula or programmes have not been internationally pedagogy, classroom pedagogy tends to be teacher-centred as
benchmarked by any public university, suggesting the need students are more comfortable with teacher-directed learning.
for a common international framework of reference which all With the introduction of OBE in most universities, there have been
universities can use to inform their curriculum. attempts to move towards learner autonomy. However, as seen in
studies cited, this has not been the case in language classrooms.
Another concern is the extremely limited number of credit and
contact hours that universities are willing to allocate for language With the continued use of teacher-centred pedagogy, the
learning. Research has shown that it takes between 600 and 800 teacher or instructor as the role model for proficiency and
contact hours for a student to reach the higher levels of language competency becomes more important. Yet minimum levels of
proficiency, but the number of credit hours available ranges teacher proficiency and competencies required by universities
from two to a maximum of eight contact hours per week for 2-4 vary greatly, and no common minimum level of proficiency or
semesters over the entire three or four years of study, translating teaching certification stipulated for instructors teaching English
only into 80 to 320 notional hours of learning. courses across all universities has been established.

The MUET is the required English examination for university Significantly, there are few continuous professional
entrance, and individual universities have the prerogative to development programmes specifically meant for language teachers
decide on minimum MUET Band entry requirements for specific

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in universities. University English CURRICULUM TEACHING & LEARNING ASSESSMENT
instructors are also responsible for all
materials used in their courses, and A common CEFR-informed A common
these range from adopted textbooks, international pedagogy international
adapted and original materials framework of Teacher framework of
which help achieve specific learning reference for Competence: reference for
outcomes of courses; but it will be curriculum across - A common interpreting
necessary for them to ensure such universities performance across
materials are aligned to international Increased credit minimum entry universities
standards. hours for English requirement for Benchmarking of
proficiency teachers across student performance
There is also a lack of systemic Implementation universities against international
institutional support for English of minimum - Continuous standards
proficiency development in most English entrance Professional Alignment of
universities, reflected in minimum requirement Development for student performance
credits for English courses, few Systemic language teachers indicated by
activities conducted in English institutional grades with actual
beyond the classroom, and minimal support for the performance in
opportunities for students in certain development of job situations
programmes to engage with the English proficiency A standardised exit
language in other courses. Institutional test to measure
support needs to be established in order language proficiency
to create English-rich environments in
in universities and for students to truly Figure 8.3 Necessary Conditions for Reform
comprehend the international, global
nature of the language.

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Employers have drawn attention to language grades that do not 8.4.1 The Proposed CEFR-aligned Curriculum
reflect the performance of graduates at interviews. There is a great
discrepancy between interviewees’ English competency and scores It is clear that a CEFR-aligned curriculum is better able to
obtained for university language courses. Given the limited credits for inform language teachers, administrators and everyone involved
language learning, most universities offer courses with specific learning in language teaching in universities about the levels of proficiency
outcomes, and the grades reflect internal assessment of courses taken and competency that their students can attain. According to the
by students rather than proficiency in real social situations. CEFR, the reference levels can be presented and exploited in a
number of different formats and in varying degrees of detail. A
Currently, there is also no common framework to interpret variety of language courses and programmes can be aligned to the
students’ language scores or performance across universities. CEFR.
Using a common international framework of reference will allow
employers to interpret students’ language performance across The existence of fixed points of common reference (A1, A2,
universities and against international standards. Some form of exit B1, B2, C1 and C2) offers transparency and coherence, a tool
test based on the framework would also meet these needs. for future planning, and a basis for the further development of
curricula. Each CEFR level corresponds to particular language
8.4 THE WAY FORWARD tasks that students should be able to perform.

In view of the issues and needs identified in the three key areas, For example, according to the CEFR global scale, a graduate who
certain necessary conditions must be in place for the effective has achieved C1 “can understand a wide range of demanding, longer
reform of English learning at university level. The most important texts, and recognise implicit meaning, can express him/herself fluently
of these is the need for a common international framework of and spontaneously without much obvious searching for expressions,
reference, which is the specific function of the CEFR. can use language flexibly and effectively for social, academic and
professional purposes, can produce clear, well-structured, detailed
Figure 8.3 presents the necessary conditions for reform guided text on complex subjects, showing controlled use of organisational
by the CEFR and inspired by the national agenda of graduate patterns, connectors and cohesive devices (CEFR, p. 24).” Aligning
employability. current language programmes to the CEFR will enable universities
to have a common international framework of reference.

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Student-centred
and student-

led learning is
encouraged in a

CEFR-oriented
classroom.

8.4.2 CEFR-oriented Teaching and Learning Thus, a CEFR-oriented pedagogy encourages the learner
to be autonomous and proactively involved in a task-based
The introduction of the CEFR for language learning would curriculum, which in turn enhances life-long learning towards
require in-depth training and continuous professional development employability. This motivates the need and demand for an
of teachers in order to achieve effective pedagogy. The CEFR internationally benchmarked minimum level of teacher proficiency
adopts learner-centredness in line with its action-oriented and competency in order to achieve the aspirational target for
approach, which describes language use in terms of the individual graduates at the exit point.
learner-user’s communicative capacity.
8.4.3 CEFR Targets
Autonomous learning is promoted and regarded as an integral
part of language learning, so that learners become increasingly aware In view of the aspirational targets, universities will need to
of the way they learn, the options open to them and the options that ensure that students have every opportunity to attain a high B2
best suit them. Students can be brought increasingly to make choices or C1 as required for employability. On its website, Cambridge
in respect of objectives, materials and working methods in the light
of their own needs, motivations, characteristics and resources.

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English states that a qualification of CEFR level B2 shows that aligned to Levels B1 and B2 results on the CEFR, indicating that
one has the language skills to start work in an English-speaking people who achieve these levels are independent users. As these
environment. are the levels of proficiency generally considered adequate for
entry into universities, these findings indicate that the MUET is
Although the aspirational target for achievement and appropriate as an entrance test.
employability at the end of Phase 3 or 2025 is a CEFR level high
B2 or C1, and entrance requirement is a low B2, universities However, the findings show that the test does not discriminate
may continue to have different entrance requirements for their as well at the lowest levels of Bands 1 and 2 and the highest levels of
programmes. Bands 5 and 6. This means that in order for the MUET to be used to
determine whether students in Bands 1 and 2 have attained a higher
To ensure improved language proficiency for graduates, the proficiency and performed better on the test, the MUET needs to be
MoHE has stated that all undergraduates, regardless of their entry refined or changed in order for it to be a valid and reliable test.
MUET levels, must exit the university at one level higher than that
with which they entered the university. This requirement is to be Given the need to review the MUET so that it can be used
implemented in 2016 with the 2016 intake of students who are as an appropriate exit test, an alignment exercise is already
expected to graduate in 2019/2020. underway. Universities could in the interim employ alternative
internationally standardised tests to indicate improvement in the
It is recommended that this requirement be applied to students students’ proficiency levels. In addition, universities are free to
with MUET Entry Level Bands 1 to 3. Those with Bands 4 to 6 carry out complementary forms of assessment for the English
should not need to be re-assessed on the MUET but they should courses offered.
show improvement.
8.4.4 The Roadmap
As the MUET will be used as a guide for student placement
in CEFR-aligned programmes, the test needs to be aligned to the This section explains the general direction proposed for the
CEFR. An alignment exercise has already been undertaken, with university-level English Language Roadmap, the strategic plans
Cambridge English as an independent evaluator. Initial findings and actions for each successive phase of the journey, and the
show that Bands 3 and 4 results based on the MUET are closely

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Entry English Language Education in Universities Exit
Point Point

low HIGH
B2 B2/C1

CEFR-INFORMED CURRICULUM + TEACHING & LEARNING + ASSESSMENT

Figure 8.4 Eventual target level of English Language Education in Universities

milestones which can be expected to have been achieved at the meantime, it is expected that students will enter and exit university
end of each phase. at levels below these targets.

The hope is for all students to enter university with at least a The target level of achievement for the first phase of the
low B2 on the CEFR scale. During their studies, they should be Roadmap (2015 - 2016) is a low B2, which corresponds to the ability
given an English language learning experience informed by the of an Independent User. As defined by the CEFR, independent
CEFR. Curriculum, pedagogy and assessment should all be based user proficiency indicates the ability to hold one’s own in social
on “can do” statements appropriate for this university group. discourse. The target for the second phase (2017 - 2020) is a high
B2, which relates to a highly independent user. At this level,
The achievement hoped for at the end of their journey is for non- students are able to handle discourse that is more demanding; they
TESL and non-English majors to graduate with levels of proficiency have the ability to be flexible, and have control of the language
ranging from B2 to C1 (see Figure 8.4) and for TESL and English elements for social, academic and professional purposes. In the
majors to graduate with levels ranging from C1 to C2. The concern in third phase (2021 - 2025) the target is a high B2 or low C1, at
this chapter is, however, only with non-TESL and non-English majors. least for students who enter university with CEFR B2. At the
end of their university careers, students are expected to exit the
These aims are not immediately achievable, and it may be university as independent, proficient users of English.
at least 10 years before we can realistically expect students to
enter and exit university with the aspirational target levels. In the

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8.4.5 Action Plans related tasks employees should be able to perform. Materials need
to be reviewed in the light of the curriculum review. In order to
The university-level English Language Roadmap is to be achieve the targets, it will be necessary to increase the credit
implemented with effect from 2015, and will be carried out in hours for English language learning,
four phases ending in 2028. The proposed phases are guided by
the MEB (2013 – 2025) and the GE Blueprint (2012 – 2017). The As a rule of thumb, some 200 hours of guided learning hours are
timetabled actions of the university level Roadmap are presented required for an adult language learner to master one CEFR level.
in Section C of this document. Slightly less hours are required for the lower levels of proficiency.
The minimum total number of hours required by an adult learner
Phase 1: Preparing For Structural Change (2015 – 2016) to attain a CEFR level C1 proficiency would be at least 800-1000
The first phase is intended to establish the CEFR as a common guided learning hours.

framework for curriculum, pedagogy and assessment across all A student entering university with a high MUET Band 4 or 5
universities. The focus will be on reviewing existing curricula, should be able to attain a low C1 proficiency with a minimum of
aligning them with the CEFR and GE competencies, and adapting 6 credit hours (240 hours of student learning time). However, as
the CEFR for the Malaysian context. many universities’ entrance requirements for English are below
these bands, an increase in credit hours for English language
Adopting the CEFR as a common framework does not learning would be required to enable students to meet the B2/C1
necessarily translate into developing one common curriculum for exit requirement.
all universities. Each university will still have the autonomy to
determine its own course content, sequence of courses and learning It is important, then, that universities observe the minimum
outcomes, but the CEFR provides a frame of reference for setting English language entrance requirement and encourage incidental
or calibrating course outcomes to meet target proficiency levels. learning through exposure to English beyond the classroom.
Institutional-level commitment will be needed to support
In developing or re-engineering learning outcomes, it would be collaboration between the language proficiency unit and other
useful to incorporate input from employers about what language- entities in the university.

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Discussion and agreement are needed to specify the courses or During this phase, the CEFR will also be adopted as the
parts of courses, co-curricular activities, and other learning activities framework for assessment. Existing assessment methods and
that can be conducted in English. Interaction-rich activities such standards will be reviewed and aligned according to specific CEFR
as problem-based learning sessions, group investigative projects entry and exit targets. As there is no existing exit data on the English
and practical course components lend themselves well to the use proficiency of students at graduation, a CEFR-benchmarked test
of English as the medium of communication to allow for greater needs to be established to ascertain baseline proficiency levels for
engagement with and incidental learning of the language. During the roadmap. As this phase represents the beginning of the whole
this period, universities should also be developing and reviewing national CEFR-informed journey, the expected proficiency level
English language teaching and learning, and assessment tools. for students exiting tertiary education during this first phase will
be a low CEFR level B2.
The review of curriculum and materials will be accompanied
by the alignment of teaching and learning with the CEFR, so that Phase 2: Implementing and Monitoring Structural Change
learning objectives are aligned with the CEFR targets. The spirit of (2017 – 2020)
the CEFR will necessitate the promotion of autonomous learning
among students, as they will need to learn how to monitor their The second phase will focus on implementing, developing
own progress in the form of “can do” statements. further, and/or monitoring efforts initiated in Phase 1.

These changes should bring about a systemic transformation The curriculum, having been reviewed and aligned to the
of English language learning accompanied by the creation of the CEFR in the first phase, will be implemented in the second. During
English-rich environment mentioned above. Existing English this period, the curriculum will be improved to reach more CEFR
Language teachers will be key agents in the process of change, targets. Following the review of materials in Phase 1, this phase
and thus, they will need to have a qualification in education and an should see the development and adoption of course materials
adequate level of proficiency. The current language qualification aligned to CEFR standards and appropriate for the Malaysian
for teachers therefore needs to be reviewed at this stage, followed context. The minimum English language proficiency requirement
by the introduction of C1 as the minimum proficiency level. implemented in Phase 1 will now be reviewed.

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In line with the implementation of the CEFR-aligned curriculum, During this period, the CEFR-aligned curriculum will be
CEFR-driven teaching and learning will be developed and reviewed in the light of feedback first from parties such as
implemented. Improvements in the quality of teachers and teaching teachers, students and institutions who are directly involved in
initiated in Phase 1 need to be complemented by CPD for teachers. the implementation process, and secondly from parties such as
Recertification of teachers’ English proficiency based on a CEFR- employers who are expected to benefit as a result.
referenced test has also to be made a criterion for promotion.
During this phase, there needs to be monitoring of efforts initiated At this point, it will be appropriate to develop and conduct
in Phase 1 to promote learner autonomy and systemic efforts to an Employer Satisfaction Survey (ESS) to ascertain employer
sustain the English-rich environments created in the first phase. satisfaction with graduates’ English language performance, data
from which will provide feedback on the effectiveness of the
Appropriate assessment practices for the CEFR will be CEFR-aligned curriculum.
developed and implemented. CEFR assessment targets established
in Phase 1 need to be enforced now. At this point, it will be time Feedback from Alumni on the curriculum would also be
to develop and pilot a standardised CEFR-benchmarked test very useful; appropriate questions could be easily incorporated
for universities. An established CEFR-benchmarked test will into alumni tracer studies that are already being conducted by
be conducted on a sample of university students to monitor the most universities. Problematic aspects of the curriculum will be
effectiveness of efforts so far undertaken. At the end of this phase, identified and addressed in order to refine and strengthen it.
it is hoped that graduates will be able to achieve a proficiency level
corresponding to a high B2 on the CEFR scale. The effectiveness of CEFR-driven teaching and learning
will also be reviewed during this period, based on feedback from
Phase 3: Scaling Up Structural Change (2021– 2025) teachers and students. The quality of language teachers will be
reviewed and appropriate upskilling efforts continued.
The focus during the third phase will be on reviewing strategies
and efforts implemented in Phases 1 and 2, and monitoring graduate During this phase, an established CEFR-benchmarked test will
attributes at the point of exit from university in line with the GE be conducted to monitor the language competence of the entire
Blueprint. university graduate population at the exit point. Data from this test
and the ESS will be used to study the extent of the match between

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student performance indicated by grades and actual performance 3 will validate the CEFR-informed efforts to develop the desired
in job situations. graduate attributes for employment in line with the GE Blueprint.

At this point, the standardised CEFR-benchmarked test for At this final stage of the roadmap, universities should also be
universities should be reviewed and validated. A CEFR level of validating the standardised CEFR-benchmarked test developed
high B2 to C1, in line with employers’ expectations of graduate during the third phase. At this point, universities should be able to
English language proficiency, should be considered the minimum take in students with low B2 at entry level, and bring them up to
English language requirement on exit from university. an exit proficiency level between a high B2 and C1 on graduation.

The Post-MEB Phase (2026 – 2028) 8.4.6 Expected outcomes

Based on data from the first three phases, the focus of the The roadmap for Universities identifies expected outcomes at
fourth and final phase of CEFR implementation (2026 – 2028) the end of each phase, and these will enable universities to assess
will be on validating the appropriateness of the Malaysian CEFR- the progress made in each phase. The outcomes are categorised
aligned curriculum, its attendant teaching and learning efforts, and under the three main areas of curriculum, teaching and learning
its assessment methods. and assessment. The target exit proficiency level at the end of
each phase indicates the level at which it is hoped non-English
During this final phase of the university roadmap, we should major graduates will exit the university.
be establishing the external validation of graduate competency
in English for the university students who have gone through the In the first phase of the roadmap, graduates are expected to
CEFR-informed English Language education journey, by means of exit the university at a low CEFR B2 level. At this stage, the
an established CEFR-benchmarked test. CEFR GE competencies-informed Malaysian university curricula
is developed, the CEFR adopted pedagogy and assessments across
It is hoped that the results will lead to the validation of the CEFR universities are reviewed, and CEFR targets are established.
curriculum, CEFR-informed teaching and learning and assessment
methods in Malaysia. The data from the ESS conducted in Phase

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In the second phase, graduates are expected to exit university experience is inconsistent, often teacher-centred. In the same
at a high CEFR B2 level. At this stage, the CEFR-informed way, when requirements for teacher recruitment vary across
curriculum and CEFR-driven pedagogy are implemented. CEFR universities, language teaching differs too.
assessment targets and exit test are developed.
Furthermore, when there is no common denominator for
In the next phase graduates are expected to exit university at a comparison as well as reference of the assessment systems at
high CEFR B2-C1 level. This is the stage where the CEFR-aligned universities, reliability of student achievements is compromised.
curriculum and teaching quality and upskilling efforts are reviewed. Thus, these key elements need to be coordinated and standardised
Graduate attributes are ascertained and a CEFR-benchmarked to a common framework, if we want to address the concern for
test developed for universities in Malaysia. English language proficiency and ability among graduates.

In the Post-MEB phase, graduates are expected to exit Hence, to achieve the aspirational targets set for university,
university at a high CEFR B2-C1 level. At this stage, the Malaysian it is recommended that English language education in public
university CEFR-informed curriculum, pedagogy and assessment universities include the implementation of:
are validated, efforts to develop graduate attributes for employment
are validated according to an Employers’ Satisfaction Survey, and • the CEFR as a common framework of reference for the English
graduate competency in English Language is externally validated language curriculum, teaching and learning, and assessment;
based on exit tests.
• an increase in credit hours for English language learning;
8.5 Implications and Recommendations
• a minimum teacher proficiency level corresponding to CEFR C1;
Several implications can be drawn from the discussion within
the chapter thus far. In essence, it was emphasised that the three • the recertification of English language competency for the
key areas, namely language curriculum, teaching and learning, and promotion of teachers;
assessment, need a certain level of standardisation. Since there
is no common university curriculum, students’ language learning • an internationally benchmarked exit test for all graduates and

• institutional support for the creation of an English-rich
environment.

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In addition, it is recommended that English language reform in to teach them is not going to work. The more realistic approach
universities be carried out in tandem with a move to educate the proposed here is to provide a general framework which universities
public about the CEFR. Employers in particular will need to be can draw upon to design their own English language programmes,
informed about what the various proficiency levels indicate, the and modify to suit their own circumstances. This approach is in
aspirations of the English Language Roadmap in implementing the keeping with the spirit of the CEFR, which provides a framework
CEFR as a common framework, and its impact on employability. but carefully avoids telling individuals and institutions exactly what
they have to do.
8.6 Conclusion
Although the onus is on universities to provide their students
In Malaysia, as in many other countries, the higher education with suitable courses, this does not mean that students are
sector is set the task of producing a highly educated workforce passive participants in their own education. Being employable also
able to operate in an increasingly competitive and globalised includes taking responsibility for one’s own personal development.
world. Since English is the language of the globalised world, this The emphasis on English teaching at university level therefore has
means in practice that universities have to produce graduates able to be on enabling the students to become autonomous learners,
to operate internationally in English. to assess for themselves what they have to do to improve their
English and attain the necessary skills, and to develop the study
The key ability involved here is to communicate effectively in skills required to learn independently during their university career
English both within Malaysia and internationally, and take part in and later in the workplace.
interactive situations in speech and in writing. Employability is no
longer seen as an incidental outcome of higher education, but as a In line with such autonomy, students will be able, at the end of
target that has to be reached by appropriate and realistic strategies. their studies, to have their own language portfolio, which will be
the documentation of their university English language experience
In view of the different institutional cultures of our public and achievements.
universities, and the relative independence they enjoy, a top-down
approach informing the universities what English courses they
have to provide for their students, and when and how they have

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9

Teacher Education

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Chapter 9: Teacher Education

T his chapter focuses on English language education from
the perspective of teacher education, covering both the
pre-service and the in-service training of English language
teachers. Within the context of this roadmap, English language
teacher education (henceforth “ELTE”) is an important component
as it impacts directly on the quality of English language teachers,
and on the quality of English language teaching and learning taking
place across the school and higher education system.

To raise the level of English to international standards, the
entire process of English language education including ELTE
has to be aligned to international standards of English language
proficiency and competencies. In line with the MEB, the CEFR is
adopted as the framework of reference for ELTE, which includes
the initial process of selection for teacher education programmes,
the pre-service ELTE curriculum, in-service training programmes,
and the accreditation of English language teachers.

The discussion in this chapter is based on the premise that
quality English education needs a continuous supply of trained
English language teachers who undergo planned continuous
professional development throughout their careers. The intake
of student teachers must be based on a standardised minimum
CEFR proficiency level. The exit proficiency levels for all English
language teaching graduates must be set at a minimum C1. This
means that the ELTE curriculum, including assessment, must be
aligned to this level.

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It is also recommended that the minimum English language In general, teacher education in Malaysia has had a two-track
proficiency level of teacher educators be set at C2. All English system with teaching colleges training non-graduate teachers for
language professional development programmes must also be primary and lower secondary schools, and universities producing
benchmarked accordingly. teachers with degree qualifications and a postgraduate diploma
in education (for those with a non-teaching specific degree) for
This chapter is divided into the following sections: 9.1 provides a secondary schools (Lee, 2002). Subsequently, some of the colleges had
brief background sketch of the development of teacher education in twinning programmes with local universities for degree programmes.
Malaysia; 9.2 highlights issues relating to ELTE from three perspectives: Now known as Institutes of Teacher Education Malaysia (ITEM),
curriculum, teaching and learning, and assessment, while taking into they can award the degree of Bachelor of Teaching.
account both pre- and in-service ELTE; 9.3 discusses the actions that
need to be taken on the way forward with the roadmap; 9.4 discusses Following the conversion of English medium schools into
the implications and recommendations that need consideration; and national Malay medium schools, English was taught as a compulsory
9.5 summarises and concludes the chapter. subject in both primary and secondary schools. Over the last four
decades there have been numerous initiatives (see Appendix 9.A)
9.1 Background to enhance English language teacher education at pre-service and
in-service levels.
The early years of teacher training saw the establishment of
teacher training colleges in Singapore, Melaka and Tanjong Malim. These initiatives have taken place within the context of changes
After the Second World War, the increased need for teachers in education policy and the curriculum as well as the liberalisation
brought about the establishment of more teaching colleges of education in Malaysia. Four main approaches can be identified
(Ministry of Education Malaysia, 1967). Teacher training was also in these initiatives (see Appendix 9.A):
carried out in the United Kingdom, in Liverpool and Brinsford
Lodge in the 1950s and early 60s (Ibrahim Ahmad Bajunid, 2004). (1) The use of expatriate English language teachers through
programmes such as the CfBT English teachers placement (1978-
1984) and ‘A‘ Level (1984-1988) projects, and the Fulbright English
Teaching Assistants Programme (from 2012).

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(2) The training of existing English language teachers and teacher Like past initiatives, recent ones have been geared towards:
educators through programmes such as the English Language
Native Speaker Mentoring Programme (2011-2015), the Project (1) improving English language education in schools.
to Improve English in Rural Schools (PIERS) conducted by
CfBT (2006-2012), the Training of Trainers for English Language (2) enhancing teacher education both at pre-service and in-
Lecturers in Institutes of Teacher Education (ELITE-ToT), and service levels.
Professional Up-skilling of English Language Teachers (ProELT)
conducted by the British Council and subsequently several other (3) increasing the number of English language teachers.
private training providers (from 2012).
However, the declining standards of English in schools, among
(3) Pre-service English language teacher education both locally Malaysian graduates and among English language teachers suggest
and abroad, such as the six-year B.Ed. TESL (or equivalent) that there are gaps and issues that need to be addressed with
programme in the UK (1984-1997), and the twinning respect to the entire national English language education system.
programmes between Institutes of Teacher Education Malaysia One of these issues pertains to ELTE, and the following section
and partner universities in the UK and New Zealand. identifies issues and gaps in this area.

(4) The training of non-English language graduates through the 9.2 Issues and Gaps
Kursus Perguruan Lepasan Ijazah (KPLI) and the Certificate in
the Practice of English Language Teaching (C-PELT) for non- Despite the range of initiatives carried out over the years to
option English Language Teachers, and the Reinforcing English enhance ELTE, both at the pre-service and in-service levels, several
Language Teaching for Non-Option English Language Teachers issues and gaps are apparent in the training and development of
(RELTNOTe) for non-option English Language teachers not English language teachers.
following C-PELT (Ministry of Education Malaysia, Frequently
Asked Questions). The following sections present these issues and gaps, which are
generally related to the three inter-related components curriculum,
teaching and learning, and assessment (see Figure 9.1).

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