Prosperous Period of Srivijaya-CT

0

Understanding Prosperous Period of
Suvarnabhumi and Srivijaya History through Cultural Tourism

Assistant Professor Sippanan Nuanla-ong, Ph.D

October, 2022
ISBN 978-974-219-369-0
ISBN 978-974-219-370-6 (e-book)

Publisher: Bangkok University

1

Abstract

Understanding Prosperous Period of
Suvarnabhumi and Srivijaya History through Cultural Tourism

This book is for Suvarnabhumi (Siam-Srivijaya) study and heritage management. The
contents of this book examine from research and papers of the author. It focuses on interpreting
evidence and traces to prove about prosperous period of Suvarnabhumi (the period of Siam-Srivijaya)
and to study the way for heritage management. Cultural tourism is an important instrument for heritage
management that is influenced by the cultural landscape around Ban Don Bay in Chaiya District, Surat
Thani through analyzing chronicles and inscriptions associated with geography, weather, astronomy,
archeological evidence, and architectural traces that the flourishing influence of Suvarnabhumi culture
dating back to the early period of Srivijaya. The landmark of book is presented scientific process and
evidence to prove the location of the capital of Srivijaya. Through Siam-Srivijaya study, the author has
learned about the significances and the evolution of Siam-Srivijaya history and important evidence
proving that the capital of Srivijaya Empire was located above the equator (in the Northern Hemisphere)
at Chaiya in Surat Thani. “Wind” and “Rain” was the main influenced to create abundant of natural
and cultural resources in this land. It was called the “spice route” of topography is because spices
were its main product and important to the history of the southern Thai peninsular. Besides being a
gold market for Indian merchants, there were other local products as follows, beeswax, perfumery
wood, elephant tusks, rice, sugar, bird’s nest, betel palm, cotton, silk, and herbs. The location and
landscape were suitable to be “entrepot” and “maritime trade”. Furthermore, Chaiya, the capital of this
empire was an entrepot and a hub of international commerce to control east-west trade at the direct

2

line of communication with India, China, Arabia, and Persia. Maritime trade was important in the
Srivijayan world as it was used as a global trade contact. On the other hand, besides India, Srivijaya
was another center of Mahayana Buddhism in Asia. The king of Srivijaya governed the country following
the principle of “Mahayana Buddhism” such as “Middle Way” that was the key for Srivijaya to balance
itself and became the flourishing empire. Srivijaya was the center of arts, culture, technology of marine
travelling, education, politic, economy and society in that age.
Keywords: Suvarnabhumi (Siam-Srivijaya as prosperous period of Suvarnabhumi) study, scientific
process, heritage management and cultural tourism

3

Acknowledgements

First and foremost, the author would like to express sincere thanks to the spirit of
Suvarnabhumi (Siam-Srivijaya). I am also grateful to all lecturers, all historians, and all writers the author
refers to in this book, as well as all interviewees. I am particularly grateful to Professor Ross King,
Professor Emeritus Trungjai Buranasomphob Ph.D., Associate Professor Chaiyasit Dankittikul, Ph.D,
M.R.Pumin Varavarn, Ph.D, Assistant Prof. Budsakayt Intarapasan, Ph.D, Associate Prof. Dr.Wimonrart
Issarathumnoon, Methawee Nuanla-ong (My older brother) and Suksit Petampai, Ph.D for their
kindness comments, discussion, suggestions and encouragement. Despite the busy schedule, they
have read and answered all the questions tirelessly over the years. Massive thanks to Assistant Prof.
Dr. Somyot Wattanakamolchai and Asst.Prof. Dr. Duangthida Nunthapirat in Bangkok University who
helped make this book a reality. Thanks to Ajarn Panjaweth Boonroad and Ajarn Kullaphat Senewong
Na Ayutthaya who were a part of sketching in this book.

Finally, the author would like to express the deepest respect for all ancestors. And, above all,
the author is most grateful to parents (Sanga and Saichon Nuanla-ong) and siblings: Methawee
Nuanla-ong (older brother), Piyata Nuanla-ong (older sister), Panjaphon Nuanla-ong (younger brother),
Weena Nuanla-ong (older sister in law) and my nieces (Manasawee-Mukkh and Nalita-Pin) and
nephews (Weeraphat-Mokkh and Nachat-Ming) for their support, encouragement, care, and love. For
the relatives and friends (Patraporn Chandavimol, Orn Ratnin and Worapong Wongsuwan) who
explored and shared ideas with the author, the author hopes that they were happy and motivated
through the time spent together. Thank you everyone. Without your love, encouragement, and support,
the author would never have been able to accomplish this book.

4

Table of Contents

Abstract (p.1)
Acknowledgement (p.3)
List of Tables (p.4)
Foreword (p.6)
1.Introduction (p.14)

• Introduction (p.14)
• Glossary (p.20)
2.To Learn Historical Heritage of Srivijaya through Cultural tourism (p.26)
• Srivijaya as Integrated Culture of Southeast Asia (p.30)
• Debate about the Capital of Srivijaya (p.35)
• SWOT Analysis of the Cultural Landscape and Tourism around Ban Don Bay in Surat Thani

(p.40)
• Srivijayan Cultural Route (p.44)
• Sample of a Cultural Route along the Takuapa-Ban Don Bay for Green Tourism (p.45)
• The Charm of Srivijaya has Influenced the Cultural Landscape along Takuapa-Ban Don Bay

Route (p.46)
• Cultural Tourism Management during and after Covid-19 Situation for Tourism Go Green

(p.65)

5

3.To Investigate the Persperous Period of Suvarnnabhumi (Srivijaya Empire) and the Cultural
Landscape around Ban Don Bay (p.71)

• Root of Suvarnnabuhumi (Siam-Lawo-Srivijaya) (p.71)
• The Name and Location of “Siam or Thailand” in various Records (p.83)
• Srivijaya Influence on “Center of Mahayana Buddhism” and “Maritime Trade” in the Srivijaya

Age (p.91)

• Srivijaya, Mahayana Buddhist Studies Center (Bodhicitta) (p.93)
• Concerning the "Bodhicitta" of Srivijaya (p.101)
• Srivijaya as a Cross-Continental Trading Hub (Entrepot) - International Market (p.104)

• To Investigate the Location of Srivijaya through the Record of Chinese Envoy (p.110)

• To Investigate the Location of Srivijaya from Ancient Chinese Bell in the Tang Dynasty

(p.117)

• To Investigate the Traces at Srivichai Mountain (p.122)

• Srivijayan Art History Division and Kranok Pattern at Thevalai Jatukamramtep created by Lt.
Gen. Sanphet Thammathikul (p.130)

4.The Scientific Process and Evidence Used to Prove the Location of Srivijaya's Capital (p.149)
• Investigating the Location of the Srivijaya Empire based on Knowledge of Time, Seasons
(Astrology, Geography, and Climate), and Ancient Shipping Routes through the Memories of
I-Ching. (p.149)

5.Discussion and Conclusion (p.175)

Index (p.184)

References (p.186)

Autobiography (p.194)

6

Foreword

Research on Siam Srivijaya has been an ongoing project for Assistant Professor Dr.Sippanan.
This book is a great collection of her discoveries concerning pieces of evidence that strongly indicate
Suvarnabhumi’s prosperous period (Siam-Srivijaya). The results of the studies represent a
comprehensive approach to historical study. The investigations in this book employed scientific
methodologies to cross-check a variety of historical evidence and scientific resources. Some
statements are based on fresh evidence discovered by the author. Some of the points have already
been used in other investigations, but the author found new ones that no one else had seen.
The other important aspect of the book is that it illustrates a sensible and smooth transition from history
to heritage. In other words, it is an excellent example of transforming authentic sites into cultural
learning and tourist-serving destinations. These places are explained to a wide range of people, from
locals to tourists, to help them understand the cultural landscape of Siam Srivijaya.
Finally, I enjoyed reading the book because it presented sensitive information clearly and concisely. I
hope that the rich cultural sites proposed in this book will be created through public participation.

Assoc.Prof. Dr.Wimonrart Issarathumnoon
Faculty of Architecture, Chulalongkorn University
Competency Committee Member for Book Evaluation

7

Foreword

This writing is done with ideal believes that “Siam-Srivijaya is the capital of this half of the
celestial sphere as the center is at Surat Thani province or so-called Chaiya.

The alleged cultural route covers this whole area, I found that the commercial route is
valuable to be one of the research collections. The author shows number of confrontations of diverse
ethnic nations with references of the Chinese pilgrimages were unfold with details.

The representations of wealth from both marine time and land route were valuable for
historical records of Srivijaya and the southern nations. Moreover, Suvarnabhumi and the subject of
cultural heritage is depicted on various periods in which I found that it is a wonderful collective memory
for sustainable management and creativity and for the conclusion of this writing shows the ability to
cover in big picture for geography view points and for tourism.

Dr. M.R. Pumin Varavarn
Rangsit University

College of Tourism Hospitality, Services and Sports, COTHS
International Program

Competency Committee Member for Book Evaluation

8

Foreword

The statements of this book are based on fresh evidence discovered by Assistant Prof.
Dr. Sippanan Nuanla-ong. Some of the points have already been used in other investigations and the
author found new ones based on science evidence to proof the location of capital of Srivijaya Empire
(Prosperous period of Suvarnabhumi) that no one else had seen. The author shows that the sundial as
scientific evidence in I Ching's journey record to prove unequivocally that Srivijaya's capital was
positioned above the equator in Chaiya, especially the navigation along the northeastern monsoon
winds and the southwestern monsoon winds back and forth between China and India, as the findings
clearly demonstrate.

The history of the Srivijaya Empire has been debated for over a century, with no definitive
conclusion on the location of its capital. by Professor Coedes, lauded as a philosopher in East Asian
archaeology and history, notes that Palembang was located on Sumatra Island in Indonesia and was
the capital of the Srivijaya empire. He claims Palembang was in a better strategic position to control
shipping through the Sumatra strait and the Java Sea than Chaiya and Nakhon Si Thammarat.

However, according to exploration and excavation in Palembang and the surrounding
area, no significant capital-level archaeological sites or beautiful antiques made by people with the
skills of royal artists have been found. Meanwhile, historic ruins and ancient arts, including the Sanskrit
gravestone of Krung Srivijaya King, have been discovered in Chaiya, Surat Thani province in Thailand.
So, people have argued about whether Palembang or Chaiya city was the capital of the Srivijaya
empire, but most historians and archaeologists believe that the Srivijaya Empire's capital was
Palembang, Indonesia.

9

In 1982 A.D. (2525 B.E.), the Department of Fine Arts delegated the Teachers' College of
Surat Thani to host a symposium on the history of the Srivijaya Empire to determine whether its capital
was in Chaiya, Surat Thani province in Thailand, or in Palembang, on Sumatra Island in Indonesia.
Each side presented historical and archaeological data to support their argument. Nevertheless, there
was no clear winner in this discussion. Professor M.C. Chanjirayu Ratchani said that if the history of
the Srivijaya Empire couldn't be solved with historical and archaeological evidence, it could be solved
with scientific evidence from the memoirs of the Chinese monk I-Ching, who went on a pilgrimage from
China to India and stayed in Foshi or Srivijaya for six months to learn Sanskrit. Here in Srivijaya, I-Ching
measured a sundial, and the results of that measurement provide as scientific evidence. It can indicate
where the capital was. However, some objected that the I-Ching's journey record was only a brief note.
It did not specify the day of departure or when the measurement was made, so proving where the
capital of Srivijaya Empire was located by the sundial may be inaccurate because the sun's shadow
moves in accordance with the sun's orbit all the time. Bringing in his sundial measurement without
knowing the exact date and time to prove where Srivijaya's capital was located is not acceptable
academically. That symposium ended without the use of any scientific proof.

Aside from the sundial, it can find other scientific evidence in I Ching's journey record
that may prove unequivocally that Srivijaya's capital was positioned above the equator in Chaiya,
especially the navigation along the northeastern monsoon winds and the southwestern monsoon winds
back and forth between China and India, as the findings clearly demonstrate. But Srivijaya is an
ancient empire that once flourished with great power as the center of arts and civilization in the South
Sea. It stretched out to huge territories like the holy Roman Empire did in Europe. It was before the
Sukhothai Kingdom and the Ayutthaya Kingdom, which included Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and

10

Sri Lanka. It had a regal relationship with the Chinese Empire during the Tang and Song dynasties,
according to the journey records of Chinese monks, sailors, and Chinese and Arab merchants.
Originally, no one knew where the capital was or what its history was, but now scientific studies have
proven definitively that the capital was located above the equator in Chaiya, Chaiya District, Surat
Thani Province, Thailand. To resurrect Srivijaya Empire in Chaiya and free it from the curse of foreign
philosophers who have had delusions for more than 100 years, and to return it to the land of the Golden
Peninsula with great dignity, reputation, and prestige all over the world, I would recommend beginning
with the following steps.

1. Providing scientific proof to the governor of Surat Thani province that Srivijaya's capital
was above the equator at Chaiya (Northern Hemisphere) so that Chaiya, the center of Srivijaya, may
be revived and the province could alert the director-general of the Fine Arts Department about the new
historical discovery.

2. Ask the Fine Arts Department to hold a symposium to prove, using scientific evidence,
whether Srivijaya's capital was located above the equator in Chaiya, Surat Thani province, Thailand.

3. Ask the Fine Arts Department to explore and excavate of Chaiya New City, as the
former capital of Srivijaya, to raise awareness among the Surat Thani residents, Thais, and foreigners.

Police Lieutenant General Sanpech Thammathikul
President of the Jatukham Rammathep Creation Project
Competency Committee Member for Book Evaluation

11

Foreword

Srivijaya was one of the most prosperous periods in Suvarnabhumi history, more than 1,300
years ago. This book is a good source for people who want to learn more about Srivijaya World. It was
controversial for over a century where the Srivijaya Empire's capital was, and no definitive agreement
was reached on its location. Asst. Prof. Dr. Sippanan Nuanla-ong concurred with Professor M.C.
Chandra Chirayuvadhana Rajani that scientific evidence and processes from the memoirs of the
Chinese monk I-Ching were an excellent approach to locating where Srivijaya Empire was. While I-
Ching was staying in Srivijaya on his pilgrimage trip, he used a sundial to measure the time, and those
time measurements provided us with scientific evidence. The time measurement results and other
traces confirmed that Srivijaya's capital was located just above the equator in the Northern
Hemisphere, specifically in Chaiya District, Surat Thani Province, Thailand. Srivijaya's world can be
revived again. Through cultural tourism and sustainable heritage management, people will be
reminded somehow to preserve their historical heritage.

I admired the approach Dr. Sippanan presented the prosperity of Thailand's natural and
cultural heritages and cultures through its cultural landscapes and tourism routes. Specifically, the
book's highlight is that she proposed a new method of historical investigation using scientific evidence
to prove the location of the capital city of the Srivijaya Kingdom. This book will help people understand
the cultural landscapes and the origin of the Srivijaya Kingdom as part of the glorious era of our
Suvarnabhumi history. Dr. Sippanan also did a fine job explaining how to manage heritage through
cultural tourism. Various cultural heritage sites have yet to receive as much publicity and attention as
they should.

12

Overall, I enjoyed reading this book and look forward to traveling these cultural routes
following the author's thorough investigation.

Asst. Prof. Dr. Somyot Wattanakamolchai
Vice President for International Affairs, Bangkok University

13

Foreword

Siam-Srivijaya has a long history; many scholars have made numerous researches to
understand the development and culture of it. This book has an answer for the reader who want to
know more about Siam-Srivijaya study especially during the prosperous period. In this book, the reader
will have more understanding about the heritage management through the analysis the significances
of the evolution of Siam-Srivijaya history. Moreover, the reader will enjoy the charm of Srivijaya in terms
of cultural landscape and route. Finally, after reading this book, the reader will see the prosperity of
Srivijaya in the past and know why Srivijaya became the center of arts, culture, technology, education,
politic, economy and society in that age. Therefore, this book is valuable and useful for the future
development of cultural learning.

Asst.Prof.Dr.Duangthida Nunthapirat
Bangkok University International

Bangkok University

14

1. Introduction

One of the prosperous periods of Suvarnabhumi was the period of Srivijaya (Siam-
Srivijaya). So, it is interesting to study the evolution and location of it through scientific process as
analyzing and interpreting chronicles and inscriptions associated with geography, weather,
astronomy, archeological evidence and architectural traces to create heritage management such
cultural tourism. Tourism is an important equipment to conserve the heritage. Surat Thani is a famous
tourist destination. Tourists have different purposes to travel to interesting places, such as relaxing and
learning to stay with nature and culture through history and ways of life of people for examples, food,
clothes, architecture, traditions, languages, occupations, beliefs, and artifacts and so much more.
Heritage interpretation is one of important equipment that will help people including locals and tourists
to understand and learn about the background and the significant values of the place. They can relax
and gain knowledge derived from heritage such as potential of natural and cultural resources,
background and the history of sites and wisdom of their ancestors. So, it can be said that heritage
interpretation is very useful as an integral part of the conservation process and the basis for producing
positive conservation outcomes. Both cultural and natural resources around Ban Don Bay in Surat
Thani, southern Thailand are tourist attractions since it has important and beautiful cultural landscape
that values learning and reflects the value and evolution of prosperous period of “Suvarnabhumi” such
Srivijayan age. Its landscape is recognized as a sustainable development and heritage
intergeneration. In addition, the situation of “Chaiya in Surat Thani” in the past could have been the
capital of Srivijaya (Javaka). This assumption is made by the diary of I-Ching and Sieng-Jun by
comparing and piecing their interpreted findings with other traces as if putting the jigsaw puzzle
together, which subsequently, was proven by heritage interpretation related to authenticity, intellectual

15

honesty, social responsibility, and respect for sacred places, cultural and environmental significance,
and context. There are several sacred places around Ban Don Bay, especially in Chaiya, Surat Thani
with a long history at least since the Srivijayan age. Chedi of Wat Phra Borommathat Chaiya, Chedi of
Wat Kaew, Chedi of Wat Vieng, Chedi of Wat Long, Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara Images, Narai Images
and Suan Mokhkhapalaram are the landmarks to define the identity, wisdom, and characteristics of
their ancestors.

To investigate the history of prosperous period of “Suvarnabhumi” as “Siam-Srivijaya”, it
is necessary to use various knowledge and equipments to gather information from various sources to
analys, prove and outline the whole image of the past, such as archaeology, recording, history of arts,
astronomy, geography and climate, wind and navigation including economic, social, and political
studies through scientific process. There were found interesting evidence and traces related to the
ancient communities around Ban Don Bay in southern Thailand where could be capital of Srivijaya.
Srivijaya (Suvarnabhumi or Siam-Srivijaya) had communicated with various foreign communities
including India. Dynasty of Srivijaya and India had good relationship at last since 296 B.E. (Prince
Sumit’s coming who was grandson of the Greate King Asok) There were two main purposes of Indian
coming: to trade and to spread religion around 2,000 years ago. While most archaeological and
historical studies in southern Thailand focus on “Siam-Srivijaya” which were the sites influenced by
Srivijaya, so many other people try to find out other possible central locations by tracking through other
various sites, for example, there are several hypothesis regarding the centers of Srivijaya offered by
historians that they may have been be Chaiya from the 12th -17th century B.E. (some periods, the capital
of Srivijaya could be moved to Nakon Si Thammarat and turned back to Chaiya again) and it could be

16

increased or moved to Nakhon Si Thammarat in Thailand and Palembang in Indonesia from the 17th –
18th century B.E.

Srivijaya was the center of Mahayana Buddhism and was an entrepot between merchants
from the west coast and the east coast. The Takuapa-Ban Don Bay route was one of the famous trans-
peninsular routes and may have been the most convenient route for transportation prior to the Srivijayan
period. The geographical location of this route was suitable for expansion of the economy, religion,
and politics. It was the center of international commerce and an entrepot to control east-west trade at
the direct line of communication with India, Arabia, Persia, and China. It was also a large market for
the exchange of many kinds of products between the west and the east ports, therefore, Srivijaya had
positioned itself as a middleman. The large portion of this empire’s income came from taxation. “Win”
and “Rain” was the main influenced to create abundant of natural and cultural resources in this land.
There is plenty of evidence of the Srivijaya’s influence around Ban Don Bay which support the
significance of “the spice route”. It was called the “spice route” of topography is because spices were
its main product and important to the history of the southern peninsula. Besides being a gold market
for Indian merchants, there were other local products as follows, beeswax, perfumery wood, elephant
tusks, rice, sugar, bird’s nest, betel palm, cotton, silk, and herbs. Moreover, Srivijaya had high
technology of marine travelling. There was a close relationship between India’s east coast, the
Andaman coast and Ban Don Bay in terms of commercial trade and culture. Hub ports or trading
stations were located at Tung Tuk on the west coast and Leam Bodhi on the east coast. It was the only
route that merchants traveled through due to the performance limitations of their ships and a sluggish
area (the doldrums area) in the middle of southern Thai peninsula or the Melayu peninsula which was
not suitable for navigation. It can be said that Takuapa-Ban Don Bay was the best route prior to the

17

Srivijayan age until the 17th century B.E. (12th century A.D.). Furthermore, merchants could travel any
season. After the 17th century B.E. (12th century A.D.), bigger ships began to develop, and the trade
route later changed to the Melaka Strait so that they were able to travel around southern Thai peninsula.
Therefore, the trade center was moved from the central of Thai peninsula to the lower peninsula and
Sumatra Island. As a trading station on the east-west coast of the central peninsula, this is the serious
cause of the power decrease of Srivijaya since maritime trade was significant to Srivijaya which this
reflects its trading relationship with the outside world.

The evolution of Ban Don Bay in southern Thailand is an important part to be investigated
to understand the root of “Thailand (Siam)”, especially the “Pan Pan State” where was localed in
landscape of Vieng Sra and Punpin Districts in Surat Thani and the “Srivijaya Empire” where their
history and traces were once well known in various dimensions, such as architectural sites,
archaeological sites, archaeological objects, and recording (inscriptions, chronicles, and myths).
Many significant evidence and traces relating to Siamese history in the Srivijayan period have been
found around the world, such as in India, Arab, Persia, Roman, Srilangka, Nepal, China, Indonesia,
Malaysia, Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand from different periods related to ancient
Siam, such as “Siam, Lawo and Srivijaya”. The main purposes of people’s travel during that time were
to trade and spread religion. Takuapa-Ban Don Bay Route was one of the main routes, as it was a
convenient route for travel and suitable for settling, raising animal breeds, and growing many species
of plants. It could also produce enough rice to feed both locals and travelers. Ban Don Bay had great
natural and cultural resources at the time, so it attracted many travelers to visit. In addition, it was an
entrepot for the trade, and the center of Mahayana Buddhism, merchant, technology, art, and culture.

18

So, the cultural landscape management of “Siam-Srivijaya” around Ban Don Bay needs
to consider sustainable development that is maching with balancing ideal of Mahayana Buddhism for
intergeneration around the world. Considering the nature of this land, Ban Don Bay has a high potential
for tourism to attract tourists and visitors to their cultural and natural sites. It is literally flourishing with
beautiful lifestyles that arise from both tangible and intangible heritages, such as food, clothes,
architecture, traditions, languages, occupations, beliefs, and artifacts, as well as archaeological sites.
It has a cultural landscape, also known as a living museum, where the people can enjoy tours to learn
more about cultural heritage with praise. However, there are some threats that affect promotion and
development of this land, such as the lack of cooperation among academic, professional, government
and private sector in planning and management. Interpretation and presentation should be improved
by using good communication and information sharing between locals and outsiders or tourists to
highly increase value and respect of the community .Land in southern Thailand will promote culture
and lifestyle for heritage conservation and development that is so advantageous to develop and
promote sustainable tourism in the landscape relating to Ban Don Bay and Chaiya in Surat Thani. This
land has a high density of cultures, nature, long history and building age to create historic sites for
sustainable tourism.

Heritage conservation and cultural landscape management need to specially consider
socio-cultural, architectural, economic, and environmental values. Both cultural evidence and
sustainable tourism should be preserved. In terms of socio-economic and environmental value, they
involve historical and cultural tourism and eco-tourism in the cultural landscape of Ban Don Bay from
the beginning and to the future. The socio-cultural value arising from the heritage sites around Ban
Don Bay is to learn different cultures and behaviors, as well as to exchange knowledge and experience

19

between tourists and local people, who are Thai, Chinese, Buddhist, and Muslim or between tourists
and tourists, which it can build good relationships among people for peace and for the heritage
architectural conservation in the future. So, this cultural landscape of southern Thailand provides the
heritage interpretation to support historical and cultural tourism as part of sustainable tourism
development.

This book is on the historical and cultural interpretations towards the evolution of
Suvarnabhumi in the prosperous period such period of “Siam-Srivijaya” to create heritage
management such cultural tourism in the areas that are influenced by the cultural landscape related
to Srivijaya. This study presents with information from analysis of the three mains objectives as follows;
1) To Investigate Prosperous Period of Suvarnabhumi (Srivijaya Empire) associated with Chaiya and
Cultural Landscape around Ban Don Bay; 2) Scientific process and evidence to prove the location of
the capital of Srivijaya Empire and cultural landscape around Ban Don Bay; 3) To learn historical
heritage through cultural tourism.

20

Glossary:

The purpose of this glossary is to explain the meaning and relation of Thai words and

names including non-Thai words influenced from Pali and Sanskrit language which are relevant to the

research story and data indicated in this book.

Avalokitesvara = A Bodhisattava who serves as an agent of Amitabha

from whom he emanates and who appears in front of his

crown in the form of a tiny Buddha figure as an

iconographic symbol. His name means “Lord who looks

down (with compassion)”. He is worshipped in 33 major

guises.

Ban or Bann = A house or house group, village

Bodhi = The Enlightenment or complete illumination of a

Buddha.

Brahma = One of three chief Hindu gods, the creator of all living

beings.

Bodhisattva = Kings’ jobs are for happiness of people following

Bodhisattva’s behaviour such as Tossapitrajjadharma role

(10 commandments of Dharma for king) of Bodhisattva. It

consists of ten commandments, namely, Tan (donation-

things and goodwill), Seel (morality), Borijak (to donate),

Ahjavang (honesty), Mattavang (gentle), Thabang

Buddha 21

Chedi and (Phra) Chedi (perseverance), Akkotha (no anger), Aveehuesa (do no
harm), Khanti (patience) and Avirothanang (justice).
Cultural landscape = ‘The Awakened One’, ‘The Enlightened One’, a term
referring to the state of transcendence as achieved by the
Dharmachakra great teachers of the past and of the present, of this world
Eakmukhalinga and of other worlds.
Gupta = The sacred place buried with relics of important person,
i.e. king or relative, with the epic from of architecture
developed from the tomb or stupa. It is usually called Phra
That Chedi if containing Buddha relics and mostly found
in Srivijaya area (see also Stupa).
= Cultural landscape is a diversity of appearance of the
interaction between humanity and natural environment or
events. It includes both natural and cultural resources that
are continuous present significant values.
= A wheel as a symbol of Buddhism doctrine or religion
(Dharma)
= A phallic symbol of the god Siva, decorated with the
god’s face.
= An Indian dynasty ruling in central India from the
beginning of the fourth to the beginning of the sixth
century A.D.

Interpretation 22

Kaew = The action or process of interpreting something by
Khanti explanation the meaning
Kanjanadit = A crystal or glass ball
Khun and Khun Luang = Patience
= Town of gold
Khom = For the administration regarding Pan Pan state, a Khun
was a high title of a leader who was appointed by the king
as Phraya.
= An ancient ethnic group who built the Ankor Wat or the
Khom civilization in the ancient times. Its main religion was
Hindu, influenced from Srivijaya. The paternal ancestor of
the Khom dynasty was from the Sailendra dynasty but the
maternal was from the Khmer dynasty. However, Chinese
called them Jala Bok (Janla by land) and called Khmer
Jala Nam (Janla by water). Phra Nang Jammathavee was
called Khom in Lanna chronicles because her mother was
Khmer (Janla Nam) so that the towns of the Sailendra
dynasty in every chronicle of Lanna were called Khom,
such as Lawo, Ayothaya, Chaiya, Vieng Sra and Nakon Si
Thammarat. Moreover, Phra Prang in Sailendra style was
called Khom style by people who do not understand the
history of Sailendra, Khom and Khmer.

Klong 23
Koh
Kuan = Canal
Mahayana = Island
= A small hill
Manam = The ‘Great Vehicle’ which offers the Bodhisattava the
Moloyu path towards ultimate Buddhahood to all living beings. A
Mukhalinga Buddhist philosophical system emphasizing the nature of
the Buddhas and the Bodhisttvas, and salvation through
Myth faith.
= River
Naga (Naka) =Moloyu was from Malaya or Muara Takus in Middle Java
Nakon = A linga bearing at the shaft section one or several faces
Nippan of Siva Ekamukhalinga, rendered in high relief.
Pala = A story is originated in the ancient time that is about the
early history of people or events.
= Mythical snake being, low-ranking water deity
= City or town
= Enlightenment or Nirvana
= Indian dynasty ruling in northeastern India from the
middle of the eighth to the end of the twelfth century A.D.
Its kings patronized Mahayana Buddhism whose center
was at Nalanda in India.

24

Pallava = Indian dynasty ruling in Southeastern India from

begining of the fourth to the end of ninth centuries A.D.

Pattama (Padma) = The lotus blossom which is the symbol of purity, creative

power and fertility.

Pattamapani (Padmapani) = One who carries a red lotus (Pattama), a name of two-

armed form of Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara.

Pikkanasuan image = Ganesha image

Phra = A monk

Phrajao and Phraya and Phra = King or ruler of town or city

Phranang = The title of high rank women of dynasty or queen.

Phra That and Phra Borommathat Chedi = Buddha relics. Thai people used the term for a Chedi

with Buddha relics inside.

Prasat = Castle

Raja = King

Samati (Samadhi) = Concentration of the mind in meditation

Stupa = The architectural symbol of Lord Buddha. It is the

custom of Buddhists commemorate to Lord Buddha by

burying his relics under the stupa.

Taweep = Continent

Theravada (Hinyana) = ‘Doctrine of Elders’, the only surviving school of early

Buddhism. Its teaching is preserved in the Pali Canon.

Tri-Rat-Tana = The Triple Gems

Vajrapani 25

Vieng = One who carries a crystal ball (Vajra), a name of the two-
Vishnu (Visnu) armed form of Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara.
= Town
Wat = One of the three great gods of Hinduism. Supreme god
of the Vaisnava sects.
= Temple

26

2. To Learn Historical Heritage of Srivijaya through Cultural Tourism

Srivijaya (Siam-Srivijaya) was one of the prosperous periods of Suvarnabhumi. Srivijayan
route as cultural tourism is one of important equipments for heritage management for sustainability.
Its cultural landscape consists of natural and cultural resources where are sensitive areas. So
sustainable management and creativity is necessary to balance every dimension (Environment, Socio-
Culture and Economy) for heritage management that including green management, hygiene
management, cultural innovative product and service. This cultural tourism (sustainable tourism) has
specific and small target groups who prefer beautiful culture and calming nature of the areas. The
hidden cultural heritage of “Siam-Srivijaya” around Ban Don Bay is suitable to conserve through
cultural tourism. It can decrease bad effects and increase positive impacts. For example, it will create
economic and socio-cultural benefits, as well as environmental benefits. In addition, cultural tourism
will be a material that will make people know their potential (natural and cultural resources) and proud
of their history and heritage, which brings to the management of cultural landscape in the right way
and generate understanding of visitors in the concept of different places, people and natural
environments that reflect different cultures and lifestyles. Nuanla-ong (2010) states that all generations
and all parts of society should take care, understand, and recognize the significance of heritage sites
and try to decipher the wisdom of people in the past by presenting effective interpretation to the public.
Heritage management around Ban Don Bay requires a balance between conservation and
development for sustainable development as follows:

1) The tourism industry and local government must have excellent management of
carrying capacity and infrastructure.

27

2) Environmental management is essential for the protection of the natural and cultural
environment and for the maintenance of significant value of heritage sites. This requires effective
monitoring and maintenance.

3) Human resource evaluation should be considered, especially the quality of employees
according to differences in skills and duties as well as an educational background in heritage
conservation. It requires evaluation in terms of employee background, basic knowledge of hygiene
and languages, experience in any training programs or participation in any special remedial courses
prior to specific tourism and heritage conservation training.

4) Interpretation, such as signs and symbols in heritage sites and cultural landscapes,
should be designed by professionals to assist visitors, help them to understand and learn about the
significant value of heritage sites.

Cultural tourism is an important tool in the heritage conservation and sustainable
development that can preserve the identity and uniqueness of the nation. Visitors can understand and
enjoy heritage value and promote them all over the world. The interpretation tools have many ways to
solve problems and make visitors aware of general information of the destination, such as the
background and history of heritage sites and how to reach their destination.

28

The background and origins of Siam or Thailand that the author has learned in Nuanla-
ong (2010, 2014 and 2015) relates to the historical and cultural evolution of “Siam, Lawo and Srivijaya”.
Thailand or Siam had good relationships and contacted with many countries, particularly India and
China. It can be assumed that Siamese (or Thai) people have lived in this land from at least 1182
B.E. (639 A.D.) before the Sukhothai Empire. In the past, this land was divided into two parts. The first
was Lawo (Lawo Kok), an empire that covered from the Chao Phraya Basin to the Ping Basin. The
other part was Siam (Siam Kok) covering from the lower part of Petchaburi to southern Thailand. At
the time, Prajubkirikhan may have been an important state-like buffer zone between “Siam and Lawo”
empires (Siam Kok and Lawo Kok). Furthermore, “Siam Kok” could be “Suwannapura
(Suvarnnabhumi)”. “Funan” and “Srivijaya” could be the same land. The origin of them could be from
“Pan Pan State” at Vieng Sra or Pun Pin District in Surat Thani.

The importance of historical backgrounds, significant value of the heritage sites and
social evolution can create a valuable city. Local people and the public should learn and understand
the significant value of natural and cultural heritage. They are required to brainstorm and integrate with
all stakeholders to make the plan and policies so that they can get the highest benefits from heritage
management and tourism. Chaiya District and areas around Ban Don Bay in Surat Thani are suitable
for heritage interpretation and presentation as a “living museum” to the public, which is a necessary
way to recognize people and increase understanding of heritage in their communities. There are
various kinds of tools to support historical and cultural tourism, such as cultural maps, cultural trails,
signage, guidebooks (handbooks and e-books), printings/brochures/posters, labels, information
centers, websites, electronic media (QR Quote, AR,), videos, events, exhibitions, museums, and
galleries that are part of heritage interpretation to recognize people to be proud of their heritage. This

29

is to connect people and the significant value of the heritage around Ban Don Bay with the identity of
the place, people, history, background, way of life and rules to respect the place, which will be
regarded as a site and landscape with historical and cultural significance.

Cultural tourism can make well-balanced framework to resolve bad impacts and promote
positive impacts, such as understanding the cultural importance and background of the places,
creating justice in the society, building good economic structure, and encouraging participation in
politics and government. In addition, heritage sites are a valuable resource of places to develop
sustainable community for intergeneration to learn and reflect on the past.

Many cities in Southeast Asia have grown apart from the ancestral settlements that
existed in a continuum both time and space. There are threats from climate change, mass tourism,
market exploitation and rapid urbanization that affect the layers of cultural, natural, and historical value.
The one-week program which made up of this effective strategy will offer people many interesting
courses. Cultural tourism is critical to sustainable development by balancing conservation and
development.

The case study has a wide application related to the cultural landscape influenced by
Srivijaya around Ban Don Bay in southern Thailand. Srivijayan culture is a common cultural heritage
(integrated culture) in Southeast Asia, such as Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Cambodia.
However, the cultural landscape influenced by Srivijaya around Chaiya and Ban Don Bay was an
important port and probably one of the major cities and centers of Srivijaya’s influence in that period.
People can barely recognize the cultural landscape influenced by Srivijaya since they do not have a
clear picture and concept of what it is. Thus, a study of Srivijaya is important for those who want to
know and understand their backgrounds and origins for the Sailendra dynasty of Srivijaya, the primitive

30

ancestors who provided them vital knowledge and wisdom related to their way of life, religion, politics,
and economics. Heritage conservation and development are a study of history and traces of the
relationship between influence of Srivijaya in Thailand, Indonesia, and Cambodia (Khmer) which
consist of significant history, value, aesthetics, science, society, and spirituality.

Srivijaya as Integrated Culture of Southeast Asia

Figure: Cultural Route following Landmark Traces of Siam-Lawo-Srivijaya to support Cultural Route in
Asia.
Source: Sippanan Nuanla-ong (2020)

31

Srivijaya as Integrated Culture of Southeast Asia so it is suiltable to create “Srivijayan Cultural
Route” that can connect Southeast Asian countries together in the future. The results of the
investigation show that “interpretation of Srivijaya’s heritage” is important to spread the wisdom of the
people in the past and support the heritage conservation to acknowledge the real forms and concepts
of the structure as well as authentic style of Srivijayan architecture. Srivijaya is an integrated culture in
Asia with India, China, Thailand, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Vietnam, and Malaysia.

Many architectures, heritage sites and much evidence of Srivijayan influence around Ban
Don Bay are very useful for Srivijaya interpretation such as architectural heritage that evolved through
religions (Buddhism and Hinduism), culture and lifestyles of people. It was designed to be harmonious
with the nature of the region in a tropical climate. It is important to interpret tangible symbols as well
as hidden heritage to present the identity of Srivijaya. Srivijaya had been a center for social interaction;
it established connections between economy, politics, culture and religion. The ideology of Srivijayan
people related to principles of self-sufficiency, simple life and Nippan (Nirvana) of Buddhism. On the
one hand, the landmark traces of Srivijaya in Thailand were Bodhisattva images, the Chedis of Wat
Phra Borommathat Chaiya as well as those of Wat Kaew, Wat Vieng and Wat Long which were
described in Inscription No.23. and inscription No.24.

32

1) Srivijayan Architecture in Thailand: Chedi of Wat Phra Borommathat Chaiya, Chedi of Wat Kaew, Chedi of
Wat Long and base of Chedi of Wat Vieng.

2) Srivijayan Architecture in Indonesia: Borobudur and Prambanan Temple in Indonesia.
3) Srivijayan Architecture in Cambodia: Ankor Wat (Nakon Wat) in Cambodia

Figure: Srivijayan Architecture in the South-East Asia (1)Thailand→2)Indonesia→3)Cambodia)
Source: Nuanla-ong (2022)

Interpretation of Srivijaya heritage is important to perpetuate the wisdom of people in the
past and for heritage conservation to acknowledge the real form and concept of the structure and
pattern of Srivijayan architecture. Srivijayan architecture and arts were from various sources and of
mixed styles because it was a center of Hindu, Brahman, Mahayana and Buddhist architecture. Indian
arts of Gupta (9th-11th centuries B.E.) and Pala (late14th-early15th centuries B.E), Mid-Java style (14th
century B.E.), Champa arts (7th-18th centuries B.E.) with characteristics of Khmer (15th – 18th centuries
B.E.), Chaiya (11th-18th centuries B.E.), Dvaravati (11th-16th centuries B.E.), Srivijaya (8th – 13th centuries
B.E.), Chiang Saen and Haripunchai (in the Phranang Jammatawee Era) in the north’ all thrived in the
same period so there were constant exchanges and links between the arts and cultures.

33

The construction method of Srivijayan architecture utilised a technique of brickwork
without grouting or mortar. It used other materials made from resin and syrup or lime that replaced
glue for grouting. Local people used resin from the bark of the Chid tree (a local plant in southern
Thailand) or from the skin of animals by mixing with lime for glue. Then the brick was scrubbed. Chedis
which used these techniques were those of Wat Kaew, Wat Vieng and Wat Long which were built prior
to Borobudur in Indonesia. Moreover, many Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara images found around Ban Don
Bay support the argument that it was a land of Mahayana Buddhism in the Srivijayan age. Besides,
Borobudur looks like a landmark with a reference to Srivijayan influence. It might have been built to
attract people in other lands by spread religion. But it was not a successful plan. The author assumed
that Buddhist arts in Indonesia were Srivijayan-influenced from Chaiya.

For example, Takuapa-Ban Don Bay route was an important route between the west and
the east coast ports in the Srivijayan era. Nuanla-ong (2010) stated that there are significant ruins from
Indians’ expeditions in the west coast ports, such as ancient ports, ancient rivers, and Hindu images
(Phra Narai, Phra Lak and Phra Nang Srida images in the tree, namely Tabak tree). There is also plenty
of Indian and Arabian evidence, such as beads, coins, crockeries, and glasswares on the west coast
rather than the east. On the other hand, there are more Chinese objects at the east port than the west.
International archaeologists have also explored this area and concluded that the port on the west coast
was directly connected to merchant ships from India and Arabian countries while on the east coast,
what was found came from China. There is also important evidence, such as Inscription No.23 and
No.23 Ko in Surat Thani area and Inscription no.24 from Nakon Si Thammarat area. (Nowadays, they
are at the National Museum, Bangkok.) The Ban Don Bay landscape presents various kinds of
evidence and traces to support the argument that Chaiya may have been the center of Srivijaya. If we

34

assume that the empire in the southern area of Surat Thani and Nakon Si Thammarat may have been
in the same group, they may have been divided into two centers, such as a religious center in Surat
Thani area and a palace center in Vieng Sra District in Surat Thani and Nakon Si Thammarat.

In addition, Prambanan Temple and Borobudur were the landmarks of Srivijayan
architecture in Indonesia. The structure of Chandi in Prambanan Temple is like the Chedi of Wat Kaew
which was built before Prampanan. From the investigation, it can be concluded that the root of
Srivijayan or Sailendran architecture was from Chaiya (Chedi of Wat Kaew) in Surat Thani, Thailand
that was spreaded Srivijayan architectural influence to Indonesia (Borobudur and Prambanan Temple).
After that, Srivijayan architecture influence in Indonesia was spreaded to Cambodia (Nakon Wat or
Ankor Wat). It can see, the structure of Nakon Wat looks like Borobudur in Indonesia which can be
suggested as a reflection of the influence of Srivijaya or Sailendra from Indonesia. According to some
evidence, Chaiya may have been the center of Srivijaya for at least one period, although there might
be more than one center of Srivijaya and have changed over time. Chaiya was the center of economic,
religious, and political activities, as well as the center of art and architecture with a variety of arts and
architectural styles found in Chaiya. The booming Srivijaya’s influence in Chaiya waned because of
the change of trade routes, or the technological development of large merchant ships, resulting in a
loss of commercial advantage.

To create Srivijayan route to support cultural tourism that is one of important equipments
for heritage management in Southeast Asia for sustainability. However, the cultural landscape consists
of natural and cultural resources where are sensitive areas. So sustainable management and creativity
is necessary for heritage management that including green management, hygiene management,

35

cultural innovative product and service. This kind of tourism has specific and small target groups who
prefer beautiful culture and calming nature of the areas.

Debate about the Capital of Srivijaya

The Srivijayan age had a long history stretching from pre-history to the recorded historic
periods. There are many important architectural and archaeological traces and historical records to
support the study of Srivijayan civilization. In the past, there is a confusing picture of its history which
has not yet been concluded. Debates continue as to where the kingdom and its capital were and
whether it was a large empire, or just a small state, and the name of the culture. So the author uses
sciencetific evidence to proof the location of Srivijaya and the position of Srivijaya in this study.

Srichai and Hassapak (2000: n.pag.) in Nuanla-ong (2010) state that there are many
arguments and debates between academics about Srivijaya influence. In the past, the story of Srivijaya
influence had not been uncovered until the discovery of the word ‘Srivijaya’ in three inscriptions in 2461
B.E. (1918 A.D.) by Professor Coedes. He was the head librarian of the National Library, while reading
the inscriptions no. 23 and 23 Ko. The first person who wrote the Srivijaya Story: Le Royaume de
Crivijaya (B.E.F.E. XIII. 1918, No.6), he claimed that the capital of Srivijaya was in Sumatra
(Palembang). In 2462 B.E. (1919 A.D.), Krom and Wogal also report that the capital of Srivijaya was in
Sumatra (Palembang) and also mention about beautiful and extensive architecture in Java (“De
Soematraansche periode in the Javaansche geschiednis,” (Leiden, 1919). This supports Professor
Coedes’s claim. In 2465 B.E. or 1922 A.D. Fernoens wrote the paper “Srivijaya in Sumatra” (“L’ Empire
Sumatranais de Srivijaya.” Journal Asiatique, 1922.) whose contents also support Professor Coedes’s

36

theory. In 2472 B.E. (1929 A.D.). Sthathterhim (A Javanese Period in Sumatran History, Surakarta,
1929) states that the capital of Srivijaya at Sumatra (Palembang) should not be fully confirmed because
there was nothing there, therefore, he rejected the theory of Professor Coedes. In 2477 B.E. (1934
A.D.), Professor R. C. Machumta also rejected the theory of Professor Coedes that Sumatra
(Palembang) was the capital of Srivijaya because of the non-existence of important evidence there. He
wrote two articles: “The Sailendra Empire.” J.G.I.S. Vol. I., part 1. and “Les Rois Sailendra de
Suvarnadvipa,” B.E.F.E.O. XXXIII. 1. He argued that Professor Coedes did not have a correct
translation of the inscription and historical record about Srivijaya. Srichai and Hassapak (2000: n.pag.)
claim that Professor Coedes had mixed the history of Srivijaya and that of the Sailendra dynasty into
one story after reading two pages of the inscription no. 23 (written in 1318 B.E. or 775 A.D.).
Furthermore, there was no physical evidence in Sumatra, only in Java. The capital of this empire should
be located in the place where Inscription no. 23 had been found. Moreover, in the 9th century A.D., if
there was a Srivijaya in Sumatra, it may have been for a short time and it was not from the Sailendra
Dynasty. In addition, Nindej (2010) in Nuanla-ong (2010) states that Borobudur at Indonesia was an
interesting large trace to support that Indonesia was the center of Srivijaya. King (2008: 171-179) states
that the lucks of Srivijaya were closely entwined with trade with China and with the sanctioning or
otherwise bestowed by the royally power. There is some controcersy over the location (s) of Srivijaya-
Melayu but he thinks that its commonly pointed site is present-day Palembang and current
archaeological work supports this view.

In 2478 B.E. (1935 A.D.), Dr. Quaritch Wales conducted research in the area of Takuapa
to Ban Don Bay, Vieng Sra, Nakon Si Thammarat, Phattalong and other provinces in the middle of
Thailand that were pathways of Indian culture (Indian Art and Letters, Vol. IX, No.1). He argued that,

37

first, Srivijaya was on the north of Laem Melayu (the north of Melayu), which was called Ja Va Ka from
inscription no.23 from 1318 B.E. (775 A.D.). After that, it could conquer and control the Srivijaya state
in Sumatra and used this name for its empire’s name. The capital of the Srivijaya Empire was at Chaiya,
where there was significant evidence such as many beautiful Phra Pim Din Dib images and many
places received Srivijaya arts from Chaiya (but not from Palembang), such as Borobudur in Java. His
hypothesis was very different from Professor Coedes’s argument. However, Venerable Buddhadasa
(1997: 46-50) confirms that in 2478 B.E. (1935 A.D.), Dr. Riyinal Lermea wrote an article on Buddhist
art in Siam, on page 38 indicating weakness in the evidence of Professor Coedes about the Srivijaya
Empire. However, he mentioned that the Srivijaya history was important, especially for people
interested in Ban Don Bay where there was the most evidence of the Srivijaya Empire.

In conclusion, when studying many stories of settlement around Ban Don Bay tell of the
roots of belief, culture, art, lifestyle and wisdom of people in the past. That relates to Srivijayan activity
and their relationship to people overseas. The author thinks that Thai, Cambodia, Malaysia and
Indonesia has integrated culture and similarly history and many stories of them could be from the same
sources such as Chinese, India, Sri Lanka and Arabian records. Because these countries are the
Southeast Asia that have similarly geography, weather and natural resources and they were related
from various activities such as marriage (blood) between dynasties, politic, religion and doing
business. However, it has different interpretation about locations of Srivijaya. The author thinks that
center of trade and Mahayana Buddhism of Srivijaya was landmark of traces in southern Thailand to
support Chaiya might be a capital of Srivijaya. Specially, Buddhism in Chaiya is still alive and well
known at the present day. Moreover, Inscription no. 23 and 24 and traces of Chedi in Wat Kaew, Wat

38

Vieng, Wat Long and Wat Phra Borommathat Chaiya were important evidence to support Srivijaya
history.

Srivijayan culture was influenced by Indian and Chinese civilizations through trading and
religious propagation in a fusion with native culture. People can learn many stories of Srivijaya history
from traces around Ban Don Bay and other communities because this was a center for commercial
and migration intersection. The flourishing period of Srivijayan influence began in 1100 B.E. (6th century
A.D.) and lasted at least 400 years followed by Nakon Si Thammarat Thampornling flourishing until
1800 B.E. with descendants of Srivijaya. In the past, the Srivijayan influence covered the Melayu
peninsula having its capital changed by various incidents in that time. This meant there could be more
than one capital because it controlled large-scaled economic systems. Chumpengpan (2005: 160)
suggests that Srivijaya could be divided into two parts. The first is northern Srivijaya with Chaiya
(center), Sating-Pra, Pattani, and Saiburi while the second is southern Srivijaya with Palembang, Jumbi
and Adjaa in Sumatra and Java. There was both religious and cultural diffusion from Srivijaya which
influenced Southeast Asia, for example, Sailendra culture or Brahman practices and Buddhism.

In 13th-14th century A.D. (8th-9th century A.D.), it could be assumed that the capital or
center of the Srivijaya world was at Chaiya because many interesting traces were found there such as
statues mentioned in the inscription no.23 and 23 Ko (page two). Also, two interesting chronicles about
the power and flourishing of the Srivijayan world were as follows: the first is the story about relations
between the king of the Khmer empire and the king of Srivijaya and the second is a story of the peaceful
society of Srivijaya. For Srivijayan culture, a flourishing society’s leadership may come from both the
king and the people following Bodhisattva’s behaviour.

39

Figure: Inscription no.23 (left) and Inscription no.24 (middle and right)
Source: Venerable Buddhadasa (1997)

The inscription no. 23 was the first evidence linking Srivijaya to Surat Thani, in 1318 B.E.
(775 A.D.), found at Wat Vieng and mentioning the name of the king of Srivijaya as Fo-Shi (Chinese
language). Nuanla-ong (2010) stated that I-Ching said that Srivijaya Fo-Shi means Bodhi in the Sanskrit
language. This inscription explained the relationship between Sailendra and Middle-Java because
Phrajao Visnu was the king in the chronicle of Lanka. He made the plan for Borobudur before going to
Tampornlinga to fight with his enemy and subsequently died in this fighting (assumption from the Sri
lanka recording). In addition, there were found many pieces of evidence to support that Srivijaya might
be the name of Chaiya in the 14th century B.E. Venerable Buddhadasa (1997: 44-45) in Nuanla-ong
(2010) has pointed out that inscription no. 23, written in Sanskrit, told the good reputation and merit of
the king of Srivijaya and the significance of his ‘Three Chedi, although Professor Coedes thought that
these might refer to three castles. From this inscription, these chedi were located in a straight line on
sandune which are matching to the location of Chedi of Wat Kaew, Wat Vieng and Wat Long in Chaiya,
Surat Thani. Moreover, Srichai and Hassapak (2000: 200) in Nuanla-ong (2010) state that in the history
of Java, it was mentioned that Phrajao Sanchai governed Khmer, indicating the ruling of Srivijaya over

40

the nation. In 1317 B.E. (774 A.D.), the Srivijaya navy fought with Champa and easily won the war.
Phrajao Sattayaworaman of Champa wrote about the vicious people of Srivijaya who destroyed Viharn
Ponakar and took some sculptures and Eak-Mukkhalung (Hindu objects). This story and evidence
matched with the story at Ta Chana School, Ta Chana District in Surat Thani such as the head of Visnu
in stone (Champa Art) and Eak-Mukkhalung in Gupta age (its style decorated with the face of Siva).
Srivijaya governed many lands and spread Buddhism to them such as Sumatra, and Champa. In 1318
B.E. (775 A.D.), three chedis (castles) were built to celebrate the spreading of Buddhism as found in
Inscription No. 23. Two of the three chedis were built for Boddhaisattva Avalokitesvara images
(Pattamapani and Vajrapani) and the last chedi for Buddha image. These three chedis could be “Chedi
of Wat Kaew, Chedi of Wat Vieng and Chedi of Wat Long”. Moreover, inscription no.24 might have
been found at Wat Sama Meung in Nakon Si Thammarat. There was no source citation for the person
who discovered or wrote it. Professor R. C. Machumta in Dissakul (1983: 62) in Nuanla-ong (2010)
notes that Inscription no. 24 talked about Phra Jantarapanu of the Thampornlinga escaping from the
control of Srivijaya.

SWOT Analysis of the Cultural Landscape and Tourism
around Ban Don Bay in Surat Thani

Heritage management, such as cultural tourism, should provide various channels for
knowledge both off-site and on-site about the historical and heritage conservation, such as the role of
travel in heritage sites and archaeological sites (what they can or cannot do). However, heritage sites
and cultural landscape of Ban Don Bay have historical, architectural, sociocultural, environmental, and
economic value which can be managed by balancing. Nuanla-ong (2010 and 2021) states that

41

historical and cultural tourism have specific and small target groups. They prefer the calming nature
of the area far from the comfortable facilities with standard hospitality to learn various aspects of art
and culture, such as architecture, tradition, agriculture, history, lifestyle of the locals, nature, and the
environment around Ban Don Bay. These people differ from most visitors who like to travel in comfort
and convenience. The public must be aware of the potential and nature of the cultural landscape,
which cannot be provided to large tour groups or too frequent visits. It can only serve small or middle-
sized groups of visitors to preserve heritage sites and the natural environment. Stakeholders should
do a SWOT (strengths and weaknesses) analysis as a significant tool to help them make plans and
help both heritage preservation and tourism.

Strengths Opportunities

1.Surat Thani is rich in culture, flora, and fauna 1. Around Ban Don Bay, cultural diversity and

that constitute an important landscape for the biodiversity are highly conserved.

study of ecology, culture, and heritage sites. 2. The trend of sustainable tourism and green

2.There are many significant ruins and historical management.

evidence for the cultural landscape influenced 3. The ASEAN Community offers great

by Siam-Lawo-Srivijaya in Surat Thani, for opportunities for those who travel for tourism and

example, architecture, storytelling (chronicles business purposes. Historical and cultural

and inscriptions), beliefs, cultural practices, tourism are important trends to learn from each

traditions, and lifestyles. other.

42

3.The cultural landscape around Ban Don Bay 4. Both public and private sectors pay attention

provides an interesting route for historical and to the history and natural and cultural heritage in

cultural tourism. Surat Thani.

4. There are various modes of transportation to 5.Cultural landscape management is

Surat Thani, including air, road, boat, and train. recognized by visitors, local government, and

local communities for its capacity to generate

tourism income.

6.Local governments and local people

cooperate with experts and activities of the Fine

Arts Department to select conservation areas

where significant value needs to be conserved.

Weaknesses Threats

1.The quality of service and design of 1.There are many unpleasant activities that

accommodation in this area do not represent the affect the heritage land and the use of ancient

identity of the cultural landscape. buildings, such as new buildings, modern

2.Local governments and the public sector decoration, and incorrect architectural

should cooperate in improving and developing conservation design methods.

access to tourist destinations as well as general 2.Mismanagement and the lack of control over

and tourist infrastructure. heritage conservation and development that

43

3.The high price level of accommodation, undermine the identity of authentic natural and

transportation, food, and beverage. cultural landscapes.

4.Some heritage sites lack toilets, restaurants, 3. There is a lack of heritage management as

shopping and commercial facilities, and controlling and monitoring at the significant and

interpretation tools to support visitors’ activities. landscape sites.

5. The Fine Arts Department lacks the necessary 4.Problems are arising in local communities and

funds and personnel to carry out heritage tourism sector, such as the lack of heritage

conservation and provide effective interpretation information and interpretation.

in the cultural landscape. 5.Tourism has been neglected by the local

6.There are insufficient effective tools and staff communities because they cannot earn a fair

training to support historical and cultural tourism. income from heritage conservation and

7.The capacity and nature of the cultural development to support tourism.

landscape cannot be offered to large tour 6. Due to the intense rainfall in southern

groups or too frequent visits. On the other hand, Thailand, delicate traces and cultural heritage

historical and cultural tourism only sites are destroyed by the humidity.

accommodates small and specific target 7.Pandenmic situation such as Covid-19

groups. situation.

8. Situation of Global Warming and Climate

Change.

9. The effects of the great reset on the economy

and politics.

44

The cultural landscape around Ban Don Bay has both tangible and intangible values that
can create a substantial heritage town and many attractions for both local communities and cultural
tourism. The significant heritage in the cultural landscape around Ban Don Bay can be used as a role
model for a “sufficient” life and wonderful traditions. At present, landscape management still lacks
cooperation from stakeholders to support the necessary management. It can be concluded that
heritage conservation and cultural tourism around Ban Don Bay face many weaknesses. To improve
the products and services in heritage interpretation, it is necessary to add effective tools to satisfy
visitors’ needs and maintain a competitive advantage. Because the cultural landscape around Ban
Don Bay has threats that must be dealt with and improved with a long-term balanced framework, there
needs to be a good plan to build on strengths and deal with weaknesses.

Srivijaya Cultural Route

Historical and cultural tourism will bring sustainable development to both local
communities and the public. People along the cultural route should learn and understand the essential
value of natural and cultural heritage and create opportunities to get the maximum benefit from heritage
management and tourism. Nowadays, there are many campaigns from the government and non-
government organizations to support the “sustainable development” and the “Sufficiency Economy
Philosophy” of King Rama 9, such as Project: Thailand 4.0. When communities become stronger, they
can foster long-term development through collaboration and participation from all stakeholders (local
communities, local governments, tourism businesses, educational institutions, and the government),
for instance, infrastructure development, education standards (providing good education and skills

45

training in local history and tourism), and taxation for local administration in heritage conservation.
Cultural landscape management and interpretation are powerful tools to conserve and educate people
about the significant value, wisdom, and beliefs of their ancestors.

A Sample of a Cultural Route along the Takuapa-Ban Don Bay for Green Tourism

The Takuapa-Ban Don Bay route ("Tung Tuk (Gold Mine) Royal Port City” to "Pum Rieng-
Laem Pho Royal Port City”) was an important route between the west and the east coast ports in the
Srivijaya era.

For the Takuapa-Ban Don Bay route (Takuala Port to Chaiya Port), travelers started travelling by
ship from Takuapa for 3 days in the Rommanee canal to the highest point of Khao Sok. Later, they
traveled on foot about 9-10 km from the east of the village at Khao Sok in Surat Thani and by ship for
6 days from the Sok canal to Panom canal. After that, they traveled the routes of the Pumdong River
and Tapee River (Luang River) and then departed for Ban Don Bay.
Figure: Map of Takuapa-Ban Don Bay Route
Source: Adapted from Jaisuwan and Naivath (2007: 41) by Sippanan Nuanla-ong (2010)

46

The Charm of Srivijaya has influenced the Cultural Landscape along the
Takuapa-Ban Don Bay Route

Figure: Map of the Location of Archaeological Sites and Historical Objects along the Takuapa-Ban
Don Bay route ("Tung Tuk (Gold Mine) Royal Port City” to "Pum Rieng-Laem Pho Royal Port City”) in
the Southern Thai Peninsula
Source: Adapted from Jaisuwan and Naivath (2007: n.pag.) by Sippanan Nuanla-ong (2010)

47

For example, Nuanla-ong (2010) stated that the Takuapa-Ban Don Bay route was one of
the four main trans-peninsular routes. This route, from Tung Thuek in Takuapa, Phang Nga to Laem-
Bodhi in Chaiya in Surat Thani, was the most suitable way to transfer products across the peninsula.
Srivijaya's royal ports included "Pum Rieng-Laem Pho Royal Port City”, which served as the east coast's
royal port, and "Tung Tuk (Gold Mine) Royal Port City”, which served as the west coast's royal port.
They were the centers of international maritime trade markets for the whole century. They were also
prosperous and well-known commercial centers around the world.

Wallibhodom (982:66-72) in Nuanla-ong (2010), said that Dr. H. G. Quarich Wales
investigated the Takuapa-Ban Don Bay route after learning that Indian travelers had utilized it. He
discovered that it was not a good route for moving goods. Wallibhodom, on the other hand, comments
that the Takuapa-Ban Don Bay route in ancient times was, in fact, a suitable route for transportation
based on a comparison of historical and geographic evidence. Furthermore, he remarks that there was
another, more convenient way to organize transportation and products transfer on the Takuapa-Ban
Don Bay route, which was to use elephants and horses. This was considered by numerous significant
hints along this route, including archaeological evidence, significant old canals and rivers, and
animals. Moreover, there were three important archaeological sites of Phra Narai images on this route,
namely the Phra Narai image at Khao Phra Ner, Takaupa District in Phang-nga; Phra Narai image at
Khao Phra Narai, Kapong District in Phang-nga; and the Phra Narai image at Khao Srivichai, Punpin
District in Surat Thani. They could be both religious signals (of both Hinduism and Buddhism) and
landmarks for travelers because of their location at crucial sites, such as important mountains along
this path. Ancient people thought of them as guardians of the route, which was very important to them.
Today there are some changes to the heritage sites like the ancient Phra Narai, Phra Lak and Phranang

48

Sida images in Thabak (one kind of local tree in the south) that were moved to other places such as
the museum of the Fine Arts Department and Panaraiporn Museum of the temple at Khao Phra Narai.
Also, there is a new building at the ancient location for the special ceremonies of Hinduism by
Brahmans from India. For this survey, the author had the opportunity to interview Arnath Bamrungwong
(2007), Director of Fine Arts Department 15 Phuket, and Captain Boonyarit Jaisuwan (2007), Head of
Technical Section at the Fine Arts Department 15 Phuket, both of whom provided the researcher with
a wealth of knowledge about this route. Captain Boonyarit Jaisuwan was an archaeologist who
investigated the area by walking the Takuapa-Ban Don Bay route. He said that the route from Takuapa
to Ban Don Bay was good for travel in ancient times because an old story said that it took only four
hours to get from one place to another along this route. Two experts suggested that if the merchant
ships from the west (India and Arabia) wanted to use the Takuapa-Ban Don Bay route, they needed to
visit Tung Thuek port in every season because of geographical reasons and monsoon influence. This
was suitable for a trading station. Intravut (2005: 37) states that there were many merchants from India,
Rome and Zitien who did business in Southeast Asia. The Fine Arts Department and local people found
various archaeological evidence and settled town traces on both the west and the east coasts. The
difference in archaeological evidence between the east port at Laem Bodhi and the west port at Tung
Thuek is in the resource of those archaeological findings.

Furthermore, the cultural landscape from Phang-nga to Surat Thani is suitable for
developing a modern cultural tourism route. The Takaupa-Ban Don Bay route includes a stunning
landscape with a significant cultural and natural environment, including mountains, waterfalls, hot
springs, islands, and beaches. Also on display are archaeological sites and things that people used
to do in the past, such as ancient temples, historic landscapes, farms, fisheries, elephant farms, and

49

mining factories. Hence, Nuanla-ong (2010) stated that a cultural tourism model for supporting the
cultural landscape management of the Srivijaya influenced traces can be readily created. Such a plan
would depend on cooperation between local communities, the Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT), the
Fine Arts department, local governments, and every sector of society for effective heritage
conservation. Stakeholders must provide knowledge about the history and significance of the Takuapa-
Ban Don Bay route and the role of cultural tourism to visitors. Cultural and natural awareness is a
necessary part of heritage conservation in tourism programs. Additionally, visitors to the cultural route
can participate in a variety of activities such as trekking, sightseeing, elephant riding, biking, or cycling,
and caravans along the Srivijaya path. During their trips, visitors can learn about and view the natural
resources and cultural treasures.