Prosperous Period of Srivijaya-CT

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The springs were found around the Khao Nam Ron archaeological site in Punpin District. Many hot springs were found in
the middle of southern Thailand, especially in Chaiya and Punpin Districts following the Srivijaya’s stories.

Figure: History and traces of Srivijaya in Punpin and Chaiya Districts, Surat Thani.
Source: Sippanan Nuanla-ong (2017)

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Concerning the "Bodhicitta" of Srivijaya

a) Bodhicitta on Anatta and Sunyata (The first picture from left)
b) Patichasamuppabat law (หลกั กฏปฏิจสมปุ บาท) is one of the keywords of Bodhicitta. (The second picture

from left)
c) Bodhichit Style of Prince Jatukam and Prince Rammatep Image. (The third picture from left)
d) Chedi of Wat Phra Borommathat Chaiya or Suwannasukati Stupa. (The forth picture from left)

Figure: Srivijaya was the certer to study Bodhicitta in Southeast Asia.
Source: adapted from Chanachai Suchanarak, Thevalai of Prince Jatukam and Prince Rammatep (ชนะชยั
สชุ นารกั ษ์ เทวาลยั จตคุ ามรามเทพ) and https://www.google.com by Sippanan Nuanlaong (2020)

According to I-Ching’s recording, in addition to mentioning Buddhism and Sanskrit education in
Srivijaya in 1214 B.E. (671 A.D.), he also discussed the significance and details of his studies on
"Bodhicitta". After his return from India, he stopped by Srivijaya (Foshi or Shi-li-fo-shih) for a rest and had a
deep Dhamma study with "Phra Sakayakirati", who was a great master who was profoundly well-rounded
in "Bodhicitta" and had a respectable practice renowned among South Sea Island Mahayana Buddhists.
According to Lt. Gen. Sanphet Thammathikul (2018), "Bodhicitta" demonstrated "factors" concerning "what
exists (Ego/Atta)" and "what does not exist (Soullessness/Anatta)."

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According to "Phra Nakarachun," he had truly comprehended "the intangibles" after being
enlightened by the "Trilak Law." In the "Sunyawat scripture," "the tenuity/impermanence of all things" is
referred to as "Anatta," and "the soullessness in emptiness" is referred to as "Sunyata," which does not imply
(it’s not that it doesn’t exist at all) that they do not exist at all, because everything occurs, persists, and dies
in accordance with "Paticcasamuppada," which refers to the never-ending cycle of death and rebirth. It is
claimed to be the heart of Buddhist philosophy preached by Srivijaya's "Phra Sakkayakirati" institute
concerning "Bodhicitta." Mahayana Buddhists dubbed him the "second Buddha" as a result of this. This is
where the sounds of the words "Bodhi" or "Siri Bodhi," both of which imply "enlightened," are transformed
into the Mandarin terms "Foshi" or "Shi-li-Foshi." However, the praised pseudonym of the kingdom, "Nakon
Bodhi or Bodhi City" or "Siri Bodhi City," came from the fact that this land was the center of Bodhicitta study
when compared to "Krungsri Dhammasok," the center of Hinnayana Buddhism study. According to the I-
Ching memoir cited by M.C. Chanjirayu Ratchanee and Dharmmatas Panich in Nuanla-ong (2010), if a
monk wishes to travel to the West (India), it is recommended that he take a 1–2-year training in Foshi
(Srivijaya) to acquire the language and study the Dhamma discipline thoroughly. Additionally, Srivijaya, or
Shi-li-fo-shih, was mentioned as having dense castles, several Buddhist temples, and over 1,000 monks
within the city walls. The monks here were devoted to learning doctrine, adhering closely to the book of
discipline, and studying the same in all respects in Central India. They can eat meat but not drink it; unlike
Brahma, they cannot have both. Furthermore, Chinese texts state that in 1446 B.E. (903 A.D.), King
Chiwaka or King Srivijaya besieged (attacked) Lawo. In that period, "Srivijaya" was shortened to "Sam Hud
Che (Sam Bodhi)" or "Sam Fo Shi- Sam Bodhi Shi (Sam Bodhi)." An ancient Chinese document written in
1449 B.E. (906 A.D.) recounted the new history of the Tang Dynasty and referred to the site of the "Panpan
State," which was located south of Cham Bay or Vietnam (north of the bay) and Langyasiw (40 days by sea

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from Chiao Cho). It traded with this realm and paid a visit to King Jeng Juan during the early days of the
Tang dynasty. Like a Jilong (Golden Dragon), the King lived a life of luxury. People resided close to the
river. The Panpan people's fences were made of wood, and their weapons were stone arrowheads.
According to Buddhadasa Bhikkhu, "I-Ching came to the Malayu Peninsula before travelling to India and
stopped in Malayu after returning from India. There is evidence of I-Ching's Malayu visits. For example, he
saw that Malayu and Chinese people had similar appearances, that Malayu people dressed similarly to
Chinese people, and that the principal product was cube sugar.

a) “Chedi of Wat Phra Borommathat Chaiya” (the first picture from left) could be “Suwannasukati Stupa” where Bodhisattva
Avalokitesvara (center) was in this Vihara in “Srivijaya” or the “Golden town”.
b) Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara (Pattamapani) in bronze in Chedi of Wat Phra Borommathat Chaiya which may have been a
portrait in Tibet (the second picture from left).
c) The inscription no. 23 in 1318 B.E. (775 A.D.), and Inscription no.24 in the 17th century B.E. (12th century B.E.) are the first
evidence linking Srivijaya to Surat Thani, found around Bandon Bay and mentioning the name of the king of Srivijaya as Fo-
Shi (Chinese language). Inscription no.24 might have been found at Wat Sama Meung in Nakon Si Thammarat. It talked
about Phra Jantarapanu of the Thampornlinga escaping from the control of Srivijaya. (the third picture from left).
D) Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara (Pattamapani) in bronze, inscription no. 23 and Inscription no.24 are keeped at Bangkok
National Museum. (the forth picture from left).

Figure: Landmark evidence of Srivijaya were found around Bandon Bay
Source: Sippanan Nuanla-ong and Panjaphon Nuanla-ong (2019)

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Srivijaya as a Cross-Continental Trading Hub (Entrepot) - International Market

Figure: Srivijaya was well-known in other nations as a cross-continental trading hub. Moreover, in the same time, it was the
center of Mahayana Buddhism. Srivijaya was an entrepot between merchants from the west coast and the east coast. The
Takuapa-Ban Don Bay route was one of the famous trans-peninsular routes and may have been the most convenient route
for transportation prior to the Srivijayan period.
Source: Sippanan Nuanla-ong )2020(

Srivijaya was well-known in other nations as a cross-continental trading hub (entrepot) with a
plentiful and well-established resource base, which is why it is referred to as the "spice route." Srivijaya's
trade was maritime, and the people of Srivijaya were extremely skilled at building ships for sea voyages,
but they also had a land path by which they could travel. The well-known products of Srivijaya were spices
(particularly high-quality curcumin (Turmeric/Curuma), which was approved by the global market), raw
betel nuts, nutmeg, cloves, camphor, cube sugar, myrrh, bird's nest, forest products, and gold, among

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others. The Curcuminoid level in curcuma grown in the central southern region was tested, and it was
discovered that this level was among the highest in the world when compared to curcuma grown in other
parts of the world. (Information from "The Langkasuka – Srivijaya civilization restoration training program
for the development of the cultural industry" in 2012, held by The Advisory Board and Industrial Design
Network Co., Ltd., with the Office of the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Industry, which mentioned a case
study on The Management of Cultural Funds for The Promotion of the cultural industry: 8 charming ways of
life of Srivijaya and Langkasuka)

Another source of information comes from a Chinese chronicle, which is considered important
evidence from the Emperor Tang Tai Zong period of the Tang Dynasty, in which Lt. Gen. Sanphet
Thammathikul (2018) mentioned that the first international dealings with Srivijaya or Shi-li-fo-shih occurred
in 1213 when the King named Homito ("Ho-mi-to") dispatched an ambassador named "Nam Man Chuan"
with royal messages and tributes to the Emperor Tang Tai Zong. Furthermore, Zhao Rukuo reported the
following narrative about Sanfoshi (Srivijaya) in Zhufanzhi:

Figure: Srivijaya was the "spice route." The well-known products of Srivijaya were spices (particularly high-quality curcumin
(Turmeric/Curuma), which was approved by the global market), raw betel nuts, nutmeg, cloves, camphor, cube sugar, myrrh,
bird's nest, forest products, and gold, among others.
Source: Sippanan Nuanla-ong )2020(

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- Srivijaya was a maritime hub (entrepot) as well as a significant and well-known worldwide
maritime trading market in the South Sea.

- Traveler merchants from all over the world congregated here to exchange commodities
utilizing gold, silver, lace silk, fabric silk, incense, porcelain, herbs, and camphor as
intermediaries.

- Winter monsoon winds caused ships sailing from China to take approximately one month to
reach "Lingyamon" (possibly referring to Pum Rieng), where one-third of cargo ships and
merchants travelling through must stop before traveling to the Empire of Srivijaya (which
would mean a tax stop.) There have been numerous discoveries of ancient Chinese cups
(Chinawares) and coins at the archaeological site of Laem Bodhi-Pa Yang (Yang Forest)
Royal Port (however, some parts of this area have been overlayed and re-landscaped by
digging sand from the beach extracted in order to modify the terrain as a park, resulting in
swirling tides and an unprecedented level of danger. Accordingly, government authorities
have placed red flags to warn people about hazardous areas in particular seasons. However,
it is anticipated that in the future, water and wind flows will assist in smoothing the terrain and
making the area more safe and secure.)

- Srivijaya's royal ports included "Pum Rieng-Laem Pho Royal Port City," which served as the
east coast's royal port, and "Tung Tuk (Gold Mine) Royal Port City," which served as the west
coast's royal port. They were the international maritime trade market centers of the century,
as well as prosperous and internationally famous commercial centers.

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- The "Muang Thong-Kor Khao Archaeological Site" in Takuapa District, Phang-Nga Province,
was situated on the west coast of the Southeast Asian Peninsula and was called in Tamil as
"Takola Port City," while in Arabic it was called "Gila Port City" or "Glah-Bar Port City." It was
well known to Western merchants, including Indians, Arabs, and Persians, but not to Chinese
merchants, because their ships, loaded with goods and traveling through the winter Northeast
monsoon winds, would dock at Laem Bodhi-Pa Yang Royal Port to offload goods to
middlemen who had placed orders and to complete the sale of any remaining goods on the
ship. They returned to China with things they intended to resale in the country, and they did
so by taking advantage of the summer southwestern monsoon winds that were blowing at the
time of their return trip.

- The majority of Chinese cargo ships did not take detours across the Southeast Asian
Peninsula to India or other distant countries, since they had to pass through the long Strait of
Malacca and risked being attacked by natural disasters and pirates.

- During the summer southeastern monsoon winds blowing from India up to the Land of China,
cargo ships of Indian, Arab, and Persian merchants traveled to the Andaman Sea and landed
at the "Tung Tuk (Gold Mine) Port" in Kor Khao, Takuapa District, Phang-Nga Province, to
transport goods to the middlemen, and then rode along the Takua Pa River to the Khao Sok
River, which was the contact zone and boarder of Kiriratthanikom, Surat Thani province. When
they arrived in the Pumduang River, which was flowing to the royal river (Luang River or Tapee
River) in Punpin, Surat Thani, they would unload once more. They could then travel down the
Ban Don Bay coast to Srivijaya royal port at Laem Bodhi-Pa Yang in the Pum Rieng estuary
in Chaiya, Surat Thani Province.

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- "Kota Kapur Royal Port City" was a royal depot for gathering rare spices, such as cloves,
nutmeg, and mace, which were valuable monopoly items that brought in a lot of money for
King Srivijaya. These items were abundant in the Moluka Islands. Furthermore, Lt. Gen.
Sanphet Thammathikul (2018) stated that the port was located on Banga Island, east of
Sumatra in Indonesia, at a latitude of 2 degrees below the equator and a longitude of 103
degrees East. It was related to "Pum Rieng-Laem Bodhi Royal Port City," the east coast's royal
port, and " Tung Tuk West Port City (Gold Mine)." In other words, these were Srivijaya's
threesomes of the port arranged in a sharp triangle, a center for controlling foreigners'
shipping and commerce routes to China, India, the Arab world, Persia, and Java.

- "Kota Kapur Royal Port on Bunga Island" was an important "spice warehouse" of Srivijaya,
which collected spices from the islands and stored them in the Royal warehouse before
transporting them to "Pum Rieng-Laem Bodhi Port City" or "Kadar Royal Port City" or "Chia Za
Royal Port" in northern Malaysia and selling them to merchants from India, Arabia, Persia, and
China. Because it operated as a spice warehouse for transferring products to the royal port,
the port did not have direct interface with overseas merchants. As a result, these merchants
were unfamiliar with this port.

- It was in the "Kota Kapur inscription stone" that His Majesty King Srichainas the Great of
Srivijaya recorded information about "Kota Kapur Royal Port on Bunga Island," which was
where King Srivijaya moved his powerful troops in order to invade and occupy Palembang,
Sumatra. It was also mentioned in the Kota Kapur inscription in 1225 that he later subdued a
rebellion on the island of Sumatra. Afterwards, in 1229, the Srivijaya Army gathered and
crossed the strait to combat unyielding rebels on the island of Java. He engraved this

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occurrence on an inscription stone found on the eastern coastal island of Bunga (Bangka),
Sumatra. According to this information, "Bunga (Bangka) Island" is believed to be Java's two
most important strategic points: 1) Control of the Java Sea's maritime waterways and
commercial routes 2) It is a main conveyor route for spices exported from the Sulawesi
Islands, Borneo, and other islands to China, India, the Arab world, and Persia.
- From its position in the middle of the royal sea, Srivijaya dominated the strait. Travelers by
land and sea from all directions had to pass through here.
- In the past, steel chains were utilized to create sophisticated devices that prevented pirate
ships from passing through. If a cargo ship was expected to arrive in Srivijaya, the chains
could be lifted to allow the ship to pass through the port. However, after the pirates were
beaten, the use of the chains was removed. The chains were dragged to shore and polished
as though brand new. Because indigenous people revered these chains as much as Buddha
images, the chains were commonly worshiped.
- Cargo ships were required to dock and pay their taxes in the proper manner. The inspection
vessel would be on the lookout for cargo ships that were not properly paying their taxes. All
of the officers were fully prepared to take action.

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To Investigate the Location of Srivijaya through the Record of Chinese Envoy

ne of the objectives of this book is to investigate and gather data on the content of the
historical evolution of the first period of Thailand or “Siam, Lawo and Srivijaya” that in the part, Southeast
Asia was called by various names. It referred to the highlights found in this region. Those names are linked
to geography and other characteristics, such as the “land of the Southern-Sea”, which refers to its location;
“Shie To” is named after its characteristics, meaning red-soil land, “Suvarnnabhumi” refers to the land of
gold beacause there were plenty of gold in this land.

Emperor Aueng Ti of Sui dynasty Chinese Envoy-Ambassdor Journey map of Chinese Envoys

Ambassador (Envoy)’s junk was dragged by using gold chains

Map: Journey map of Sieng-Jun and Heng-Kun-Jeng (the Chinese Envoy) in1105 B.E. (562 A.D.)
Source: Nuanla-ong (2022)

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This map shows the journey of Sieng-Jun and Heng-Kun-Jeng (the Chinese Envoy-Ambassdor)
in 1105 B.E. (562 A.D.) The Chronicle of China stated that Emperor Aueng Ti of the Sui dynasty ordered
Sieng-Jun and Heng-Kun-Jeng, envoys in his period, to form a relationship with Shie –To- Kua’s imperial
court in 1105 B.E. (562 A.D.)

Because good winds so Sieng Jun travelled only 20 days (20 nights) from Nam-Hai in Kwang-
Tung in southern China to Jiao Jia Mountain. He went to southeast stop anchoring at Liengjia Pua Poktojiw
Island or Lingkabanphot island which was in the western part of Champa region. (He went through Jaan-
Chen or Jampa and Janla or Khmer.) Then he passed through the islands. He travelled two-three days
later, he could see the mountains of Langyasiw (Samroiyod mountains) in the west. His junk passed by Ao
Thai (Thai Bay) and then headed to Koh Chi-Lung or Nest Island in Pa-Til District in Chumporn. In the
report of Sieng Jun, the envoy stated that when he first arrived at the place, it was like arriving in the realm
of Shie To Kua. Prince of Shie To Kua carried the ship of the Chinese envoy and welcomed him with and
30 junks and a music procession (Turbinella pyrum and drum) on the way until he arrived at the capital (or
center) of “Shie To Kua”. Ambassador’s junk had to be dragged by using gold chains for a month before
reaching the capital of Srivijaya. There was a record about “Shie To Kua” or “Srivijaya or Siem Lo Kok”
including...

- There was a big mountain in the west or south.
- The river left from mountain and weir in the south flowed into the sea.
Police Lieutenant Colonel Sanphet Thammathikul (2013) discussed with Nuanla-ong (2014), they
stated that the ambassador’s ship to be towed through the strong current as flood season of “Luang or
Tapee River” which is the largest and longest river in southern Thailand. Because Sieng Jun travelled in
12th month. The water flowed along the banks. He recrded that “the Long or Tapee River” flowed from the

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mountain in the south and flowed back to the sea to the north. The ambassador’s ship had to be towed
upstream through the strong current. Then it entered through the mount of cave (Pakpan Kooha) which
was a channel through the city of Pan Pan or the city of Vieng Sra. It was located above the Luang or
Tapee River through Khao Srivichai (Mountain) where was the location of Phra Narai image (wearing Indian
hat) in stone. Then Sieng Jun travelled passing through the Takham Mountain where there was a castle
enshrined with Buddha images. And then he splited to city of Pan Pan which there were Phra Narai images
and Shiva Images in the temple. After that he went to “Shie To Kua” or “Srivijaya” and the capital of it.

“Shie To Kua” could be “Tamali”. Later, it was called “Tamporling” (Danmeiliw in Chinese). I-Ching
called it as “Poling”. Later, it was called “Holing” and “Nakon Si Thammarat”. “Shie To Kua” was a part of
“the ten countries of “the Southern Sea or Srivijaya” that I-Ching recorded these countries wer indeoendent
of each other. However, they had to choose a king from any countries to be the head of state and establish
a capital city. Later, the capital of the ten countries of” the Southern Sea” was moved from “Shie To Kua”
to “Chaiya” in 12th century B.E. by Homito (King) of “Shi-li-fo-shi (Srivijaya)”. He sent the ambassdors to
pray tribute to the Chinese King (Emperor) to admit that “Shi-li-fo-shi” was the capital of “Srivijaya”. The
inscription No.23 in 1318 B.E. stated that Phrajao Vishnu (Phajao Jantarapanu), a king of the Sailendra
Dynasty from southern peninsula who ruled the capital of Srivijaya. He buit 3 castles or Chedi to enshrine
the Buddha Image (to fighting the devil), Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara Pattamapani (holding lotus) in bronze
and Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara Vajirapani (holding crytal) in bronze, namely the Chedi of Wat Vieng, Wat
Long and wat Kaew in Nakon Chaiya (capital of Srivijaya).

Later, Phra Vishnu went to the central of Java to build the plans and foundations of Borobuddho
in Indonesia. Sajjachote (2004: 81-142) in Nuanla-ong (2010) stated that Borobudur was started by Phrajao
Vishnu (Phajao Jantarapanu), a king of the Sailendra Dynasty from southern peninsula. It was built in the

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8th-9th centuries A.D. (in 1393 B.E.) and continued to be built by other succeeding kings and finished in the
Phrajao Somrotung era. The kings of the Sailendra Dynasty built Borobudur to spread Buddhism and its
power. In 1321 B.E. (778 A.D.), the Sailendra Dynasty governed Middle-Java. Phrajao Somrotung had one
daughter (Princess Pramotawatani) and one son (Prince Pollabut). At the end of the Phrajao Somrotung
era, Princess Pramotawatani married Prince Pikatan. This wedding brought about the end of the Sailendra
Dynasty because Prince Pollabut fought with Prince Pikatan and lost before deciding to retreat with
Sailendra Dynasty supporters to Nakon Chaiya, around Ban Don Bay. On the other hand, a Chinese
chronicle recorded that Phrajao Chevoka fought with Lawo in 1446 B.E. (903 A.D.) Srivijaya’s name was
changed to Sam Hud Che (Sam Boddhi) or Sam Fo Shi (Sam Bhodhi) at that time. However, Prince
Chaiworaman II of Khom stayed with Phrajao Vishnu at Nakon Srivijaya so he followed Phrajo Vishnu to
Middle-Java to observe the Borobudur building. He gained much knowledge and many experiences from
Phrajao Vishnu, therefore the plan and patern of Nakon Wat or Ankor Wat might be from a prototype of
Borobudur that represent the meaning of the center of universe.

In 14th century B.E., King Chavaka of Sirithammahanakon (King of Tampornling) rised an army to
attact Lawo and he governed it. After that, he moved the capital to Krung Sri Thammarat. China called it
as the new city “San Fo Shi”. In 15th century B.E., one king of San Fo Shi was called “Shilihutali Shilaliton”
by Chinese who as an ambassador to bring a tribute to the King of China (Emperor). “Chelivooye (Liwye)
was a new king who sent ambassador to pay tribute to the King of China to certify the new monarch. The
ambassador reported that “San-foshi” was known as “Sianliw” as “Siem Lo Kok” or “Siam” (Thailand).
“Siam-Srivijaya” created Buddhist, Dvaravati and Srivijaya art and culture in Southern Thai Peninsular. After
that, it had spreaded the power and influence to enhance the arts and culture to “Lawo or Lo Kok”. It was
called “Siem Lo Kok” by Chinese. The Chinese recording in Chen dynasty recorded that in 23th century

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B.E., Chinese had translated letter or character during the reign of King in the 5th Chronicle Region. It
explained that Siem Lo Kua was located on the East of Guanglum City and it was located on the south of
Kampujai (Cambodia). There were 2 kingdoms, namely, “Siem Kok” (Siam) and “Lo Kok” (Lawo). However,
Police Lieutenant Colonel Sanphet Thammathikul (2019) commended the translation of this text as
following: “Siem” was “Sukhothai”; and “Lo Kok” was the area below Sukhotha. When “Sukhothai” and
“Lawo” were merged into one Kingdom, it was called “Siem Lo Kok”. It was in the Northwestern part of
Cambodia, it was not located in the South of Cambodia. So it was not matching with the information of
Chinese text. There was found some errors in this recording.

Later, Chao Ta Kuan (Chinese) travelled to Nakon Thom (Angkor Thom) in 18th century B.E., he
wrote the book on the customs and traditions of Janla (Chenla). The recording of Jotakuan was matching
with the Chinese recording in Cheng Dynasty. It recorded that travelling was around a half of month in the
Southwest to reach “Siem Lo Kok” which as “Siam-Srivijaya” or “Siam-Javaka”. It was located in Southern
Thai Penninsular. In Sukhothai period, it was the capital. Phraya Ramraj (Ramkamhaeng) was king who
used to make good relationship with the king of the Nguan Dynasty. When Sukhothai fought against the
Malieier Kok (Malayu) people. Chinese translated that “Sukhothai or Sien-Sukhothai” was fighting with
Malays.The Chinese King of Yuan Dynasty who sent the ambassador to stop them from compromising.
Chao Ta Kuan recorded that “Siem Lo Kok” was located in the southwest of Cambodia. When investigation,
the direction would be the land of Southern Thai Peninsular (Golden Peninsula) which was “Chavaka or
Srivijaya”. In that time, the capital of Srivijaya was at Nakon Si Thammarat and Srivijaya was fighting with
Moloyu. From recording, Nakon Si Thammat in Sukhothai period was still an independent state. Later, it
was merged with Ayutthaya Kingdom.

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From these records show that Siamese set up houses and communities in the Southern Thai
peninsular or “Laem Thong” at least since the 11th century B.E.

Following the investigation, the author found that the Srivijaya Empire was able to connect
Siam and Lawo together. Therefore, this study focuses on “Srivijaya” or “Javaka” which is the main content
in this study. The prosperity of the culture found in Srivijaya (Javaka) has a long history, or from the 12th
century B.E. to the 18th century B.E., for at least 600 years. The history of Srivijaya is mentioned in various
remarkable chronicles and myths, including inscriptions of China, Arabia, Indonesia, India, Sri Langka,
Malaysia, and Thailand. According to those historical records, there were many terms linked to Srivijaya
or Javaka from various countries. For example, in Thailand, the king was called “Srivijaya” in the inscription
no.23 in 1318 B.E. (775 A.D.) In Chinese chronicles, they used the words “San-fo-ch’i Empire”, “Shi-l-fo-
shi country” and “Nakon Fo Si, Kan Tho Li Empire”. In Arabian chronicles, they used “Sa Bak or Sa Ba
Ka”, “Se Bu Za town”, Maharaj island and Maharaj of Sa Bak Empire. In Lankan chronicles, the term “King
Ja Va Ka of Srivijaya” was used. Based on the investigation, it can be concluded that the important points
related to this empire are as follows:

(1)“Srivijaya” can be the name of the king of Srivijaya.
(2)“Javaka” (or “Chaiya”) can be the name of the empire.
(3)“Shie To” can be the name of the capital of the empire.
(4)“Kun Lun” (or “Khunluang”) can be the name to call people from this land.
“Shie To” means “land of red soil” which also called “Tampornling” from time to time. The
landscape of Srivijaya (Javaka)’s capital may have covered ancient states, such as Panpan State in Vieng-
Sra District in Surat Thani and a part of Nakhon Si Thammarat. However, the origin of Srivijayan people
was from the 3rd century B.E. (Coming of Prince Sumit) Srivijaya was the center of culture, economy,

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politics, and a large international market. Spice was Srivijaya’s important product, so it was called “spice
route” by traders. There were four main routes, but the most comfortable route might be “Takuapa-Ban
Don Bay route” that was from Takuapa District in Phang-nga Province to Leam-Bodhi, Chaiya District in
Surat Thani Province. The influence of Sailendra and Srivijayan culture dominated several Southeast Asian
countries, such as the current areas of Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Indonesia, Malaysia and the Melayu
peninsula. The trading relationship between the embassy of “Siam-Lawo-Srivijaya (Javaka)” and many
countries such as India, China, Arab, Persia, Cambodia and Indonesia are found in various evidence and
traces. For example, there are important historical records regarding the dynasty of the great king Asoka
of India, one of Srivijayan ancestors, and interesting chronicles of China that demonstrate the good
relationship between the Kings of Srivijaya (Javaka) and the Kings of China. The ancestor of “Siam-Lawo-
Srivijaya (Javaka)” is “Shie To Kua” and is also the ancestor of “Sailendra dynasty” (King of Mountain).

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To Investigate the Location of Srivijaya from Ancient Chinese Bell in the Tang Dynasty

There is an interesting Chinese ancient bell which was found at Chaiya District in Surat Thani
and it is significant for heritage interpretation and the association of Siam-Lawo with Srivijaya to support
historical and cultural tourism which as follows:

Figure: Chedi of Wat Phra Borommathat, Chaiya. Right: Ancient Chinese Bells from the Tang dynasty (in
1161-1450 B.E. or 618-907 A.D.) or the Sung Dynasty. There was a record on giving the Chinese bell to
Sam Hud Zi (or Srivijaya) during the Sung Dynasty (in 963-1021 B.E. or 420-478 A.D. /or in 1503-1822 or
960-1279 A.D.). However, the information from the Fine Arts Department indicates that the ancient bells
came from an era of the Ming dynasty and were found at Wat Phra Borommathat Chaiya following Chinese
chronicles.
Source: Nuanla-ong (2015 and 2017)

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Figure : Old pictures from a local who was once one of the conservation team show the area in which the
ancient bells were found.
Source: Patthamapas (2000), Thammathikul (2015) and Nuanla-ong (2015) and (2017)

Figure: - Venerable Buddhadasa and Chinese Antique Bell (Left), Police Lieutenant Colonel Sanphet
Thammathikul and Chinese Antique Bell (The second picture from left) and the author - Sippanan Nuanla-
ong (The second picture from left)
- Chinese Antique Bell (right picture) - Thammathikul (2015) and Thamrong Patthamapas (2000 has stated
that one Antique Chinese Bell was found at Chaiya carries the meaning: “Peaceful City, Happiness of
Citizens, Good Wind and Good Rain”.
Source: Patthamapas, Thamrong (2000), Thammathikul, Police Lieutenant Colonel Sanphet (2015) and
Nuanla-ong, Sippanan (2015)

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Kok-Thi-Ming- Aung. Hung-Tiew-Hoow-Sun (ก๊ก-ไถ-่ มงิ้ - อัง. ฮวง-เทยี้ ว-โหว-สนุ )

Figure: Eight letters in Antique Chinese Bell which was found at Chaiya. This antique bell could be from
Chinese Emperor (พระเจา้ กรุงจนี ) giving it to Srivijaya, following the record. Thamrong Patthamapas (2000)
has stated that one Antique Chinese Bell was found at Chaiya carries the meaning: “Peaceful City,
Happiness of Citizens, Good Wind and Good Rain”.
Source: Adapted from Patthamapas (2000) by Nuanla-ong (2015).

Nuanla-ong (2016) said that there were found many records and traces to support the history of
the Srivijayan age. They referred to red land and an ancient community residing on a sand dune area for
accommodation and for trading. And a mountain was located for a religious place, temple or castle,
following Sailendra culture. In addition, Luang River (Tapee River) and Phumdong River were called
historical rivers from before the Srivijayan age.

The author comments that there are important ancient documents from China such as the picture
and historical record of the Ching Dynasty in 2305 B.E. referring to an embassy from Ayutthaya who visited
the Chinese Court of Emperor Chen-Long of the Ching Dynasty. There is Chinese and Manju writing above
the picture of the ambassador and his wife. It talks about history of “Siam Lo Kok” as follows:

- It is referring to an embassy from Ayutthaya who visited Chinese Court in Emperor Chen-Long
of the Ching Dynasty. Siam Lo Kok was located in the west east of Jann-Chen (Champa).

- Sui and Tang Dynasty called this land “Shie-To-Kua” or country of red land

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- “Shie To” referred to the color of land (red or brown) because, when raining, the earth looked
like blood.

- “Siam Lo Kok” means Siam-Lawo in that age, or “Ayutthaya” or “Thai”
From investigation, there are significant traces related to Shie To Kua and Chinese Antique Bell.
For example, Suchanarak (2015) and Ajarn Khaw (2015) said that Chinese Antique Bells were found
around Wat Phra Borommathat Chaiya in the summer by PhraKroo Sopon (Ajarn Eiam) and Thammathikul.
Police Lieutenant Colonel Sanphet (2015) agreed that they could be from the same time as the Julamanee
age. Venerable Buddhadasa and Wongbodhipra, Theera in Patthamapas (2000), Thammathikul, Police
Lieutenant Colonel Sanphet (2015) and Nuanla-ong (2015) agreed that Chinese Antique Bells were in the
Tang dynasty periodbased on investigation of the various evidence. However, the information of the Fine
Arts Department stated that these antique bells were from the era of Ming dynasty and were found at the
landscape of Wat Phra Borommathat Chaiya, following the Chinese chronicle. Thammathikul, Police
Lieutenant Colonel Sanphet (2015) stated that translation of Chinese words in one of the Chinese Antique
Bells means “Peaceful City, Happiness of Citizens, Good Wind and Rain”.
Moreover, Wongbodhipra in Patthamapas (2000) stated that in 1950 A.D. Khun Theera viewed
eight letters in the Chinese Antique Bell found at Chaiya District in Surat Thani. So he carried it to Tan Mo
Sheng (อ.ตนั มอ้ เซีย้ ง) who is a lecturer at Hua Chiew University and Satien Bodhinanta (อ.เสถียร โพธินนั ทะ)
to read these eight letters. Both of them agreed that this antique bell was from the Chinese Emperor (พระ
เจา้ กรุงจนี ), given to Srivijaya. Tan Mo Sheng (อ.ตนั มอ้ เซีย้ ง) in Patthamapas, Thamrong (2000) affirmed that
the words “Kok-Thi-Ming-Aung. Hung-Tiew-Hoow-Sun” in the Chinese Antique Bell were from the Chinese
Emperor of the Tang Dynasty. Moreover, these eight letters were used only by the Chinese King when he
gave other countries presents. These bells could be more than 1,000 years old.

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However, in this period, there was not enough brass in China to build the big bell so it had to mix
the brass with the steel or bronze. From this information, it was matching with material of antique bell which
was found in the area of Wat Phra Borommathat Chaiya. However, local people said that these eight letters
on one of the antique bell still appeared 50 years ago but in the present they have been lost by raining.

In addition, Nuanla-ong (2010) affirmed that the Sung Dynasty record in 963-1021 B.E. (420-478
A.D.), or that of 1503-1822 B.E. (960-1279 A.D.) was made at a time when Sam Hud Zi (or Srivijaya) looked
like a state of non-civilized people. It was located in the middle of Jala Nam (Khmer) and Chao Poo (Java)
and the state exercised domination over fifteen countries. It had a warm climate and there were many kinds
of goods for trading, such as coconut, betel palm, wickerwork, and scented wood. There were two
ambassadors of Sam Hud Zi who went to China in 1546 B.E. (1003 A.D.), to inform that Sam Hud Zi had
built a temple for the emperor of China. The emperor as a result was very appreciative and named the
temple “Cheng Thien Won Choo” and gave it a special bell. Nowadays, there is a bell in the temple in
Chaiya which was inscribed in Chinese. The meaning was “ten thousand years old from heaven”.

From the traces of “Antique Chinese Bell” in Chaiya and the Chinese record, it could be concluded
that “Chaiya” in Surat Thani could be the center of Srivijaya, following the information of Chumpengpan
(2005), Thammathikul, Police Lieutenant Colonel Sanphet (2015) and Nuanla-ong (2010). There is an
important record of the Sung Dynasty in the 6th Year of Emperor Hienping in 1546 B.E. (1003 A.D.) This
record stated that the name of the king of Srivijaya was “Se-Li-Chu-La-Wu-Ni-Fu-Ma-Tien-Hwa” (พระเจา้ เซ
ลีจลู าวนู ิฟมู าเตียวฮวั ). The meaning in Sanskrit stated that Phrajao Srijulamanee Woramadhava ordered the
letter and the present to the Emperor of China. The envoy reported to the Emperor regarding the order of
the king of Srivijaya to built the temple at the center of this capital to pray for him on his birthday (to make
a wish for his long live). And the king of Srivijaya asked the Emperor of China to give him a bell for this

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temple as a sign of a good relationship between China and Srivijaya (Shie To Kua). So Emperor Hienping
of China gave him everything and decreed the name of this temple as Ch’eng-Tien-Wan-Shou (เชง-เทียน-
วนั -ฉ่)ู . Its meaning was “Ten thousand years old from heaven”. Then he ordered the fine artisans of his
palace to build the bell to be passed to the envoy of Srivijaya for giving to the Srivijayan King.

To Investigate the Traces at Srivichai Mountain

A model of Phra Narai image at Khao Srivichai.

Traces, landscape, atmosphere on Srivichai Mountain and including related places around this site are like jigsaw puzzles
gathered to investigate the world of Srivijaya.

Surveying the archaeological site at Khao Srivichai (Mountain) in Punpin District, Surat Thani, the author interviewed Khun
Panuwat Earsamal, an archaeologist of the 12th Regional Office of Fine Arts Department (Nakon Si Thammaraj).

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Only one bronze (Samrit) Dharmajakra image from around the 13th century B.E. or 14th century B.E. was found in Thailand
(“Matichon Online” on May 23, 2017).

The important image of Phra Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara in a sitting position on the stone in “Maharaj Leelasana”
style was found. It was found in Gandhara of India in the 6th - 8th centuries B.E. which was called “Maha Karunika” style and
famous in Southeast Asia in the 13th - 15th centuries B.E. It can be said that the monks in that era were Theravada Buddhists.
Meanwhile, neither the king nor civilians were Mahayana Buddhists, but they respected Phra Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara for
being kind and gracious to others (“Matichon Online” on February 10, 2018).

Figure: New evidence and traces in the Khao Srivichai Archaeological Site.
Source: Nuanla-ong (2017-2018) and “Matichon Online” on May 23, 2017 and on February 10, 2018.
(100261-มตชิ นออนไลน์ วนั เสารท์ ่ี 10 กมุ ภาพนั ธ์ 2561-พระโพธสิ ตั วอ์ วโลกเิ ตศวรปางมหากรุณิกะ)

Nuanla-ong (2018) stated that Khun Panuwat Earsamal who was an archaeologist at the 12th
Regional Office of The Arts Department (Nakon Si Thammarat). He and his team work on the conservation
of the Khao Srivichai Archaeological Site. In September 2017, the author had the opportunity to interview
him. He stated that he and his team were excavating the site of which the significant traces have been
found. There was new evidence and traces found in the flat landscape beneath the mountain where locals
own the land, such as Dharmajakra or Dharma stone wheel, Bodhisattva image and special brick carved

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into a swan at the west entrance door. Now they can excavate only permit area, so only half of the Chedi
and some monuments have been excavated because the landowners do not allow excavation of the entire
site.

In addition, from “Matichon Online” on May 23, 2017, Mr. Anan Choo-Chote, General Director of
the Fine Arts Department mentioned that the new stone wheel of Dharma was excavated and found by the
12th Regional Office of The Arts Department (Nakon Si Thammarat) at Srivichai Mountain in Punpin District,
Surat Thani on April 1, 2017. This Dharma wheel is made of sandstone along with other characteristics,
such as: it has a circular center with 12 stalks; it was an airy wheel, 32.2 cm diameter, and 9.3 cm thick.
However, the base of the Dharma wheel disappeared. This is the second Dharma wheel found in Mount
Srivichai. The first Dharma wheel was the base of the Dharma wheel which was excavated at monument
number 6 in this mountain in 2546 B.E. (2003 A.D.) 5 images of Phra Narai were also found, so this
archaeological site was called the holy site of Phra Narai in Brahman and Hinduism.

However, “Dailynews Newspaper” on Tuesday 6th June 2017 stated that locals found images of
sandstone Buddhist in a cave on a cliff top at Wat Khao Srivichai which are about 250-300 years old.
However, the news reported that Mr. Surapol Thungjareon, the head of Srivichai Sub-District, stated that a
group of archaeological sites and 8 monuments in the Srivichai Mountain (Narai Mountain) were discovered
twenty years ago. All 8 monuments were made of bricks and each monument was protected by a wall.
They were decorated with many details. An important trace of this site was the stone wheel of Dharma
which is about 30 cm in diameter.

“Matichon Online” on February 10 in 2018 reported that the important image of Phra Bodhisattva
Avalokitesvara in a sitting position on the stone in “Maharaj Leelasana” style was found on February 9,
2018. It was called “Maha Karunika” because it looked like “thinking”. The image is 6.3 cm tall, 6.3 cm

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wide, 1.2 cm thick with his left hand on his left knee, right hand to chin, head looking below to the right and
pieces of cloth on the left. At the top and right side of it are broken. Dr. Nantana Chotiwong (2018) in Khun
Panuwat Earsamal (2018) said that the original of “Maha Karunika” style was seen in Gandhara of India in
the 6th -8th centuries B.E. which later was famous in Southeast Asia during the 13th - 15th centuries B.E.
Mahayana Buddhists in that age had so much respect Phra Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara for being kind and
gracious to others. Dr. Wannasan Nunsuk of SEAMEO SPAFA states that “Chakra” was used in many
religions, but it could be directly related to Mahayana Buddhist traditions. In addition, “Chakra” and “bell”
could be used with other sacred objects for complex tradition, such as the tradition of “Tantra” during that
time, in which it was mixed between Buddhism and Brahmanism. Dr. Wannasan argues that “Khao
Srivichai” may have related to “Pan Pan State” and “Srivijaya” or “South Sea” but it should not be connectd
with “Dvaravati”. However, the author sees it as a good fit for the tradition of “Tantra” that Srivijaya used to
control Indonesian colonization, which is detailed as follows: The information in the inscription of Ta Rang
Too Vo in 1227 B.E. (684 A.D) and Ta La Ka Ba Too at Palembang noted that the Tantra tradition would
curse those who did not respect Mahayana Buddhism and brought them bad luck, illness, or death. Tantra
would only protect those who were faithful and respectful to the king of Srivijaya. Srivijaya took over Bang
Ka Island to control the Sunda Strait. People had to drink holy water to express their sincerity which was
considered one of the traditions of Srivijayan culture to control the Malacca Strait or Triburi before the
Sunda Strait. Sajjachote (2004: 59) states that the inscription of Ko Ta Ka Poo in 1229 B.E. (686 A.D.) on
Bang Ka Island, west of Palembang, showed that Srivijaya’s armed forces or navy attacked the land of
Java for its own land. (Nuanla-ong, 2010).

In addition, “Matichon Online” on February 17 in 2018 stated that the investigation of traces in the
Khao Srivichai Archaeological Site in Punpin District, Surat Thani has continued for 20 years. Arnat

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Bamrungwong, Director of the 12th Regional Office of The Arts Department (Nakon Si Thammarat), states
that the only highlight of what is found in Thailand is the bronze (Samrit) Dharmajakra image from around
the 13th century B.E. or the 14th century B.E. (around 1,300 years ago). Furthermore, other significant traces
were also found as follows: jigsaws of brick faces, brick swans, brick flora, numerous beads (more than
1000,000 beads), Dharmmajakra stone image (over 1,000 years), beautiful blue ceramics of Ancient
Persia, chinaware, chapel for doing rites and etc, especially, the important baked clay image of “Maha
Karunika” Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara who was kind and gracious to others.

a) A half brick face was found in the Khao Srivichai archaeological site: Anan Choochote, Director of the Fine Arts
Department, states that there are various theories of Srivijaya that are discussed internationally. Pan Pan State is
an ancient town in Chinese records. The pronunciation and location of Pan Pan State in Chinese records indicate
that it may be related to Punpin District in Surat Thani. (Pan Pan State may include both Punpin and Vieng Sra
Districts. -by the author) (left picture)

b) A plan of ancient Khao Srivichai (middle picture)
c) b) An old picture of the Khao Srivichai archaeological site in the last 20 years by The Fine Arts Department. Ever

since many Phra Narai and Phra Vishnu images were found during that time. This mountain also has been called
“Khao Phra Narai”. Krom Damrong Rajanubhap subsequently ordered to preserved them at the National Museum,
Bangkok. (right picture)

Figure: New evidence and traces in the Khao Srivichai Archaeological Site.
Source: Nuanla-ong (2017-2018) and “Matichon Online” on May 23, 2017 and on February 10, 2018.
(100261-มตชิ นออนไลน์ วนั เสารท์ ่ี 10 กมุ ภาพนั ธ์ 2561-พระโพธสิ ตั วอ์ วโลกิเตศวรปางมหากรุณิกะ)

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The Fine Arts Department states that the Khao Srivichai archaeological site was the large
community in the 12th -13th centuries. This community interacted with other external communities. People
respected both Vaishnavism (ไวษณพนกิ าย(, who respected Phra Vishnu, and Satya )ไศวนยิ าย(, who
respected Phra Shiva. From the investigation, various kinds of evidence and traces were found, for
example, a Dharma wheel in Buddhism and Phra Narai in Brahman and Hinduism. It shows that the locals
in that period were open to learning and sharing different beliefs and religiouses. In the author’s opinion,
the locals were possibly Buddhists because Mahayana Buddhism was not too strict so its sacred sites
could have various kinds of evidence and traces, especially Brahma and Hinduism that were harmonious
with Buddhism. In addition, the first and the second Dharma wheels are probably the same objects that
historians must find answers to this assumption the same as finding the missing jigsaw pieces.

The significant Phra Narai image was found at the Khao Srivichai archaeological site in Punpin District, Surat Thani (left). The
original Narai image is currently stored at the National Museum, Bangkok. (right)

Figure: Archaeological sites of Srivijaya in Chaiya and Punpin Districts, Surat Thani.
Source: Nuanla-ong (2017)

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Following the author’s Ph.D. dissertation, the author has constantly worked to do research related
to “Srivijaya”. The author can conclude that the historical and cultural evolution of Srivijaya relates to “Siam-
Lawo and Pan Pan State”. Investigation of the cultural landscape around Bandon Bay in Chaiya, Punpin
and Viengsra Districts, Surat Thani” is the main driver to learn the background and evolution of “Siamese
or Thai history”. Srivijaya is an integrated culture in Southeast Asia with various traces and connections to
several countries in the East, Middle East, and the West. Interpretations and presentations can be improved
and developed by communicating and exchanging ideas and experiences between locals and tourists
outside the community which it increases value and respect for the culture. The land in southern Thailand
will promote its culture and lifestyle for conservation and development of an advantageous heritage to
develop and improve sustainable tourism in the landscape of Ban Don Bay in Surat Thani.

a. Archaeological site at Khao Srivichai (the first and second pictures from left.)
b. Chedi of Wat Kaew (the fourth picture from left) and Wat Long (the fifth picture from left) are important traces to support
that Chaiya was at least once the center of Srivijaya (12th -16th B.E.) following the inscription no.23. Chedi of Wat Phra
Borommathat Chaiya (the third picture from left) is the only intact Srivijayan architecture in Thailand.

Figure: History and traces of people in Srivijaya and Surat Thani in Punpin and Chaiya Districts, Surat
Thani.
Source: Nuanla-ong (2017)

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“Moriya Ring Stone” of Moriya Dynasty as significant evidence to show the location of
Srivijaya and Suvarnaphumi Empires

Figure: “Moriya Ring Stone” of Moriya Dynasty as significant evidence to show the location of
Srivijaya and Suvarnaphumi Empires
Sources: Adapted from pictures of Dr.Bancha Panich and Suvarnabhumi Terra Incognita and The Golden
Land SuvarnabhumiBooks by Nuanla-ong (2021)

Prof.Srisak Wallibhodom and Dr.Bancha Panich (2021) comment in TPBS Channel in the topic “Is
Suvarnabhumi in this land? Where is Suvarnabhumi?” (ท่มี า: ศ.พิเศษ ศรศี กั ร วลั ลิโภดม และ นพ.บญั ชา พานชิ
รายการสวุ รรณภมู ิ ดินแดนในตานานมีจรงิ หรือ อย่ไู หนกนั แน่ ช่อง TPBS). They said that “Moriya Ring Stone” is
a small object but it is an important evidence to show the same status with the “Asoka Pillar” which is a big
object. Moreover, Dr.Anna Bennett informed that there were found about 30 pieces in the world and only

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2 pieces were found outside India including Chumphon in Thailand and at Khamayi in Myanmar which
show the location of Suvarnabhumi and Srivijaya Empires in Southern Thailand and it shows the significant
relationship between India and this land for long time ago.

1) There was found “a Moriya Ring Stone” at Khao Samkaew in Chumphon, Thailand. (Stone ring in
palm size) There are 11 animals in this stone ring. The image of “Mother Goddess” is in the middle
of it which the Director of the Fine Arts Department in India describes as a goddess representing
wealth.

2) There was found a “Dise Stone” in lotus petal-shaped and patterned like a “Moriya Ring Stone” at
Khamayi in Myanmar.

Srivijayan Art History Division and Kranok Pattern at Thevalai Jatukamramtep created by
Lt. Gen. Sanphet Thammathikul

During the Srivijayan period, between the 12th and 18th centuries B.E., Srivijayan people revered
Mahayana Buddhism blended primarily with Hindu Brahmins, and that, because Srivijaya was the center
of the economy, culture, society, politics, as well as art and technology, the land became a diverse range
of locally sourced artworks and commercial countries such as India, China, Arabic, and Persia. Nuanla-
ong (2010 and 2021) stated that Srivijaya architecture is closely connected to Indian art, both in terms of
architectural design and construction techniques associated with holy sites, since Srivijaya's ancestors
were mostly indigenous, descended from the Sailendra dynasty and ancestors who came from southern
India in the 9th century B.E. to build cities prior to the Kingdom of Funan (Phanom), such as Panpan state
in Viengsra District, Surat Thani Province. According to Anuvit Charoensupakul (1982:193) in Nuanla-ong
(2014), the 23rd stone (Face Ko/ก) inscription explains the development of brick architecture prior to the

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13th century B.E., and it welcomed Theravada Langkawong Buddhism in the final years of Srivijaya. The
Lankawong Chedi (pagodas) were constructed between the 18th and 19th centuries B.E. Srivijaya's
architectural art in southern Thailand is diverse, including Dvaravati art, Indian art (Pala and Gupta), Cham
art, Khmer art, and Chaiya local art, as Chaiya was the center of Srivijaya, a diverse community. However,
Buddhadasa Bhikku (1997:40) in Naunla-ong (2014) said: "Srivijayan art is distinguished by its delicate
beauty in the Pala style." Dvaravati, Srivijaya, and Hariphunchai (under the reign of Phra Nang Chamthewi)
arts and cultures were connected and interacted with. Srivijaya’s influence can currently be seen in
provinces throughout northern Thailand, including Lamphun, Lampang, Sukhothai, Chiang Mai, and
Chiang Rai (Chiang Saen), as evidenced by numerous significant pieces of Srivijaya architecture (Chedi
Jedyoi (Seven-floor Pagoda), Phra That Chamthewi), Bai Sema, bronze Naga Prok Buddha, and red
sandstone, and Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara images. Diskul (1980:40) in Nuanla-ong (2014) also said that
the Phra Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara embodies the post-Kupta and Pala-Sena influences on art. In addition,
in Siam, Dvaravati art is also hugely important, particularly bronze, which has expanded to the north of
Tawa Ravadee. Nonetheless, the Phra Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, the Srivijaya Bronze art of Mahayana
Buddhism discovered at Wat Phra Boromthat Chaiya in Surat Thani during the 14th and 15th centuries B.E.,
is the world's most beautiful Bodhisattva Avokitesvara image, "according to the description of the 23rd stone
inscription, about 3 Chedi (including Chedi Wat Kaew, Chedi Wat Long, and Chedi Wat Vieng). They were
built around the 13th -15th century B.E. in the Srivijaya style, with Buddha bones inside.

The layout of Chedi Wat Kaew resembles that of Chedi Wat Phra Borommathat Chaiya, which
contains eight miniature pagodas and at least three floors (but Chedi Wat Kaew is larger) and is influenced
by South Indian architecture known as "Sikhara Chedi" (pagoda/Chedi with multiple tops.) Disakul
(1980:40) in Nuanla-ong (2014) said that Chedi Wat Phra Boromthat Chaiya and Chedi Wat Kaew's

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diagrams and layouts are identical to Chandi in Central Java, Indonesia. It features a Cham and Khmer
aesthetic shape. In addition, Boisselier (1979) in Nuanla-ong (2014) said: Wat Kaew's crystal balls are
Chaiya art, yet the Chedi at Wat Phra Boromthat Chaiya and the Chedi walls of Wat Kaew are related to
central Java and Cham art. Therefore, it can be concluded that "Srivijayan art is a fusion of Chaiya-inspired
styles." The Chedi has a circular shape and is erected on an X or square base, similar to the pagoda that
surrounds Wat Phra Boromthat Chaiya Pagoda. However, brick architecture was discovered in the eastern
and western parts of Thailand's southern peninsula, such as Surat Thani (Chaiya) and Nakhon Si
Thammarat, between the 12th and 18th centuries B.E. The technique of "Brickwork without grouting" is used
to build Srivijaya architecture (a construction method without any mortar) and adhesives made from resin
and sugar or lime. Walliphodom (1982: 39-40) said in Nuanla-ong (2014) that locals make adhesives using
resin from local trees (Chit trees), molasses, or animal skins instead of lime. The Chedi (Pagoda) structure
was discovered to be big, massive, and simple. The walls of the pagoda are built in the Srivijaya
architectural style and are thicker than those of Khmer castles. The inside of the Srivijaya architectural
Chedi (pagoda) is an empty place lacking treasures, unlike the Chedi (pagoda) in the north (which does
include gold or silver), where "empty space symbolizes enlightenment / nirvana (cold)." Srivijayan
architecture, on the other hand, is straightforward, with a strong influence from Dvaravati and Cham art.

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“Chedi of Wat Phra Borommathat Chaiya” (left picture) could be “Suwannasukati Stupa” where “Bodhisattva
Avalokitesvara image” (central picture) in 14th -15th B.E. was in this Vihara in “Srivijaya” or the “Golden town”. “Prince Jatucam
and Prince Rammatep of Suwannapura in the doorframe” at Wat Phraborommathat Nakon Si Thammarat (right picture). It is
assumed that it was moved from the jewel-adorned city wall of Srivijaya, as details in the recording of the war with Jola army.

Figure: Srivijaya art and architecture
Source: Sippanan Nuanla-ong (2010)

The author concludes that through following Buddhist lifestyle principles firmly, the people of
Srivijaya had also learned to live in harmony with nature and handle difficulties in a simple yet efficient
manner (simple is the best). According to the study of Nuanla-ong (2014), which investigated and linked
Srivijaya's stories, lifestyles, and fine arts, the characteristics and definitions of Srivijayan art and
architecture are virtue, elaborate, elegant, and sufficient, as the kings of Srivijaya were virtuous and
attempted to behave in the manner of a Bodhisattva, which was filled with "morality and sufficiency." They
were distinguished by their "elegant and elaborate" style, equivalent to the mighty King who brilliantly
developed the economy, politics, and governance. They attempted to spread Buddhism through Buddhist
art, both by themselves and through skilled artisan masters. Any work created by King Srivijaya as a
Bodhisattva will have a heart-shaped symbol on their forehead. Thus, each work of Srivijaya's fine arts

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contains the king's principles and the Bodhisattva philosophy. Additionally, it can be referred to as the
spirit of Srivijayan's work. It all reflects the principles of Srivijayan's way of life in religious matters, politics,
governance, well-being, and the economy through Srivijayan arts and architecture that are appropriately
and suitable scaled without sacrificing finesse or beauty. For example, Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, the
Narai image, Phra Pim Din Dib, and Chatukamrammathep Gate, and even pagodas such as Chedi Wat
Phra Boromthat Chaiya. Nuanla-ong (2010) stated that Srivijayan architecture and art were from various
sources, demonstrated variety, and synthesized styles such as: Lanka style, Hindu style, Chandi followed
Srivijaya style in Indonesia, Mazon in Cham style, Khmer style, Srivijaya styles in Thailand, Dvaravati style
and Chiang Sean and Haripunchai styles followed Srivijaya style in the north of Siam. Brick Architecture of
Srivijaya in Thailand could be summarized in reference to the initial analysis of the sanctuary monuments
in southern Thailand as follows:

a. Srivijayan architecture around Ban Don Bay (left)
b. Chedi of Wat Phaborommathat Chaiya before conservation (middle)
c. Elephant images from Lanka influence in the area at Wat Phaborommathat Chaiya before conservation (right)

Figure: Structure and Pattern of Srivijayan Architecture and Conservation
Source: Venerable Buddhadasa (1997) and Sippanan Nuanla-ong (2009) in Nuanla-ong (2010)

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1) Overall Plan and Form
The chedi was of brickwork based on a circle shape on a foundation of a cross (X) or square.
There are four sides under the chedi and a miniature chedi at every corner. It resembles Chandi
Architecture in Indonesia and that of the South of Indian. Charernsupakul (1982: 204-207) in Nuanla-ong
(2010) has assumed that Srivijayan architecture should be divided into two groups as follows: 1.1) Chedis
between the 13th-15th centuries B.E. ( 7th-9th centuries A.D.) that Chedis were built according to Mahayana
Buddhist principles in a “Mondop or Prasat-spired” shape, for example, the chedi at Wat Phra Borommathat
Chaiya (Buddha Ashes Stupa), the chedi at Wat Kaew and the chedi at Wat Long (only the base exists
today) in Chaiya.; 1.2) Chedis between the 18th-19th centuries B.E. ( 12th-13th centuries A.D.) that Chedis
were built according to Theravada Buddhism in a round shape derived from Sri Lanka that had spread into
Southern Thailand in two styles as follows: 1.2.1) The round-shape chedi with a cross base, for example,
Wat Sating Phra in Song-Khla and Wat Mahathat in Nakon Si Thammarat which were similar to Wat Phra
Brommathat Chaiya, for it has a complex development but its plan still conforms to the original concept. ;
1.2.2) The round-shape chedi with a square base, for example, the Buddha Ashes Stupa in Nakon Si
Thammarat and the corner stupa at Wat Phra Borommathat Chaiya in Chaiya.

2) Structure
The structure of chedi was massive and simple. The wall style of Srivijayan architecture was thicker
than that of a Khmer castle.

3) Construction Methods
The construction of Srivijayan architecture was by using the technique of brickwork without
grouting. However, it also used other materials such as glue made from resin and syrup or lime.
Wallibhodom, 1982: 39-40 in Nuanla-ong (2010) suggests that the local people used resin from the bark

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of Chid (a tree local to Pattani) or molasses or animal skin by mixing it with lime for glue. Charernsupakul,
1982: 204-207 in Nuanla-ong (2010) says that construction methods of Srivijaya were up to local people to
integrate knowledge from other communities with their own wisdom such as in vernacular architecture. For
example, the glue from lime was stronger than from soil. Then, the brick had to be scrubbed before the
construction of a building such as a chedi. The brick architecture of Srivijaya in Siam utilized a hybridized
technique with methods from other communities in Asia, such as Cham style and Khmer style from the 7th
to the 18th centuries B.E. The bricklines were built in both vertical and horizontal ascending components
on the perpendicular and corbelled arch.

Figure: A technique of brickwork without grouting of Srivijayan art
Source: Wat Phra Borommathat Chaiya (left) by Charernsupakul (1982) and Wat Long (right) by
Sippanan Nuanla-ong (2006) in Nuanla-ong (2010)

4) Architectural Ornament
The chedi of Srivijayan architecture had an opening on the wall of the chedi although it
contained no valuable objects, e.g. money or jewelry. The presence of this opening in the chedi signifies
Nippan (Nirvana), which is the highest objective of Buddhism. However, Srivijayan architecture was simple
in its decoration. Also, Dvaravati and Cham style had strong influences on Srivijaya.
Srivijayan art was currently being used to construct the Nakhon Si Thammarat City Pillar
Court and the Thewalai Jatukamrammatep in Prachuapkirikhan. They could be developed as a learning
center and organized as a tourism destination to inspire the nation's development through the splendor of

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Srivijaya's history and spirit as part of sustainable tourism consistent with historical and cultural tourism. It
will lead to the development of tourism routes by learning how to connect historical and cultural evidence
with rational spiritual development based on scientific principles and aesthetics in art and architecture.
Tourism is based on the principle of respect for human rights and equal opportunity for all members of
society. Benefits must be distributed equitably, with an emphasis on reducing inequality by focusing on all
sectors. It is necessary to support the treatment of socially available systems for them to survive and
develop, beginning with sustainable self-improvement. Balance social, cultural, economic, and
environmental management to strengthen the system by recognizing and respecting culture, which has
beliefs that differ, as well as any form of exploitation that harms the nation.

The important thing is to begin by learning about Siam's history. One passage in the Chinese
Chronicle discusses the former status of the "Cambodian Kingdom" (Khom/ Kherm) and the "Champa
Kingdom," both of which were colonial possessions of the "Funan Kingdom." Later, in 1083 B.E. (540 A.D.),
the Cambodian kingdom rebelled and split the Funan capital into two kingdoms: the "Kingdom of Siam"
and the "Kingdom of Lawo." The "Kingdom of Lavo" is an ancient kingdom that began in the Chao Phraya
River basin and spread to Thailand's northeastern highlands. It was a dependency of the "Kingdom of
Cambodia during the Pre-Angkorian Period." The "Kingdom of Siam (Srivijaya)" remained an independent
kingdom in Thailand's southern peninsula. Arab merchants referred to this "Kingdom of Siam (Srivijaya)"
as the "Kingdom of Sabaka." The kingdom possessed considerable maritime power due to its ability to
raise an army and seize the Sumatra and Java islands, annexing them to the kingdom (later, Siam Kingdom
and Lawo Kingdom were able to reunite again.)

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Figure: King Srichainat (Maharaj Vishnu) of Srivijaya was a mighty navel force (100 Warships, 20,000
Royal Navy and 1,230 Marines). He could overcome the natives of Sumatra and Java islands.
Source: Sippanan Nuanla-ong (2021)

The evidence presented in the "Kedukan Bukit Stone Inscription," in 1225 B.E. (682 A.D.), "King
Srichainas" mobilized navy troops to defeat rebelled indigenous people on Sumatra and Java islands with
100 warships, 20,000 Royal Marines, and 1,230 Marines. He appointed his son, "The Great of the Sailendra
Dynasty," a Buddhist, as the Kingdom of Java's king and divided part of the land for the "indigenous king"
of the Sanchai Dynasty, who revered Brahmanism and Shaivism, to govern. The remainder of the land
provided "Raden," which came from the natives' chief as ruler. According to evidence, in the 13th
century B.E., Java Island, and Sumatra Island in Indonesia were ruled by the "Kingdom of Srivijaya," with
a power center in the Southeast Asian Peninsula in Chaiya, Surat Thani Province.

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In addition, there is compelling evidence of "Sulaiman", an Arab merchant. When he came to trade
in the "Srivijaya Empire", he wrote a letter documenting the principles of dignity and the abolition of injustice,
as well as Srivijaya's bereaved army. In 1396 B.E. (853 A.D.), he learned about a local story in which "The
Son of Khmer King" (assuming "King Chaiyaworaman II") was taken hostage at the Royal Court of
Sailendra in Chaiya after "The Great of Srivijaya" (assuming "Maharaj Vishnu") lifted the army to attack
the "Kingdom of Khmer/Khom" until it was defeated. The head of the Khmer king who insulted the Great
of Srivijaya (assumedly the father of King Chaiyaworaman II) was cut and pickled in a honey jar before
being taken away. However, the Great of Srivijaya did not cause harm to people or destroy property in an
unjust manner (and there is a story that the next Khmer kings always turned to the direction of paying
respects to the Great of Srivijaya.) According to evidence from the Chinese Chronicles of the Tang Dynasty
called "Siem Lo Kok" or "Kingdom of Siam Lawo," it has since annexed territory in the Indochina Peninsula
that was lost to the Kingdom of Cambodia in 1083 B.E. (540 A.D.) to become one again.

From recording of "Sulaiman", an Arab merchant. In 1396 B.E. (853 A.D.), he learned about a local story in which
"The Son of Khmer King" (assuming "King Chaiyaworaman II") was taken hostage at the Royal Court of Sailendra in
Chaiya after "The Great of Srivijaya" (assuming "Maharaj Vishnu") lifted the army to attack the "Kingdom of
Khmer/Khom" until it was defeated. The head of the Khmer king who insulted the Great of Srivijaya (assuming “the

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father of King Chaiyaworaman II”) was cut and pickled in a honey jar before being taken away. However, the Great
of Srivijaya did not cause harm to people or destroy property in an unjust manner (and there is a story that the next
Khmer kings always turned to the direction of paying respects to the Great of Srivijaya.)

Figure: Recording of "Sulaiman" in 1396 B.E. (853 A.D.)
Source: Sippanan Nuanla-ong (2020)

After "King Chaiyaworaman II" returned from Srivijaya to rule "the Kingdom of Cambodia" in 1345 B.E. (802 A.D.),
the art, architecture, and patterns of Srivijaya learned from The Great Vishnu's follow-up were used to create
Brahmanism and Shaivism temples. So "Srivijayan Art" was a root of " Java Art". Java Art was adapted by
Cambodian (Khom/Kherm) people and then they created "Nakon Si Mahantarapura" as “the first Khmer Art” on
Mount Phanom Gulen.

Figure: Architecture in Cambodia after "King Chaiyaworaman II" returned from Srivijaya in 1345 B.E.
Source: Sippanan Nuanla-ong (2012 and 2021)

In addition, the stone inscription of King Srivijaya the Great of the Sailendra Dynasty on Sumatra
and Java Island discusses the creation of Mahayana Buddhist architecture and sculptures: Srivijayan art
has a beautiful Kranok pattern. There was an elegant human bodhisattva sculpture in "Chandi" or "Stupa
Chedi" to pay tribute to the king's ancestors according to the Sailendra culture, such as Borobudur, Chandi
Mendut, Chandi Sevu, Chandi Pawon, Chandi Saree Chandi Pelasan, Chandi Kalason, Chandi
Prammanan, and the Bodhisattva at Chandi Mendut. The author has the same opinion as Lt. Gen. Sanphet
Thammathikul (2018) and the Dutch archaeologists that the king who created it was "the Great Vishnu"
and "the Khmer King’s son." According to the evidence, he was supposed to be referring to "King

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Chaiyaworaman II," who was taken hostage at the Royal Court of Sailendra (likely in Chaiya) and then
followed to Chaiya. He learned how to construct religious sites using Srivijayan architecture with stone bars
and elegantly carved a Kranok pattern into a stone slab adorning a Buddhist place. As a result, after "King
Chaiyaworaman II" returned from Srivijaya to rule "the Kingdom of Cambodia" in 1345 B.E. (802 A.D.),
the art, architecture, and patterns of Srivijaya learned from The Great Vishnu's follow-up were used to
create Brahmanism and Shaivism temples. So "Srivijayan Art" was a root of " Java Art". Java Art was
adapted by Cambodian (Khom/Kherm) people and then they created "Nakon Si Mahantarapura" as “the
first Khmer Art” on Mount Phanom Gulen. Later, in the Siem Reap Basin, the new capital of "The Kingdom
of Khmer in the Phra Nakhon period," "Nakhon Hari Ralai," was established. It evolved into "The Kingdom
of Khmer during the late Angkorian Period." In 1895 B.E. (1352 A.D.), "King Rama U-Thong" of Ayutthaya
ordered Khun Luang Phra Ngua to attack "Phra Nakhon Thom or “Nakon Thom City". So the important
architecture as "Nakon Si Mahantarapura" was lost.

Lt. Gen. Sanphet Thammathikul (2018) expressed his opinion that there was evidence of "Sok Kok
Thom stone" in Nong Ya Kaew Subdistrict, Kok Sung District, SakKaew Province, referring to the story of
"King Chaiyaworaman II" after his return from Java in 1345 B.E. (802 A.D.). He established "Nakhon Hari
Ralai" as the new capital of the Khmer. The shrine built during the "Kingdom of Khmer during the Angkorian
Period" imitated architectural art and motifs from "Java Art" (Srivijaya Art was the root of Java Art) which
was brought in when "King Chaiyaworaman II" went to live and learn the sciences of architecture in Java,
particularly with the construction of the Srivijaya King. Later, it was revealed that at least 1,000-year-old
stone castles in Thailand and Cambodia corresponded to the "Kingdom of Khmer during the Angkorian
Period." In short, "these stone castle arts in Thailand and Cambodia," which are claimed to be influenced
by "The Kingdom of Khmer during the Angkorian Period" and "Java art," are actually derivations from
"Srivijaya Art" or "Siamese Art." " (Srivijaya Art was the root of Java Art and Khmer Art)

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1) Original or root of Srivijayan Architecture was started from Chaiya in Thailand such as Chedi of Wat Kaew.
2) Srivijayan Architectural Influence in Indonesia: Borobudur and Prambanan Temple in Indonesia.
3) Srivijayan Architectural Influence in Cambodia: Ankor Wat (Nakon Wat) in Cambodia.

Figure: Srivijayan Architecture in the South-East Asia (1) Thailand→2) Indonesia→3) Cambodia)
Source: Nuanla-ong (2022)

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As examples, the Nakhon Si Thammarat pillar court and Thevalai Jatukamramthep illustrate a truly
Srivijaya art form established today and designed by Lt. Gen. Sanphet Thammathikul:

King Rama IX adorned and anointed the top of the City Pillar Shrine of Nakon Si Thammarat, Sisaket and Chainat to be
enshrined at the City Pillar Shrine in these provivces in 2530 B.E. or 1987 A.D. (left picture). Later, King Rama IX ordered his
son who is King Rama X to anoint the City Pillar Shrine of Nakon Si Thammarat in 2543 B.E. or 2000 A.D. (right picture).

The City Pillar Shrine of Nakon Si Thammarat is designed by Lt. Gen. Sanphet Thammathikul (left picture). (Auspicious of
Nakon Si Thammarat-middle picture) The valuable and beautiful works of Srivijayan Art. He designed it from his knowledge
about history and art. The important example is the design of Jatukamramthep with 9 heads image which is built at Petra
Island in Chumphon. It is the most closely matched with Srivijayan Art (right picture).

Figure: The City Pillar Shrine of Nakon Si Thammarat and Jatukamramthep with 9 heads image are
designed by Lt. Gen. Sanphet Thammathikul.
Source: Sippanan Nuanla-ong (2020) and adapted picture from the achives of the Prime Minister General
Prem Tinsulanon and the Siamrath Newspaper in acebook of Thevalai Jatukamramthep (2014).

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Jatukamramthep image is a symbol of Phra Siam Thevathirat of Suvarnnabhumi Empire (Srivijayan Art).

The distinction between the Thai and Srivijaya Kranok patterns portrayed in Thevalai Jatukamramtep is that the "Srivijaya
Kranok pattern" has a rounded tip, comparable to the "Bracken Fern form design" (Pakkud” in Thai).

Figure: Thevalai Jatukamramthep was designed and planned by Lt. Gen. Sanphet Thammathikul, a Siam
expert and historian, in the Kuiburi District, Prachuap Khiri Khan Province (Srivijaya). He created it by
amassing knowledge and transmitting Siamese philosophy (Srivijaya) through the "Srivijaya Kranok Pattern"
created by Srivijaya artisan masters.
Source: Sippanan Nuanla-ong (2018 and 2020)

Police Lieutenant General Sanpech Thammathikul (พล.ต.ท.สรรเพชญ ธรรมาธิกลุ (, President of
the Jatukham Rammathep Creation Project (Thevalai Jatukamramthep) in Kui Buri district, Prachuap Khiri
Khan Province, Academic expert on Srivijayan history who created it by amassing knowledge and
transmitting Siamese philosophy (Srivijaya) through the "Srivijayan Kranok Pattern" created by Srivijayan
artisan masters. The origins of "Java Art," "Cham Art," and "Thai Art" were from “Srivijaya Kranok Pattern”
which was the root of these arts and they are Srivijaya's virtues and sciences in Mahayana Buddhism. Thai

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art is classified into four types: Kranok (Kranok), Naree (Nang), Koch (Chang), and Krabi (Monkey), as well
as the evolution of Thai art in relation to Lavo art (archaeologists often call it "Dvaravati Art"). It has been
converted into "Lopburi Art," "Sri Satchanalai Art," "Ayothaya Art," and "Ayutthaya Art." The distinction
between the Thai and Srivijaya Kranok patterns portrayed in Thevalai Jatukamramtep is that the "Srivijaya
Kranok pattern" has a rounded tip, comparable to the "Bracken Fern form design" (Pakkud” in Thai). Such
patterns show a complex combination of science and art (according to the 2425 B.E. (1882 A.D.) Dictionary
of the Royal Society, "pattern" refers to the pattern of artistic paths written in lines or carved into different
patterns, such as Khruea Thao and Bai Thet). In the past, artisan masters defined the fundamental patterns
of "paterrns" to construct additional high art designs. As a result, the template is known by a variety of
names, including Kra Chang Ta-oi, Rakroi, Prachamyam, Bua Ngai, Bua Kwam, Kra Chang Choem, Kra
Chang Patiyan, Phum Khao Bi Na, Kra Chang Ruan, Kra Chang Raeng Sing, and Kradan. The term "Kranok"
refers to a type of Thai pattern, according to the 2425 B.E. (1882 A.D.) Royal Dictionary. Its origins can be
traced back to Thai artisan masters who crafted "single one Kranok" (Lotus bud style) by creating a
rectangle, dragging the diagonal, dividing the rectangle into two parts, forming a non-equal right triangle,
drawing a half lotus into the triangle below, and finally making a crest into a shape pattern. "Single One
Kranok", consisting of "Ngao," "Kap" and "Yot", all called "Three Kranok", is the first major template for Thai
pattern drawing. Three Kanok is an up-and-down crest that can be diverted in all directions, making it
simple to draw because it forms numerous types of patterns and can be adapted and flipped into many
other remarkable patterns. They are tugged to soften the pattern's tops. The tip is flicked as if it were a
raging flame. Each splice in the line is divided gracefully. There are many types of "Three Kranok" and they
have different names, such as Pleofai, Hang Pla Lai, Kankhot, Hang Hong, Bai Thet, Hang To Bai Thet, etc.
Pleofai and Hang Pla Lai are a Thai Kranok pattern with a delicate appearance. Their tips flicker like a

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blazing flame. According to historical and archaeological evidence, " Thai art is classified into seven
periods, as follows:
1) Funan Art or Suvarnabhumi Period Art
2) Siam Tamponling Period Art or the Kingdom of Din Daeng (Red Land) Period Art
3) Srivijaya Period Art or Siam-Lowa Period Art
4) Si Satchanalai Sukhothai Period Art
5) Ayothaya Period Art
6) Ayutthaya Period Art
7) Rattanakosin Period Art

Southern Thailand is an important landscape to study the prosperous period of
Suvarnnabhumi in period of Siam-Srivijaya as the philosophy of Srivijaya since there were many traces to
support the flourishing culture in the Srivijayan age in the form of both tangible and intangible values. It
can be said that each object in the historic site has a meaning of itself. It can be interpreted some symbolic
aspects of Srivijaya including:

1) Phra Borommathat as a sign of Nippan (Nirvana) in Srivijayan culture: The Sailendra Dynasty
was the ancestors of Srivijaya. People believed in Nippan as the highest point of Dharma. Therefore, they
tried to build an architecture which was the sign of Nippan such as Buddhists believed that if someone
could find success in Nippan, people would build Phra Borommathat for him. They could reach the truths
in Dhamma from working. Their activities had to keep the rules of religion such as those of Buddhism.
Nuanla-ong (2010) stated that when they were working, they would practice concentration and intelligence
at the same time. The top of Phra Borommathat (lotus bud finial) on the lotus base represents Nippan

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Dhamma (Nirvana) while the four sticks on the top means Ariyasaj Si (the Four Noble Truths: 1. Suffering
2. Source of Suffering 3.Going out from Suffering and 4. Ways or Solutions to Go Out from Suffering). An
opening on the wall of the chedi was of free space with no valuable objects (such as money and jewelry)
contained in it. This available space in the chedi as well Nirvana means Nippan. Therefore, people use the
areas of Phra Borommathat to practice a sitting from of concentration by themselves to success Nippan
as their ancestors used to.

2) Name in Thai: For example, Khun Pan Wang (Hun Pan-Hung) which means a thousand palaces, Khun
Pan Pan (Hun Pan-Pan), a son of Khun Pan Wang which was the name of an antique state of Pan Pan at
Vieng Sra in Surat Thani; and Phra Nang Jammathavee, which means that when she was a child, she
always sneezed (Jam means sneeze).

3) Bodhisattva Image as a Sign of Nippan (Nirvana): Srivijayan people respected the Bodhisattva who
was intelligent, sincere, loving and kind-hearted. Nuanla-ong (2010) stated that if a king followed the
behaviour of the Bodhisattva, he could establish loyalty among people. Descendants of these kings who
succeeded in Nippan would build Bodhisattva images for their ancestors after their death. Nevertheless,
there were no details about Bodhisattva images such as the builder’s names and the time of building. The
Bodhisattva images mostly represent purity, wisdom, kindness and patience.

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Figure: Sketching of Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara found at Chaiya
Source: Sippanan Nuanla-ong (2009)
4) Phra Narai Image might be as a Sign of King of Srivijaya: Srivijayan people believed that Phra Nari
Image would protect Srivijayan people and travellers in everywhere such as along trading route and settle
town around Takuapa-Ban Don Bay route.

The Srivijaya study involves various evidence and traces including, archeological evidence,
architecture, recording and comparing with information about geography, weather and astronomy to prove
the location of capital of Srivijaya Empire. There are significant traces around Ban Don Bay associated with
the geography in the Srivijayan age.

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4. Scientific Process and Evidence Used to Prove the Location of the Capital of Srivijaya

Investigating the Location of Srivijaya Empire based on Knowledge of Time, Seasons
(Astrology, Geography and Climate) and Ancient Shipping Routes through the Memories of
I-Ching

The geography of the southern Thai peninsula can be generally divided into two parts, namely
the east coast and the west coast. Surat Thani is in the east coast and in the upper southern region where
there is an endowment of biodiversity which has variety in genuses, species, and ecosystems. It presents
both rich and natural abundance. Tingsabadh (2006: 44) in Nuanla-ong (2010) states that Surat Thani has
an area of 12,890 square kilometers and a population of approximately 861,200 in 1997 A.D. The province
is well endowed with natural resources, with forest covering about 25% of the area, while the coastal zone
has mangrove forest. Its rich natural resources provide raw materials for industries in the area. As an
agricultural province with production both on land and in water, landscape around Ban Don Bay reveals
important beliefs and cultures from Srivijaya influence such as in religion, architectural and commercial
styles. Many activities in around this bay and the southern peninsula related to the interaction of geography
and the technology of merchant ships. Takuapa-Ban Don Bay was a significant route to avoid the doldrums
for the trans-peninsular route.

There are significant characteristics of geography around Ban Don Bay associated with the
geography in the Srivijayan age. The important places of Srivijaya were always located on a mountain or a
sandune, following Sailendra culture, for a religious place, temple or castle. Most Buddha and Bodhisattva
images were made from red sandstone. There are many red sandstone and limestone mountains around
Ban Don Bay that are the sources of the red soil in this area. The geographic landmark of Chaiya was its