The Science of Cooking Every Question Answered to Perfect Your Cooking

theSCIENCE ofCOOKING



theSCIENCE ofCOOKING

DR. STUART FARRIMOND

Senior Editors First American Edition, 2017
Bob Bridle, Claire Cross Published in the United States by DK Publishing
345 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014
Senior Art Editors
Alison Gardner, Kathryn Wilding Copyright © 2017 Dorling Kindersley Limited
DK, a Division of Penguin Random House LLC
Editors
Alice Kewellhampton, Shashwati Tia Sarkar 17 18 19 20 21 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
001—261482—Sept/2017
Toby Mann
All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under the
US Editors copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be
Cheri Clark, Lori Hand reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system,

Designers or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic,
Vicky Read, Rehan Adbul mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise), without

Illustrators the prior written permission of the copyright owner.
Peter Bull, Nick Radord, Andy@KJA-artists Published in Great Britain by Dorling Kindersley Limited.

Senior Jacket Creative A catalog record for this book is available from
Nicola Powling the Library of Congress.

Jackets Assistant ISBN 978-1-4654-6369-2
Laura Bithell
NOTE: The author and publisher advocate sustainable food
Senior Pre-production Producer choices, and every effort has been made to include only
Tony Phipps sustainable foods in this book. Food sustainability is, however,
a shifting landscape, and so we encourage readers to keep up
Senior Producer to date with advice on this subject, so that they are equipped
Ché Creasey
to make their own ethical choices.
Creative Technical Support
Sonia Charbonnier, Tom Morse DK books are available at special discounts when purchased
in bulk for sales promotions, premiums, fund-raising, or
Managing Editor
Dawn Henderson educational use. For details, contact: DK Publishing Special
Markets, 345 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014
Managing Art Editor
Marianne Markham [email protected]

Art Director Printed and bound in China
Maxine Pedliham
All images ©
Publishing Director Dorling Kindersley Limited
Mary-Clare Jerram For further information see:

www.dkimages.com

A WORLD OF IDEAS:
SEE ALL THERE IS TO KNOW

www.dk.com

CONTENTS 8

FOREWORD

TASTE AND FLAVOR 10 FISH AND SEAFOOD 64

KITCHEN ESSENTIALS In Focus: FISH 66
76
An Essential Guide to KNIVES 20 The Process of PAN-FRYING 84
An Essential Guide to POTS AND PANS
An Essential Guide to UTENSILS The Process of SOUS VIDE 92

MEAT AND POULTRY 22 94
108
In Focus: MEAT 24 EGGS AND DAIRY 120
The Process of GRILLING 26
The Process of SLOW COOKING
In Focus: EGGS

28 In Focus: MILK

In Focus: CHEESE

30

44

54



RICE, GRAINS, AND PASTA 126 HERBS, SPICES, 178
OILS, AND FLAVORINGS
In Focus: RICE 180
The Process of PRESSURE COOKING 128 188
194
VEGETABLES, FRUITS, 134 In Focus: HERBS
NUTS, AND SEEDS In Focus: CHILES 206
In Focus: OIL AND FAT
The Process of STEAMING 208
In Focus: POTATOES 146 BAKING AND 222
The Process of MICROWAVING SWEET THINGS 230
In Focus: NUTS 152 236
160 In Focus: FLOUR 244
164 The Process of OVEN BAKING
174 In Focus: SUGAR
In Focus: CHOCOLATE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND INDEX

Dr. Stuart Farrimond

FOREWORD

Every cook knows that preparing food for others can bring a joy that is even more fulfilling than eating.

Cooking is termed an “art” and is steeped in rituals sprinkling of chemistry shows why a steak left to
and processes that chefs throughout the ages have sizzle on a hot grill evolves from a bland and chewy
followed blindly. Many of these “rules,” however, serve hunk of flesh into a mouthwatering, meaty delight.
to confuse and stifle creativity. Science and logic show
us that often customs are simply wrong. For example, With striking imagery and diagrams, this book
beans do not need to be soaked for hours before delves into the most commonly used cooking
cooking, meat does not need to be rested to seal in processes and techniques; shines a spotlight on core
juices, and marinated meat can taste better if left for ingredients, such as meat, fish, dairy, spices, flour, and
one hour, rather than five. eggs; and offers a guide on how to equip your kitchen
with the best gear.
In this book, I answer more than 160 of the most
common culinary questions and conundrums, drawing Writing in informal language and with minimal
on the latest research to give meaningful and practical jargon, my aim is for you, the reader to understand
answers. I show that science can be a vehicle for fully more of the science of food and cooking to help lift
appreciating the wonders that we see in the kitchen the lid on their creativity. No longer shackled by the
every day. With the aid of a microscope, we can see rules of a recipe, cooks can use science to invent
how a whisk transforms the yellow slime of egg white dishes and experiment. After you read this book, I
into a snow-white cotton-like meringue. And a sincerely hope that you feel inspired and equipped to
cook in a new way that will both delight and surprise.

“My aim is for you, the reader
to understand more of

the science of food and
cooking, to help lift the lid

on your creativity.”



TASTE &FLAVOR

012 // 013 The Science of Taste and Flavor

Why do we

COOK?

To think of cooking as purely functional would be to look at just one aspect of it.

There are various reasons to cook food, but Cooking helps digestion Fat melts, chewy
essentially our very existence pivots on our ability to
cook. Cooking makes food more edible and, in so connective tissue in meat softens into nutritious
doing, cuts down on the time it takes to digest it. gelatin, and proteins unravel, or “denature,”
Great apes, our primate ancestors, spend 80 percent from their tightly coiled structure into ones that
of their day chewing food. Learning to grind, digestive enzymes can break down more easily.
purée, dry, or preserve food helped us to digest it
more speedily, but it was the advent of cooking, at Starches are softened When heated in water,
least one million years ago, that enabled us to
spend less time chewing and digesting food and clustered granules of hard-to-digest carbohydrates
more time thinking and focusing on other pursuits. unravel and soften. This “gelatinization” of energy-
Today, we spend just five percent of our day dense starches transforms vegetables and cereal
eating. So how else does cooking food benefit us? flours so the intestines can easily process them.

It makes food safe Cooking destroys bacteria, Nutrients are released Without cooking foods

microbes, and many of the toxins these produce. to break down their starches, significant amounts
Raw meat and fish can be rendered safe, and heat of a food’s nourishment are locked up in
destroys many plant toxins, such as the deadly “resistant” starch that cannot be digested.
substance, phytohemagglutinin, in kidney beans. Heating also forces some of the vitamins and
minerals that are confined inside cells to be
Flavors multiply Cooking makes food taste liberated, increasing how much of these essential
substances the body can absorb.
incredible. Heat browns meats, vegetables, breads,
and cakes; caramelizes sugars; and releases locked- It helps us socialize The ritual of cooking and
in flavors from herbs and spices in a process
known as the Maillard reaction (see pp16–17). sharing is entrenched in our psyche, bringing
families and friends together. Research shows that
regularly eating with others improves well-being.

“Cooked food tastes incredible. Cooking releases
locked-in flavors and brings new textures to foods.”

TO ENHANCE
FLAVOR

TO AID TO MAKE
DIGESTION FOOD SAFE

TO HELP US TO SOFTEN
SOCIALIZE STARCHES

TO RELEASE
NUTRIENTS

014 // 015 The Science of Taste and Flavor

How do we THALAMUS Taste signals are relayed to the
thalamus, which passes signals
TASTE? to other regions of the brain.
As you inhale, airborne
Taste is a surprisingly complex process. molecules of food are
vacuumed up into the nose.
A multisensory experience, taste involves When signals reach the frontal
aroma, texture, and heat, all combining to create lobe, we become aware of what
an overall impression. we are smelling and tasting.

As you lift food to your lips, before any food FRONTAL
actually reaches the tongue, aromas flood LOBE
the nostrils. Teeth then break down food,
releasing more aromas, and the food’s TONGUE
texture, or “mouthfeel,” becomes
critical to its appreciation. In the
mouth, more flavor-carrying
particles waft to the back of
the oral cavity, up to the smell
receptors, but now they are
experienced as if coming from the
tongue. Sweet, salty, bitter, sour,
umami, and fatty taste receptors
(see opposite) are stimulated, and
a cascade of messages filters to the
brain. As you chew, hot food cools,
increasing taste intensity: at 86–95ºF
(30–35ºC), taste receptors are most active.

MYTH BUSTER NERVE PATHWAYS Taste receptors on the
FOR TASTE tongue register basic tastes.
Myth Nerves carry taste
DIFFERENT TONGUE REGIONS DETECT DIFFERENT TASTES messages to the brain.
Aroma molecules pass to the smell sensors
Truth at the back of the nose. Here the brain
interprets them as taste from the mouth.
In 1901, German scientist D. P. Hänig promoted the idea
that different tastes were stronger in different parts of the
tongue. This research was later used to create a “taste map.”
Now, we know that all tastes are sensed across the tongue
and difference in sensitivity across the tongue is negligible.

S A LT Y SWEET

SALTY TASTE RECEPTORS PRIMARILY TRIGGERED BY
ARE STIMULATED BY SODIUM SUGARS, SWEET TASTE

(TYPICALLY IN SALT), RECEPTORS SIGNAL THAT
IMPORTANT FOR KEEPING A FOOD IS A SOURCE OF
THE BODY’S INTERNAL SALT
EASILY DIGESTED
LEVELS BALANCED. E N E R G Y.

SOUR BITTER FATTY

WHEN RECEPTORS DETECT BITTER TASTE RECEPTORS IN THE LAST DECADE,
ACIDS IN FRUITS, THIS ARE TRIGGERED BY A WIDE RESEARCH HAS SHOWN THAT
SUGGESTS A SOURCE OF TASTE RECEPTOR CELLS CAN
RANGE OF POTENTIALLY
VITAMIN C (ASCORBIC ACID), HARMFUL NATURAL TOXIC SENSE FAT MOLECULES IN
OR ACTS AS A WARNING SUBSTANCES, ALERTING THE FOOD, INDICATING THAT THE
THAT A FOOD IS
DECAYING. BODY TO DANGEROUS FOOD IS A RICH SOURCE
FOOD. O F E N E R GY.

UMAMI

UMAMI RECEPTORS DETECT
SAVORY, MEATY TASTES,

STIMULATED BY GLUTAMATE
FROM AN AMINO ACID,

WHICH SUGGESTS THAT A
FOOD PROVIDES
PROTEIN.

016 // 017 The Science of Taste and Flavor

Why does cooked WHAT'S GOING ON?THE MAILLARD REACTION

FOOD Amino acids—the building blocks of proteins—clash with
TASTE nearby sugar molecules (even meats contain traces of sugar)
SO GOOD? to fuse into new substances. Fused molecules fling
themselves apart and crash into others to combine, separate,
Taste is a surprisingly complex process. and reform in countless ways. Hundreds of new substances
are born, some brown in color and many carrying aromas.
In 1912, French medical researcher Louis-Camille As the temperature climbs, more changes occur. The exact
Maillard made a discovery that would leave a lasting flavors and aromas generated by browning depend on a
impact on cooking science. He analyzed how the food’s unique combination of protein types and sugars.
building blocks of proteins (amino acids) and sugars react
together, and uncovered a complex family of reactions BEFORE
that begin to take place when protein-containing foods,
such as meats, nuts, cereals, and many vegetables, reach UP TO 284°F 140°C
around 284ºF (140ºC).
The start of cooking
We now call these molecular changes the “Maillard The temperature needs to reach about 284ºF
reaction,” and they help us make sense of the many (140ºC) before sugar molecules and amino
ways in which food browns and takes on flavor as it acids have enough energy to react together.
cooks. Seared steak, crispy fish skin, the aromatic crust While the outer layers of the food are damp,
on bread, and even the aroma of toasted nuts and it will not warm above the boiling point of
spices are all thanks to this reaction. The interplay of water (212ºF/100ºC), so surface moisture
the two components creates enticing aromas unique to must be driven off by dry heat first.
each food. Understanding the Maillard reaction helps
the cook in many ways: adding fructose-rich honey to WHAT'S GOING ON? AMINO ACIDS SUGARS
a marinade fuels the reaction; pouring cream into (PROTEINS)
simmering sugar provides milk proteins and sugars for
butterscotch and caramel flavors; and brushing pastry
with egg provides extra protein for the crust to brown.

Why Does Cooked Food Taste So Good?

284ºF

(140ºC) is around when
Maillard reactions begin,

creating new flavors
and aromas.

DURING THE MAILLARD REACTION AFTER

284–320+°F 140–160+°C 356°F > 180°C >

284°F (140°C) 302°F (150°C) 320°F (160°C) 356°F (180°C)
At around 284ºF (140ºC) Maillard reactions intensify As the temperature increases, When food reaches 356ºF (180ºC), another
protein-containing foods start to as the temperature rises. As molecular changes continue reaction called pyrolysis, or burning, begins
turn brown in the Maillard reaction. food reaches 302ºF (150ºC), and more enticing new flavors and food starts to char, destroying aromas
This is also called the “browning it generates new flavor and aromas are created—the and leaving acrid, bitter flavors. Carbohydrates,
reaction,” but color is just part molecules twice as quickly flavor enhancement peaks at proteins, and then fats, break down, producing
of the story. At 284ºF (140ºC), as it did at 284ºF (140ºC), this point. There are now some potentially harmful substances. Watch
proteins and sugars clash and adding more complex cascades of malty, nutty, meaty, food closely and remove from the heat
fuse, creating hundreds of new flavors and aromas. and caramel-like flavors. before it begins to blacken.
flavor and aroma substances.

Amino acids and Flavor reactions Flavor reactions Carbohydrates and proteins
sugars start to combine double in speed. accelerate to a peak. form black, acrid substances.

to create new flavors.

018 // 019 The Science of Taste and Flavor

Why do some RED WINE BEER
flavors go together
The nutty aromas from Strong-tasting, dark beers carry
SO WELL? benzaldehyde, oak aromas from spicy notes along with brothy
flavor compounds that link to
lactones, and smoky and
tobacco flavors, interplay with flavors created when beef
undergoes Maillard browning
roasted beef flavors.
(see pp16–17).
COFFEE
Taste is a surprisingly complex process.
Many of coffee’s 200-plus
Each food has characteristic flavor compounds, complex, rich flavors are due
the chemicals that lend it its aroma, pungency,
and taste. The names and chemical formulas of to the roasting of beans,
these varied substances include fruity esters, spicy which share compounds
phenolics, flowery and citrusy terpenes, and
piquant sulfur-containing molecules. Until created when beef is
recently, discovering foods that worked together seared or roasted.
well was largely trial and error, but a rise in
experimental chefs has seen a new “science” MILK
of food pairing. Researchers have cataloged the Grass-fed beef pairs well with
flavor compounds of hundreds of foods, showing heated milk flavors, owing to
that classical food combinations do share many pasture-raised cattle’s higher
flavor compounds, while also revealing more concentration of fatty-flavored,
unusual matches. However, the theories do not fragrant lactone chemicals present
account for a food’s texture and don’t always hold
true for Asian and Indian cuisines, where spice in the meat.
combinations have very few or no flavor links.
BUTTER
Here we look at which foods pair well with
beef based on shared flavor compounds. Two highly potent flavor molecules
The thicker the line, the more shared flavor that convey butter’s buttery and
compounds there are. creamy aroma, diacetyl and
acetoin, are shared by beef.
COLOR KEY These rich notes are greatest
in prime cuts.
MEAT GRAINS SPICE
ALCOHOL
FISH AND VEGETABLES
SEAFOOD PLANT
EGGS DERIVATIVES
AND DAIRY

BLACK TEA WHEAT

Smoky compounds in black The browned crust of wheat bread shares
tea generated from drying, numerous highly aromatic flavor

heating, and the aging compounds with roasted beef (thanks
of tea leaves after picking to the Maillard reaction, see pp16–17).
closely match and intensify
Among the dozens of chemicals,
those of roasted methylpropanal conveys malty notes
beef. and pyrroline molecules imbue the

BEEF shared earthy, roast-like, and
popcorn-like notes.
ROASTED BEEF PRODUCES A
RANGE OF MEATY, BROTHY, ONION FENUGREEK
GRASSY, EARTHY, AND SPICY
FLAVORS, AND ANALYSIS Cooked and browned onions Fenugreek owes its curry-like aroma to
(often incorrectly termed a chemical called sotolon, which at low
REVEALS THAT IT IS THE
INGREDIENT THAT SHARES THE “caramelized”) have a variety levels has the flavor of maple syrup.
MOST FLAVOR COMPOUNDS WITH of sulfur-containing “oniony” The same molecule exists in roasted
beef. Add fenugreek leaves to a sauce
OTHER FOODS. flavor molecules,
similar to those in or toast the spices alongside beef
to enhance these subtle notes
cooked beef. while adding new spicy
and flowery aromas.

PEANUT BUTTER EDAMAME EGG

The heating and grinding of Edamame beans are legumes When cooked, the fats in egg yolks
peanuts in butter making with refreshing green break down into a variety of new
creates nutty-flavored
pyrazines and fried, smoky flavors, but when cooked flavors, such as “green” and
aromas, that pair extremely they also have parallels “grassy” hexanal, and the fatty,
well with beef.
with the nutty “fried” aroma molecule
aromas of beef. decadienal, both of which
are found in cooked beef.
CAVIAR GARLIC
MUSHROOMS
Fish eggs are a surprising pairing Savory garlic flavors are
with beef, but protein- and fat-rich carried by powerful Rich in brothy, savory-tasting
glutamic acid (glutamate),
caviar is an intense source of sulfur-containing aroma mushrooms generate
savory umami (from glutamic compounds, some of which sulfur-containing meaty
acid) and also carries meat-like have meaty, beefy, and “raw flavor compounds
when cooked.
amine aroma compounds. meat” characteristics.



KITCHEN ESSENTIALS

022 // 023 The Science of Kitchen Essentials

The cutting edge is called the
bevel, where the metal narrows

to a fraction of a millimeter.

An essential guide to Carbon steel

KNIVES This metal is a simple blend of iron and carbon (unlike other
steels that have extra elements added). A well-cared-for blade
A few select knives meet most kitchen needs. can stay sharp longer than stainless steel, but carbon steel is
prone to rust; so knives require careful maintenance,
Many chefs consider good-quality, durable, sharp cleaning, drying, and oiling.
knives among their most prized possessions.
Stainless steel
How knives are constructed
Chromium is added to the iron–carbon mix to produce a
Knives are either stamped or forged. The most more flexible, rust-resistant steel. Good-quality stainless
widely sold are lightweight stamped blades, made steel has a fine grain for sharpness, and it can be alloyed
with other metals for durability. Easy to sharpen and strong,
by punching a hole out of a sheet of steel. Forged stainless steel is often most practical for the home cook.
blades are made by beating, heating, and cooling
metal, which forces metal atoms into minute crystal Ceramic
clusters, creating a more durable “fine-grained”
Very sharp, light, and hard, ceramic blades are a good choice
metal. The following is a guide to the basic for cutting through meat. The blades are usually made of
knives every cook should own. zirconium oxide, ground to a razor-sharp edge. The blades
don’t rust, but are hard to sharpen and don’t flex like steel,
SERRATED KNIFE so they can easily break or chip if they hit bone or are dropped.

Use for A carving knife should be thinner than a chef’s
Foods that have a tough crust or smooth, knife as it is used to make the finest of cuts.
delicate skin, such as bread, cake, or large
tomatoes where precision isn’t required.

What to look for
A long blade, a comfortable handle, and

deep, pointed serrations.

Comfort and grip are more important
than the actual handle material.

An Essential Guide to Knives
The blade can extend fully or partially
through the handle, known as its “tang.”

A full tang gives more flexibility.

PARING KNIFE A large curvature has CHEF’S KNIFE
a rocking movement
Use for for fine chopping, Use for
Slicing, peeling, coring, and while a flatter curve Finely slicing, dicing, disjointing
delicate work such as stripping is ideal for slicing. large cuts of meat, and crushing garlic
cloves with the side of the blade.
out vanilla beans.
What to look for What to look for
A thin blade that’s either A handle that fits your hand and isn’t
spear-pointed, or, for fast, precise cuts, overly heavy. The knife should feel
is flat so it’s flush with the board.
balanced and weighty enough to
divide meat from bone.

Forged blades tend to taper toward
the tip; stamped blades are the same

thickness the length of the blade.

When the blade broadens near the A shorter blade (2½–4in/6–10cm)
handle, this is called a “bolster” allows for precision work.

and indicates a forged metal.

Aim for fewer than 40 serrations and a thin CARVING KNIFE
blade. Fewer serrations will pierce skin
more cleanly and with greater pressure. Use for
Making thin cuts of meat

from a large cut.
What to look for
A long, thin, very sharp cutting edge
with a pointed tip. It should have less
curvature than the chef’s knife as it’s
for slicing rather than rocking.

Sawlike points exert intense pressure over a tiny
area to puncture the surface, then the scalloped
blades slide into the crevices to slice food open.

024 // 025 The Science of Kitchen Essentials Stainless steel–clad 3 quart (18cm)
4 quart (20cm) saucepan for aluminum is easy-care saucepan for
cooking small
large portions of rice or pasta, and heat-efficient. meals and boiling
and soups, stews, and stocks. vegetables.

An essential guide to

POTS AND PANS

A good core collection helps to give great results.

The type of metal you choose for your cookware Stainless steel
affects how food cooks, but more important is a
pan’s thickness: the thicker the base, the more Heavy, durable stainless steel is good for everyday saucepans,
evenly the heat from the burner spreads across it. but conducts heat poorly (unless clad around aluminum or
Corrodible metals such as carbon steel and cast
iron should be “seasoned” before first use by heating copper), and food sticks easily. The shiny surface makes it easy to
with oil three or four times to form a nonstick see when food is browning when deglazing or making a sauce.
“patina.” Store-bought nonstick pans have a waxy
resin, but this degrades above 500ºF (260ºC), so Copper
they suit delicate foods that stick, such as fish.
Heavy and expensive but responsive to temperature changes, a
thick-based copper pan conducts heat faster than other materials.

It reacts to acid and may be coated to avoid discoloring food and
leaving a metallic taste. It’s too heavy to suit sauté pans or woks.

Aluminum

Conducts heat quickly, making it very responsive to temperature
changes, but loses heat rapidly off the stove. It is lightweight, so

good for frying pans, sauté pans, and saucepans. “Anodized”
aluminum has a coating to keep it from reacting with acidic foods.

WOK Carbon steel CAST-IRON SKILLET
is sturdy but
Use for heat-responsive.
Stir-frying over the hottest flame, steaming,
Use for
and deep-fat frying. Root veg, meats, sticky foods (if seasoned),
What to look for putting under the broiler and in the oven.

A tight-fitting lid, a thin base, and long sturdy What to look for
handle. Avoid nonstick, which won’t tolerate A long, heat-proof handle (cast iron retains
high stir-frying heats. Carbon steel is ideal; to
season it, scrub off the existing oil coat, heat heat) and a grip handle to aid in lifting.
to blacken, add oil to smoke, then rub off the
oil when cool. Do this 3–4 times before use.

An Essential Guide to Pots and Pans

2 quart (16cm) ROUND CASSEROLE DISH
saucepan for
melting butter, Use for
caramelizing Slow-braising meats.
sugar, making
sauces, and What to look for
poaching eggs. A tight-fitting lid and easy-to-grasp handles.
Although heavy, cast iron is ideal because it
keeps a steady temperature, and an enamel
interior is durable and doesn’t react with acids.

SAUCEPANS Cast iron retains heat A round base, rather than oval,
for slow cooking. heats evenly over the burner.
Use for
Sauces, stews, soups, stocks, boiling Long handle 10IN (24CM) NONSTICK
FRYING PAN
vegetables, rice, and pasta.
What to look for Use for
Delicate fish, eggs, and crêpes.
Lids to retain moisture, and an extra
small-grip handle on large pans to aid in What to look for
lifting. Heat-proof handles are oven-friendly. A thick base and thick nonstick coat—

Carbon steel choose from a reputable supplier.

This heats up faster than stainless steel, but like iron, it
rusts and reacts with foods, so it needs to be seasoned to
make it as durable as stainless steel. It is best for woks,
frying pans, and skillets.

Cast iron Lightweight A thick base spreads heat
stainless steel- and avoids hot spots.
Very heavy, cast iron is dense and heats slowly, but, once heated, clad aluminium Curved sides are ideal
it retains heat well and is ideal for browning meat in a skillet or makes it easy to for whisking and gravies.
casserole. Bare cast iron rusts and reacts with acidic foods, so
season it to form a protective nonstick seal and clean carefully. toss food.

When seasoned, Small
cast iron is nonstick, but grip handle
avoid abrasive cleaners.

12IN (30CM) SAUTÉ PAN

Use for
Searing and frying large batches;
creating sauces and large meals.

What to look for
A tight-fitting lid to hold moisture, a long

handle, and a moderately heavy base.

MEASURING CUP

A clear tempered glass jug
accurately judges liquid
volumes. Because of water’s
surface tension, it is tricky to
judge its natural downward
bulge in a cup.

An essential guide to DIGITAL SCALES

UTENSILS Good-quality ones are
more precise than analogue.
Different models and materials will
suit particular cooking needs. Look for a base that
accommodates a large bowl,
a weight capacity of at least

11lb (5kg), a clear display,
and accuracy to a tenth
(0.1) of a unit.

It’s difficult to make good food without the HONING STEEL ROLLING PIN
appropriate tools. A handful of key utensils
will enable you to craft fantastic dishes. Metal steels realign and Wood holds flour well and doesn’t
straighten a worn knife conduct heat from the hands. Opt for
What you need edge, rather than sharpen a handleless, long pin with a tapered
it. Choose a heavy steel,
There are more materials and varieties of kitchen 10in (25cm) long. shape for pivoting and tilting.
tools and utensils than ever before, but when Diamond-coated and
choosing, carefully consider the pros and cons ceramic steels grind some
of each piece of equipment. Not every invention metal off, so can partially
is a step forwards—pay attention to how sharpen knives.
versatile it is and how the material works
with different ingredients.

OTHER USEFUL ITEMS BALLOON WHISK

· A Y-shaped peeler can be used by left- and right-handed Choose a balloon-shaped whisk with
cooks. Choose a sharp blade with a 1in (2.5cm) gap at least 10 wires for versatility and
between blade and handle to prevent clogging.
efficiency. Metal gives whisks a hard
· For turning and lifting food, look for tongs with a firm spring edge that aerates well and breaks up fat
action and scalloped fingers. Heat-resistant silicone ends
can be used on all surfaces. globules. Silicone whisks are an
alternative for nonstick surfaces.
· Look for a food processor with sharp, sturdy blades, a
dough blade, slicing and shredding disks, and a motor GRATER
housed under the work bowl (rather than a belt).
Choose one with a large grating surface.
· Choose a masher with a long, rigid metal handle and a A sturdy-based four-sided box grater
mashing disk with small, round, rather than wavy, holes. has holes for coarse shredding, fine
grating, zesting, and powdering.
· Useful cake-pan features include a quick-release clasp and
removable base.

· For a mortar and pestle, opt for a hard, slightly rough
surface, such as granite.

METAL SIEVE An Essential Guide to Utensils

Metal wires produce a very SLOTTED SPOON
fine-mesh sieve to keep
the smallest particles from Look for a long-handled, deep-bowled
passing through. A hook spoon. Stainless steel is thin and rigid so
opposite the handle lets a
sieve rest over a pan. more adept at sliding under floating
morsels than bulkier plastic or silicone.
THERMOMETER
LADLE
Look for one with a probe that can rest in a
pan. Those that read to 410ºF (210ºC), can A long-handled, stainless steel ladle skims
fat and froth from a stew or stock. A ladle
also be used for caramelizing sugar.
made from one piece of metal will last
MIXING BOWLS longer than one with a welded-on bowl.

Stainless steel lasts a long time, but can’t METAL SPATULA
be put in a microwave. Tempered glass is
A broad, long, slotted spatula that is thin
heat-resistant and microwave-friendly. and flexible is ideal for sliding under
Ceramic and stoneware can chip, are slow
to warm, so ideal for working with dough. delicate foods. For nonstick cookware,
use a sturdy plastic or silicone one.

RUBBER SPATULA

A rubber spatula is ideal for delicate work,
such as folding in whipped egg whites or

tempering chocolate. A heat-proof silicone
spatula is best for hot foods.

WOODEN SPOON

Wood is easy on nonstick surfaces and metal and is
a poor conductor of heat, so the handle stays cool
in hot food. A porous material, it absorbs food

particles and flavors so it needs thorough cleaning.

CHOPPING BOARD

Durable and good for all foods,
wooden boards have “give” so they
don’t dull knives, unlike granite and
glass. Plastic traps bacteria in grooves,

while wood has bacteria-killing
tannins, making it a hygienic choice.



MEAT & POULTRY

In focus 030 // 031 The Science of Meat and Poultry

MEAT

Meat forms the centerpiece of most traditional cooking. Understanding KNOW YOUR MEAT
its structure and composition helps you make the most of your cut.
The components of different meats—the
As varied as meats can appear, they are be conserved to keep cooked meat juicy. relative proportions of fat to muscle, the
all made of the same three tissues: muscle, fat, Connective tissue forms sheathes around quantity of connective tissue, and the type
and connective tissue. The varying proportions muscle fibers and connects muscles to bone— of muscle in the cut—determine their
of these tissues and the type of muscle tissue it slowly breaks down during cooking, ratios of fat and protein. All meats are great
in the cut determine the flavor and texture of imparting rich flavor to meat dishes. However, sources of protein; here we compare them.
a piece of meat, and therefore its best culinary at higher temperatures, connective tissue
purpose. Muscle, which powers movement in shrinks and squeezes moisture out of the meat. WHITE MEAT
the living animal, is red or pink in color and Fat is chewy and bland uncooked, but imparts
makes up the bulk of most cuts of meat. It is huge amounts of flavor when the fat cells burst Chicken
70 to 85 percent water—moisture that needs to open during cooking. Pale-colored chicken
meat is not high in fat,
SCIENCE COOKING FAT: MEDIUM so it has a dry mouthfeel
PROTEIN: HIGH if overcooked. Cooking
CONNECTIVE TISSUE LONG, SLOW COOKING it in a sauce can help
IS MADE OF PROTEINS TRANSFORMS CONNECTIVE FAT: MEDIUM to introduce moisture.
THAT SOFTEN AND BREAK PROTEIN: MEDIUM
DOWN WHEN HEATED TISSUE INTO VELVETY Duck
GELATIN, GIVING MEAT FAT: LOW Rich, dark duck meat
TO 126°F (52°C). PROTEIN: HIGH has a thick layer of
ITS SUCCULENCE. fat under the skin.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE Roasting, frying, or
Tough connective tissue joins grilling works best;
Bone-in cuts muscle fibers together, and prick or score the skin
In this T-bone steak, a section of connects muscle to the bone. first to help the fat melt.
bone divides the lean fillet meat
from the higher-fat sirloin, offering Turkey
With lots of muscle
a range of textures. and little fat, white
turkey meat is good
for stir-frying and
grilling. The dark
leg meat contains
more connective
tissue and can
be stewed.

RED MEAT

FILLET SIRLOIN FAT: HIGH Beef
PROTEIN: MEDIUM A cow’s large
SCIENCE Fat is made up endurance muscles
of millions of FAT: MEDIUM produce dark, rich
EACH FAT CELL CONTAINS tightly packed, PROTEIN: MEDIUM meat that suits both
A DROPLET OF OIL. THESE bubblelike cells. slow and fast cooking
BURST OPEN WHEN HEATED, FAT: HIGH methods. Cuts that
Fat layer PROTEIN: LOWEST contain muscle
DISSOLVING FLAVOR Fat is usually marbled with fat will
MOLECULES. found tucked under FAT: LOW be more succulent.
the skin, alongside PROTEIN: HIGH
COOKING connective tissue, Lamb
or around organs. Fat provides lambs
TASTELESS WHEN RAW, with their day-to-day
FAT TURNS INTO OIL WHEN SCIENCE COOKING fuel, so most cuts are In Focus: Meat
marbled with fat.
COOKED, CARRYING MUSCLE IS MADE OF TENDER CUTS NEED Lamb is suited to
FLAVOR AND GIVING A THOUSANDS OF HAIR- MINIMAL COOKING most methods of
WIDTH STRANDS, PACKED TO RETAIN MOISTURE. cooking, but the
MOIST MOUTHFEEL. WITH MOISTURE AND MARBLED MUSCLE CAN BE sinewy shoulder and
leg cuts need to be
FAT PROTEIN. COOKED SLOWLY. cooked down slowly.

Pork
Ranging from pale
pink to rose, pork
cuts often have a
thick layer of fat that
helps keep the meat
moist when cooking.
Lean fillets and steaks
require fast cooking
methods to stop them
from drying out.

Venison
As deer are ranging
animals, deer meat
contains more muscle
and connective tissue
than fat. Braise or
stew small, lean cuts
to conserve moisture,
or roast large cuts,
which will have a lot
of connective tissue.

MUSCLE

032 // 033 The Science of Meat and Poultry

How can I tell

IF MEAT IS GOOD QUALITY?

With so much meat plastic-wrapped and displayed under harsh supermarket
lighting, it can be hard to spot a top cut.

We tend to believe that the freshest, most WHAT TO LOOK FOR
flavorful red meat is bright cherry-red, IN RED MEAT
but is this always the case? Ask your
butcher for their tastiest cut, and you Consider the following points
might be shown one with a darker when buying red meat to help
hue that has been aged over time you judge its quality and
to create a deeper flavor and more inform your choice:
tender texture (see opposite).
The checklist, right, shows you FAT ENHANCES
how to judge meat when making FLAVOR. A YELLOW
a purchase to help you choose HUE SIMPLY SUGGESTS
the best possible cut. THE ANIMAL WAS

WHAT TO LOOK FOR GRASS-FED.
IN WHITE MEAT
THE SURFACE SHOULD BE
Use this checklist to help you SMOOTH AND NOT APPEAR
choose the freshest white meat: S T IC K Y O R S L IM Y, WH I CH

BREAST MEAT COULD SUGGEST THAT
SHOULD BE FIRM BACTERIA HAVE

AND PLUMP. PROLIFERATED ON
THE SURFACE.
BONES SHOULD FLESH
BE INTACT— SHOULD BE MEAT SHOULD
NOT BROKEN. HAVE A MILD BUT
BLEMISH NOT UNPLEASANT
-FREE.
SMELL.

FOR TENDER CUTS, CHOOSE ONE WITH
A FINE GRAIN AND LITTLE CONNECTIVE
TISSUE. FOR TOUGH CUTS, THE GRAIN

WILL BE THICKER, INDICATING THE
MUSCLE WAS WELL-USED.

THE SKIN SHOULD FOR STEWING, LOOK MARBLING IS
BE SMOOTH FOR CUTS WITH FAT A GOOD SIGN THAT
AND SOFT.
AND CONNECTIVE MEAT
WHITE CHICKEN BREAST TISSUE. IS FULL OF FLAVOR.

RED BEEF RUMP

Should I Avoid Buying Meat That Has Turned Brown?

Should I avoid buying

MEAT THAT HAS
TURNED BROWN?

JUST BUTCHERED 0hr The color of meat alone is not a reliable
Meat vacuum-packed indicator of its freshness or quality.
after slaughter can have
a natural purple hue.

The natural color of meat comes from a red oxygen-carrying

pigment, myoglobin, stored in the muscle tissue (see

p34). Different animals have varying levels of

myoglobin, with red meat containing more

Vacuum-packed than white and older animals having
meat is deprived
higher levels, giving their meat a darker
of oxygen, so is
dark in color. hue. Vacuum-packed meat deprived of

3 HOURS oxygen has a natural purple tinge. Once
Exposed to oxygen,
meat changes to a 3hr in contact with air, myoglobin changes
bright red color. color, turning meat bright red. If it stays

purple, this suggests that the animal

may have been stressed at slaughter and

its meat will be dry and firm. When

meat is dry-aged by butchers, it

Once a package has been opened darkens, its taste intensifies,
and oxygen comes into contact
with the myoglobin, the tissue and it loses moisture
becomes bright red.
and shrinks. So

brown meat may

not be spoiled—

7 HOURS use your senses of

If continuously 7hr touch and smell
exposed to oxygen, to judge whether
meat gradually it is okay to eat
darkens. (see left).

COLOR ENHANCER

CARBON MONOXIDE IS After a week, meat turns a
SOMETIMES ADDED TO deeper red as the oxygen

VACUUM PACKS—IT reacts with the myoglobin.
REACTS WITH MYOGLOBIN,

TURNING MEAT
RED.

How oxygen transforms 9 DAYS 9d
the color of meat Myoglobin browns the
longer it is exposed to
When exposed to oxygen, oxygen, giving the meat
myoglobin in the muscles turns a red-brown color.

red and then brown. When When meat is dry-aged in
butchers dry-age meat, the surface temperature-controlled conditions,
gradually darkens, while enzymes
it gradually darkens and may
in the meat slowly soften the start to gray around the edges.
texture and enhance the flavor.

034 // 035 The Science of Meat and Poultry

Why do different meats

LOOK AND TASTE SO DIFFERENT?

Variations in meat color between animals make a difference in how each meat is best cooked.

The color of meat is related to the levels of a red-colored, muscles, like those in a leg, are for endurance and need a
oxygen-supplying protein, myoglobin, in an animal’s muscles. steady oxygen supply, so have more myoglobin. Whiter “fast-
The higher the levels of myoglobin, the darker and redder the twitch” muscles, for short bursts of energy, need less oxygen,
meat, while lower levels of myoglobin result in paler meat. such as chicken breast muscles, designed for flapping wings.

Some animals have varying levels of myoglobin in different Proportions of light and dark meat affect flavor and texture.
muscles, depending on how that muscle is used, so an animal Darker, well-exercised muscles tend to have more protein,
can have both light and dark areas of meat. Dark “slow-twitch” fat droplets, iron, and flavor-generating enzymes.

HOW DIFFERENT-COLORED MEATS COMPARE 1.3

Myoglobin levels in different animals 1.2
1.1
This chart compares myoglobin levels in different animals and explains 1.0
how these levels affect the meat, with higher levels intensifying flavor and
lower levels creating a blander-tasting meat.

Average percentage of myoglobin in different meats 0.9

0.8 0.2% 0.3% 0.6%
Myoglobin Myoglobin Myoglobin
0.7 0.05% Meat—Reddish-pink Meat—Reddish-pink Meat—Reddish-pink

0.6 Myoglobin LAMB
Mea—Pinkish-white How much myoglobin?
Lamb has an average of 0.6%.
0.5 The meat is reddish-pink.

0.4 How do muscles
compare?
0.3
Cuts from the top of the leg,
0.2 such as lamb chump, have

0.1 PORK DUCK slow-twitch endurance
CHICKEN muscles, so the meat is a
How much myoglobin? How much myoglobin?
0.0 Pork has an average of Duck has an average of 0.3% darker red here.
0.2% and the meat is a and its meat tends to be darker Why does it matter?
How much myoglobin? The relatively high levels
Chicken has less than 0.05% reddish-pink color. than chicken and poultry. of myoglobin and fat give
and has a pinkish-white meat. How do muscles compare? How do muscles compare? juiciness and flavor, so only
Loin meat on the back is both Constantly on the move, ducks simple flavorings are needed.
How do muscles comapre? light and dark, while the leg have mostly dark, fatty muscle
The slow-twitch leg muscles
power daily walking, so the muscle is darker. for stamina.
Why does it matter? Why does it matter?
flesh on the leg is darker This pale, leaner meat The fat conveys and
than the breast. requires some flavoring. intensifies flavors, so the meat
needs little flavoring.
Why does it matter?
The darker leg meat has more
myoglobin, flavor-generating
enzymes, iron, and fat than the
less-used breast muscle. Light

meat needs extra flavoring.

A QUESTION OF AGE VISIBLE MYOGLOBIN Is It Better to Choose Organic Meat?

AS ANIMALS GROW OLDER, RED LIQUID POOLING AT Is it better to choose
MYOGLOBIN LEVELS THE BOTTOM OF A PACKAGE
ORGANIC MEAT?
INCREASE AS MUSCLES OF MEAT ISN'T BLOOD,
STRENGTHEN AND FAT BUT A MIX OF MYOGLOBIN Organic meat is sold as a tastier, healthier,
INCREASES, ADDING and more ethical alternative, but what are the facts?
AND WATER.
TO FLAVOR. Science shows us that animals that have had enough
exercise, have been well fed, and have been spared undue
0.8% 1.4% stress produce meat that has lots of well-textured muscle
Myoglobin Myoglobin and flavorsome fat. Organic-status meat should help
Meat—Cherry Red Meat—Dark Red guarantee all of these things; however, several other factors
come into play (see box below) that mean it’s important to
BEEF MUTTON check the provenance of your meat.

How much myoglobin? How much myoglobin? What we know about organic meat
Beef has an average of 0.8%. Mutton (sheep older than
The meat is bright cherry-red. 1 year) has around 1.4%. The Buying organic status means you can be satisfied that a
meat is an intense red color. key set of standards has been met in rearing an animal.
How do muscles compare? How do muscles compare?
Cows roam great distances, so The muscles in older sheep • Organically reared animals have been well looked after,
have been worked more, so with outdoor access and a stress-free existence, so they
they have mostly dark, they have stronger connective tend to be healthier overall and have good-quality meat.
slow-twitch muscle.
Why does it matter? tissue and denser meat. • Animals are raised on organic land and eat organic feed;
Why does it matter? however, this has little bearing on the quality of meat.
Endurance muscles with higher
levels of myoglobin tend to With plenty of fat, mutton has • Animals reared organically aren’t given antibiotics or
have a more intense taste and a more intense flavor than growth-promoting hormones, although this is already
the case for all cattle in many countries.
flavorful fat, so they often need lamb, which some prefer. The
minimal flavoring. strong taste can be offset with • Organic farmers are encouraged to look after the
environment the animals are reared in.
herbs and spices.
• Organic stock are more likely to have been slaughtered
humanely, which produces better-quality meat. If an
animal is stressed preslaughter, adrenaline levels surge,
burning energy and producing dry, firm, dark meat.

Factors beyond organic

There are some factors beyond whether or not an animal
has been raised organically that can affect meat quality.

Being fed grass or grain (see p.32) has more impact on flavor.
Grain-fed muscle has more flavorful fat, is less acidic, and
contains pleasant-tasting substances called lactones, while
grass-fed cows’ meat can have a bitter, grassy flavor.

If meat isn’t stored or transported with care, this affects quality.
High demand for organic means it can travel far and be stored for
a long period of time. A nonorganic farm rearing humanely treated
animals slaughtered and sold locally is likely to be superior.

036 // 037 The Science of Meat and Poultry

Are purebred and heritage

CATTLE BREEDS TASTIER?

Meat from traditional, purebred animals comes at a premium, but
you may wonder what you’re really getting for your money.

Traditional heritage breeds have in any given cut is more important MEAT FROM Leaner
declined since meat farming became a than the actual breed. If handled and GRASS-FED COWS grass-fed
global industry. A hundred years ago, butchered well, carefully stored after cows store
dozens of breeds, such as North Devon slaughter, and carefully cooked, their fat
and Galloway, roamed pastures; today research shows that heritage breeds just under
there are just a handful, such as Angus, tend to have a stronger flavor and a the skin.
favored in North America for its bulky juicier mouthfeel, so you might
frame and well-marbled meat, and, in choose to buy a premium cut for
the UK, the less tender Limousin. this subtle distinction.

A superior taste? On the whole, premium breeds are
likely to have been well cared for
Beef has a complex flavor, yet genetic and the meat will have been properly
differences lead to only subtle taste handled, stored, and aged, all of which
variations. Research consistently improve the taste and texture of the
shows that the amount of marbling meat on your plate.

Do larger chickens

LACK FLAVOR?

The size of the chicken you purchase can be an
indication of its breed and, in turn, the depth of flavor.

The modern “broiler” chicken, traditional breeds), and is plagued

which is the most commonly bred with health problems due to its

chicken today, is the result of abnormal proportions. Modern

decades of aggressive broiler breeds make meat

selective breeding. affordable, but there’s

Broilers are a hybrid no denying it: the

of various species, all SUPER-SIZE CHICKENS taste is bland.

chosen for their very INDUSTRIALLY FARMED Heritage breeds of
large size or fast- CHICKENS ARE NOW FOUR chicken take longer
growing nature. to grow and are
TIMES LARGER THAN
The bird that is considerably more
industrially farmed THEY WERE FIFTY expensive, but The meat of
YEARS AGO. grain-fed cows

today is four times the size research shows that the tends to be
well-marbled
of those bred 50 years ago, meat has a significantly richer
throughout.
reaches slaughter weight in just flavor and better mouthfeel than MEAT FROM
GRAIN-FED COWS
35 days (less than half the time of intensively farmed chickens.

Do Larger Chickens Lack Flavor?

How can an animal’s feed affect

THE TASTE AND TEXTURE OF ITS MEAT?

Whether cattle are fed on grass or grain affects their calorie intake and their lifestyle, and both
of these factors influence the type of meat produced.

Most cattle eat grass for some, if not all, of their lives, with “beefier” flavor, which many prefer, but research suggests
grain supplements sometimes given in cold months and that tastes are changing to prefer less beefy, grass-fed meat.
preslaughter—the finishing period—when cattle may be The box, right, shows how grass and grain diets affect the
fattened up on a high-energy diet. Grain-fed meat has a texture and flavor of the meat you buy.

KNOW THE DIFFERENCE

Grass-fed cows have to work DID YOU KNOW? Grass-fed has more omega-3s
harder for their food, so are smaller
and leaner than their grain-fed Grass-fed cows have around four percent less
counterparts. Where pasture is poor, fat than grain-fed cattle, and their fat tends to
size differences between grass- and lie directly under the skin rather than marbled
grain-fed are even greater. throughout the muscle.
More fat is stored just under
the skin in grass-fed cattle, and Although grass-fed meat has less fat, the fat it
some may be trimmed off before has contains more essential omega-3s, known for
purchase. The fat may have a their health benefits, than grain-fed cows. The
yellow tint from the grass. amount of omega-3 is low compared to the
quantities in foods such as oily fish, but this does
give grass-fed meat a slight nutritional edge over
grain-fed beef.

GRASS-FED COWS With less fat the meat can be Grass-fed cows gained
GRAIN-FED COWS chewy and dry if overcooked. It has weight well when pasture
a slightly intense flavor, which some
enjoy. A substance, terpene, in the fat was good quality.
and a manure-like aroma in muscle can
lend a slight bitterness. WEIGHT 1150LB Grain-fed cows
1100LB gained weight
A high-calorie diet means that 1060LB
grain-fed cows put on weight more steadily during
rapidly and reliably than grass-fed the study period.
cows, who are affected by changes
in the quality of pasture. 1015LB
On average, grain-fed meat tends
to have more marbling (fat running 970LB
through the muscle) than grass-fed
cows and a smoother texture. 925LB
Many find grain-fed meat
flavorful and tender due to its 880LB
marbling, which makes it less
prone to drying out when cooked. MAY JUN JUL AUG
Grain-fed beef is described as DATE
having a rich, “beefy” flavor.
KEY GRAIN-FED GRASS-FED

Weight-gain study in cows

The graph shows the results of a study for weight gain
in grass- and grain-fed cows in the runup to slaughter.
Cows fed good-quality pasture still gained 0.4lb less a
day than grain-fed ones.

038 // 039 The Science of Meat and Poultry

Is fillet steak from the tenderloin really

THE BEST CUT OF BEEF?

With different cuts commanding a range of prices, a cow is like a stock market on four legs.

Fillet steak, or filet mignon, is a scarce, highly cooked to make meat juicy and tender, and

sought-after commodity. Part of the reason for the chemically reacting (or oxidizing) in heat to

demand is that it comes from the least-worked generate flavors. Fat dissolves flavor molecules,

section of the least-worked muscle on a carrying them to our palate.

cow—the tenderloin along the back. It is A THICKER CUT A lack of fat means that fillet requires very
extremely tender and is in short supply careful cooking to ensure it doesn’t dry out

because it is small, fueling demand. But is A THICKER FILLET—ABOUT and lose its silky-smooth consistency. If you

fillet worth the hype? 1.5IN (4CM)—ALLOWS THE enjoy meat no more than medium done, a
OUTSIDE TO BE WELL properly cooked fillet is indeed the best
How fat flavors meat BROWNED WITHOUT cut. However, if you prefer meat medium
OVERDOING THE to well done, other cuts are often more
Fillet steak is low in fat because the MIDDLE.

tenderloin muscle doesn’t need much energy. delicious; the information opposite details

We think of saturated fat as bad, but fat helps us the texture and flavor of six different cuts and

to enjoy meat’s full flavor and texture, melting when how best to cook them.

“Fillet steak, from one of the least- Neck, chuck,
worked muscles on the cow, is extremely shoulder
These cheaper cuts
tender and highly sought after.” have plenty of tough
connective tissue.
FILLET

SIRLOIN RIB OF NECK
TENDERLOIN BEEF CHUCK
SHOULDER
BOTTOM TOP RIB
SIRLOIN
RUMP
T-
BONE

SHANK
FLANK BRISKET Top rib
This well-used muscle
Flank Brisket is heavily marbled.
Fatty, flavorful flank A tough cut of meat, Choosing your cut
can be cut into thin brisket benefits from The type of muscle that each cut
strips or used to make slow cooking. of meat comes from affects its
succulent ground beef. flavor and tenderness and how
best to cook it. Here are popular
beef cuts, showing where on the
animal they come from.

OTHER TOP CUTS Why Is It So Expensive to Buy Wagyu Beef?

TENDERLOIN SIRLOIN Why is it so
expensive to buy
Texture Texture
This lean cut contains the The tender top sirloin has WAGYU BEEF?
lightly marbled muscle; the
extremely tender fillet. Fat-rippled beef from Wagyu cattle is some of the
Flavor bottom sirloin has more most sought-after in the world—with good reason.
marbling and is less tender.
With little fat, its appeal is Wagyu means “Japanese beef” (Wa means “Japan” and
in its tenderness. Flavor Gyu “cow”) and refers to a small group of breeds that have
How to cook Sirloin carries a rich flavor highly marbled beef—up to 40 percent in some cuts—which
thanks to its succulent fat. makes their meat wonderfully flavorful and very rich.
Scant connective tissue and Enzymes called calpains, which break down and tenderize
fat mean fillet needs delicate How to cook meat, are particularly active in Wagyu breeds.
Cook quickly, medium rare
cooking to prevent drying. to medium, to keep it tender. In Japan, these cattle have a no-expense-spared existence
Cook no more than medium. to ensure the meat meets the highest standards of excellence
(see below). Some farmers massage their cows to keep the
T-BONE RIB EYE muscles tender, and feed them cold beer to increase fat
levels. Such labor- and time-intensive work, along with the
Texture Texture superior taste and texture of the meat, enables the highest-
With both the soft tenderloin A cheaper cut, also known grade Wagyu beef to command up to $275 per pound.
fillet on one side and densely as Scotch fillet, this is from
marbled sirloin on the other, the less tender, well-used “Some farmers massage their
this is a highly flavored cut. muscles around the ribs. cows to keep the muscles tender,

Flavor Flavor and feed them cold beer.”
It contains the spinal bone, Rich marbling makes this
which gives added flavor. Wagyu grading system
a flavorful cut.
How to cook How to cook Wagyu (see above) is classified by its marbling, color, and texture.
Pan-fry or grill to rare or A-grade Wagyu is the highest quality available, and is graded from 1 to 5,
To at least medium so fat and with A5 being the cream of the crop. A5 Wagyu is ruby red and densely
medium rare. connective tissue can soften. textured with glistening ribbons of fat and a smooth, velvety texture.

RUMP CHUCK
RUMP
Texture
Texture From the hardworking neck
Has three varying muscle and shoulder muscle with
types, but overall is less
tender than fillet or sirloin. tough connective tissue.
Flavor
Flavor
Rump is often thought to Plentiful fat enriches flavor.
have a richer flavor than How to cook

other pricier cuts. Cook slowly in liquid to
How to cook break down the connective
tissue to tenderize the meat
Pan-fry fairly quickly,
medium rare to medium. into succulent gelatin.

040 // 041 The Science of Meat and Poultry

What is the difference between THINK ORGANIC

ORGANIC, OF CHICKENS RAISED IN
FREE-RANGE, AND THE US, FEWER THAN 2
INDOOR CHICKENS? PERCENT ARE ORGANIC.
IN THE UK, THE FIGURE
The way in which a chicken is raised impacts
the quality and flavor of its meat. IS 1 PERCENT.

Of all the animals bred for industrial-scale meat production, FREE-RANGE
chickens are the most poorly treated. Most broiler chickens
(the name of the hybrid species reared for meat, see p36) live Conditions on the farm
short lives tightly packed in hangar-like sheds. Improvements Free-range chickens must
in animal welfare have been slow, so labels help us to understand have access to the outdoors.
how a chicken lived. However, whether free range or organic While the birds are kept
guarantees improved flavor, nutrition—or (for free-range), in better conditions than
better levels of welfare—is debatable. indoor-farmed ones, “pop
hole” exits can be difficult for
What’s the reality? the chickens to reach, so
many birds never actually
Feed, space, stress levels, and lifespan all have an impact on
what chicken meat tastes like. Labeling can be misleading, but reach the outside.
knowing about the conditions in which chickens were raised What this means
will give you an idea of the quality of their meat (see right). Chickens with access to
Free-range chickens may live longer lives, but have only limited outdoors have more protein.
access to the outdoors, which can result in the high stress levels However, stress levels are
that cause dry, acidic meat. In contrast, indoor-farmed chickens high in many free-range
are killed at a young age to produce more tender meat. Overall, farms, which can affect
slow-growing breeds from small farms who are fed a range of the quality of the meat.
foods have firmer, more flavorful meat.

DID YOU KNOW? Corn-fed chickens INDOOR-FARMED

Chickens that have Conditions on the farm INDOOR-FARMED FREE-RANGE
been fed a diet of corn In industrial-scale farming,
(maize) are raised in chickens are kept in large, 19–20 13–15
various different farm hangar-like sheds and do not
conditions. The label have access to the outdoors. CHICKENS PER YD² CHICKENS PER YD²
is no guarantee of There may be a density of
meat quality. 19–20 birds per square yard,

Impact on taste and birds may never see
The chickens’ diet gives natural light.
their meat a brothy flavor,
but taste and texture depend What this means
on farming conditions. The chickens are killed at
Corn-fed chickens are usually a young age, and get little
indoor-farmed, but can also exercise, which means meat
be free-range or organic; is quite tender, but it is also
always check the label. paler and has less flavor.

ORGANIC How Can I Tell If Meat Has Been Injected with Water?

Conditions on the farm How can I tell if meat has been
Organic chickens have
outdoor access and more INJECTED WITH
indoor space than any other WATER?
type of farmed chicken.
They are not routinely Water-plumped meat is common, and can
given antibiotics. The have varying effects on taste and texture.
“organic” classification
for chickens is the highest Large-scale meat producers often bulk up products
welfare standard in use. with water, claiming this improves the quality of the
meat instead of just increasing its weight for sale.
What this means Roasts and whole birds can be physically injected
Usually slow-growing breeds with small needles via pumps, bacon and ham can be
“wet-cured” by injecting or soaking meat in brine,
from small farms, organic and meat can be “vacuum tumbled” in briny water.
chickens tend to eat a range
of foods, giving them firmer, Undoubtedly, the texture of some meat, such
more flavorful meat. They as chicken, can be improved with brine-soaking
also have slightly higher levels because engorged muscle fibers become softer,
of omega-3 fats than other but injecting meat with water can also affect the
intensity of the flavor, resulting in a blander meat.
farmed chickens.
Signs that water has been added
ORGANIC
Pooling at the bottom of a package is an unreliable
5–12 indicator that water has been added, as dripping
is inevitable for even unplumped meat. Instead,
CHICKENS PER YD² check the ingredients to see if there is a percentage
for the amount of meat, if “water” is high up on the
list, or if the label says “added” or “retained” water.

37%
Over one-third of the
weight of poultry may

be water added by
plumping.

25%
Up to one-quarter of the
weight of bacon may

be water added by
wet-curing.

042 // 043 The Science of Cooking Meat and Poultry

If I freeze meat, will it destroy the

TASTE AND TEXTURE?

Undeniably convenient, freezers allow us to store food for months, but low-powered
home freezers are far less efficient than industrial ones, which “flash freeze” meats very quickly.

Meat freezes from the outside inward. CUTS OF MEAT RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM FREEZING TIMES
In home freezers this is a slow process,
giving time for sharp-edged ice crystals CHICKEN Pieces
to form, which gradually get bigger Whole
and pierce the muscle’s delicate
structure. When thawed, damaged Steaks Recommended
cells lose water and the meat is less freezing times
juicy and tender. BEEF, VEAL, Roasts
LAMB, This chart provides
A phenomenon called “freezer AND PORK Chops recommended maximum
burn,” whereby patches of ice freezing times before
evaporate in the dry freezer air leaving Ground texture and taste
hard “burnt” spots, is also more likely significantly decline.
the longer meat is frozen. Storing SAUSAGES Some meats, such as
meat in an airtight wrapper helps steaks and roasts, can
to prevent this. The chart, right, BACON survive a while longer,
recommends maximum freezing but because the fats
times for meats before fats degrade MONTHS gradually degrade
and quality drops. (they “oxidize”) and
turn rancid, it is best
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 not to exceed these
freezing times.

Flatten meat Do I really need to
to 1⁄8–1⁄4in
(3–5mm) thick. POUND MEAT?

Preparing meat prior to cooking by pumelling it with a tenderizer
may feel counterintuitive, but can have surprising benefits.

Striking a cut of meat with a cooking because the pounded
tenderizing hammer crushes and muscle fibers shrink less, and the
damages muscle fibers, creating tiny damaged proteins in the fibers
rips in the connective tissue that soak up moisture, giving the
binds the fibers together. This may meat succulence.
sound worrying, but puncturing the
muscle fibers and tissues in this way Tough steaks and cuts of meat in
actually means that the meat retains particular benefit from tenderizing.
5–15 percent more moisture during Lean chicken breasts don’t need
tenderizing, just gentle pounding
How to pound meat with the smooth side of a mallet to
flatten them and help them cook
It isn’t necessary to use a great deal of more evenly: if not, the thin, tapering
force when tenderizing meat, but do end of a chicken breast cooks before
make sure that you pound the meat the core of the thick end.
on both sides to keep it even.

“ Meat starts freezing from
the outside, and gradually
freezes through to the center.
In a low-powered home
”freezer it can take several
days for meat to
freeze fully.

044 // 045 The Science of Meat and Poultry

DATA The Process of

How it works GRILLING
Food is placed on the
barbecue grill over heated The unique flavors and aromas produced when POSITION THE FOOD
coals or a gas flame and is food is grilled are only partly due to the flavor Keeping food about 4in
cooked by heat rays. molecules that are released when meat browns. (10cm) above the coals of a
medium-sized grill ensures
Best for Grilling over an open flame feels simple, but it requires that the food is bathed in heat.
Steaks, chicken cuts, a dollop of science for the best results. How charcoal is Moving it any closer will
burgers, sausages, whole fish, positioned, when cooking starts, and the distance between simply burn the surface.
and soft vegetables such as the coals and the food all help to cook food thoroughly and
create an intense taste. When you grill over charcoal, drips #3
corn and peppers. of fat from meat vaporize when they hit the coals, erupting
What to consider into flavor-filled molecules, which rise with the heat to coat
Take care when cooking over the underside of the meat. Fattier cuts, such as chops or
charcoal to avoid burning the ribs, drip even more juices, creating an
exterior of food while cooking abundance of heady, flavored
the center properly. particles. Gas grills are
efficient, though flavors can
THE lack the intensity of food
BEST COLOR cooked over charcoal.

A SILVER SURFACE IS HEAT THE CHARCOAL Fat and liquid
IDEAL FOR THE INTERIOR Once the coals are lit, wait drip down.
until the flames die before Flavour
OF A GRILL. SILVER adding the food. At this molecules
REFLECTS THE HEAT point, a coating of white ash rise in the
(RADIATION) RAYS, will cover the coals, which smoke.
INTENSIFYING THE steadies the rate at which
they burn and allows heat to #2
H E AT. diffuse evenly across the grill.

WOOD CHIP EFFECT

COOKING OVER WOOD ADDS
A LAYER OF FLAVOR.
ABOVE 752ºF (400ºC),

LIGNIN IN WOOD BREAKS
DOWN INTO AROMATIC
PARTICLES.

A SMALL EFFECT Air vents help to control how Ash collects #1
quickly air enters the grill. on the base
DOUBLING THE DISTANCE Agitating the coals so of the grill. SPREAD THE CHARCOAL
OF FOOD FROM THE COALS more air reaches them Spread the coals across the
helps them burn hotter. lower grill rack. Raising the
FROM 4 TO 8IN (10 TO coals above the base allows
20CM) REDUCES HEAT air to circulate so the coals
STRIKING THE FOOD burn hotter, and ash can fall
to the grill base.
BY A THIRD.

The Process of Grilling

See inside Cuts thicker than 4cm (1½in) The surface of the meat is Closing the lid limits the
will be slow to heat through so heated from all sides the hot air supply to the flames,
As meat heats, a crust forms on the are best cooked with a lid on. lowering the temperature.
surface where moisture evaporates. air circulates inthe grill.
Above this, a “boiling zone” develops,
where the temperature remains at The vent needs
212ºF (100ºC). The meat in this to be partly open
part remains moist and heat for air to reach
moves from here to the the flames.
center of the meat.
Place the coals
The boiling zone. away from a
large cut so the
The surface of the meat outside doesn’t
dries out and a crust forms burn before the
inside cooks.
via the Maillard reaction Control heat
(see pp16–17). using the intake
vent, which lets
Key cold air in to
Heat traveling from fuel the flames.
surface of food
Dehydrated crust

Without a lid, KEEPING IN THE HEAT
heat escapes Putting a tight-fitting lid
from the food’s over a grill creates an oven
surface, cooling effect, ideal for cooking larger
the side of the cuts of meat over a fire.
meat not facing
the heat source.

For medium- KNOW THE DIFFERENCE
sized barbecues,
4in (10cm) is the Charcoal Gas
ideal distance Charcoal offers rich flavors, but Gas-powered grills are easy to
between the food timing food can be difficult. heat and control.
and the charcoal.
Charcoal takes around Heats in 5–10 minutes.
#4 30–40 minutes to heat up. Temperature is easily
Temperature control is controlled with a dial,
FLAVORS INTENSIFY best achieved with a and multiple burners
During cooking, fat drips vent, but the coals allow cooking at
onto the coals. As fat droplets respond slowly to different temperatures.
vaporize, they create wafts changes in airflow. Temperatures are lower
of flavor-filled molecules. Reaches temperatures of than for charcoal, at
These, in turn, rise with the 1200ºF (650ºC) or more. 225–600ºF (107–315ºC).
heat and coat the meat.
Smoking is easy because Well-suited for use as an
lidded grills close tightly. oven, but smoking is hard
Flavor can be superior to as lids need to fit loosely.
gas because flavor-filled For quick-cooking foods,
vapors are released when such as burgers, flavor is
fat drips on coals. indistinguishable from a
charcoal grill.

What are the benefits of

MARINATING MEAT?

The word “marinate” literally means
to “pickle in sea salt brine.”

Marinades are often misunderstood. Historically, this
was a salty soup that was used to preserve meat, but
nowadays, we think about steeping meat in a rich-tasting
“marinade” to infuse it with flavors. However, this is
largely a myth (see below). This doesn’t mean that meat
won’t benefit from a marinade, because with the right
ingredients a marinade can give meat an aromatic,
flavorful coating and mildly tenderized outer layers.

How long should meat be marinated for?

Marinate meat for no longer than 24 hours, and ideally
less. If you marinate meat for too long, the salt in the
marinade will actually start to cure the outside of the
meat and the outer layers will be mushy when cooked.
Marinating meat for just 30 minutes
before cooking will have an
impact on flavor.

WELL SEARED

Tender and tasty ALKALINE INGREDIENTS,
SUCH AS EGG WHITES AND
The ingredients in a marinade
work together to enhance the BAKING SODA, CAN
flavor of meat and tenderize its ACCELERATE THE
outer layers. During cooking,
the sugars and proteins in a BROWNING
marinade help to brown the meat, REACTION.
creating a crisp, flavorful crust.

MYTH BUSTER

Myth
MARINADES INFUSE MEAT WITH FLAVOR

Truth

It is physically impossible for marinades to penetrate far
into meat. Most flavor molecules are too large to squeeze into
the muscle tissue cells in meat, which are around 75 percent
water and packed tightly like a sodden sponge. Oil molecules,
which disperse most of the flavor molecules, are also unable
to enter muscle cells. This means that oil and flavor molecules

infuse no further than a few millimeters into the meat,
and instead pool on the surface.

Should I Season Meat with Salt Well in Advance or Just Before Cooking?

Marinating ingredients Should I season meat with

Marinades can have myriad flavor combinations, SALT WELL IN ADVANCE
but certain key components are needed for OR JUST BEFORE
success. A marinade should include most of the COOKING?
following: salt, a fat, such as oil, an acid ingredient
(optional, because it can slow browning), and It may seem a trivial distinction, but choosing the
flavorings, such as sugar, herbs, and spices. right time to sprinkle makes a real difference.

MARINADE BASICS If salting meat before cooking Salt draws the water
was just about adding flavor, the out of the muscle to the
· Salt This is the most important marinade question of when to add it wouldn’t surface of the meat.
ingredient because as well as enhancing matter. However, salt does far more
overall flavor it also disrupts the structure of than enhance flavor. If you’ve poured
the proteins in the top layers of the meat salt over spilled red wine, you’ll
(see opposite), allowing a little moisture to know that salt has an incredible
enter and giving meat a more tender texture. ability to soak up moisture, a quality
known as “hygroscopy.” Rubbing salt
· Fats Oils, such as olive oil, serve as a base for on uncooked meat has a similar effect,
a marinade, spreading other flavour molecules drawing water out of the muscle,
and helping meat to brown and crisp. Yogurts creating a layer of surface brine.
are traditionally used in Indian marinades. The
dairy sugars and proteins interact with those Enhancing texture Salting just before cooking
on the meat during cooking to create unique
aromatic substances. The diagrams, right, show the Within a couple of minutes of salting,
effects of salting meat just before salt draws moisture out of the meat.
ACIDIC INGREDIENTS (OPTIONAL) cooking and some time before. This combines with the surface layer
Salting meat just before cooking of salt to form a thin, sweat-like
· Lemon juice Lemon juice adds a tangy flavor to creates a brine layer that can be covering of brine.
marinades, triggering the bitterness taste buds. dabbed off to dry the meat and help
It also helps to tenderize the outer layers of meat. it brown more quickly. Salting meat Over time, salt diffuses
well in advance of cooking has added into the meat, pulling
· Vinegar Vinegar helps tenderize meat and benefits. Left for longer, salt starts to water with it.
brings a tartness to a marinade that helps to tenderize meat by “denaturing”the
offset the naturally rich flavor of the meat and surface proteins; after about 40
the oil or fat in the marinade. minutes, meat is noticeably softer.
You can still dab the surface, too,
· Wine This provides tartness and the alcohol before cooking to enhance browning.
helps to disperse other flavors in a marinade.
Wine can soften the outer layers of the meat.

FLAVORINGS
· Sugar This reduces the tongue’s sensitivity to
bitterness. As well as enhancing flavor, sugar
helps to speed browning and also caramelizes.
Use honey or corn syrup rather than table sugar.
· Herbs and spices Aromatic herbs and spices
are used to add a range of flavor accents,
helping to distinguish a marinade as sweet,
spicy, sharp, or fresh-tasting. The flavours are
extracted when carried in the marinade’s oil.

LEMON CHILES The salting exception Salting well in advance

While salt helps to tenderize whole After about 15 minutes, salt and
cuts of meat, ground meat should not water start to draw back into the meat.
be presalted. This softens the fine The salty brine disrupts, or “denatures”,
“grains” of the grind, making them proteins, causing them to unwind,
stick together. A presalted burger will which softens and tenderizes meat.
become rubbery, and a cooked burger
prepared in this way will actually
bounce if dropped on the floor.

048 // 049 The Science of Meat and Poultry

How do I

SMOKE MEAT AT HOME?

An age-old practice, smoking was originally used to preserve meat. Today
we smoke food to transform its aroma and create enticing flavors.

There are two techniques for smoking: cold and hot smoking. molecules, which waft up and adhere to the OAK
Cold smoking up to 86ºF (30ºC), bathes food in vapors from
wood chips without cooking it. Hot smoking, at 131–176ºF meat’s surface. Lignin begins to break down
(55º–80ºC), also gives meat a cooked texture (see below),
but does not impart as many sweet and spicy flavor notes and release smoke when the wood reaches 338ºF
as cold smoking does.
(170ºC). At around 392ºF (200ºC), the smoke starts to thicken
The science behind smoking
and darken, and the lignin readily fractures to release plumes
When wood heats up, a substance called lignin within
wood breaks apart, dispersing into an array of fragrant flavor of caramel, flowery, and bread-like aromas. When the wood

turns black and the smoke thickens further, at about 752ºF

(400ºC), the molecular reactions are in full swing, adding

further layers of aroma to the meat. If the smoke thins, this

indicates that the wood is too hot or has been used up.

IN PRACTICE HOT SMOKING MEAT here, ideal for small portions of meat, such as chicken
breasts or wings, or pork ribs. This method can also
Specialized smoking equipment is available for hot and be used for hard cheese and fish, such as salmon fillets.
cold smoking, but it’s also easy to smoke food with basic
cookware. A wok or pan can be used for hot smoking, shown

#1 #2 #3

PREPARE FLAVORINGS RELEASE FLAVOR MOLECULES SEAL IN THE SMOKE
Cover the side of a wok with a large Place the wok over high heat, and heat Place the meat onto the rack, leaving
piece of heavy-duty aluminum foil, for about 5 minutes, until the chips are space around each piece to allow smoke
leaving a 2½in (5cm) hole at the smoking well. Heating the chips until to circulate. Put the lid on and carefully
bottom. Evenly sprinkle 2 tbsp they are smoking (this starts at around fold the overhanging foil up around the
culinary wood chips—such as pecan, 338°F/170°C) frees flavorful molecules edge of the lid. This will help to keep
oak, or beech—into the bottom of from the wood, which which are the flavorful smoke inside the wok.
the lined wok. You can also add deposited on the surface of the meat.
other flavorings, such as tea leaves or
spices. Position the rack in the wok.