The Science of Cooking Every Question Answered to Perfect Your Cooking

grilling marshmallows 233 color 34
chicken 58 reducing chile heat 190 lard 193
meat 44–45 honing steel 27
process of grilling 44–45 hot-smoking meat 48 baking with 212–13
steaks 52 hydrocolloids 235 leafy greens 149
hydrogen sulphide 98 leavening agents 212
H hygroscopy 47, 215
bread 218
haddock 67 IJK cake baking 214
cooking methods 82 double rise 211, 214
ice, reducing chile heat with 190 self-rising flour 209
Haematoccus algae 70 ice cream using baking powder instead of
halibut
ice-cream makers 117 baking soda 211
pan-frying 82 making without an ice-cream maker lecithin 94, 107, 116
poaching 83 lemon drop pepper 189
ham, wet-cured 41 116–17 lemons
Häning, D. P. 14 sugar in 230
hazelnuts 175 improvers 225 and enzymatic browning of fruit 166
heavy cream 112–13, 241 invert sugar 230, 231 infusing oil 192
heirloom fruits and vegetables 148 iodized salt 202 marinades 47
hemicellulose 157 iron, content in popcorn 141 lenticels 161
herbs 180–83 jalapeño peppers 189 lentils, soaking 136–37
basil 181, 182, 183 jam, improving set 235 light cream 112–13
bay 181, 182, 183 jugs, measuring 26 lignin 48, 157, 166
chives 182, 183 juicers 166, 167 Limburger 122
cilantro 181, 182, 183 juicing fruits and vegetables 166–67 linoleic acid 96
cooking 180, 181 jus, tasty 60–61 liquids, for sauces 61
cooking in oil 192 kale, storing 149 lobsters
dill 182, 183 kidney beans color 90
dried herbs 183 phytohemagglutinin 12 killing kindly 91
flat-leaved parsley 181 soaking 137 longlife (UHT) milk 110–11
flavor 180, 181, 183 uncooked 140 low-fat spread, baking with 212–13
garnishes 181, 183 King Edward potatoes 160, 163 lutein
hardy herbs 180–81, 182, 183 knives 22–23 in eggs 96
marinades 47 Kraft, James L. 124 in peppers 154
mint 181, 182, 183 lycopene 150
oil glands 180, 182 L lye 172
oregano 182, 183
parsley 182, 183 lachrymatory factor 154 M
preparing fresh herbs 182 lactic acid
rosemary 180, 182, 183 macadamia nuts 175
sage 180, 182, 183 cheese 123, 125 mackerel 66
storing 181, 183 probiotic yogurt 119
tarragon 182, 183 sourdough starters 216 omega-3 levels 68, 69
tender herbs 181, 182 soy sauce 205 pan-frying 82
thyme 180, 182, 183 yogurt making 118 magnesium chloride 203
when to add during cooking Lactobacillus 125, 205, 216 Maillard, Louis-Camille 16–17
Lactobacillus delbrueckii 118 Maillard reaction 13, 16–17
183 lactones 35 and basting 57
homogenized milk 108, 111, 112 lactose 109, 114, 123 meat 52
honey ladles 27 milk 114
lager, as food enhancer 198 nuts 175, 177
hygroscopy 215 lamb 31 pan-frying 86
invert sugar 231 pastry 109, 228

250 // 251 Index

slow cookers 54 smoking meat at home 48–49 how to prepare 182
spices 186 sous vide 84 using to reduce chile heat 190
stir-fries 158 stock 62 when to add to cooking 183
malt syrup 231 taste 63 mixing bowls 27
Manchego 121 testing for doneness 53 molasses 231
marbling 36 trimming fat 50 mold, on cheese 120, 122
cooking marbled meat 31 types of 30–31 molluscs
and flavor 32, 36 vacuum-packed meat 33 clams 74, 75
grain-fed cows 36, 37 water-plumped meat 41 eating raw safely 75
steaks 52 see also beef; lamb; etc. effects of cooking on 74
Wagyu beef 39 melting chocolate 239 mussels 91
margarine, baking with 212–13 microbes oysters 74, 75
marinating blue cheese 122 monkfish 67
ingredients 47 effect of cooking on 12 sous vide 82
meat 46–47 pasteurization 110 Monterey Jack 121
Maris Piper potatoes 160 probiotic yogurt 119 mozzarella 120
marshmallow plant 233 microwaving 164–65 casein curds 124
marshmallows milk 108–19 mucilage 200, 233
homemade 233 2% 108 Muenster 122
toasting 232 cheese making 120, 123 muffins 212
mascarpone 125 composition 108–109 multigrain flour 208
mayonnaise 107 condensed milk 109 muscle 31
measuring cups 26 consistency 111 muscovado sugar 231
meat 30–63 curds 108, 114 mushrooms, increasing vitamin D
aging meat at home 49 effects of cooking on 109
basting 57 evaporated milk 109 content 151
buying tips 32–33 flavor pairings 18 flavor pairings 19
checking for doneness 58 goat’s milk 108 mussels
color 32, 33–35 heating without a skin forming 114 cooking 91
composition 30 homogenized 108, 111, 112 preparing 91
contamination 63, 89 lactose 109, 114 mustard seeds
cooking from room temperature 52 milkfats 108, 112 mucilage 200
cutting 50 milk skins 114–15 soaking 186
dry-aged 33, 49 pasteurization 109, 110–11, 120 mutton, color 35
effect of animal’s feed on taste 37 raw milk 110–11, 120 myoglobin 33, 34–35, 58
freezing 42, 43 sheep’s milk 109
good quality 32 skim milk 108 N
grilling 44–45 types of milk 108
ground meat 47 UHT (longlife) 110–11 nutrients
marbling 31, 32, 36, 37, 39, 52 unpasteurized raw milk 110–11, 120 cooking vegetables to optimize 157
marinating 46–47 using to reduce chile heat 190 effect of cooking on 12
muscle types 63 whey proteins 114 juicing vs. whole vegetables 166–67
organic 35 whole milk 108 vegetable nutrient loss 149
overcooked 59 yuba 114
pan-frying 76–77 see also cream nuts 174–77
pounding 42 milks, nondairy 109 almonds 174
purebred and heritage 36 millet 139 Brazil nuts 175
resting 59, 87 minerals brittle 234
salting 47 in bran 136 cashews 174
searing 52 effect of cooking on 12 chestnuts 177
slow cooking 54 mint 181, 182 composition 175
cooking methods 177
freezing 176

freshness 176 black olives 172 Parmesan 122
hazelnuts 175 brining 172 Parmigiano-Reggiano 121
macadamia 175 California olives 172 parsley
nut butters 174, 175 making olives edible 172–73
nut milks 175 olive oil production 194 flat-leaved 181
nut pastes 174 omega-3 how to prepare 182
oils 176 in eggs 96, 97 when to add to cooking 183
pecans 175 in chickens 41 parsnips
pistachios 174 in fish 68, 69 nutrient degradation of 149
roasting 175, 176, 177 in meat 37 roasting 156–57
storing 176 in nuts 174, 175 storing 149
toasting 175, 177 in oils 192 pasta
types of 174–75 omega-6, in oils 192 adding oil to cooking water 145
vacuum-packed 176 onions cooking methods 144–45
walnuts 175 flavor pairings 19 flour 208, 209
how to chop without crying 154 fresh vs. dried 144
O raw 150 keeping pasta from sticking 145
oregano making fresh pasta 142–43
oat milk 109 how to prepare 182 pairing with sauces 143
oats 136 when to add to cooking 183 salting pasta water 144
octopus 82 organic food pasta filata 124
oils 192–93 chicken 40–41, 97 pasteurization
fruits and vegetables 148 milk 109, 110–11, 120
adding to pasta cooking water 145 meat 35 pastries, flour for 208
baking with 212–13 ovens pastry 226–29
chilling 195 cake baking temperatures 214 blind baking 228
coconut oil 193, 242 convection ovens 222, 223 butter in pastry 193, 226–27
cooking chiles in 188 oven baking 222–3 chilling before rolling out 226–27
cooking spices in 187, 192 preheating 213, 214, 227 flaky pastry 226
cooking with 193 oxidation, oils 195 gluten formation 226
extra virgin olive oil 192, 194 oxygen, and meat color 33 overworked pastry 226
flavor 195 oysters pie crust 226
infusing 192 as aphrodisiacs 75 puff pastry 227
molecular structure 195 best season for 75 resting 226–27
olive oil 192, 194–95 eating raw safely 75 soggy bottoms 228
peanut oil 193 effects of cooking on 74 types of fats for 212–13, 229
price of olive oil 194 oyster farming 75 peanut butter, flavor pairings 19
rapeseed (Canola) oil 192 raw oysters 74–75 peanut oil 193
shelf life 195 species 74 peanuts 175
separated salad dressings 200 pearl barley 139
storing 193, 195 P pears, pectin content 235
types of 192–93 pecans 175
use in cooking 192 paella rice 129 pectin
using in sauces 60 pan-frying 76–77 in apples 171
oleosomes 177 in blackberries 235
oleuropein 172, 173 fish 76–77, 82, 86–87 in cherries 235
oligosaccharides 140 paneer 120, 122, 125 effects of cooking on 157
olive oil 192 pans, cake 215 and jam set 235
price 194 pans and pots 24–25 in pears 235
separated salad dressings 200 in peppers 154
storing 195 deglazing 60 pectin methylesterase 156, 171
olives 175, 189 paprika 155 Penicillium fungi 122
paring knife 23

252 // 253 Index

Penicillium glaucum 122 Purple Majesty 161 razor clams, effects of cooking on 74
Penicillium roqueforti 122 roasting 156–57 red meat
penne 143 Rooster 161
peppers Russet 163 alcohol to cook with 198
storing 149 checking for doneness 58
color 154–55 varieties 160–61 color 32, 33–35
nutrient degradation of 149 water content 156 effect of animal’s feed on taste 37
raw 150 waxy potatoes 161 good quality 32
ripening 154 Yukon Gold 160 marbling 31, 32, 36, 37
pesticides 151, 216 pots and pans 24–25 purebred and heritage 36
phenols 166, 172 poultry 30–63 resting 87
phosphates 124 alcohol to cook with 198 taste 63
phytochemicals 151 basting 57 types of 31
phytohemagglutinin 12, 140 color 34, 35 see also beef; lamb; etc.
pie crust 226 good quality 32 red wine, flavor pairings 18
pies how to keep it from drying out rennet 120, 124, 125
pie dishes 228 resting
soggy bottoms 228 56–57 fish 87
pimiento chiles 189 types of 30 meat 59, 87
pinto beans, soaking 137 water-plumped 41 retrogradation 163, 215
piri piri 188 see also chicken; duck; turkey rib eye 39
pistachios 174 powdered sugar 230 rice 128–35, 136
pizza “stones” 222 PPO 166 basmati rice 129, 130
poaching 84 preservatives, in bread 224 brown rice 128, 129, 130, 131
eggs 100–101 preserving fish 78–79 composition 128–29
fish 82, 83 pressure cooking 134–35 cooking 128, 129, 130–35
fruit 171 probiotic yogurt 118, 119 effects of cooking on 128
polyphenoloxidase 182 processed cheese 124 fluffy rice 129, 130–31
pomme purée mashed potatoes 162 proteins how much water to add 130
popcorn, popping 140–41 effect of cooking on 12, 30 paella rice 129
pork 31 pulses 136, 140 pressure cooking 134–35
checking for doneness 58 pseudograins, quinoa 138–39 reheating 132
color 34 puff pastry 226–27 rinsing 130
pork crackling 50–51 pulses 136–37, 140–41 risotto rice 128
undercooked 63 fiber 140 sticky rice 128, 129
potassium, in potatoes 160 protein 136, 140 types of 128–29
potatoes soaking 136–37 white rice 128, 129, 131
adding to oversalted dishes 204 purées wild rice 129
antioxidants 161 fruit 171 ricotta 124
Anya 161 thickening sauces with 61 making a ricotta-style cheese 125
blemishes and spots 161 Purple Majesty potatoes 161 ripening fruit 168, 171
Charlotte 161 putrescene 123 risotto rice 128
color variations 160, 161 Puy lentils 137 roasting 222
composition 160–61 pyrolysis 17 rolling pins 26, 226
creamy pomme purée mashed Rooster potatoes 161
QR root vegetables
potatoes 162 nutrient degradation of 149
Desirée 161, 162 quail eggs 95, 96 roasting 156–57
fluffy mashed potatoes 163 quinoa 136, 138–39 Roquefort 122
King Edward 160, 163 rosemary 180, 182
Maris Piper 160 nutrients 139 how to prepare 182
mealy potatoes 160 rinsing 139 infusing oil 192
potato skins 160 rapeseed (Canola) oil 192

when to add to cooking 183 unrefined salt 203 buying tips 72
roux-based sauces 60, 62 salty taste 14, 15 buying with their heads on 72
rump roast 39 saponins 139 color 90
Russet potatoes 163 sardines 68 raw vs. precooked, fresh or
sashimi 88–89
S saucepans 25 frozen 72
sauces sieves 26
saffron, cost of 187 sifting flour 210
sage 180 chocolate ice-cream sauces 242 sirloin steak 39
fruit sauces 171 skillets 24, 52
how to prepare 182 gelatin in 60 slow cooking 54–55
when to add to cooking 183 lumpy chocolate sauces 240
salad dressings, separated 200 pairing with pasta 143 meat 30, 59
salad greens 149 preventing a skin from forming 114 smoke point 192
salmon 66 seizing 240 smoking, meat 48–49
color 70 tasty sauces 60–61 snapper
cooking methods 82, 83, 84, 86 thickening 54, 60, 61
dry-curing 78–79 sauté pans 25 pan-frying 86
farmed salmon 70, 71 sautéing 77 salt-baking 79
omega-3 content 68 scales 26 socialization 12
pan-frying 82, 86 Scotch bonnet chiles 188 sodium 15, 157
poaching 83 Scoville Scale 188–89 sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) 209
sous vide 82, 84 sea bass 67 soil quality 148, 149
wild salmon 70, 71 pan-frying 82, 86 soufflés
Salmonella salt-baking 79 chocolate 242–43
chickens 63 sea bream, salt-baking 79 rebaking 243
eggs 96, 97, 98 sea salt 203 sour cream 112–13
salt 202–204 seafood 64–91 sour taste 14, 15
adding to baking recipes 211 color 90 sourdough starters 216–17
brines 202 salting 78 sous vide 84–85
coarse salt 203 see also fish; oysters; shrimp; etc. fish 82, 84–85
colored salts 203 searing meat 52 meat 84
cooking with 202 seasonings poultry 56
curing salt 203 salt 202–204 vegetables 157
dry-curing fish 78–79 soy sauce 204–05 soy flour 225
as flavor enhancer 202, 203 seeds soy sauce
formation 202 calories 174 “chemical” soy sauce 204
granulated table salt 202 cooking methods 177 light vs. dark 204–205
iodized salt 202 seizing 240 soy milk 109
Maillard reaction 52 serrano peppers 189 soybeans 137
marinades 47 serrated knives 22 soy sauce 205
oversalted dishes 204 sheep’s milk 109, 120 spaghetti 143
refined salt 202–203 cheese made from 120, 123 spatchcocking 56
rubs 202 shell-shaped pasta 143 spatulas 26, 27
salt-baking fish 79 shellfish spices
salting meat 47 alcohol to cook with 198 cooking 186
salting pasta water 144 astaxanthin 70 cooking in oil 187, 192
salting vegetable water 157 clams 74, 75 flavor 186
sea salt 203 color 90–91 ground spices 186
soaking beans 136 mussels 91 Maillard reaction 186
structure of 202, 204 oysters 74, 75 marinades 47
types of 202–203 shrimp 73 saffron 187
turmeric 187
using yogurt in spicy dishes 119

254 // 255 Index marshmallows 233 thickening sauces 54, 60, 61
reducing chile heat 190 thyme 180
whole spices 186 sugar bloom 240
spinach, benefits of cooked 150 syrups 231 how to prepare 182
spit-roasting types of sugar 230–31 when to add to cooking 183
using in marinades 47 tomatoes
pork 51 white sugar 230 alcohol to cook with 198
poultry 56 sulphur 98 cooked 150
split peas, soaking 137, 140 superfoods nutrient degradation of 149
spoons nuts 174 raw 150
slotted 27 quinoa 139 ripening 149
wooden 27 sweet potatoes 161 storing 149
squash, storing 149 nutrients in skin 151 tongues, and taste 14–15
squid 82 storing 149 tooth decay 167
stainless steel sweet taste 14, 15 tørrfisk 78
knives 22 sweets 230 triacylglycerol 195
pans 24 syrups 231 trimethylamine oxide (TAMO)
starches
effect of cooking on 12 T 68
in flour 209 Trinitario cocoa beans 238
gluten-free flour 224 T-bone 39 trout 67
in pasta 144, 145 tagliatelle 143
in potatoes 160, 163 tallow 193 poaching 83
retrogradation 163 tannins 175, 198 tryptophan 123
in rice 128, 129, 130–31 tarragon tuna 66
using in sauces 60
steaks how to prepare 182 omega-3 levels 68
cooking the perfect steak 52–53 when to add to cooking 183 pan-frying 82
resting 59 tarts poaching 83
searing 52 pie dishes 228 sashimi 88
testing for doneness 53 soggy bottoms 228 turbot 83
steaming 152–53 using frozen fruit in 170 turkey 30
vegetables 157 taste 14–17 basting 57
steels, honing 26 broiler chickens 36 how to stop drying out 56–57
Stilton 122 cattle breeds 36 turmeric 187
cooking with 124 chocolate flavor variations 238 turnips
stir-fries, vegetable 158–59 effect of animal’s feed on 37 nutrient degradation of 149
stock 62 and ethically produced storing 149
chicken stock 62
making in pressure food 148 U
frozen meat 42
cookers 134 heirloom fruits and vegetables 148 UHT (longlife) milk 110–11
using in sauces 61 red meat 63 umami taste 14, 15
strawberries white meat 63
freezing 170 teff 136 and glutamate 123
Streptococcus thermophilus 118 tempering chocolate 236, 237, 239 and mushrooms 151
strong flour 208 tenderizing meat 42 and salt 202, 211
sugar 230–35 tenderloin 39 utensils 26–27
absorption by the body 136 texture
brown sugars 231 frozen meat 42 V
caramelization 230, 234–35 salting meat 47
fine sugar 230 Thai chiles 188 vacuoles 166
hygroscopy 215 thermometers 27, 58 vegetable shortening 212–13
icing sugar 230 vegetables
invert sugar 230, 231
adding salt to the water 157
antioxidants 150, 151

boiling 152, 157 W marinades 47
cooking to optimize nutrients 157 probiotic yogurt 118, 119
effect of cooking on 12 Wagyu beef 39 using to reduce chile heat 119, 190,
frying 157 walnuts 175
green tops 150 water, using in sauces 61 191
griddling 157 watercress 150 yogurt starters 118
heirloom 148 wet-curing fish 78–79 yuba 114
juicing vs. whole vegetables 166–67 wheat, flavor pairings 19 Yukon Gold potatoes 160
nutrient loss 149 wheat berries 136 zeaxanthin 96
organic 148 wheat flour 224 zinc 75
peeling vs. scrubbing 151 whey zucchini, griddling 157
raw 150
reducing chile heat 190 cheese 120, 121, 124, 125
roasting 156–57 milk 114
skins 151 whipping cream 112–13
sous vide 157 whiskey, as food enhancer 198
steaming 152–53, 157 whisks 26
stir-fries 158–59 white meat
stock 62 checking for doneness 58
storage 149 color 34, 35
venison 31 good quality 32
vinegar preventing from drying out 56–57
marinades 47 resting 87
reducing chile heat 190 taste 63
separated salad dressings 200 types of 30
vitamin A 149 see also chicken; duck; turkey
vitamin B whole grains
in bran 136 whole grains vs. processed 136
in carrots 150 see also corn; oats; rice; etc.
in flour 208 whole-wheat flour 208
in fruits and vegetables 149, 150, 160 appearance 209
in potatoes 160 shelf life 209
vitamin B3 175 wild rice 129
vitamin B12 96, 151 cooking 130
vitamin C 15 wine
in bread 225 as food enhancer 198
in carrots 150 marinades 47
in fruits and vegetables 149, 150, 167 using in sauces 61
in juiced fruits and vegetables 167 woks 24
in potatoes 160 protecting nonstick 159
in vegetable skins 151 wooden spoons 27
vitamin D, increasing content in
XYZ
mushrooms 151
vitamin E xanthan gum 224
yeast
in eggs 96, 97
in fruits and vegetables 149 fermentation 218, 220
in nuts 174 proofing bread dough 220
vitamins sourdough starters 216
effect of cooking on 12 yogurt
vegetable nutrient loss 149 curdling 119
Greek-style yogurt 119
making your own 118–19

256 // About the Author/Acknowledgments

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Specializing in food science, Dr. Stuart Farrimond is a science and medical
writer, and educator. He makes regular appearances on TV, on radio, and at
public events, and his writing appears in international publications. A keen
blogger, Stuart is also the founder and editor of online lifestyle-science
magazine Guru, which is supported by the Wellcome Trust.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Author’s acknowledgments head chef Gary Says and culinary Publisher’s acknowledgments
lecturer Steve Lloyd opened their
Special thanks go to Chris Sannito, kitchen doors to me to reveal how the We would like to thank the author for
Seafood Technology Specialist at the “pros” practice their art, while Nathan his expertise and guidance throughout.
Alaska Sea Grant Marine Advisory Olive and Angie Brown, of The Oven
Program, who kindly taught me the Bakery, let me poke their sourdough Photography Will Heap, William
finer points of salmon fishing, smoking, and probe their ovens, answering my Reavell
and storing; and Merrielle Macleod, queries about the nuances of baking Food stylists Kate Turner, Jane Lawrie
Program Officer at World Wildlife bread. No doubt there are many people Design assistance Helen Garvey
Fund, who explained the reality of fish whose contributions I have forgotten to Editorial assistance Alice Horne,
aquaculture in the world today, sinking mention, but I offer my thanks to Laura Bithell
some popular Internet scare stories Nathan Myhrvold, author of Modernist Proofreading Corinne Masciocchi
along the way. Thanks go to Mary Cuisine, and Jim Davies, of UCL, Indexing Vanessa Bird
Vickers, Senior Beef & Sheep Scientist London, who let me put various types
at the UK’s Agriculture & Horticulture of chocolate and cookies in his electron The publisher would like to thank the following
Development Board, for her expertise microscope so that I could study them for their kind permission to reproduce their
in cattle breeds around the world and in minute detail (insect parts and all). photographs:
the various factors that affect meat
quality; and thanks to Kevin Coles of I thank Dawn Henderson and the (Key: a-above; b-below/bottom; c-centre; f-far;
British Egg Information Service for his team at DK Books for inviting me to l-left; r-right; t-top)
freshly laid stats. Louise and Matt take part in this exciting project. 22 Dreamstime.com: Alina Yudina (ca);
Macdonald of New MacDonald Farm, Editors Claire Cross and Bob Bridle Demarco (ca/Stainless steel); Yurok
Wiltshire, allowed me to get up close to have been remarkably patient with my Aleksandrovich (c). 24 Dreamstime.com:
their flock of egg-laying hens, and I am particular attention to scientific details; Demarco (cr); Fotoschab (cr/Copper); James
indebted to Geoff Bowles for satisfying I am in awe of the beautiful imagery Steidl (crb). 25 Dreamstime.com: Alina Yudina
my curiosity about the minutiae of crafted by the artists and designers, (cl); Liubomirt (clb). 27 123RF.com: tobi (bl).
milk, cream, and butter production and while Claire has worked tirelessly to 33 123RF.com: Reinis Bigacs / bigacis (crb);
for taking me on a lengthy tour of Ivy pare my work into a digestible tome. Kyoungil Jeon (cla). Dreamstime.com: Erik
House Farm Dairy, a dairy that I later My literary agent, Jonathan Pegg, has Lam (c); Kingjon (c/Raw t-bone). 39 123RF.
learned provides milk to royalty. Kevin been supportive from start to finish, com: Mr.Smith Chetanachan (br). 117 Alamy
Jones, butcher at Hartley Farm, and it would be wholly remiss of me Stock Photo: Huw Jones (tc). 124 Dreamstime.
Wiltshire, UK, graciously took time not to offer my heartfelt thanks and com: Charlieaja (tl). 140-141 Dreamstime.com:
away from his work to show me love to my wife, family, and friends, Coffeemill (cb). 145 Dreamstime.com:
everything I need to know about who have supported me and kept me Eyewave (l). 150 Depositphotos Inc: Maks
knives and butchery, while Will Brown sane, despite the late nights and Narodenko (tr). 154 Dreamstime.com: Buriy
taught me how to select and age meat; antisocial hours. (bl). 188 Dreamstime.com: Viovita (crb). 212
123RF.com: foodandmore (bl). 233 123RF.com:
Oleksandr Prokopenko (cb)

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