HARMONIZED SYSTEM (HS) CLASSIFICATION GUIDEBOOK OF IRON AND STEEL Published by : CLASSIFICATION, TARIFF & GAZETTE BRANCH TECHNICAL SERVICES DIVISION ROYAL MALAYSIAN CUSTOMS DEPARTMENT HEADQUARTERS Kompleks Kementerian Kewangan No. 3 Persiaran Perdana, Presint 2 62596 Wilayah Persekutuan Putrajaya T 03-8882 2837 F 03-8889 5882 www.customs.gov.my © Copyright of Royal Malaysian Customs Department 2024. This publication is intended to provide guidance and information to the Customs Authority. It reflects the position on or interpretation of the applicable laws or regulations by the Royal Malaysian Customs Department (RMCD) as of the date of publication. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, whether mechanical or electronic including photocopying and recording without the written consent of RMCD. Any enquires regarding the contents of this book are to be directed to RMCD.
FOREWORD v ACKNOWLEDGEMENT vii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY x ABBREVIATIONS xii TOPICS A. INTRODUCTION 1 1. What is iron 2 2. What is steel 3 3. What is the difference between iron and steel 4 B. MANUFACTURING PROCESS 5 1. Conversion (reduction) of iron ore 8 2. Steel production 10 3. Production of ingots or other primary forms and semi-finished products 11 C. PRODUCTION OF FINISHED PRODUCTS (Note 1(ij), (k), (l), (m), (n), (o) and (p)) 13 1. The production of finished products by plastic deformation 15 2. Subsequent manufacturing and finishing of the finished products 28 3. Forms of finished products (Chapter Notes 1(k), (l), (m), (n), (o) and (p), National Notes 1, 2 and 3. 35 TABLE OF CONTENTS ii
D. SUB-CHAPTER I : PRIMARY MATERIALS; PRODUCTS IN GRANULAR OR POWDER FORM 45 1. Composition of iron and steel metallurgy (Chapter Notes 1(a), (b) and (c), Subheading Note 1(a)) 46 2. Heading 72.01 48 3. Heading 72.03 49 4. Heading 72.04 50 5. Heading 72.05 52 E. SUB-CHAPTER II : IRON AND NON-ALLOY STEEL 57 1. Composition of non-alloy steel (not complying with Chapter Notes 1(e) and (f), Subheading Note 1(b)) 59 2. Heading 72.06 60 3. Heading 72.07 61 4. Heading 72.08 61 5. Heading 72.09 62 6. Heading 72.10 63 7. Heading 72.11 63 8. Heading 72.12 66 9. Heading 72.13 68 10. Heading 72.14 69 11. Heading 72.15 70 12. Heading 72.16 70 13. Heading 72.17 71 14. Heading 72.28 (Subheading 7228.80) 72 F. SUB-CHAPTER III : STAINLESS STEEL 73 1. Composition of stainless steel (Chapter Note 1(e)) 74 2. Heading 72.18 75 3. Heading 72.19 76 4. Heading 72.20 77 5. Heading 72.21 78 6. Heading 72.22 78 7. Heading 72.23 80 iii
G. SUB-CHAPTER IV : OTHER ALLOY STEEL; HOLLOW DRILL BAR AND RODS, OF ALLOY OR NON-ALLOY STEEL 81 1. Composition of alloy steel (Chapter Note 1(f), Subheading Notes 1(c), (d) and (e)) 83 2. Heading 72.24 85 3. Heading 72.25 86 4. Heading 72.26 87 5. Heading 72.27 88 6. Heading 72.28 88 7. Heading 72.29 90 REFERENCES 91 iv
Foreword Assalamualaikum, Salam Sejahtera and Salam Malaysia Madani. Congratulations to Technical Services Division Headquarters especially the Classification Tariff and Gazette Branch, Royal Malaysian Customs Department (RMCD) for successfully publishing the HS Classification Guidebook of Iron and Steel for the first time. Thisis definitely a great effort and tremendous work by the RMCD, generally to support the capacity and capability of its human resources as the competent authority in classification of goods for international trade across border. In tandem with our policy to have efficient, agile and reliable service, we are continuously committed to providing quality services to our stakeholders. This is also best described in one of RMCD’s functions which is to promote and facilitate trade by providing the right guide and references not only for customs officers but also to the relevant industry players. I truly believe that this guidebook will further promote well-informed compliance concerning the determination of the right tariff codes for different steel products for effective customs clearance. Last but not least, I would like to express my gratitude and thanks to all those who have contributed in one way or another to ensure the success of this Guidebook. YBHG. DATO’ ANIS RIZANA BINTI MOHD ZAINUDIN @ MOHD ZAINUDDIN Director General of Customs Malaysia v
Foreword I would like to congratulate the Classification, Tariff & Gazette Branch, Technical Services Division, Headquarters for the great efforts in publishing this guidebook. Classifications of goods utilizing Harmonized System is the mandatory language used by Customs and trade community when trading goods around the world. The accurate HS code used for every commodity traded across border is critical for transparency and predictability of the tariff involved in any particular importation or exportation that will support ease of doing business. In fact, classifying the iron and steel products certainly requires an in depth understanding on technicalities of the commodities as well as the relevant tariff lines provided in the existing legislations that are in line with the WCO HS Explanatory Notes and National Notes. This guidebook is an important tool to complement other tools and references provided by the WCO in determining the right tariff for iron and steel goods. Certainly, this guidebook plays a more specific role as an initial quick reference for customs officers to be more efficient in doing the assessment for expedited customs clearance. I wish to thank all the task force members for the contribution in developing such a meaningful guidebook to support customs officers delivering trustworthy services. YBHG. DATO’ AIDID BIN TAJUDDIN Deputy Director General of Customs (CUSTOMS / SST) Malaysia vi
Acknowledgements My heartfelt gratitude goes to the task force in Classification, Tariff & Gazette Branch who have striven full efforts to finalize this masterpiece. This guidebook for Classification of Iron and Steel is very important and surely will assist our fellow Customs Officers at all levels to understand the elements used in determining the potential headings when dealing with the classification of iron and steel products. Since the duty rates of iron and steel products are varied, the correct classifications are an uphill task to our fellow front liners. With the full elaboration and graphic illustration as well as the matric of important elements in identifying the different categories of iron and steel products provided in this guidebook, I hope that the classification knowledge will be better grasped by all the customs officers especially at the frontline and not only limited to those working in the Technical Services Division to provide efficient services. PUAN HJH. SITI BINTI HJ. MANG Director of Customs Technical Services Division RMCD Headquarters Putrajaya vii
Acknowledgements Congratulations to the task force of Classification, Tariff & Drafting Branch for the success in producing this guidebook. This guidebook is an imperative tool especially to our front-line officers as a handy working tool when assessing goods for customs clearance within a limited time for easy cross-checking. As such, this guidebook which has critical notes derived from the EN in a simplified illustration and descriptive elaboration in a matrix will surely become an initial reference for our fellow customs officers in determining the best possible heading for the iron and steel goods. It is hopeful that with the right and accurate understanding of the correct classification techniques guided by this book, the customs officers as a whole are expected to be more efficient and capable in classifying goods effectively, specifically iron and steel goods. It is undeniable that the correct classification of goods is key to avoiding any loss of duty that would jeopardize the collection of revenue. Thus, this guidebook reflects the important effort by the technical division to support customs administration in achieving targeted goals in revenue collection as part and partial of the customs core business. Let the knowledge provided in this book be part of our efforts in nurturing the next generations of customs officers to become classification experts. YBRS DR. HJH RAMLAH BINTI HJ MUKHTAR Deputy Director Of Customs Head of Classification, Tariff & Drafting Branch RMCD Headquarters Putrajaya viii
Task Force TN NIK LEE NIK SOH TN ARIFFIN AHMAD TN MOHD SYUKRI AHMAD PN NUR HANA NEK MAT PN TAN FONG YI PN ZURAWATI YAZID PN HAZEERAH ISMAIL TN SOHAIMI DARSOH TN TENGKU MAT RADZUAN TN NOR SOBRI ABDULLAH ix
The Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System generally referred to as Harmonized System or simply HS is a multipurpose international product nomenclature developed by the World Customs Organization (WCO) and governed by the International Convention on the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System. The HS comprises more than 5,000 commodity groups; each identified by a six-digit code, arranged in a legal and logical structure, and supported by well-defined rules to achieve uniform classification. The system is used by more than 200 countries and economies as a basis for their customs tariffs and for the collection of international trade statistics. Over 98 % of the merchandise in international trade is classified in terms of the HS. The HS is one of the most successful instruments developed by the WCO because it addresses a fundamental need of the customs and trade community in identifying the goods based on the unique code in numerical. The official interpretation of the HS is given in the Explanatory Notes (EN) published by the WCO. The EN is a key interpretation reference for the classification of goods to ensure standardized approach for comprehending the coding system of commodities, as well as to ensure a consistent and effective method of interpretation. In other words, the HS is a master list and the EN is a dictionary to master the list. Both instruments should be used as a “customs language” when dealing with trade across border. The HS assigned specific six (6) digits code known as Heading and Subheading. WCO Members are allowed to add more digits to the first six (6) digits for further classification. For ASEAN Member States (AMS), the original six (6) digits derived from WCO HS Code are further extended with additional two (2) digits to become eight (8) digits under the agreement of ASEAN Harmonised Tariff Nomenclature (AHTN). The AHTN is mainly to facilitate the trade among AMS through consistent and uniform interpretation in the classification of goods. To ensure the reliability and consistency in the interpretation of the AHTN, it is also further supported by Supplementary Explanatory Notes (SEN) for certain common products or commodity within ASEAN. To ensure the flexibility of each AMS in the classification of goods, the AHTN 8 digits is further extended by some member states to accommodate national requirements. In Malaysia for instance, additional two (2) digits are used to become 10 digits tariff code as stipulated in the Customs Duties Order 2022 (CDO 2022). Generally, the HS is organized into 21 Sections which are subdivided into 96 Chapters (Chapters 1 to 97 with Chapter 77 reserved for potential future use). Iron and steel commodities are classified under Section XV (15), under Chapter 72. For the purpose of this guidebook, the focus is on Chapter 72 which only covers the heading 7201 to heading 7229 pertaining to iron and steel products. The rates for import duty and export duty are vary from 0% to 15%, while some products are subject to ad-valorem export duty rate. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY x
For heading 7201 to heading 7229, there are hundreds of tariff lines with different rates of duties and taxes. Hence, it is truly a challenging task to figure out the correct tariff codes for different kind of iron and steel goods or products without having a clear understanding on their origins, compositions, and the manufacturing process involved. Thus, accurate classification holds significant importance to both customs authority and stakeholders with regards to reflecting on the right tariff for revenue collection. Meanwhile, trade statistics for import and export in Malaysia are reported and captured based on the HS Code which will be used by various agencies across the board. As most of the iron and steel products are subject to certain Certificate of Approval (COA) or Approval Permit (AP) from permit or COA issuing authority, the correct classification for iron and steel products is extremely critical to support the regulating agencies in undertaking required control measures for compliance of distinctive requirements. From a different perspective, it is important for customs authority to be consistent in classification approach as importers and exporters are relying on the reliability of customs officers in determining the accurate tariff codes for the relevant commodities. In this connection, this guidebook will play an important role to provide relevant source of reference with simplified and comprehensive information that will support customs administration in enhancing the competency of customs officers to classify iron and steel products effectively and accurately. This guidebook is imperatively useful as a guidance on how iron and steel can be identified based on the form or condition of the goods, size, shape, process and further works, finishing or surface treatment. With a better and clear understanding on the technical aspects of the iron and steel products, customs administration will be able to provide reliable classification and determination of the right tariff codes under different appropriate headings for such products. The content of this guidebook is divided into seven (7) sections with composition of relevant information including manufacturing process flow, examples of products in different forms, pictures of physical goods, and matrix of the most possible headings and sub headings for different forms of iron and steel goods. This guidebook is structured in such a way that it provides sufficient and easily comprehensible information regarding such goods as follows: - A. Introduction B. Manufacturing Process C. Production of Finished Products D. Sub-Chapter I Primary Materials; Products in Granular or Powder Form (Headings 72.01 to 72.05) E. Sub-Chapter II Iron and Non-Alloy Steel (Headings 72.06 to 72.17) F. Sub-Chapter III – Stainless Steel (Headings 72.18 to 72.23) G. Sub-Chapter IV – Other Alloy steel; Hollow Drill Bar and Rods, of Alloy or Non-Alloy Steel (Headings 72.24 to 72.29) xi
In addition, the classification of iron and steel products is also depending on the conditions of a product “as is” when presented to Customs at the time of importation. This guidebook greatly emphasizes the importance of physical characteristics of such products for certainty. Some characteristics of product can be seen by the naked eye and some require further assessment with the supporting documents. The characteristics of iron and steel are as follows: - i. Steel Composition ii. Form or Condition of the Product iii. Size or Shape iv. Process v. Finishing or Surface Treatment Overall, this guidebook aims to provide quick guidance to determine the most possible accurate heading and subheadings at first hand. The officers are advised to read this guidebook together with the EN, Mill Certificate and Chemical Analysis of the products which should provide further credible information about the content, size and other elements especially materials composition which may vary from one to another depending on the types of iron and steel existing in the industry. In fact, some of the iron and steel products are regulated in terms of certain standards, which requires further cross checking by the customs authority to seek more facts from relevant regulatory bodies. Other than that, this guidebook is quite comprehensive and handy sufficient to give first hand information on how to classify iron and steel goods in the right way and reliable approach. GRI EN WTO CDO HS CODE WCO AHTN RMCD GENERAL RULES OF INTERPRETATION EXPLANATORY NOTES WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATIONS CUSTOMS DUTIES ORDER HARMONIZED SYSTEM CODE WORLD CUSTOMS ORGANIZATIONS ASEAN HARMONIZED TARIFF NOMENCLATURE ROYAL MALAYSIAN CUSTOMS DEPARTMENT ABBREVIATIONS xii
HARMONIZED SYSTEM (HS) CLASSIFICATION GUIDEBOOK OF TOPIC A INTRODUCTION
A. INTRODUCTION Essentially, this guidebook was developed based on the Harmonized System (HS) Conventions provided by the World Customs Organization (WCO) which Malaysia is one of its members. The explanation and guide to determine the possible tariff code under HS are mainly to assist the stakeholders to understand the classifications of products of iron and steel. At the same time, the perspective to determine the tariff code is derived from the interpretation of General Rules (GIR) for the Interpretation of the HS as set out by the WCO. This book provides guidelines to understand the possible heading, it is not part of the Customs Ruling which is determined and provided by the Customs under the provision of law in Customs Act 1967. 1. WHAT IS IRON 1.1 Introduction Iron is a chemical element with the symbol Fe (from Latin: ferrum) and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth, right in front of oxygen (32.1% and 30.1%, respectively), forming much of Earth›s outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earth’s crust. 1.2 Physical Properties Iron is the major component in steel. Iron is a metal that in its pure state is not much harder than copper. Omitting very extreme cases, iron in its solid state is, like all other metals, polycrystalline—that is, it consists of many crystals that join one another on their boundaries. A crystal is a well-ordered arrangement of atoms that can best be pictured as spheres touching one another. https://en.wikipedia.org 2 TOPIC [ A ]
2. WHAT IS STEEL 2.1. Introduction Steel, is an alloy of iron and carbon in which the carbon content ranges up to 2 percent (with a higher carbon content, the material is defined as cast iron). By far it is the most widely used material for building the world’s infrastructure and industries, it is used to fabricate everything from sewing needles to oil tankers. 2.2 Types of Steel According to Explanatory Notes HS, Chapter Notes 1(e) and 1(f) Chapter 72, steel can be categorized into three categories that are: (a) Stainless Steel – Note 1(e) Alloy steels containing, by weight, 1.2% or less of carbon and 10.5% or more of chromium, with or without other elements. (b) Other alloy steel - Note 1(f) Steel not complying with the definition of stainless steel and containing by weight one or more of the following elements in the proportion shown: • 0.3% or more of aluminium • 0.0008% or more of boron • 0.3% or more of chromium • 0.3% or more of cobalt • 0.4% or more of copper • 0.4% or more of lead • 1.65% or more of manganese • 0.08% or more of molybdenum • 0.3% or more of nickel • 0.06% or more of niobium 3 INTRODUCTION
• 0.6% or more of silicon • 0.05% or more of titanium • 0.3% or more of tungsten (wolfram) • 0.1% or more of vanadium • 0.05% or more zirconium • 0.1% or more of other elements (except sulphur, phosphorus, carbon and nitrogen), taken separately. Steel not complying with the definition of stainless steel and alloy steel is categorized as non-alloy steel. 2.3 Properties of Steel Steel has a number of properties, including hardness, toughness, tensile strength, yield strength, elongation, fatigue strength, corrosion, plasticity, malleability, and creep. The properties that are most important in wear and abrasion-resistant steel are: 3. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IRON AND STEEL The primary difference between iron and steel is that the former is metal, whereas the latter is an alloy. Iron is simply a metal element that occurs naturally on Earth. In comparison, steel is a man-made alloy that is made by mixing iron and carbon together. HARDNESS TOUGHNESS YIELD TENSILE LONGATION is difficult to define but generally it is the ability to absorb energy without fracturing or rupturing. It is also defined as a material’s resistance to fracture when stressed. It is usually measured in foot lbs. per sq. in or Joules per sq. centimeter. It is important to distinguish this from hardness as a material that severely deforms without breaking, could be considered extremely tough, but not hard. is the material’s ability to withstand friction and abrasion. It is worth noting that, while it may mean the same as strength and toughness in colloquial language, this is very different from strength and toughness in the context of metal properties. (or ductility) is the “Degree” to which the material can be stretched or compressed before it breaks. It is expressed as a percent of the length being tested and is between the tensile strength and yield strength (i.e., what percent does the material bend before breaking). strength is a measurement of the force required to start the deformation of the material (i.e. bending or warping). strength is a measurement of the force required to break the material. 4 TOPIC [ A ]
HARMONIZED SYSTEM (HS) CLASSIFICATION GUIDEBOOK OF TOPIC B MANUFACTURING PROCESS
B. MANUFACTURING PROCESS The manufacturing process of iron and steel covers the following: (1) The production of iron by conversion (reduction) of iron ore; (2) Steel production by pneumatic processes and hearth processes; and (3) Production of ingots or other primary forms and of semi-finished products. The production of iron and steel begin with certain process of raw material from various natural iron ore, waste and scrap metal, pre-reduced iron ores and other ferrous waste. The iron ores are never found in pure state but always associated with earthy matter called gangue of the iron. Among others the natural iron ores (oxides, hydrated oxides, carbonates) listed in the Explanatory Note to heading 26.01, pyrites cinder (the sintered iron oxides remaining after burning off the sulphur from pyrite, marcasite, pyrrhotite, etc.). Table 1: Types of Natural Iron Ores and Pyrites Cinder Type of iron ore Colour Mohs hardness Specific gravity Source Formula % of iron content 1 Hematite Black, gray to silver gray, brown to reddish brown, red 5 – 6 5.3 Oxides (Natural Iron Ore) Fe2 O3 70% 2 Magnetite Black to brownish black 5½ – 6½ 5.2 Fe3 O4 72 - 74% 3 Limonite Black, brown, yellowishbrown, reddish-brown, yellow 5 – 5½ 3.3 – 4.3 FeO(OH) 55-63% 4 Siderite Light to dark brown, yellow-brown, light yellow, yellow-green, greenish-brown, grey, and white. 3.5 - 4 3.7 - 3.9 Carbonates (Natural Iron Ore) FeCO3 45 - 48% 6 TOPIC [ B ]
Type of iron ore Colour Mohs hardness Specific gravity Source Formula % of iron content 5 Pyrite brass-yellow mineral with a bright metallic luster 6 – 6.5 4.8 Sulphides (Pyrites Cinder) FeS2 45 % Source from geology.com IRON ORE Limonite Hematite Pyrite Magnetite Siderite 7 MANUFACTURING PROCESS
1. CONVERSION (REDUCTION) OF IRON ORE 1.1 Introduction Iron ore is converted by reduction either into pig iron, in blast furnaces or electric furnaces, or into a spongy form (sponge iron) or into lumps by various direct reduction processes; only when iron of exceptional purity is required for special use (e.g., in the chemical industry) it is obtained by electrolysis or other chemical processes. 1.2 Production Processes 1.2.1 The comparison between conversion of iron ore by blast furnace process and direct reduction plants are as below: Conversion of Iron Ore by Blast Furnace Process Conversion of Iron Ore in Direct Reduction Plants Raw Materials 1. Iron ore 2. Waste and scrap metal 3. Pre-reduced iron ores 4. Other ferrous waste Iron ore Mediums Reductants consist essentially of hard coke, sometimes combined with small quantities of coal or liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons Reductants are usually gaseous or liquid hydrocarbons or coal, so that the need for hard coke is eliminated. Products 1. Molten pig iron 2. By-products (slag, blast furnace gas and blast furnace dust) Sponge iron (in the form of sponge, pre-reduced pellets, or lumps) Applications 1. Molten pig iron - converted directly into steel in steelworks - used in foundries (ironworks), for the manufacture of ingot moulds, cast iron tubes and pipes, etc. 2. By-products - cast into the form of pigs or blocks, in casting machines or in sand-beds - produced in the form of irregularly shaped lumps, sometimes known as “plate iron”. - Granulated by being poured into water Melted in steelworks and converted into steel 8 TOPIC [ B ]
1.2.2 The pig iron obtained by smelting iron ore in a blast furnace in the following steps:- Iron Metallics Associations Metallic.org/pig-iron.html www.spongeironindia.com Pig iron Sponge iron CONCENTRATION CALCINATION SMELTING Crushing-the iron ore is broken into pieces 25-50mm. Screening-filtering Washing - Impurities like clay, sand etc. are removed by washing with water The concentrated ore is heated in shallow kilns in which moisture, CO2 , sulphur and arsenic are expelled out and ferrous oxide is change to ferric oxide. The calcined ore is submitted to the process of smelting i.e. reducing the ore with carbon in the present of a flux. Smelting is carried out in a large tower called ballast furnace 9 MANUFACTURING PROCESS
2 STEEL PRODUCTION 2.1 Introduction Pig or cast iron in molten or solid form and the ferrous products obtained by direct reduction (sponge iron) constitute, with waste and scrap, the primary steelmaking materials. Certain slag-forming additives such as quick-lime, fluorspar, de-oxidants (e.g., ferro-manganese, Ferro-silicon, aluminium) and various alloying elements are added to these materials . 2.2 Production Processes Steelmaking processes fall into two main categories which are “pneumatic” processes in which molten pig iron is refined in a converter or by blowing air, and hearth processes, such as open hearth or electric furnace. The comparison between “pneumatic” processes and hearth processes are as below: “Pneumatic” processes Hearth processes Raw Material Molten pig iron Solid charge (e.g., waste or scrap iron, sponge iron and solid pig iron) Processes Molten pig iron is refined in a converter or by blowing air Open hearth or electric furnace. External Source of Heat Require no external source of heat Require an external source of heat: i. Martin furnace process in which the heat is provided by heavy oil or gas. ii. Arc or induction furnace process, where the heat is supplied by electricity. Liquid steel obtained by the above-mentioned processes, with or without further refining, is generally run into a receiving ladle. At this stage alloying elements or de-oxidising agents, in solid or liquid form, may be added. This may be done in a vacuum to ensure freedom from gaseous impurities. Steels obtained by all these processes are divided, according to their content of alloying elements, into “non-alloy steels” and “alloy steels” (stainless or other). They are further divided into different kinds of steel, in accordance with their special properties, for example free-cutting steel, silicon-electrical steel, high speed steel or silica-manganese steel. 10 TOPIC [ B ]
3 PRODUCTION OF INGOTS OR OTHER PRIMARY FORMS AND OF SEMI-FINISHED PRODUCTS 3.1 Introduction Iron and steel are subsequently converted into ingots or other primary forms and of semi-finished products using various processes such as casting, rolling, forging etc. 3.2 Production Processes The comparison between production of primary forms and semi-finished products of iron and steel are as below: Primary Forms Semi-Finished Products Raw Material Molten steel Ingots Process i. Ingots are cast after production in ingot moulds. ii. Blocks and lumps are chiefly obtained from “agglomerates” or “build-ups” produced by direct reduction of iron ore or by electrolytic deposition iii. Puddled bars and pilings are obtained after rolling At the casting or pouring stage and at the solidification stage, steel is divided into three main groups: a. Rimming (or “effervescent”) steel b. Killed (or “non-effervescent”) steel c. Semi-killed (or “balanced”) steel i. Rolled on primary cogging or roughing mills (blooming, slabbing, etc.); or ii. Converted by drop hammer or on a forging press; or iii. Cast directly in continuous casting machines Products i. Ingots ii. Other primary forms such as steel in the molten state, blocks, lumps, puddled bars and pilings Blooms, billets, rounds, slabs and sheet bars 11 MANUFACTURING PROCESS
3.3 Examples And Pictures Of Ingots Or Other Primary Forms And Of Semi-Finished Products 3.3.1 Examples and pictures of ingots or other primary forms are as below: 3.3.2 Examples and pictures of semi-finished products of iron and steel are as below: Production of steel ingot Steel ingot casting Bloom Billet Slab (sheet bar) Molten Steel Steel Ingot 12 TOPIC [ B ]
HARMONIZED SYSTEM (HS) CLASSIFICATION GUIDEBOOK OF TOPIC C PRODUCTION OF FINISHED PRODUCTS
C. PRODUCTION OF FINISHED PRODUCTS The production of finished products covers the following: (1) The production of finished products by plastic deformation; (2) Subsequent manufacture and finishing of the finished products and (3) Forms of finished products (Chapter Notes 1(k), (l), (m), (n), (o) and (p), National Notes 1, 2 and 3). Semi-finished products and, in certain cases, ingots are subsequently converted into finished products. The finished products are generally subdivided into flat products and long products. PRODUCTION OF FINISHED PRODUCTS Plastic deformation Finished product Ingots / Semi finished products Flat product Long product 14 TOPIC [ C ]
1. THE PRODUCTION OF FINISHED PRODUCTS BY PLASTIC DEFORMATION 1.1 Introduction Finished products are obtained by plastic deformation, either hot, directly from ingots or semi-finished products (by hotrolling, forging or hot-drawing) or cold, indirectly from hot finished products (by cold-rolling, extrus10n, wire-drawing, brightdrawing), followed in some cases by finishing operations (e.g., cold-finished bars obtained by centre-less grinding or by precision turning). 1.2 What is Plastic Deformation Process in which enough stress is placed on metal or plastic to cause the object to change its size or shape in a way that is not reversible. Sometimes referred to simply as plasticity. Both the deformation of plastic and the deformation of metals involve changes to the makeup of the material itself. As stress of some type is exerted on the metal, the material reaches a point known as the yield strength. Heat is often used to shape objects into the desired form. As the metal cools, the shape is retained and becomes permanent. The use of pressure can also help to shape both plastic and metal into the desired shape. Plastic deformation as it is used in the manufacture of goods involves carefully controlling heat and pressure, allowing the structure of the material to adapt to the new conditions and incrementally bend until the desired shape is achieved. Source : https://www.aboutmechanics.com/what-is-plastic-deformation.htm 15 PRODUCTION OF FINISHED PRODUCTS
1.3 Hot Plastic Deformation Hot-working process is a type of metal forming process and this distinction is based on the particular temperature at which the deformation is carried out. The minimum temperature at which plastically deformed metals form new grains or crystals within a specified time is recrystallization temperature. When metal is deformed plastically above the recrystallization temperature but below the burning point it is called the hot working process of metal formation. Source : https://themechanicalengineering.com 16 TOPIC [ C ]
TYPES OF HOT-WORKING PROCESSES HOT ROLLING HOT DRAWING FORGING HOT DROP FORGING AND DROP STAMPING HOT WORKING 17 PRODUCTION OF FINISHED PRODUCTS
1.3.1 Hot Rolling Process Rolling at a temperature between the point of rapid recrystallization and that of the beginning of fusion. The temperature range depends on various factors such as the composition of the steel. As a rule, the final temperature of the work-piece in hot-rolling is about 900 °C. (Source : Explanatory Notes HS 2022) The hot metal is passed between two rolls to flatten it, lengthen it, reduce the cross-sectional area and obtain a uniform thickness. Hot-rolled steel is the most common product of the hot rolling process, and is widely used in the metal industry either as an end product or as raw material for subsequent operations. (Source : https://learnmech.com/) 18 TOPIC [ C ]
1.3.2 Forging Process Hot deformation of the metal in the mass by means of drop hammers or on forging presses, to obtain pieces of any shape. Source: https://thelibraryofmanufacturing.com/ 19 PRODUCTION OF FINISHED PRODUCTS
1.3.3 Hot Drawing Process In hot-drawing, the steel is heated and passed through a die to produce bars, tubes or sections of various shapes. (Source : Explanatory Notes HS 2022) The metal is heated above its recrystallization temperature and the wires, tubes, rods and other sections are produced by pulling it through a die. (Note: Drawing is generally a cold working process, but for large diameter tubes or wires, hot drawing is required which helps in reducing the forces.) (Source : https://knordslearning.com/) Source : http://sainsmechanical.blogspot.com/ 1.3.4 Hot Drop Forging and Drop Stamping Hot drop forging and stamping is a process to produce metal shapes or sections (usually on the conveyor line) by the hot shaping of cut blanks in dies (closed or with burr joints) by means of special tools. The work, carried out by impact or pressure, is generally effected in successive phases, following preliminary operations of rolling, hammering, hand forging or bending. 20 TOPIC [ C ]
1.4 Cold Plastic Deformation Cold working is the process of metal forming in which deformation of metal occurs below its recrystallization temperature. In most cases, cold working of metal is performed at room temperature. Recrystallization temperature is the minimum temperature at which plastically deformed metals form new grains or crystals within the specified time. Recrystallization temperature in most of the metal is found between one-third to one-half of its melting point. (Source : https://www.engineersgallery.com/cold-working/) 21 PRODUCTION OF FINISHED PRODUCTS
TYPES OF COLD-WORKING PROCESSES 22 TOPIC [ C ]
1.4.1 Cold Rolling Process Cold-rolling is carried out at ambient temperatures, i.e., below the recrystallization temperature. (Source : Explanatory Notes HS 2022) Cold rolling is a process by which metal is passed through rollers at temperatures below its recrystallization temperatures. The metal is compressed and squeezed, increasing the yield strength and hardness of the metal. Cold rolling of metal strip is a special segment within the metal working industry. The purpose of this process is to create thinner metal strips with a good dimensional accuracy and a dedicated surface quality for a variety of applications. (Source : www.substech.com) 23 PRODUCTION OF FINISHED PRODUCTS
1.4.2 Extrusion Process Extrusion is a process, generally cold, for deforming steel in the mass under high pressure between a die and a press tool, in a space enclosed on all sides except that through which the charge passes, to assume the desired shape. 24 TOPIC [ C ]
1.4.3 Wire Drawing Process Wire-drawing is a cold process in which bars or rods in irregularly wound coils are drawn through one or more dies at high speed to obtain coiled wire of smaller diameter. Source : https://www.precisionkidd.com/technology.htm 1.4.4 Cold Drop Forging & Drop Stamping Producing metal shapes or sections (usually on the conveyor line) by the COLD shaping of cut blanks in dies (closed or with burr joints) by means of special tools. The work, carried out by impact or pressure, is generally effected in successive phases, following preliminary operations of rolling, hammering, hand forging or bending. 1.4.5 Bright-Drawing Cold process in which bars or rods, whether or not in irregularly wound coils, are drawn (at relatively low speed) through one or more dies to obtain products of smaller or different shaped section. 25 PRODUCTION OF FINISHED PRODUCTS
1.5 Comparison of Hot Working and Cold Working 1.5.1 The comparison between hot working and cold working are as below: Hot Working Cold Working Metal forming process in which the plastic deformation of metals takes place above their recrystallization temperature. Metal forming process in which the plastic deformation of metals takes place below their recrystallization temperature. Due to oxidation and scaling, poor surface finish is obtained. Cold worked parts carry better surface finish. Hot worked metals show less dimensional accuracy. Cold worked metals show higher dimensional accuracy. The crystals are refined by hot working of metals. The grains are just elongated or distorted during cold working of metals. The uniformity in material is maintained by hot working. Uniformity of material is lost during cold working. Hardening of metals does not take place. The metals get work-hardened. Hot working can be used for large components as the plastic deformation becomes easy at higher temperatures. Cold working is not suitable for large components. 26 TOPIC [ C ]
1.5.2 Cold-worked products can be distinguished from hot-rolled or hot-drawn products by the following criteria: - the surface of cold-worked products has a better appearance than that of products obtained by a hot process and never has a layer of scale; - the dimensional tolerances are smaller for cold-worked products; - thin-flat products (thin “ wide coil “, sheets, plates and strip) are usually produced by cold-reduction; - microscopic examination of cold-worked products reveals a marked deformation of the grains and grain orientation parallel to the direction of working. By contrast, products obtained by hot processes show almost regular grains owing to recrystallization; Hot rolled sheet in coil Cold rolled sheet in coil 27 PRODUCTION OF FINISHED PRODUCTS
2. SUBSEQUENT MANUFACTURE AND FINISHING 2.1 Introduction The finished products may be subjected to further finishing treatments or converted into other articles by a series of operations such as mechanical working and surface treatments. The finished products may be subjected to further finishing treatments or converted into other articles by a series of operations Mechanical working Rough turning merely to eliminate the oxidation scale and crust and rough trimming are not regarded as finishing operations leading to a change in classification To improve the properties or appearance of the metal, protect it against rusting and corrosion Surface treatments 28 TOPIC [ C ]
2.2 Mechanical Working Turning Grinding Folding Perforation or Punching Turning is the most basic machining process. It is also the most common lathe machining operation. During the metal turning process, a cutting tool subtracts metal pieces from a rotating workpiece’s outer diameter. The main objective of metal turning is to reduce the workpiece to the desired dimensions. Metal grinding is a process used to smoothen and finish of metal parts, most often used for finishing edges, deburring, smoothening welding joints, creating a sharp edge, and for certain custom edge finishes. Folding of sheet metal is part of the manufacturing technologies bending and forming. It involves the folding of a surface part of sheet metal. The most common method of perforating metal uses a rotary pinned perforation roller. This is a large cylinder with sharp, pointed needles on the outside to punch holes into the metal. As the sheet metal is run across the perforation roller, it rotates, continuously punching holes in the passing sheet. 29 PRODUCTION OF FINISHED PRODUCTS
2.3 Surface Treatments 2.2.1 Surface treatments that are NOT REGARDED AS COATED: - Annealing, hardening, tempering, case-hardening, nitriding - Descaling, pickling, scraping - Rough coating intended solely to protect products from rust or other oxidation, to prevent slipping during transport and to facilitate handling e.g., paints containing an active anti-rust pigment (red lead, zinc powder, zinc oxide, zinc chromate, iron oxide, iron minium, jewellers’ rouge), and non-pigmented coatings with a basis of oil, grease, wax, paraffin wax, graphite, tar or bitumen. - Polishing and burnishing - Artificial oxidation, patina finishing, blueing (blue annealing) browning or bronzing - Chemical surface treatments: Phospatising, parkerising or bonderising, oxalating, borating, chromating Patina finish Bronzing Phospating Chromating Blueing 30 TOPIC [ C ]
2.2.2 Coating with metal (metallisation), the main processes being: ● Hot-dip galvanizing is the process of immersing iron or steel in a bath of molten zinc to produce a corrosion resistant, multi-layered coating of zinc-iron alloy and zinc metal. While the steel is immersed in the zinc, a metallurgical reaction occurs between the iron in the steel and the molten zinc. (Source : https://galvanizeit.org/) 31 PRODUCTION OF FINISHED PRODUCTS
● Electroplating is a process of coating deposition on a part, immersed into an electrolyte solution and used as a cathode, when the anode is made of the depositing material, which is dissolved into the solution in form of the metal ions, traveling through the solution and depositing on the cathode surface. (Source : https://www.substech.com/) Source : https://slideplayer.com/ ● Cementation or diffusion coat is obtained by heating the base metal in a revolving drum containing a powder of coating metal e.g., sherardising (cementation with zinc) and calorising (cementation with aluminium) and chromising (with diffusion of chromium) 32 TOPIC [ C ]
Source : https://slideplayer.com/ ● Spraying (atomising the molten coating metal and directing the spray on to the product to be coated), e.g., the Schoop process and the gas pistol, arc, plasma and electrostatic spray processes. ● Sputtering is a Physical Vapor Deposition method, utilizing argon ions for bombarding a cathodically connected target, made of the coating material. Atoms of the target are knocked out by the high energy ions and deposit on the substrate surface 33 PRODUCTION OF FINISHED PRODUCTS
2.2.3 Coating with non-metallic substance e.g., enamelling, varnishing, lacquering, painting, surface printing, coating with ceramics or plastics, including special processes such as glow discharge, electrophoresis, electrostatic projection and immersion m an electrostatic fluidised bath followed by radiation firing, etc Source: Google.com 2.2.4 Cladding Cladding is association of layers of metals of different colours or natures by molecular interpenetration of the surfaces in contact. The various cladding processes include pouring molten cladding metal on to the basic metal, followed by rolling; simple hot-rolling of the cladding metal to ensure efficient welding to the basic metal; any other method of deposition or superimposing of the cladding metal followed by any mechanical or thermal process to ensure welding (e.g., electrocladding), in which the cladding metal (nickel, chromium, etc.) is applied to the basic metal by electroplating, molecular interpenetration of the surfaces in contact then being obtained by heat treatment at the appropriate temperature with subsequent cold-rolling. Ceramic coating Enamelling Varnishing Painting Coating with plastic 34 TOPIC [ C ]
3. FORMS OF FINISHED PRODUCTS (Chapter Notes 1(k), (l), (m), (n), (o) and (p), National Notes 1, 2 and 3) Finished products are generally subdivided into flat products (“wide flats”, including “universal plates”, “wide coil”, sheets, plates and strip) and long products (bars and rods, hot-rolled, in irregularly wound coils, other bars and rods, angles, shapes, sections and wire). 3.1 Flat-Rolled Products – Note 1(k) Rolled products of solid rectangular (other than square) cross-section, which do not conform to the definition at (ij) above in the form of: - coils of successively superimposed layers, or - straight lengths, which if of a thickness less than 4.75 mm are of a width measuring at least ten times the thickness or if of a thickness of 4.75 mm or more are of a width which exceeds 150 mm and measures at least twice the thickness. Flat-rolled products include those with patterns in relief derived directly from rolling (for example, grooves, ribs, chequers, tears, buttons, lozenges) and those which have been perforated, corrugated or polished, provided that they do not thereby assume the character of articles or products of other headings. Flat-rolled products of a shape other than rectangular or square, of any size, are to be classified as products of a width of 600 mm or more, provided that they do not assume the character of articles or products of other headings. Flat-rolled product in the form of plate or coil Corrugated flat-rolled Pattern in relief plate 35 PRODUCTION OF FINISHED PRODUCTS
3.2 Bars and Rods, Hot-Rolled, In Irregularly Wound Coils – Note 1(l) Hot-rolled products in irregularly wound coils, which have a solid cross-section in the shape of circles, segments of circles, ovals, rectangles (including squares), triangles or other convex polygons (including “flattened circles” and “modified rectangles”, of which two opposite sides are convex arcs, the other two sides being straight, of equal length and parallel). These products may have indentations, ribs, grooves or other deformations produced during the rolling process (reinforcing bars and rods) Bar and rod, hot-rolled in coil Hot-rolled deformed bar and rod in coil 36 TOPIC [ C ]
3.3 Other Bars and Rods – Note 1(m) Products which do not conform to any of the definitions to semi-finished products, definitions at Chapter Note 1(k) and 1(l) to Chapter 72 or to the definition of wire. Have a uniform solid cross-section along their whole length in the shape of circles, segments of circles, ovals, rectangles (including squares), triangles or other convex polygons (including “flattened circles” and’ modified rectangles”, of which two opposite sides are convex arcs, the other two sides being straight, of equal length and parallel). These products may include : - have indentations, ribs, grooves or other deformations produced during the rolling process (reinforcing bars and rods); - be twisted after rolling. 37 PRODUCTION OF FINISHED PRODUCTS