3 Teaching the Teachers … 29
Aboriginal, others have found an Aboriginal identity in later life, some experience
identity questioning episodes’ (Bolt, 2009, p. 114).
Indeed, my life history, and the histories of the women in my family gone before
me, deeply had impact on my sense of self, my identity and my pedagogy. I faced
many experiences as I entered schools as an ‘Aboriginal teacher’ with pale skin, little
cultural knowledge and no language. My own history was painful, and my identity as
a 24-year-old ‘urban’ Indigenous woman was still developing through relationships
with Elders in my local community. Indigenous scholar Bolt (2009) states that, rather
than criticising urban Aboriginal identities, people should respect ‘Aboriginal people
for “who they are” (essentially they are products of colonisation, of mixed heritage,
of several cultural influences, but … strongly claim an Aboriginal identity)’ (p. 163).
This, however, is rarely the case, and discrimination of pale-skinned Aboriginal peo-
ple, and those who do not have traditional Aboriginal identities, was something
I came face-to-face with in my first few years teaching Aboriginal students at a private
school in an Australian capital city. It has always been my firm belief that schools, as
the place that our young people spend the majority of their formative years, have a
responsibility to nurture Indigenous identity through Indigenous programs that encou-
rage the forming of relationships, engagement with community members. My passion
for Indigenous community within schools, I believe, comes from understanding that:
… it is the elements of culture … that become the resources used to achieve authenticity
as Aboriginal people. Thus, socialisation is much more important than descent, simply
because an Aboriginal identity is learnt … This is where the worldview has an integral
role, because the urban Aboriginal identity concept is constructed from exposure to the
Aboriginal worldview and crucially, can happen regardless. (Bolt, 2009, p. 181)
My ongoing relationships with Aboriginal people and Elders have significantly
shaped my identity as an Aboriginal woman. Although, I lacked a ‘lived’ connec-
tion with my Aboriginal ancestors growing up, I do feel a sense of pride in who I
am by birth, and through a deep yearning to understand my spiritual connection to
my world as an Indigenous Aboriginal woman. As Niezen (2002) explains:
Indigenous peoples … derive much of their identity from histories … forced settlement,
relocation, political marginalization, and various formal attempts at cultural destruction …
The collective suffering that transposes onto identity is usually multigenerational. It can
be separated by the space of decades, perhaps even centuries, from the immediate horrors
of dispossession and death, kept alive by stories … to be recalled later, like the rekindling
of smouldering ashes. (pp. 13–14)
By locating who I am, it is hoped that you might better understand my world-
view as Indigenous Aboriginal woman in education.
The Australian Context: Curriculum Reform and
Teacher Development
Partington (2002) describes Australian classroom teachers as unprepared to teach
Indigenous students towards supporting their achievement. This is a crucial point I
make in the first part of this chapter, as teacher preparedness has been long neglected
30 J. Rogers
in the deficit discourse that surrounds Aboriginal education in Australia, when in my
experience, it plays a significant role in the success of our young people in schools.
Teachers, however, are being asked to look more closely at their knowledge in teach-
ing both Indigenous students, and Indigenous content. After the introduction of the
Australian Curriculum encouraged them to examine their work regarding Indigenous
content, the past few years have seen many Australian teachers realise how little
they know about Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students, how to teach them,
and how to teach about their cultures and histories (Rogers, 2015). Even more chal-
lenging is working with those educators who do not recognise their own lack of
knowledge and biases, and, resist teaching Indigenous content. Cannon (2012) talks
of such challenges, stating that it is important to consider the challenges of educators
who are tasked with the difficult process of educating pre-service teachers; many of
whom can be resistant and reactive to pressures placed upon them regarding
Indigenous content. The issue appears magnified when comparing teachers with a
lack of understanding as to why such outcomes and guidelines are being introduced,
and little knowledge of the content they are expected to teach.
As Australia’s first national curriculum (the Australian Curriculum) is rolled out,
and the first Australian Professional Teaching Standards (the Australian Institute for
Teaching and School Leadership Standards, or AITSL standards) are implemented
across Australia, teachers are now expected to address Indigenous student learning
and Indigenous content, effectively driving a re-education of Australian teachers
who previously lacked the skills and knowledge to teach in this area. However as
Herbert (2012) notes, not all teacher education programs produce teachers who are
able to engage effectively with Indigenous students (p. 47). Currently, the context
of Australian pre-service teacher education is in the early stages of development,
with many institutions and organisations trying to deliver programs to pre-service
teachers about Indigenous principles, protocols and practices they have little to no
knowledge about. Rose (2012) asks, ‘[H]ow well-equipped will teachers be, given
that they themselves are likely to have been deprived of valid Indigenous perspec-
tives during their studies in compulsory and tertiary years?’ (p. 67). These are the
challenges facing Australian educators, and, importantly, Indigenous students. A
curriculum that encourages teachers to include Indigenous content and history is a
start—however, and due to a lack of knowledge, and teacher unpreparedness, many
students today are still missing out. This chapter considers some of the ways
schools can overcome the challenges faced in creating culturally relevant schooling
while at the same time the existing teaching workforce, pre-service teacher pro-
grams and the new Australian Curriculum are working together to close the gaps.
The Australian Institute for Teaching and Learning
The Australian Institute for Teaching and Learning recently implemented
Australia’s first national professional standards for teachers. Previously, each state
and territory decided on the focus of teacher preparation and knowledge required
3 Teaching the Teachers … 31
to receive teacher registration. Now, Focus Areas 1.4 and 2.4 determine that all
teachers, including already registered teachers must demonstrate the following:
Focus Area 1.4: Strategies for teaching Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
students
• At Graduate Level a teacher can demonstrate broad knowledge and understand-
ing of the impact of culture, cultural identity and linguistic background on the
education of students from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander backgrounds.
• At Proficient Level a teacher can design and implement effective teaching stra-
tegies that are responsive to the local community and cultural setting, linguistic
background and histories of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students.
• At Highly Accomplished Level a teacher can provide advice and support col-
leagues in the implementation of effective teaching strategies for Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander students using knowledge of and support from com-
munity representatives.
• At Lead Level a teacher can develop teaching programs that support equitable
and ongoing participation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students by
engaging in collaborative relationships with community representatives and
parents/carers.
Focus Area 2.4: Understand and respect Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
people to promote reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous
Australians
• At Graduate Level a teacher can demonstrate broad knowledge of, understand-
ing of and respect for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories, cultures
and languages.
• At Proficient Level a teacher can provide opportunities for students to develop
understanding of and respect for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories,
cultures and languages.
• At Highly Accomplished Level a teacher can support colleagues with providing
opportunities for students to develop understanding of and respect for
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories, cultures and languages.
• At Lead Level a teacher can lead initiatives to assist colleagues with opportu-
nities for students to develop understanding of and respect for Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander histories, cultures and languages (Australian Institute for
Teaching and School Leadership, 2011, p. 9).
The AITSL standards outline the requirement that Australian teachers, regard-
less of their level, include Indigenous perspectives in a respectful and knowledge-
able ways across all year levels and learning areas throughout all primary and
secondary schools. In practice, this presents difficulties, and as noted, particularly
when teachers do not have the relevant cultural knowledge to achieve these levels.
In their review of current Australian teacher preparation programs in universities,
Ma Rhea, Anderson, and Atkinson (2012) concluded that there are two predomi-
nant areas of professional development program currently being delivered to tea-
chers to acquire the skills needed to successfully teach Indigenous students. These
32 J. Rogers
include: (1) Practical strategies for working with students to develop culturally
inclusive curriculum, improve student behaviour, language and literacy, use new
resources and enhance the student–teacher relationship and (2) Professional devel-
opment programs aimed at giving teachers skills and knowledge to better under-
stand and respect Indigenous peoples culture and history, develop intercultural
learning spaces and skills to improve teachers’ attitudes, expectations and cultural
understandings about Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people (pp. 5–6). The
importance of teachers improving their own cultural understanding, and indeed
understanding about their own attitudes, stereotypes, beliefs and behaviours are
fundamental to growing culturally inclusive schools in Australia.
As has been described, Australian educators have a much greater understanding
of the importance of culture in education today than in previous decades, and
Australia is slowly catching up to some of our brother and sister nations interna-
tionally. Battiste (1998) however states that a truly successful education program
for Indigenous peoples must:
[E]merge from Indigenous social and cultural frames of reference, embodying Indigenous
philosophical foundations and spiritual understandings. It must be built on the experiences
and gifts of Indigenous people and be based on economic needs rather than a secular
experience that fragments knowledges. (p. 21)
Toward Appropriate Schooling
For now, in Australia, there is no comprehensive and culturally appropriate
schooling system for Indigenous students. They still have to complete state-wide
tests in English, with no opportunity for Indigenous languages to be used. The
education system available to students in Australia is not built on Indigenous ways
of understanding, beliefs or spiritual understandings, and until more recently, is
only now beginning to include such topics in the curriculum.
Literacy and numeracy are the ‘buzzwords’ that have appeared in Indigenous
education policies for decades, with little to no recognition of the many literacies
Indigenous Australian people have always developed and nurtured in young peo-
ple. The level of cultural ignorance towards Aboriginal intellectual and spiritual
capital has led to many students being isolated in a system that was never built for
them, and as a result, individual communities are being blamed for the ‘failure’ of
Indigenous students in the school system. Street (2003) asks the most important
question when it comes to Indigenous education: whose literacies are dominant,
and whose are marginalised? It is clear that separating Indigenous peoples from
their ancestral literacies has had devastating effect, both socially and academically
(Rawiri, 2008). The results seen in Indigenous education when cultural literacies
are included and fostered show success not only in the grasp of Indigenous litera-
cies, but in English and western literacies also. Indigenous literacies include the
ability to communicate, to understand natural elements, systems and seasons
(Edwards, 2010). For Australian Indigenous peoples, our literacies (yarning,
3 Teaching the Teachers … 33
stories, song, carving, weaving, painting and languages) have for many years been
considered inferior to the ‘real’ business of education in this country. Literacy is
not only the ability to communicate in English. ‘Literacy is the means with which
to express, understand, provide for, and make sense of, one’s self and the whole
richness of one’s self in its widest cultural, spiritual, intellectual and physical
sense’ (Edwards, 2010, p. 31). Australian schooling has often continued to push
cultural, spiritual and physical aspects of literacy aside, and as a result intellectual
literacy is limited to the use of English language only.
In New Zealand, the context is very different for tangata whenua (i.e.
Indigenous peoples of the land). With te reo Ma¯ori as an official national language
alongside English, the argument for Indigenous education in New Zealand to
include Indigenous culture and language, as is the case at College C, is much stron-
ger. Edwards (2010) argues that one example of covert racism is found in New
Zealand government literacy agendas, which highlights the following problem,
… valid in the English language and not in the Indigenous language. This is quite
obviously an oppressive agenda that contributes to the maintenance of the dominance of
the English language over the Maori language—te reo Ma¯ori, and further highlights an
abuse of power. This is further manifested when we realise that Ma¯ori experiences of
English literacy are primarily schooling experiences and that those experiences have
caused ethno-stress and trauma for many. The marginalisation of te reo Ma¯ori … from
current literacy agendas mimics the assimilation policies of the 1900’s … the bias towards
English language gives dominant literacy discourses a perceived, but incorrect distinction
of superiority, both racial and ideological. (p. 32)
In the Australian context, as Antone and Cordoba (2005) state, Aboriginal lan-
guages, culture and tradition must lead literacy learning for Aboriginal people,
however the dominance of English as the only form of literacy is what counts in
Australian schools, state-wide tests and the Australian Curriculum for the most
part. The deficit discourse that surrounds Indigenous students and their lack of
achievement in English literacy is much more about power, than it is about student
ability. As Lankshear and McLaren (1993) explain, literacies are ideological,
reflecting power structures as well as serving interests. The idea people have of
what literacy is, or what counts as being literate ultimately, reflects and promotes
certain values, beliefs and practices that shape life within societies, and as such,
influence which interests are promoted or diminished. In Australia, Indigenous lit-
eracies are not recognised as valuable. This is found the world over:
Government ideologies worldwide do not consider indigenous peoples or our ideas as key
and important areas of work that impact significantly on indigenous identity and wellbeing.
Indigenous people will need to powerfully continue to remind our colonisers that
Eurocentric thought is not the benchmark against which all knowledge and good ideas
should be measured. At the same time, we will need to provide counter narratives as to what
literacies count, what counts as literacy and be the ones to say so. (Edwards, 2010, p. 36)
Whilst it is not realistic to suggest that the curriculum be completely
Indigenous in Australia, it is clear that teacher education programs must also con-
tinue to focus on developing Australian teachers to be more inclusive, engaging
and relational working with Indigenous students in the classroom; drawing on
34 J. Rogers
their knowledges, languages and cultures to build supportive learning environ-
ments where Indigenous students can thrive.
Re-education: Teaching the Teachers
Herbert (2012) states that teachers are successful when,
… they have a deep understanding of where their students are coming from, when they
are able to empathize with their students in ways that ensure they, themselves, have the
capacity to deliver learning programs that cater for their students’ individual learning
needs … not all teacher education programs produce teachers who are able to engage
effectively with all students, especially with Indigenous students. (p. 47)
In the absence of this knowledge, teachers in Australia cannot effectively con-
nect with their Indigenous students. This is why the current reforms to teacher
education programs are so important for Indigenous students. Rose (2012) states:
In the absence of personal and collective access to authentic Indigenous knowledge, intel-
lectual hegemony prevails. When substantive misconceptions about Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander people are held unknowingly by professionals, their ignorance translates
into professional advice and practice that misguides and marginalizes. (p. 75)
Ma Rhea et al. (2012) observed teacher fear and resistance to change. Although
a consensus hasn’t been reached on exactly what the ‘professional teaching stan-
dards’ means for teachers, one thing that pre-service teachers are being introduced
to, in their educational journey towards teaching in Australia, is the concept that
they are now required to at least have an understanding of the Indigenous students,
and content that they will be expected to teach in Australian schools. With so
much fear and resistance in the existing teaching workforce, it is no surprise that
pre-service teachers also experience and often exhibit similar behaviours in their
teacher training at university.
Questions have been asked of me as a lecturer in this space including, why
such content is necessary when we have never had it in the curriculum before;
why Indigenous content should be included in subjects such as mathematics; and
why all teachers should be forced to include Indigenous perspectives if they don’t
all teach Indigenous students? All teachers are likely to teach Indigenous students
at some point in their career, and this knowledge is important for all Australians,
especially students. Soon after beginning units of work outlining Indigenous edu-
cation, the issue of identity inevitably comes up. As a result of Australia’s history
of colonisation, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander identity has been subjected
to racist policies and practices, that has led to widespread misunderstanding of
what it actually means to be Indigenous in Australia, including issues associated
with percentages, skin colour and cultural behaviours. It remains that:
… teachers are part of Australian society and their opinions as to these rights are as varied
as the broader population; one that has a poor historical record of racism and hostility
towards its Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander inhabitants. Given the lack of overarching
policy framework addressing the rights agenda, and the fact that so few teachers have
3 Teaching the Teachers … 35
undertaken any formal study in either the teaching and learning needs of Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander … it is perhaps unsurprising that teachers seem to regard it as a choice
as to whether they develop expertise in these areas or not. (Ma Rhea et al., 2012, pp. 59–60)
In the coming years, as policy and practice firm up around the requirements
nationally of Australian teachers, Indigenous education will surely develop. In the
interim courses developed to prepare teachers in meeting such standards can do lit-
tle but help teachers to help themselves. It is impossible for one or two university
courses to teach the teachers entirely about Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
cultures, peoples and histories, as well as reconciliation actions, teaching methods
for urban, rural and remote Indigenous students, Indigenous languages and so on.
What we can do is help students examine themselves, their worldviews, and sup-
port them to grow their body of knowledge, access professional learning and read-
ing, and assist them in connecting with local Indigenous community members.
Starting from Within
The misconceptions Australian pre-service teachers and teachers bring to their
practice are often unseen. The most important lesson I give to pre-service teachers,
and to educators growing their skills in Indigenous education, is know yourself.
Only when we know ourselves, truly, can we hope to know another. Being aware
of our own preconceptions, biases, histories, worldviews, as well as weaknesses
and strengths is essential if we ever hope to educate another. Knowing myself
wasn’t a part of my own teacher education university. No one mentioned it to me
as a training teacher doing practicums in Australian schools. When I entered the
teaching workforce, I was ashamed to say I was blissfully unaware of how my
own worldview, ways of seeing things and my beliefs, impacted my teaching
practice. Over the years I began to understand that my internal self was much
more powerful than the lesson plan, teaching strategies or curriculum guidelines I
taught from. It influenced not only what I taught, but also how I taught.
Palmer (1997) states, ‘when I do not know myself, I cannot know who my stu-
dents are … when I cannot see them clearly I cannot teach them well’ (p. 2). All
educators have beliefs, biases and understandings of what constitutes knowledge.
This in turn impacts what teachers select and deem valuable for our Indigenous
students in Australian classrooms. It influences our expectations of our students,
and the way we expect them to behave and learn. ‘The “informal curriculum”
includes the amount of time that the educator gives a particular topic; or non-
verbal signs of approval or disapproval; or the cultural background of the teacher
who allows only one world view’ (Rose, 2012, p. 77).
Teaching is a mind, body and spirit activity. While for many Indigenous peo-
ple, these concepts are inextricably linked; for the average Australia pre-service
teacher, the idea that spirit is somehow connected to practice has often left my stu-
dents shaking their heads. Palmer (1997) explains, ‘intellect, emotion and spirit
depend on each other for wholeness. They are interwoven in the human self and
36 J. Rogers
in education at its best, and we need to interweave them in our pedagogical dis-
course’ (p. 2). In helping Australian educators begin their journey understanding
Indigenous education, I always begin with the examination of self.
One particularly good resource that has been developed is the Respect,
Relationships, Reconciliation (3Rs) framework for educators of pre-service tea-
chers, based on three modules: (1) know yourself, (2) know your students and (3)
know what you teach. RRR states that with an understanding of our own culture,
and how this influences our beliefs and values, we can question the assumptions
that underpin our perceptions of cultural identity, and reflect on how this may
impact our pedagogical choices as well as student learning. It encourages pre-
service teachers to look at stereotyping, privilege, power and race as a social con-
struct, and a recognition how whiteness is positioned as the norm (RRR, 2014).
Taking teachers through a series of activities and self-reflections allows them to
realise that western constructs of knowledge, education, literacy, culture and iden-
tity among others can influence teaching practice. As Indigenous peoples, and as
an Indigenous lecturer, it is not always easy helping others to see themselves,
sometimes for the first time.
Supporting Our Indigenous Teaching Workforce
The issues presented by a predominantly Eurocentric curriculum and unprepared
teaching workforce are compounded by the lack of Indigenous teachers and princi-
pals in Australia. It has been clear for a number of years that programs aimed at
increasing the number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators are badly
needed and many are gaining traction across Australia, through universities as well
as state and territory departments making a deliberate effort to engage Indigenous
people in teaching programs. One such program that I’ve been involved in is the
More Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Teachers Initiative (MATSITI). Now in
its final year of a 4-year program, we have tried to increase the number of
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people entering and—importantly—remaining
in teaching positions in Australian schools. Having more Indigenous teachers is a
key factor in fostering student engagement and improving educational outcomes
for Indigenous and non-Indigenous students. The MATSITI project notes two key
outcomes: (1) Between 2001 and 2014, there was a 53% increase in the number of
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students enrolled in the Initial Teacher
Education programme (i.e. 1,610–2,459) and (2) Between 2012 and 2015, there
was a 16.5% (439) increase in the number of Indigenous teachers nationally (i.e.
2,661–3,100) (Johnson, Cherednichenko, & Rose, 2016). Both outcomes demon-
strate the potential to further grow these trends. As a result, a total of 18 recom-
mendations emerged that summarised, can be echoed accordingly:
• Teaching as a career and scholarship programs be strongly promoted to Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander people working in schools as paraprofessionals/teacher’s
aides/Indigenous Support Workers (AIEWs, AEOs, ISOs, IEOs);
3 Teaching the Teachers … 37
• That students coming into pre-service teacher programs from their previous
roles as paraprofessionals (above) be closely supported and monitored as they
progress through their teaching degree and training;
• That all new Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander beginning teachers be given
appropriate support, especially through mentorship and connection with other
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators already teaching;
• That Australian schools increase their cultural awareness through whiteness
studies and workshops as well as cultural safety workshops, especially princi-
pals of schools that have Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander staff or students;
• That Australian State and Territory education directorates/departments work
closely with their local universities towards recruiting Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander teachers;
• That Australian State and Territory education directorates/department collabo-
rate in sharing the successes of high performing jurisdictions in order to
enhance their practices in respect of increasing the number of Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander teachers.
If students and educators have the opportunity to work with an Indigenous edu-
cator, the learning appears to happen more naturally. The Central Land Council
(2015) states that an increase in the number of Aboriginal teachers per school is
critical to improving educational outcomes for Indigenous students. In the interim,
the continued dedication of Indigenous support workers continues in schools.
Many schools have Indigenous support workers, known as Aboriginal Education
Officers (AEOs), Indigenous Support Officers (ISOs), or Aboriginal Teaching
Assistants (ATAs). Indigenous support is key to students feeling connected and
welcomed in Australian schools (Partington, 2002). The Queensland Catholic
Education Commission (QCEC) states that Indigenous Support Officers positively
influence Indigenous students, by providing strong, supportive relationships
encouraging students to work to their full potential and to do well at school (2015).
Indigenous teaching assistants often have teaching aspirations, but are paid low
wages, often not paid during the 10 or more weeks of school holidays in Australian
schools each year. Indigenous people face discrimination in their positions within
the school system, and are often expected to deal with Indigenous students when
teachers are unable, or unprepared. These challenges can present barriers to assistant
teachers looking to gain qualifications towards teaching employment in schools.
I started my career working as an Indigenous support officer after seeing how
Indigenous students were missing out on important cultural education in schools.
The cultural concerns I saw in schools mostly stemmed from teacher ignorance
regarding Indigenous content and a lack of cultural awareness. The lack of respect
for Indigenous knowledges was not only a teaching issue, it often was a school-
wide issue. Schools in Australia are still at odds with the power of Indigenous lit-
eracies. This makes education a difficult journey for Indigenous students who
come to the classroom with strengths and skills that are often overlooked by edu-
cators with no knowledge of cultural frameworks and their relevance to schooling.
Australian schools need more Indigenous teachers, as well as school leaders, to
38 J. Rogers
drive the change needed on other fronts, including in the curriculum and school
cultural awareness. This is one of the ways we can continue to support Indigenous
students in our schools while the system is developed, and teachers re-educated.
Conclusion
Kahakalau (2004) states,
I bring to every task my mana, my personal power, which includes all my personal
strengths: physical, emotional, intellectual, and spiritual. I also bring with me my personal
skills and experiences, my hopes, my dreams, my visions, and my ancestral endowments,
including the wisdom that my ancestors share with me. (p. 22)
Such strengths continue to push Indigenous educators, teaching assistants, prin-
cipals and teachers alike forward across our country, in the hope that educational
reform will one day make Australian schools places that encourage, celebrate and
strengthen Indigenous students. We face many challenges in Australia, including a
lack of Indigenous educators, a curriculum that still only recognises English lit-
eracy as valid, a young cultural curriculum alongside a underprepared teaching
workforce. Australian pre-service teacher programs are catching up as the educa-
tion system and teaching profession adjusts to changes that have re-prompted edu-
cators to look within, and to see how they may not be contributing as well to
Indigenous student educational success and well-being.
To be truly effective, Indigenous education must reflect the political, cultural, social, spiritual
… needs and aspirations of our communities … Our schools, colleges, and universities can-
not deliver education that pays little attention to the cultures, traditions, histories, identities
and ancestral knowledges of the learners … students must be able to identify with the class-
room knowledge in ways that empower, embolden, strengthen and sustain them. (p. xii)
References
Antone, E., & Cordoba, T. (2005). A wholistic approach to re-storying aboriginal literacy.
Literacies, 6 (Fall). Retrieved from http://www.literacyjournal.ca.
Asabere-Ameyaw, A. (2011). Foreword. In G. Dei (Eds.), Indigenous philosophies and critical
education (pp. xi–xiii). New York: Peter Lang Publishing.
Australian Curriculum and Assessment Reporting Authority (2014). Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander histories and cultures. Retrieved from http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/
CrossCurriculumPriorities/Aboriginal-and-Torres-Strait-Islander-histories-and-cultures.
Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (2011). Standards – career stages.
Retrieved from http://www.teacherstandards.aitsl.edu.au/OrganisationStandards/Professional
Capability.
Battiste, M. (1998). Enabling the autumn seed: Toward a decolonized approach to aboriginal
knowledge, language, and education. Canadian Journal of Native Education, 22(1), 16–27.
Bolt, R. (2009). Urban Aboriginal identity construction in Australia: An Aboriginal perspective
utilising multi-method qualitative analysis (Doctoral dissertation). University of New South
3 Teaching the Teachers … 39
Wales, Sydney. Retrieved from http://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/bitstream/2123/6626/3/
RJBOLT_2009thesis.pdf.
Cannon, M. J. (2012). Changing the subject in teacher education: Centering Indigenous, diaspo-
ric, and settler colonial relations. Cultural and Pedagogical Inquiry, 4(2), 21–37.
Central Land Council (2015). Inquiry into educational opportunities for Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander students. (Submission 41). Retrieved from http://www.aph.gov.au/
DocumentStore.ashx?id=88c275c5-48e6-40ee-9332-f6d179c216b6&subId=406809.
Edwards, S. (2010). Ma¯tauranga Ma¯ori literacies: Indigenous literacy as epistemological freedom
v. eurocentric imperialism’. In V. Arbon (Ed.), World Indigenous nation higher education
consortium: Indigenous voices, indigenous research (pp. 26–37). Waurn Ponds: Deakin
University Printery. http://winhec.org/journal/.
Herbert, J. (2012). Delivering the promise: empowering teachers to empower students. In
K. Price (Ed.), Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander education: An introduction for the
teaching profession (pp. 35–50). Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.
Johnson, P., Cherednichenko, B., & Rose, M. (2016). Evaluation of the more Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander Teachers Initiative Project (MATSITI): Final report. http://www.
matsiti.edu.au/wp-content/.../MATSITI-2016-Project-Evaluation-Final-Report.pdf.
Kahakalau, K. (2004). Indigenous heuristic action research: Bridging western and indigenous
research methodologies. Hülili: Multidisciplinary research on Hawaiian well-being, 1(1), 19–33.
Lankshear, C., & McLaren, P. (1993). Critical literacy: Politics, praxis and the postmodern,
New York: State University of New York Press.
Ma Rhea, Z., Anderson, P. J., & Atkinson, B. (2012). Final report: Improving teaching in
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander education: National professional standards for tea-
chers. Standard focus areas 1.4 and 2.4. Melbourne: Monash University.
Moreton-Robinson, A. M. (2003). I still call Australia home: Indigenous belonging and place in
a white postcolonising society. In S. Ahmed (Ed.), Uprootings/regroundings: Questions of
home and migration (pp. 23–40). Oxford: Berg Publishing.
Niezen, R. (2002). The origins of indigenism: Human rights and the politics of identity.
Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Palmer, P. J. (1997). The heart of a teacher: Identity and integrity in teaching. Change: The
Magazine of Higher Learning, 29(6), 14-21. Retrieved from http://www.couragerenewal.org/
parker/writings/heart-of-a-teacher.
Partington, G. (2002). Why Indigenous issues are an essential component of teacher education
programs. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 27(2). Retrieved from https://doi.org/
10.14221/ajte.2002v27n2.4.
Queensland Catholic Education Commission (2015). Inquiry into educational opportunities for
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students (Submission 22). Retrieved from http://www.
aph.gov.au/DocumentStore.ashx?id=6b43e437-8a0d-44ce-af86-64fb1afeafb4&subId=405265.
Rawiri, A. H. (2008). Embedding adult literacy in a sense of community: Literacy and employ-
ment within Whanganui Iwi. Whanganui: Te Puna Ma¯tauranga o Whanganui/Whanganui Iwi
Education Authority.
Rogers, J. (2015). Education. In K. Price (Ed.), Knowledge of life: Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander Australia (pp. 169–181). Sydney: Cambridge University Press.
Rose, M. (2012). The “silent apartheid” as the practitioner’s blindspot. In K. Price (Ed.),
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander education: An introduction for the teaching profession
(pp. 64–80). Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.
RRR Unit Online (2014). Know yourself. Retrieved from http://rrr.edu.au/unit/course/view.php?
id=2.
Street, B. (2003). What’s ‘new’ in new literacy studies? Critical approaches to literacy in theory
and practice. Current Issues in Comparative Education, 5(2), 77–91.
West, K. (2015, May 18). My art is a personal antidote for the effects of colonization. The
Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/may/18/my-art-
is-a-personal-antidote-for-the-effects-of-colonisation.
Building Indigenously Culturally Competent
Teacher Education Programs
Greg Auhl, Annette Gainsford, Barbara Hill and Lucia Zundans-Fraser
Introduction
Through its predecessor institutions, Charles Sturt University (CSU) has a history
dating back to the establishment of experimental farms in Bathurst (1896) and
Wagga Wagga (1895). Both of these locations are inland regional cities in New
South Wales (NSW), Australia. When proclaimed a university through the passage
of the Charles Sturt University Act (New South Wales Government, 1989), its
major campuses were located at Wagga Wagga, Bathurst and Albury, all on
Wiradjuri lands. More recently, the institution has established what is envisaged to
become a major campus at Port Macquarie, a coastal city in NSW, on the traditional
lands of the Biripi people of that region. Other, smaller sites exist on the lands of
other Indigenous peoples, including the Ngunnawal, Gundungurra, Eora/Darug,
Kulin and Panderang people. Given this background and diversity, it might be
expected that the institution would show a clear recognition of its responsibility to
promoting the advancement of Indigenous people, in particular educational opportu-
nities, at both an institutional and Faculty level. Recognition of this responsibility
G. Auhl (✉) 41
Inclusive Education Team, Charles Sturt University, Sydney, Australia
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Gainsford
Law and Justice Studies, Charles Sturt University, Sydney, Australia
e-mail: [email protected]
B. Hill · L. Zundans-Fraser
Faculty of Arts and Education, Charles Sturt University, Sydney, Australia
e-mail: [email protected]
L. Zundans-Fraser
e-mail: [email protected]
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018
P. Whitinui (eds.), Promising Practices in Indigenous Teacher Education,
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-6400-5_4
42 G. Auhl et al.
was formalised with the formal endorsement by Academic Senate of the Indigenous
Education Strategy in 2008. Since this endorsement, reports of progress towards
realising its goals have been published annually.
This chapter will explore why, what, who and how one institution is facilitating
Indigenous cultural competence within its staff, as well as its graduates, using
Goerke & Kickett’s (2013) framework. This framework suggests that to success-
fully build Indigenous cultural competence into programs, there must be clear
alignment between policies, staff professional development and curriculum design
processes. The chapter will also investigate how each of these aspects has devel-
oped, in consultation with Indigenous elders and communities, and the relation-
ships and processes developed within teacher education programs, supporting the
development of graduate knowledge, practice and attitudes. In particular, it will
explore a unique approach to course design, where courses are developed colla-
boratively, with part of the process including the development of course-based
standards. These standards reflect both professional requirements and university
expectations, including graduate learning outcomes based on Indigenous cultural
competence. In this way, it will show how the role of teachers in promoting
authentic reconciliation within the Australian, and indeed wider global contexts,
can be promoted and the goal of the Melbourne Declaration on Educational
Goals for Young Australians (hereafter, Melbourne Declaration—Ministerial
Council on Education, Employment Training and Youth Affairs, 2008), which
identified a need for all Australian children to ‘understand and acknowledge the
value of Indigenous cultures and possess the knowledge, skills and understanding
to contribute to, and benefit from, reconciliation between Indigenous and non-
Indigenous Australians’ (p. 8).
Institutional Policy
Universities Australia (2011a) recognises in its ‘best practice framework’ that to
achieve a wider and more inclusive institution response to Indigenous Australian
cultural competence, the establishment of policy and governance is vital. While
social justice perspectives held by individuals are important, they are not, on their
own, enough to be ultimately sustainable for the kind of long-term change neces-
sary. Even though policy is not legislature, it can guide a process over time, and is
highlighted in Goerke & Kickett’s (2013) framework as a cornerstone of moving
an institution towards being culturally competent. Recommendation 7 of the
Universities Australia’s (2011a) Guiding principles for the development of
Indigenous cultural competencies in Australian universities suggests under its
principle of governance the importance of creating strategies, and plans to ‘address
and enable the Universities Indigenous education strategies and mission state-
ments, and corporate documents which are inclusive of Indigenous Australians
peoples and culture’ (p. 5). These strategies outline the importance of Indigenous
perspectives, make institutional recommendations and act as a guide for the
4 Building Indigenously Culturally Competent Teacher Education Programs 43
institution. Crucial to this is the importance of appropriate resourcing, such as that
required for Indigenous study centres, requiring ongoing and dedicated leadership
to achieve a whole institutional commitment to change. Consistent with the princi-
ples described, CSU has developed policies and strategies such as its Indigenous
education strategy (2008) as supports for the advancement of Indigenous issues
and perspectives within its diverse program offering. The university is also repre-
sented in the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health curriculum framework
(Commonwealth of Australia, 2016) where five case studies were selected via a
national consultative workshop that address and illustrate innovative practice.
These exemplars follow those already outlined in The national best practice
framework for Indigenous cultural competency in Australian universities
(Universities Australia, 2011b). Among others, CSU is making progress in the
sector and is evidenced in both these documents. The key message from the case
studies in these documents is that change will only happen with consistent com-
mitment at an institutional level around governance, human resources, research,
learning and teaching and community engagement.
Institutional Indigenous Cultural Competency Programs
The Universities Australia (2011b) best practice framework reminds us that
Indigenous-oriented curriculum uses the local language and cultural knowledge as
a foundation for the rest of the curriculum. An Indigenous-oriented curriculum
places cultural knowledge as a central part of a living and constantly adapting sys-
tem that is grounded in the past, but continues to grow through the present and
into the future. This necessitates a strengths-based perspective of culture, diversity
and identity, all of which can facilitate learning and reflection on attitudes and
values. The framework also stresses the incorporation of language and cultural
immersion experiences. Wherever in-depth cultural understanding is necessary,
cultural immersion activities should be included as part of teaching and learning
activities, and be conducted in a culturally safe way (Furman & Dent, 2004;
Guerin, Wyld, & Taylor, 2008).
Since 2009 CSU has trained over 400 staff (including Senior Executive
Council) in Indigenous cultural competency via its Indigenous Australian cultural
competence program (CSU, 2009). In 2015, CSU rolled out its expanded three-
stage program (CSU, 2015). Stage 1 involves an individual online cultural compe-
tency program, and is compulsory for all CSU staff. This individual component of
the journey to cultural competence has as its learning outcomes increased cultural
awareness and cultural sensitivity. Stage 2 of the program is a team-based discus-
sion with a newly designed trigger’s resource—Cassie’s Story 2: Mingaan Migay
Yalblinya—which can be used as a tool to engage staff in further discussion with
others across the university. Stage 3 encourages the creation of a community of
practice to share achievements and challenges, and to build institutional capacity.
This places cultural competence training on a sustainable footing within the
44 G. Auhl et al.
institution. By the end of 2016 it is anticipated that university staff will complete
the first stage of this approach. This training will be factored in to the key perfor-
mance indicators for all senior staff, as well as the annual employee development
and review scheme planning for all other staff. Additionally, there are tasks and
assessment in the graduate certificate university learning and teaching that focus
on cultural competency and engages all probationary academics in reflection about
their teaching practice in relation to social justice for Indigenous Australians.
To date, over a third of all CSU staff have completed the first part of this training,
with one faculty being 80% compliant. Many are involved in the staged approach,
and some have already formed a community of practice to ensure cultural compe-
tency becomes part of the institution’s core business. Without a doubt, this is
impacting on the cultural change necessary to embed cultural competency across
the institution. An evidence-based approach1 is also being taken around this work
(Biles, Micek, & Hill, 2015; Hill & Mills, 2013; Micek & Hill, 2016; O’Sullivan,
Hill, Micek, & Bernoth, 2016), with a research team formed to assess the shifts
that the university is experiencing. Already, what is apparent is a substantial shift
of staff exposure and understanding about the past policies, history and practices
effecting Indigenous Australians. This is enabling a stronger community of prac-
tice around closing the gap. Further results of this research are expected to be
available either in late 2016 or in early 2017. At CSU there has been a further
extension of Indigenous Australian cultural competence through cultural immer-
sion activities in the university’s Journey west to Menindee program. Cultural
immersion experiences have long been advocated (Furman & Dent, 2004; Guerin
et al., 2008; Soland, Groves, & Brager, 2004) as a means to promote greater depth
of understanding. It is generally understood that personal experience in
Indigenous communities, and opportunities for individuals to develop relationships
with Indigenous people can be important to enhancing understandings about race
and racism (Johnson, 2002). It is also suggested that these interactions have the
potential to open up what has been referred to as ‘the third space’ (Bhabha, 1994;
Hart & Moore, 2005) in which individuals can ‘rethink long established understand-
ings about culture and identity so that they arrive at more inclusive alternatives’
(Hart & Moore, 2005, p. 4). One must be immersed in the community for an
extended period of time to facilitate the beginning of an understanding of experi-
ences of race and racism. This learning environment must promote interactions that
are positive and culturally safe (Ranzijn, McConnochie, & Nolan, 2010).
CSU leads such cultural immersion experiences for staff to Ngiyeempaa country
in Menindee; a minimum 11-hour drive from the older main campuses to the banks
of the Darling River, running through the plains of western NSW. For students
within Teacher Education, there is also the opportunity for supported practicum
experiences in schools in the same location. Menindee has a total population of
1These examples are a part of the institutions ongoing commitment to improving Indigenous
enrolments, outcomes and research. As further publications occur, they will be added to the uni-
versity online research database.
4 Building Indigenously Culturally Competent Teacher Education Programs 45
632, of which an estimated 46% is Indigenous. Here, staff and students sit with
Ngiyeempaa Elder Aunty Beryl Yungha dhu Philp-Carmichael. Most people have
never travelled such distances within Australia and, if they have, not to these far
western spaces. To date, over 100 academic, executive and senior university staff,
including the current Vice Chancellor, and his predecessor, have ventured on this
journey. The objective of this journey is to give staff the experience of being con-
nected to Country, of learning about Indigenous culture from Indigenous people
and of reflecting upon their professional practice in light of this. This immersion
activity builds on the work and scholarship undertaken within the university
around cultural competence (Hill & Mills, 2013). The university’s aim is not to
force Indigenous community engagement and collaboration on staff, but rather to
build it into performance management descriptors, so that those who do engage are
encouraged and recognised, with such engagement being a potential aspect of (for
example) the promotion process. The presence and involvement of a number of
the university’s Vice Chancellors in this program is an important reflection of
CSU’s commitment to Indigenous issues. As the university, in partnership with
local Wiradyuri Elders, is embarking on day-long cultural immersion activities
from its major campuses, this extension is set to include more staff, students and
community members to make this kind of activity a core aspiration of a culturally
competent institution.
Elder in Residence
Implementation of an ‘Elder in Residence’ has been adopted across several univer-
sities across Australia and internationally such as McMaster University in Canada,
and the University of Washington in the USA. Such programs recognise the special
place of Elders within Indigenous communities, as well as providing Indigenous
students with support from those recognised within the community as having wis-
dom and cultural knowledge. Apart from support to individual students, Elders in
residence play a vital liaison role within universities and the wider community.
The role of an Elder-in-residence was highlighted within CSU’s Indigenous educa-
tion strategy (2008), with the first appointee taking up a position in 2013. The
initial goal of having an Elder-in-residence at each of CSU’s campuses has never
been realised, and unfortunately, implementation seems to have lapsed, despite
positive outcomes reported by both Indigenous and non-Indigenous students.
In an address on the Wagga campus of the university (2015), Aunty Gail
Clark, who had filled the position on the Wagga campus, described how she
became a source of information and support for all students. Given the regional
nature of the campus, and its recruitment area being largely rural, most on-campus
students leave home to attend university. The campus is also ‘home’ for a number
of international students studying through AusAid and the New Colombo Plan
who benefitted from her work and support. Aunty Gail provided both a meeting
place and support for students experiencing the trials of being separated from
46 G. Auhl et al.
home and community. While expressing the importance of this for Indigenous stu-
dents, Aunty Gail also recognised that her role was wider than this, and included
all young people. Aunty Gail went on to be recognised for her work in being
awarded the 2015 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Higher Education
Advisory Council’s Elders and Leaders Award.
Graduate Attributes and Graduate Learning Outcomes
The concept of graduate attributes, graduate learning outcomes and the role of
education in developing what might be viewed as generic skills is a core part of
education across all levels in the Australian context. In the secondary context, the
Finn report (1991) was one of the early attempts to describe the type of general
competencies necessary for participation in work and in society and later was
taken up by the Melbourne Declaration (Ministerial Council on Education,
Employment Training and Youth Affairs, 2008) referred to elsewhere in this
chapter. The Melbourne Declaration recognised that new demands were constantly
being placed on Australian school students from both internal and external sources
such as globalisation and rapidly developing capacity with information and com-
munication technology. As a part of becoming ‘Active and Informed Citizens’,
Goal 2 of the declaration had the generic capability for Australian students of
being able to ‘understand and acknowledge the value of Indigenous cultures and
contribute to and benefit from reconciliation between Indigenous and non-
Indigenous Australia’ (p. 9). This focus has continued with the development of the
evolution of the national curriculum within this jurisdiction, where one of the
general capabilities required concerns intercultural understanding and the special
place of Indigenous cultures within Australian society (National Curriculum
Board, 2009).
In the same way, the need for such skills has also been evident in the higher
education sector. This sector, too, has grappled with the concept of key attributes
or learning outcomes that should be developed by students engaging with
the content of their courses, but perhaps outside of its immediate sphere. For some
institutions, these have been variously described as graduate attributes, graduate
skills, graduate learning outcomes or descriptors around generic competencies.
CSU has a list of graduate attributes, informed by graduate learning outcomes.
One set of graduate learning outcomes concerns graduates from the institution
showing a capacity to act as agents of change who display Indigenous cultural
competence. This requires graduates to, ‘Practice in ways that show a commitment
to social justice and the processes of reconciliation based on understanding the
culture, experiences, histories and contemporary issues of Indigenous Australian
communities’ (CSU Division of Student Learning, 2015, p. 1). Deeper indicators
of how this growing cultural competence might be displayed as student’s progress
through their studies are also described. These learning outcomes are required to
be included in all undergraduate courses.
4 Building Indigenously Culturally Competent Teacher Education Programs 47
The development of capacities such as cultural competence is one thing; how-
ever, ensuring that they are taken up with integrity within the design and delivery
of course materials can be quite another. Curriculum mapping is one method by
which higher education providers attempt to ensure that both the discipline
requirements of courses as well as any institutional requirements are met
(Bowman, 2010). Such curriculum mapping, however, often focuses more on
approaches such as word or phrase matching in multiple spreadsheets, in an effort
more focussed on compliance, than on legitimately ensuring that all required ele-
ments are deeply embedded within a course. This, then, leaves an important role
for course design teams in both the development and delivery of courses to
students.
Course Design
The use of a distinctive approach to the design of courses is one way of addressing
the quality versus compliance issue often encountered when engaging in curricu-
lum mapping. This movement from ‘technologies that document to those that
design’ (Bain & Zundans-Fraser, 2016, p. 40) is crucial in ensuring that require-
ments such as graduate learning outcomes are embedded within the early stages of
course development. Since 2013, CSU has begun to implement an innovative
approach to course design (Bain & Zundans-Fraser, 2016). This approach
described in more detail elsewhere in this volume, however given its contribution
towards helping to ensure that graduates have an element of Indigenous cultural
competence embedded within their course, is briefly described here.
The model uses a backward mapping process. In this process, one of the early
stages of course evolution is the creation of a set of integrated standards guiding
the development of the course. Course teams using a core set of professional stan-
dards develop these integrated standards. For courses such as teacher education,
requiring accreditation by an external authority, these are accreditation standards
required of the profession (e.g. the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers,
Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL), 2015). Other
standards required from the sector (e.g. Australian Qualification Framework Level
7 standards for undergraduate courses) and the institution (e.g. Graduate learning
outcomes for Indigenous cultural competence) are then combined with the profes-
sional standard to develop a set of course outcomes particular to the given pro-
gram. These course outcomes provide complete terms of reference for the course,
meeting requirements of all sectors.
Having developed its course outcomes, a course team is then required to seek
feedback from the wider institution community. Representatives from the course
team, wider faculty and those charged with the carriage of particular sets of grad-
uate learning outcomes working in the Division of Student Learning (e.g.
Indigenous cultural competence outcomes, and the Indigenous curriculum and
pedagogy coordinator) are asked to view and provide critique on the work.
48 G. Auhl et al.
This critique is provided within a bespoke software system called CourseSpaces,
a technology specifically developed to guide course design and to drive the con-
structive alignment shown to be necessary for effective learning and teaching
(Bain, 2012). Provision of such transparent feedback helps to guide the develop-
ment not only of integrated standards, but also of the assessments, subjects and
learning experiences that follow.
Indigenous Student Centres
The challenges for Indigenous students of engaging with higher education have
been extensively documented over an extended timeframe (Behrendt, Larkin,
Griew, & Kelly, 2012; Biddle, Hunter, & Schwab, 2004; Department of
Education, Science & Training (DEST), 2005; Devlin, 2009). Apart from more
obvious factors such as socio-economic disadvantage and limited personal and
family exposure to higher education, Indigenous students also face the reality that,
for many, attending university will also involve an often significant geographical
relocation and concomitant separation from family and place. The provision of
Indigenous centres can be of enormous support to Indigenous students experien-
cing this type of dislocation, especially in the early years of study. Andersen,
Bunda, and Walter (2008) describe how such centres are ‘central to Indigenous
students’ persistence and educational survival’ (p. 5). These authors, however,
describe such centres as needing strong and clear backing and resources from
institutions as well as ensuring that clear, consistent goals and expectations from
both institutions and communities are negotiated.
Through its Office for Students, CSU has established centres on six campuses
covering the majority of its footprint. The centres have the mission of promoting
the university as a ‘place that welcomes, values and supports Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander Peoples in their pursuit of higher learning’ (Charles Sturt
University Office for Students, 2016, n.p.), while at the same time challenging
practices that limit Indigenous engagement in higher education, and maximising
resource usage to optimise both access to and progress in educational programs.
Teacher Education
The Faculty of Arts and Education within CSU houses two schools particularly
focussed on teacher education, the School of Education (with campuses in both
Wagga Wagga and Albury) and the School of Teacher Education (with campuses
at Bathurst and Dubbo). Also within this faculty sits the School of Indigenous
Australian Studies, which with its focus on higher education learning and teaching
rather than school-based education shares much in common with those schools.
As a part of the wider institution community, the faculty’s priorities must be
4 Building Indigenously Culturally Competent Teacher Education Programs 49
consistent with that of the university. As such, faculty planning includes a focus
on aspects of the university strategy perceived as relevant to its operations. For
example, the Faculty plan for 2013–2015 included increasing the number of
students participating in at least one rural/remote placement over the duration of
their course. One of the strategies to implement this was to extend professional
experience programs to include accredited and scaffolded professional experience
placements in remote Indigenous communities in Western NSW. A further prior-
ity, consistent with that of the wider institution, was to provide Indigenous
Cultural Competence training for all staff teaching Indigenous students and subject
matter (Charles Sturt University Faculty of Education, 2013). In addition, a num-
ber of initiatives have evolved from the faculty considering its priorities and
responsibilities to Indigenous education to help facilitate both increased
Indigenous uptake of higher education opportunities, as well as, enhancing the
knowledge of non-Indigenous students allowing the movement towards the goals
established within the Melbourne Declaration. An outline of these initiatives and
their impact is described below.
Indigenous Teacher Education in Community
The existence of a significant achievement gap between Indigenous and non-
Indigenous Australian children in schooling outcomes is well documented (Ford,
2013). School leadership has been described as crucial in the success of programs
focussed on improving the educational outcomes for Indigenous students, with
much of the research available focusing on the role of the Principal. While
acknowledging the importance of this role, a number of well-recognised programs,
such as the Stronger Smarter program (Stronger Smarter Institute, 2016), extend
this understanding of school leadership to include principals, Elders, teachers and
other community members. One of the strategies frequently highlighted as sup-
porting Indigenous students to achieve success at school is increasing the number
of Indigenous staff members, particularly teachers within schools (Stronger
Smarter Institute, 2016). This is seen as contributing to a stronger leadership pre-
sence both by and for Indigenous people.
Increasing the numbers of Indigenous teachers has, however, usually involved
people leaving their communities for regionally based or urban program providers.
Many institutions have attempted to redress this by the provision of distance edu-
cation courses, with block placement on campus as regular support. Such block
placement has, however, still meant significant amounts of time travelling to,
attending and returning from campuses. For all the reasons described elsewhere in
this chapter, such time away from home, family and community remain challen-
ging for many Indigenous people.
In attempting to address these issues, CSU implemented a program responding
to community needs for access to educational opportunities to support Indigenous
students to complete courses of teacher preparation. Students enrolled in
50 G. Auhl et al.
mainstream courses and engaged in instruction either full-time or part-time
through blended mode delivery. While still requiring residential sessions, these
were held in a regional centre with reasonable proximity to students’ hometowns.
At the same time, they were supported in their studies within their communities
via field visits, library staff, elders, family and community groups and community
tutors, all overseen by a dedicated academic coordinator. Overall, students have
performed well in the program, with the first group due to complete their studies
in 2016.
Authentic Experience
While the concept of what characterises ‘authentic’ experiences has been contested
(Mantei & Kervin, 2009), here it is understood to mean experiences that are
centred ‘on rich, real-world, immersive and engaging tasks’ (Herrington &
Herrington, 2005, p. x). In order to equip graduates with both the skills and degree
of cultural competence necessary to engage with Indigenous students and commu-
nities, such experiences, involving real interactions with Indigenous students are
invaluable. Cultural competence in this context refers to the capacity to be able to
understand, interact and communicate sensitively with Indigenous communities
and is based on the elements outlined by Martin and Vaughn (2007) of awareness,
attitude, knowledge and skills.
The School of Teacher Education (SoTE) at Bathurst has made significant com-
munity connections through a number of partnerships. The school initiated con-
nections through the employment of a local Wiradjuri Sessional Lecturer who
facilitates Indigenous perspectives in the teacher education curriculum. This initia-
tive has enabled authentic learning experiences to become a part of pre-service
teacher education at the Bathurst Campus for both Indigenous and non-Indigenous
students. This initiative also influences partnerships in the wider Indigenous com-
munity space enhancing and maintaining strong community partnerships with
local schools.
Building strong relationships through the local Aboriginal Education
Consultative Group and with local schools allows CSU pre-service teachers to
access further learning opportunities by participation in Community Partnership
Programs. These specific programs allow the pre-service teachers to attend local
schools in Bathurst and work with Indigenous students and communities. These
programs, therefore, facilitate an authentic exposure for teacher education students
to Indigenous ways of knowing and learning, through real time learning experi-
ences. This is invaluable in allowing pre-service teachers to develop their teaching
skills in Aboriginal education.
The program involves instructors from SoTE contacting potential participants
at the beginning of each year. These participants include both school settings as
well as those providing educational support to Indigenous students out of school
hours. Times, tasks and the range of involvement in activities are negotiated with
4 Building Indigenously Culturally Competent Teacher Education Programs 51
either an Indigenous staff member, or a non-Indigenous staff member overseeing
Indigenous programs within each setting. Pre-service teachers then sign up for a
particular program in which they are interested, and for a time slot that fits within
their other commitments. The time commitment on the part of the pre-service
teachers is 10 hours, over 6 weeks, where they work with Indigenous students
and, sometimes, community members such as parents and caregivers in meeting
program objectives.
Helping to drive the efficacy of the program is that pre-service teachers then
link their experiences in their particular setting to coursework, by completing a
reflection and in class presentation as assessable tasks on their chosen placement.
They are required, within the context of the presentation, to explicate how their
experience links with aspects of their academic work taught in the associated unit,
such as for example, links to Yunkaporta’s 8 Ways pedagogy, having high expec-
tations and Stronger Smarter programs. By providing CSU students with these
authentic learning experiences, students are exposed to working with Indigenous
and non-Indigenous students, community members and staff. Through these orga-
nised experiences students can reflect on their own cultural bias, helping them
in breaking down barriers and stereotypes and moving towards reconciliation
processes, before they commence formal teaching.
A mix of Indigenous and Non-Indigenous Instructors
An extension of the use of authentic experiences is the nature of the mix of
instructors involved in course material where there is Indigenous content or an
Indigenous focus. While there has been understandable criticism of aspects of the
delivery, by non-Indigenous instructors, of courses and subjects having significant
Indigenous content (Maynard, 2005), and of the inability of white people to recog-
nise white privilege (Jensen, 2005), there is also an expectation that Indigenous
and non-Indigenous academics have a duty to confront racism in the context of
their teaching. Working collaboratively in course design, development and imple-
mentation can help to resolve the difficulties associated with the inadvertent inclu-
sion of colonialist perspectives in curriculum development. And, as described by
de Ishtar (2004) can help to overcome the perspective that non-Indigenous aca-
demics have no legitimate role in teaching, researching and writing about
Indigenous issues (Gair, 2007). This collaboration can also be instrumental in
helping to overcome the issue of ‘dumping’ (Dominelli, 1989) described by Gair
(2007), where there is an expectation placed on Indigenous people to take on
responsibility not only for all cultural aspects within their workplace, but also for
all aspects of curriculum development concerning Indigenous issues.
The School of Teacher Education, through the employment of Indigenous and
non-Indigenous instructors (including Indigenous Teaching Fellows, described
later), provides pre-service teachers with the opportunity to experience instruction
from a variety of perspectives. The key Indigenous instructor has a lengthy history
52 G. Auhl et al.
working in education at all levels from Primary, through Secondary schools and
into the higher education sector. The key non-Indigenous instructor also has sig-
nificant expertise and experience in Indigenous education, including having
worked as a teacher in remote Indigenous communities. These instructors work
closely together in the development of materials and its delivery to facilitate the
awareness, attitudes, knowledge and skills outlined by Martin and Vaughn (2007)
described above.
Opportunities for Remote Placement
All teacher education students at the institution, and in particular those in their
later years of study, are encouraged to participate in professional experience place-
ments in remote geographical areas, both within NSW and interstate. These place-
ments often include school contexts with high enrolments of Indigenous students,
where the knowledge and skills of coursework can be applied authentically. While
recognising that these placements can be challenging, and that support from uni-
versity liaison officers is more likely to be through telephone, email or Skype,
meeting the challenges of such placements can also provide significant profes-
sional rewards.
The institution provides a number of opportunities to facilitate these remote
placement experiences. Participation in the Beyond the line program provides
opportunities for both school community visits as well as longer professional
experience placements. Financial support from both university and teach. NSW
(an initiative of the NSW Department of Education) resources are allocated
annually to support those choosing to be involved in these programs. At times,
particular programs are implemented in collaboration with schools and sectors.
One such program concerned students having the opportunity to engage in a pro-
fessional experience focussing on experiencing ‘remote rurality’ in far western
NSW, in two centres with high populations of Indigenous people. As well as
experiencing teaching Indigenous students (in some cases for the first time), this
professional experience offered the opportunity for a cultural immersion and con-
nection with the communities involved, helping considerably in developing the
cultural competence of participants and their ability to work collaboratively with
Indigenous families.
Indigenous Fellow Appointments
As a means of improving the representation of Indigenous academics, as well as
a contribution towards meeting the goals of the Indigenous Education Strategy,
the Faculty of Education, through its major schools, has historically appointed
both Indigenous Research Fellows as well as Indigenous Teaching Fellows.
4 Building Indigenously Culturally Competent Teacher Education Programs 53
The institution’s Indigenous Australian Employment Strategy includes as one of
its goals increasing Indigenous academic staff representation to 2% (Indigenous
education statement, Charles Sturt University Office for Students, 2012).
Objectives towards reaching this target focus on five areas: recruitment; career
development; retention; work place culture; and promotion and community
networking. The appointment of Indigenous Fellows is a crucial step towards
meeting all of the objectives aforementioned.
Indigenous Cultural Competence—Why, What, Who and How
The commitment of CSU to social justice and reconciliation is evident through the
policies and various initiatives undertaken to expose staff and students to issues.
Critical to success and authenticity are relationships with community, and in parti-
cular, Indigenous elders. Through the work being done in this space, education is
centrally positioned as a means to individual and community advancement.
Goerke and Kickett (2013) emphasise the interplay of policy, professional devel-
opment and curriculum in the Australian higher education environment. By ensur-
ing this alignment is consciously undertaken in a deliberate and disciplined
manner, and continuously reflected upon, awareness and knowledge of Indigenous
cultural competence is more likely to become a natural and day-to-day part of
operations. The success of such a commitment is heavily dependent on the posi-
tive engagement of all stakeholders—institutional leaders; academic, divisional,
professional and administrative staff; Indigenous community and the wider com-
munity. By ensuring the continuation of initiatives such as the Elders in residence,
Indigenous Student Centres and Indigenous Fellows as well as embedding
Indigenous knowledge and cultural competence through course design, there is a
greater likelihood of continuity and recognition. What is critical is that these
aspects are undertaken with integrity with the allocation of adequate resourcing to
ensure they are well done.
Conclusion
This chapter has described initiatives adopted by the schools of teacher education
within the context of one university. CSU is an institution which prides itself on
fulfilling its mission, of providing educational opportunities to rural and regional
areas of Australia. Equally, it prides itself on its mission in helping to move
Australian society closer to reconciliation with Indigenous peoples through this
provision. One way of realising this mission is through the development of teacher
education programs that promote the cultural competence of graduates through a
combination of policy, staff professional development and considered curriculum
design, as outlined in Goerke and Kickett’s (2013) framework. Graduates from
54 G. Auhl et al.
such programs, through their day-to-day teaching, are then in a position to
promote a better, more inclusive future for all Australians.
For the institution to stay true to its ethos, it must therefore ensure that equity
is maintained across all its offerings through the development of principled poli-
cies, well planned and resourced professional development for staff and the
embedding of Indigenous perspectives throughout its curriculum. This can only be
achieved through ongoing allocation of resources that move the institution towards
fulfilling its ethos, described in the University Strategy. On the homepage of the
university’s Office of Strategic Planning and Information (Charles Sturt University
Office of Strategic Planning and Information, 2016), the motto of the university,
‘For the Public Good’ sums this necessity up well:
We are a university of the land and people of our regions. True to the character of regio-
nal Australia we have gumption, we have soul and we collaborate with others. We
develop holistic, far-sighted people who help their communities grow and flourish.
Acknowledging the culture and insight of Indigenous Australians, CSU’s ethos is clearly
described by the Wiradjuri phrase:
‘yindyamarra winhanga-nha’ (‘the wisdom of respectfully knowing how to live well in a
world worth living in’.)
Success in this will be judged in history by the extent to which improved edu-
cational outcomes and lives for Indigenous Australians are realised.
References
Andersen, C., Bunda, T., & Walter, M. (2008). Indigenous higher education: The role of univer-
sities in releasing the potential. The Australian Journal of Indigenous Education, 37(1), 1–8.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1326011100016033.
Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL) (2015). Accreditation of initial
teacher education programs in Australia: Standards and procedures. Retrieved from http://
www.aitsl.edu.au/australian-professional-standards-forteachers/standards/overview/organisation-
of-the-standards.
Bain, A. (2012). Smart tools (versions 1.0 and 2.0) computer software. Bathurst: Charles Sturt
University.
Bain, A., & Zundans-Fraser, L. (2016). Rising to the challenge of transforming higher education:
Designing universities for learning and teaching. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.
Behrendt, L., Larkin, S., Griew, R., & Kelly, P. (2012). Review of Higher Education access and
outcomes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People final report. Retrieved from
https://docs.education.gov.au/system/files/doc/other/heaccessandoutcomesforaboriginalandtor-
resstraitislanderfinalreport.pdf.
Bhabha, H. (1994). The location of culture. London: Routledge.
Biddle, N., Hunter, B. H., & Schwab, R. G. (2004). Mapping Indigenous education participation
(CAEPR Discussion Paper, 276). Canberra: Australian National University.
Biles, B., Mlcek, S., & Hill, B. (2015, September). An Institutional approach to incorporating
Indigenous Australian content into undergraduate programs. ADL: Indigenous Content in
Education Symposium, University of South Australia.
Bowman, K. (2010). Background paper for the AQF council on generic skills. Adelaide, SA:
South Australian Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations.
4 Building Indigenously Culturally Competent Teacher Education Programs 55
Charles Sturt University (2008). Indigenous education strategy. Retrieved from https://www.csu.
edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/144414/csuindigenous-education-strategy.pdf.
Charles Sturt University (2009). Indigenous Australian cultural competence program. Retrieved
from http://www.csu.edu.au/division/landt/indigenous-curriculum/competencies.
Charles Sturt University (2015). Indigenous cultural competence program. Retrieved from
https://www.csu.edu.au/division/landt/indigenouscurriculum.
Charles Sturt University Division of Student Learning (2015). Graduate learning outcomes.
Retrieved from http://www.csu.edu.au/division/student-learning/home/csu-curriculum/graduate-
learning-outcomes.
Charles Sturt University Faculty of Education (2013). Faculty of education summary of 2013 –
2015 strategic priorities. Retrieved from https://www.csu.edu.au/faculty/educat/staff-links/
documents/FOE-2013-15-Plan.pdf.
Charles Sturt University Office for Students (2012). Indigenous education statement. Retrieved
from http://www.csu.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/1816885/Indigenous-Education-
Statement-Charles-Sturt-University-2012.pdf.
Charles Sturt University Office for Students (2016). Indigenous student centres. Retrieved from
https://www.csu.edu.au/office-for-students/ourteams/inclusion/indigenous-student-centres.
Charles Sturt University Office of Strategic Planning and Information (2016). For the public good.
Retrieved from https://www.csu.edu.au/unistats/university-strategy/for-the-public-good3.
Clark, G. (2015, October). The importance of Indigenous input in supporting Indigenous student
learning. Presented at the Charles Sturt University’s Learning Design Unit Conference.
Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW, Australia.
Commonwealth of Australia (2016). Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health curriculum
framework. Retireved from http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/
aboriginal-torres-strait-islander-health-curriculum-framework.
de Ishtar, Z. (2004). Living on the ground research: Steps toward white women researching in
collaboration with Indigenous people. Hecate, 30(1), 72 –83.
Department of Education, Science & Training (DEST) (2005). National report to parliament on
Indigenous education and training 2003. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia.
Devlin, M. (2009). Indigenous higher education student equity: Focussing on what works. The
Australian Journal of Indigenous Education, 38(1), 1–8.
Dominelli, L. (1989). An uncaring profession? An examination of racism in social work. New
Community, 5(3), 391–403.
Finn, B. (Chair) (1991). Young people’s participation in postcompulsory education and training:
Report of the Australian education review committee. Canberra: Australian Government
Publishing Service.
Ford, M. (2013). Achievement gaps in Australia: What NAPLAN reveals about education
inequality in Australia. Race Ethnicity and Education, 16(1), 80–102.
Furman, G., & Dent, M. M. (2004). Seamless learning: Incorporating cultural competency into
the curriculum. In U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Division of Medicine and
Dentistry (Ed.), Cultural competency in medical education: A guidebook for schools (pp. 25–32).
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Gair, S. (2007). Pursuing Indigenous-inclusive curriculum in social work tertiary education:
Feeling my way as a non-Indigenous educator. The Australian Journal of Indigenous
Education, 36, 49–55.
Goerke, V. & Kickett, M. (2013). Working towards the assurance of graduate attributes for
Indigenous cultural competency: The case for alignment between policy, professional devel-
opment and curriculum processes. The International Education Journal: Comparative
Perspectives, 12(1), 61–81.
Guerin, P., Wyld, K., & Taylor, K. (2008, July). Indigenous health in the curriculum:
Compulsory or compelling? Presented at the Psychology and Indigenous Australians:
Teaching, Practice, and Theory Conference. University of South Australia, Adelaide,
Australia.
56 G. Auhl et al.
Hart, V., & Moore, K. (2005, October). ‘To see through the eyes of another’. The Third Space:
An alternative view of Australian Studies. Presented at the Social Change in the 21st Century
Conference. Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia: Centre for
Social Change Research. Retrieved from http://eprints.qut.edu.au/9826/2/Moore_-_Hart_
Social_Change_Paper.pdf.
Herrington, A., & Herrington, J. (2005). Authentic learning environments in higher education.
Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing.
Hill, B., & Mills, J. (2013). Situating the ‘beyond’: Adventure-learning and Indigenous cultural
competence. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 34(1), 63–76.
Jensen, R. (2005). The heart of whiteness. San Francisco, CA: City Lights.
Johnson, L. (2002). ‘My eyes have been opened’: White teacher and racial awareness. Journal of
Teacher Education, 53(2), 153–167.
Mantei, J., & Kervin, L. K. (2009). “Authentic” learning experiences: What does this mean and
where is the literacy learning? In A. Moult (Ed.), Bridging divides: National conference for
teachers of English and literacy (pp. 1-16). University of Wollongong, NSW, Australia:
Australian Association for Teaching of English/Australian Literacy Education Association.
Martin, M., & Vaughn, B. (2007). Strategic diversity & inclusion management magazine
(pp. 31-36). San Francisco, CA: Diversity Training University International (DTUI) Publications
Division.
Maynard, J. (2005). Light in the darkness: Elizabeth McKenzie Hatton. In A. Cole, V. Haskins
& F. Paisley (Ed.), Uncommon ground: White women in Aboriginal history (pp. 3-27).
Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press.
Ministerial Council on Education, Employment Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA)
(2008). Melbourne declaration on educational goals for young Australians. Retrieved from
http://www.mceecdya.edu.au/mceecdya/melbourne_declaration,25979.html.
Micek, S., & Hill, B. (2016). Cultural diversity and competence. A culturally responsive
approach. In E. Moore (2nd ed.), Case management for community practice (pp. 123-142).
Oxon: Oxford University Press.
National Curriculum Board (2009). The shape of the Australian curriculum. Barton: National
Curriculum Board. Barton, ACT: Commonwealth of Australia.
New South Wales Department of Education (2014). Beyond the line-rural. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jm1L5LYdQ2Q.
New South Wales Government (1989). Charles Sturt University Act 1989. Retrieved from http://
www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/#/view/act/1989/76/whole.
O’Sullivan, S., Hill, B., Micek, S., & Bernoth, M. (2016). We are just connecting—cultural com-
petence in Indigenous research methodology and ethics. In Z. Schneider & D. Whitehead
(5th ed.), Nursing and midwifery research: Methods and appraisal for evidence-based practice
(pp. 257–276). Sydney: Elsevier Australia.
Ranzijn, R., McConnochie, K. R., & Nolan, W. (2010). Psychology and Indigenous Australians:
Foundations of cultural competence. South Yarra, VIC: Palgrave Macmillan.
Soland, E., Groves, S., & Brager, R. (2004). Cultural competency education in American nursing
programs and the approach of one school of nursing. International Journal of Nursing
Education Scholarship, 1(1), 1–8.
Stronger Smarter Institute (2016). Leadership Program. Retrieved from http://strongersmarter.
com.au/leadership/.
Universities Australia (2011a). Guiding principles for developing indigenous cultural competency
in Australian universities. Canberra, QLD: Universities Australia.
Universities Australia (2011b). National best practice framework for indigenous cultural compe-
tency in Australian universities. Canberra, QLD: Universities Australia.
Developing Understanding of Indigenous
Culture: Experiences From Australian
Pre-service Teachers
Maria Bennet, Michelle Doolan and Beverley Moriarty
Introduction
The Healthy Culture Healthy Country (HCHC) Programme is a professional
development framework created by Dr Shayne Williams of the Aboriginal
Education Consultative Group (AECG) in the Australian state of New South
Wales to provide professional development in Aboriginal culture and languages
for practicing teachers. As the community advisory body to the New South Wales
Department of Education on Aboriginal education and training, the AECG plays a
pivotal role in leadership in this area. The HCHC Programme is designed to sup-
port teachers to plan culturally appropriate teaching practices drawing on
curriculum-based local culture and knowledge. The Programme was modified by
its author and trialed for the first time with pre-service teachers at a regional
Australian university in 2015.
This chapter explores how first year pre-service teachers through their partici-
pation in the modified version of the HCHC programme perceived their developed
capacity to understand and connect with their local Aboriginal community. The
chapter also explores the pre-service teachers’ progress towards beginning to evi-
dence several of the Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership’s
(AITSL’s) Professional Standards for Teachers. In particular, the focus was on
M. Bennet (✉) · M. Doolan · B. Moriarty 57
Faculty of Arts and Education, Charles Sturt University, Dubbo, Australia
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Doolan
e-mail: [email protected]
B. Moriarty
e-mail: [email protected]
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018
P. Whitinui (eds.), Promising Practices in Indigenous Teacher Education,
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-6400-5_5
58 M. Bennet et al.
standards relating to teacher professional knowledge, to professional practice, and
to professional engagement. The research question guiding the study was: What
impact does the HCHC Programme have on pre-service teachers’ knowledge and
understanding of cultural competence for engaging with Indigenous communities
and teaching Indigenous students? Pre-service teachers who participated in the
modified HCHC programme and who also agreed to participate in the research
completed an extended response survey after each of the three workshops.
The findings that emerged from the examination of the data revealed four key
themes associated with the research question guiding the study. The first theme
related to participants’ knowledge and understanding of the concept of ‘Country’
and what Country1 means to Indigenous Australians. Participants in the study
found this concept to be much more complex than what they previously under-
stood. A second theme that emerged was the need to understand the concept of
‘Community’, which was also not well understood by the pre-service teachers
before they participated in the HCHC programme. A third theme related to the
importance of ‘Relationship-building’ for working effectively with Indigenous stu-
dents and their communities. ‘Pedagogical knowledge’, specifically in relation to
Indigenous Australian worldviews, formed the final theme that emerged in the
findings from the study. Participation in the programme enabled the pre-service
teachers to gain a deeper understanding of these four themes as they relate to
Indigenous Australian culture. This understanding is necessary for pre-service tea-
chers to engage effectively with Indigenous Australian students, their families and
communities.
Background
In 2008 a group of Australian pre-service teachers approached one of the educa-
tion lecturers, to speak of their concerns about their ability to teach Indigenous
students, both in their forthcoming practice teaching placements and later as prac-
tising teachers. Even though many of these pre-service teachers had attended
school alongside Indigenous students, they knew very little about Indigenous cul-
ture or history. In effect, their upbringing meant that they had very little meaning-
ful interaction with Indigenous people that they could now draw on as prospective
teachers. In addition, they cited their own perceived lack of cultural knowledge
and understanding as impediments or barriers that would affect their capacity to
engage Indigenous students. Successive cohorts of pre-service teachers at the cam-
pus continued to express the same concerns in the following years. It is almost
uncanny that the 2008 pre-service teachers’ concerns were expressed at a time
when, as noted by Lewthwaite et al. (2015), there were calls for a range of
1Indigenous Australians have a deep physical and spiritual connection to the land that is their
ancestral Country. Their culture and identity is formed through this connection to Country.
5 Developing Understanding of Indigenous Culture … 59
strategies to be employed to narrow the educational gap between Indigenous and
non-Indigenous Australians.
The pre-service teachers who made the original plea to their lecturer were both
Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians. Their concerns were adopted, fol-
lowed by a series of enquiries that led to the beginning of a partnership between
the lecturer and an Elder in a local Indigenous community. An after-school read-
ing programme was established in the community and the pre-service teachers
were given the opportunity to engage with Indigenous students, their families and
the community. The tables were turned; rather than the Indigenous students enter-
ing western-dominated classrooms in local schools, the pre-service teachers were
invited into community so that they could begin their journey about learning how
to teach Indigenous students, understand Indigenous culture and develop relation-
ships with the students and their community (Bennet & Lancaster, 2012). Doolan
(author) was part of the community that welcomed the lecturer and the pre-service
teachers into community and supported their learning.
In the ensuing years, the lecturer, with the voices of the pre-service teachers
from 2008 still ringing in her head, partnered with her colleague, and Moriarty
(author) on research projects that aimed to explore how best to prepare pre-service
teachers to work with Indigenous students, their families and communities. This
work-in-progress includes a follow-up longitudinal study (Bennet & Moriarty,
2015; Moriarty & Bennet, 2016) with the pre-service teachers who were the parti-
cipants in the first stage of the study and are now practicing teachers. In the
interim, the New South Wales AECG, who shared our concerns about preparing
pre-service teachers to work with Indigenous students and their communities,
offered to modify and trial deliver their HCHC Programme, written for practicing
teachers, to our pre-service teachers in 2015. In this chapter, we all worked
together to present the voices of the pre-service teachers who participated in the
modified HCHC programme and also agreed to take part in the research. The
chapter, therefore, considers the effects of one initiative aimed to broker the space
of Indigenous education within a mainstream teacher education programme.
Background Literature
In a literature review that revisited the Bringing them home: Report of the national
inquiry into the separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from
their families (Wilkie, 1997), Krakouer (2015) opened with an argument that the
current gap between the educational attainment of Indigenous and non-Indigenous
Australians could be traced back to the intergenerational effects of colonization.
National educational policy has an ongoing agenda to close the educational gap.
Just 2 years short of the 10-year target to halve the gap between the achievements
of Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australian students in reading, writing and
numeracy the disparity continues, in his annual report to the nation, the Prime
Minister acknowledged that ‘a more concerted effort’ is required (Commonwealth
60 M. Bennet et al.
of Australia, Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, 2016, p. 3). There
appears to be no certainty that the target will be achieved; thus the system that
was created and imposed on Indigenous Australians continues to have a negative
impact on the educational attainments of many Indigenous people to this day.
In identifying teaching methods that are seen to be culturally responsive,
Krakouer (2015) noted that the methods used by educators today need to respond
to the particular circumstances, cultural practices and ways of learning related to
the local Indigenous community. A key feature of the modified HCHC
Programme was that it was delivered by Indigenous people and involved signifi-
cant input by the local community. The stories of the past as they unfolded, espe-
cially when delivered at sites of local significance, helped the pre-service teachers
learn about local Indigenous history. The pre-service teachers thus gained first-
hand experience of culturally responsive teaching methods that were relevant to
the local community and transferrable to their own teaching practices. There were
also synergies between these experiences and the AITSL’s Professional Standards
for Teachers, particularly those that relate to teacher professional knowledge, prac-
tice and professional engagement.
It would, therefore, be appropriate to accept the recommendation from Krakouer’s
(2015) literature review that the development and implementation of culturally
responsive teaching practices is best approached through collaborative partnerships
between educational institutions and local Indigenous communities. It is through
these types of partnerships that pre-service teachers can also begin to learn about and
appreciate the value of developing relationships with Indigenous students and their
communities, aspects that are central to engaging successfully with Indigenous stu-
dents in the learning environment. As we concluded in another stage of our research,
‘Non-Indigenous Australian educators cannot do this alone. It is clear that it is the
Elders who hold the keys to the future through their wisdom and their knowledge of
the past who need to be equal partners in preparing pre-service teachers to meet the
needs of … Indigenous students’ (Moriarty & Bennet, 2016, p. 40).
In addition to learning directly from Indigenous people themselves, an under-
standing of Indigenous culture by pre-service teachers, we and others contend, can
only be achieved through multiple, scaffolded opportunities to engage with com-
munity over time. When considering the length of time over which Indigenous
culture existed prior to colonization and the effects of colonization it is not surpris-
ing that non-Indigenous people, operating from a different cultural lens, need time
to develop an understanding of Indigenous culture. Various levels of exposure,
over 4 years of pre-service teacher education is only just the beginning.
It can be difficult for non-Indigenous pre-service teachers to appreciate the lasting
effects of colonization as a range of government policies in the Australian context
have impacted Indigenous people. For example, relocations of Indigenous people
from their land onto Missions and Reserves (Protection Board era: 1883 to mid-
1970s) on the fringes of towns and the dispersion of communities through the Stolen
Generation era (Assimilation Act: 1930–1970s) wrenched Indigenous people from
two things that are essential to their identity: Country and community. We would
argue that teacher education institutions need to work in partnership with local
5 Developing Understanding of Indigenous Culture … 61
Indigenous communities to help pre-service teachers to understand what Country
and community mean to Indigenous people and Indigenous peoples’ spiritual con-
nection to Country. The Elders in these communities, we found, are willing to share
their wisdom and knowledge in order to scaffold these learning experiences.
The next section of this chapter briefly describes the modified HCHC pro-
gramme. The research methods section describes how data was gathered to answer
the research question, concluding with details about the participants and limita-
tions of the study, and how the researchers worked together to analyse the data.
The findings relating to the research question explore four themes that emerged
from the data. These themes were pre-service teachers’ developing understanding
of (1) Country, (2) community, (3) relationship-building and (4) pedagogical
knowledge then give shape to the findings, leading to conclusions and implica-
tions for pre-service teachers’ understanding of Indigenous culture.
The Modified Healthy Culture Healthy Country (HCHC)
Programme
The New South Wales and local AECG delivered the modified HCHC Programme
on a trial basis to the pre-service teachers on one regional university campus over
three, non-consecutive days in May, July and September 2015. The content of the
programme was adapted to fit the local Indigenous context and was underpinned
by key areas relating to: understanding the local Indigenous community,
Indigenous teaching methods, and culturally appropriate assessment practices. All
three workshops contained a face-to-face classroom component. The first two
workshops also involved visits to sites of significance to the local Indigenous
people. The table below shows the specific topics covered at each workshop.
Modified healthy culture healthy country (HCHC) programme
Workshop 1 Developing local Aboriginal cultural education programmes
Delivering local Aboriginal cultural education programmes
Working effectively with local Aboriginal peoples and communities
Field visit: local Aboriginal reserve
Workshop 2 History and make-up of the local contemporary community
Field visits: two local education institutions and an Aboriginal medical centre
Workshop 3 Science and the curriculum
Integrating local flora and fauna into the science curriculum
Physical and spiritual aspects of country
Campfire
The morning session of the first workshop on campus focused on developing
and delivering local Aboriginal cultural education programmes. During the
62 M. Bennet et al.
afternoon field visit to a local reserve a community Elder related some of her child-
hood experiences growing up on the reserve. The pre-service teachers developed
collaborative art works on site that captured these memories. The classroom com-
ponent of the second workshop focused on the history and composition of the local
contemporary community, followed by visits to two educational institutions and a
medical centre for Indigenous people. The third workshop focused on science and
the curriculum, with particular attention to the integration of local flora and fauna
and how to assess this knowledge in culturally appropriate ways. There was parti-
cular emphasis on the physical and spiritual aspects of Indigenous people’s connec-
tion to Country. The third workshop concluded with an evening of cultural
activities, a campfire that included traditional yarning, and a shared meal.
Research Methods
The research question that guided the trial delivery of the HCHC Programme was:
What impact does the HCHCS Programme have on pre-service teachers’ knowl-
edge and understanding of cultural competence for engaging with Indigenous
communities and teaching Indigenous students?
Data Gathering
In order to address the research question, the pre-service teachers who agreed to
participate in the study completed identical extended-response surveys after each
of the three workshops and participated in focus group interviews consisting of up
to six participants following the second and third workshops. The surveys con-
sisted of three questions:
1. What aspects of cultural knowledge do you feel are important for you to be
able to work effectively with Aboriginal students, families and communities?
2. What have you learned about Aboriginal students, families and their commu-
nities as a result of your participation in the HCHC workshop/s?
3. For this question we would like you to think about the HCHC workshop and
National Teaching Standards 1, 2, 3, 5 and 7. On the table below, please pro-
vide examples of how you are developing capacity against each standard and
note specific areas for your further development.
The four questions that guided the discussion in the focus group sessions were:
1. How will you use the key aspects of the HCHC workshops to develop your
cultural competence knowledge and understanding?
2. What key knowledge and understanding do you believe teachers need to
engage effectively with Indigenous students, their families and communities?
5 Developing Understanding of Indigenous Culture … 63
3. Can you describe an event or learning experience that impacted on you?
4. What strengths or areas for further development have you identified that you
would like to work on before you go on practice teaching?
The combination of survey and focus group responses was planned to enable
space for the voices of the pre-service teachers with regard to their developing
understanding of Indigenous culture to be heard. The reason for asking the same
questions on each administration of the survey, and in the focus groups following
the respective workshops, was to enable a cumulative and progressive in-depth
understanding of the impact of the programme on the pre-service teachers across
the three workshops to be determined.
Participants and Limitations
The HCHC workshops were open to all pre-service teachers across the 4-year
degree; however, there were some limitations that affected the number of students
who could attend and, therefore, participate in the research. As each year level had
a different timetable for classes and professional experiences it was not possible to
schedule the workshops at times that enabled all pre-service teachers to have the
option of attending each workshop. The fourth year pre-service teachers, who
spend a considerable amount of time on professional practice, were unable to
attend any workshops. Even pre-service teachers in first year, who were the main
focus and were the ones who were invited to participate in the research, were not
all on campus on the same days of the week and were not all completing the same
units in their degree at the same time; thus there was also some variation in their
attendance availability for the three workshops. The workshop times also needed
to fit the availability of the presenters, as presenters for each workshop included
people who travelled some distance as well as people who lived locally. On aver-
age, about 20 pre-service teachers attended each workshop and 12 first year stu-
dents participated in the research.
Data Analysis
Two members of the research team independently worked through the responses
to the questions on the surveys that were distributed after each workshop, looking
for themes, common threads and outliers, before discussing their tentative find-
ings. Discussions focused on the responses from each workshop separately and
then collectively across the three. The two researchers conducted the focus group
interviews together, enabling them to encourage participants to respond to each
other, not for the purpose of reaching consensus but, as recommended by
Fraenkel, Wallen and Hyun (2012), to enable participants to expand on ideas
64 M. Bennet et al.
raised by others in the group and, in this case, to explain their own perspectives
and perceptions in a safe environment. The researchers were also able to reflect
together on the voices of the participants, having heard their perspectives at the
same time and in the same context. The researchers shared the responsibility for
completing the transcripts of the conversations, this presenting an important
opportunity to begin the data analysis. The researchers preferred to complete the
transcripts themselves as a means of respecting the contributions made by the par-
ticipants, for whom pseudonyms were used to report the findings.
Findings
The 2015 pilot trial of the New South Wales AECG’s modified HCHC programme
provided opportunity to gain insights into pre-service teachers’ developing cultural
awareness. The findings were drawn from data collated from individual surveys
after Workshops 1, 2 and 3 and focus group sessions after Workshops 2 and 3.
These findings provide insights into pre-service teachers’ developing knowledge
and cultural understanding. These insights provide a snapshot in time of how scaf-
folded learning experiences delivered by the Indigenous community supported
pre-service teachers’ development of knowledge and cultural understanding. The
four main interrelated themes that emerged from an examination of the surveys
and focus group interviews were pre-service teachers’ developing understanding
of (1) Country and (2) community, (3) the importance of building ‘relationships’
with the Indigenous community and (4) the development of culturally appropriate
‘pedagogical knowledge’.
Understanding Country
When asked to identify what Country means a number of pre-service teachers reit-
erated how their understanding of Country had changed following their immersion
in the first workshop on campus and their visit to a Reserve, where a local Elder
recounted some of her experiences. Pre-service teachers had a range of responses.
Kelsie’s survey response, for example, speaks to the emerging theme of under-
standing Country when she said that she ‘wasn’t aware until today just how inter-
connected they [Indigenous people] are with everything, both spiritually and
physically’. Another pre-service teacher, Kevin, reiterated this point by stressing
that it was critical ‘to understand how this [connection to Country] shapes their
identity’. Kevin’s developing understanding of the core relationship of Country to
Indigenous people’s identity is important because it accords with the point raised
by Moore and Creamer (2009, p. 6) that connection to Country helps Indigenous
5 Developing Understanding of Indigenous Culture … 65
people to ‘know who they are’ and ‘where they belong’. Reflecting on his own
first-hand community experiences as a pre-service teacher and also from his cross-
cultural background, Uri noted that, ‘Not all Aboriginal children will have this
connection to the land but together, everyone from family to community can work
together to nurture a greater awareness to bring ‘Everyone together’ [sic]. Uri’s
perspective provides insight into his more complex understanding of the cross-
cultural space and a more holistic approach to education that Lewthwaite et al.
(2015) identified as an important criterion that can support Indigenous students to
reconnect with or to deepen their connection with Country. Through his involve-
ment in Workshop 1, pre-service teachers like Ned developed an awareness of the
need to know the ‘history of the local area’ because in his view it ‘give[s] you a
stronger connection to the place’. Pre-service teachers’ developing understanding
of the importance of Country and its relationship to Indigenous people’s identity
was, therefore, clearly shaped by their engagement with Indigenous people in the
brokered cross-cultural space. McKnight, Hoban and Nielsen (2011) refer to this
scaffolded and supportive place as being an important space, enabling interroga-
tion of previously held participant understanding. The pre-service teachers’
responses are testimony to their beginning understanding of the complex relation-
ship that Indigenous people have with Country. In learning about the importance
of Country, pre-service teachers can begin to develop capacity to evidence the
AITSL’s National Teaching Standard: Strategies for teaching Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander students.
Understanding Community
Developing understanding of the local Indigenous community and the strength of
the Indigenous people who live and work in it was a principal focus of the modi-
fied HCHC’s Workshop 2. Kristy, a pre-service teacher who lives locally, found
that this workshop gave her a ‘beginning understanding of how different
Indigenous communities’ can be made up of people from ‘reserves, missions and
stations’. She later elaborated, saying that it was ‘essential to try and understand
the hurt and trauma’ as this understanding would support ‘true reconciliation
between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians’. Kristy could use her reflec-
tions to evidence the Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership
(2014) Standard: Understand and respect Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
people to promote reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous
Australians. Awareness such as this, according to research by Lewthwaite et al.
(2015), can play an important role in teachers’ understanding of the different
school contexts where they work. For another pre-service teacher, Kevin, under-
standing community meant making ‘connections between students’ funds of
knowledge and curriculum’. This understanding could enable him to begin to
develop strategies that he will need for teaching Indigenous students. The findings
66 M. Bennet et al.
from Lingard and Keddie’s (2013) research point to the importance of valuing stu-
dents’ funds of knowledge, as this capital plays a key role in Indigenous students’
level of engagement with school based learning. Kevin’s point that the
‘Workshops have made it clear that the cultural values and lifestyle of Indigenous
communities need to be understood and respected by teachers’ was also echoed
by another pre-service teacher, Uri, who in a focus group interview noted that cur-
rently ‘there is a huge imbalance between Indigenous content and the effective
teaching skills that pre-service teachers need’. The AITSL recognizes this point,
as indicated by its focus on pedagogical strategies for working with Indigenous
students. Moreton-Robinson, Singh, Kolopenuk and Robinson (2012) highlight in
their findings the development of pre-service teachers’ skill base to work success-
fully with Indigenous students. Their research highlights ongoing concerns about
the under-preparation of pre-service teachers. Uri’s reflection is a poignant remin-
der of this continuing need.
Relationship-Building
Pre-service teachers unanimously cited building relationships based on a strength-
based model as a necessary first step before teachers could engage with
Indigenous students, their families and communities. Some pre-service teachers,
like Jacqui, highlighted the need to seek opportunities for ‘building relationships
with parents/carers’. This practice could enable pre-service teachers’ development
of capacity to understand and respect Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people
to promote reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians
(Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership, 2014). Responses from
other pre-service teachers such as those from Kristy and Sarah emphasized the
need for respectful relationships to be built on transparency and trust. These speci-
fic points were emphasized throughout Workshops 1, 2 and 3 by the presenters.
Maura, another pre-service teacher, explained how she used the opportunity pro-
vided by the workshops to make a connection to the local New South Wales
AECG’s monthly education meetings. She stressed the importance of this connec-
tion for her, noting that this had given her a base ‘if we need help of people to go
to’. Maura was thus beginning to focus her attention on her own professional
needs and laying the foundations for future relationship-building with the
Indigenous community. The local AECG provides opportunities for professional
networking. Maura recognized the importance of developing these relationships at
the pre-service teacher level.
There are similarities between aspects of relationship-building noted by the
pre-service teachers and those highlighted in Bond’s (2010) research findings that
emphasized the need for teachers to develop strong relationships with Indigenous
students. The emerging relationships brokered by the pre-service teachers with the
Indigenous presenters of the modified HCHC Programme enabled opportunity to
develop or strengthen relationships and also to understand the importance of
5 Developing Understanding of Indigenous Culture … 67
relationships to Indigenous students, families and communities. These workshops
thus provided invaluable opportunities for pre-service teachers.
Pedagogical Knowledge
The modified HCHC workshops enabled pre-service teachers to develop aware-
ness of pedagogical practices that can successfully connect Indigenous students to
school-based learning. Among the points raised by the pre-service teachers was
one by Sarah, who noted the continuing need to maintain ‘high expectations for
their [Aboriginal students] success and [the] contribution they can make to
society’. She returned to this point a number of times, citing lower teacher expec-
tations as contributing factors to poorer educational outcomes of Indigenous stu-
dents. Lower expectations of Indigenous students in literacy and numeracy
assessments could be connected with their ongoing underperformance in these
areas, which was identified by the Australian Government (2015). Sarah’s refer-
ence to the importance of ‘translating content so [that] students know what is
expected of them’ points to the important role that teachers play in establishing
high expectations for Indigenous students. Clearly, the modified HCHC work-
shops supported the pre-service teachers to become more reflective practitioners
who are aware of the critical factors that impact on Indigenous students’ educa-
tional outcomes.
Pre-service teacher Kevin referred in his survey response following Workshop
1 to the use of ‘appropriate teaching strategies that are culturally appropriate’. He
emphasized that it is, ‘important to respect the way they [Indigenous people] have
traditionally taught each other (i.e. teaching methods)’, elaborating that the best
way to teach them was ‘through collaboration with the wider Aboriginal commu-
nity’. Kevin also noted that, ‘[l]earning from [the] … Workshops of how to orga-
nize class lessons on Indigenous culture adopted from Indigenous teaching
methods and ways of learning’ was an important factor in developing his own cul-
turally appropriate pedagogies. Responses from other pre-service teachers also
reiterated Kevin’s point that, ‘[t]hese Workshops have made it clear that the cul-
tural values and lifestyle of Indigenous communities need to be understood and
respected by teachers’.
The HCHC workshops thus provided a scaffolded place where Kevin and other
pre-service teachers could learn directly from Indigenous educators the types of
practices and strategies that are important to engage Indigenous students. Adding
to the dialogue about pedagogical knowledge in their focus group interview after
Workshop 3, another pre-service teacher, Ned, stressed the need to be ‘careful
about what is taught [and] checking with the local community about the sensitivity
of a topic’. The workshop presenters reiterated this point—the need for sensitivity,
highlighted in the first focus group interview was one of the key messages deliv-
ered in Workshop 2. Professional development, such as the New South Wales
AECG’s modified HCHC Workshops, provides opportunities to develop the
68 M. Bennet et al.
necessary skills to turn pre-service teachers’ knowledge and understanding into
effective pedagogical action that meets the needs of the Indigenous learner.
Conclusion: Implications for Developing Pre-service Teachers’
Understanding of Indigenous Culture
The pilot of the NSW AECG’s modified HCHC programme had a marked and
noticeable impact on the pre-service teachers across the year, to the point where
participants in the research talked about initiatives that they undertook indepen-
dently as a result of their involvement in the workshops. These initiatives included
some pre-service teachers becoming members of the local AECG, attending
AECG meetings and actively seeking further opportunities to learn more about
working with Indigenous students, their families and communities. These commit-
ments are anticipated to be ongoing because of the close connections that the pre-
service teachers made to the local Indigenous community and the willingness of
the community to contribute to the workshops and embrace the pre-service tea-
chers’ involvement in the local AECG. It will be interesting to observe over the
remainder of their course how and to what extent those pre-service teachers who
participated in the workshops as well as in the research maintain the connections
with the Indigenous community that they established through their involvement in
the workshops. We will also be interested to explore how their commitment
impacts on their engagement with Indigenous students, their families and commu-
nities during future professional experience placements. It is our intention to fol-
low the participants into later phases of the study and also into their teaching
careers, paralleling the longitudinal study currently being undertaken with the ori-
ginal participants in the first, 2008 phase of the research programme.
The voices of the pre-service teachers captured in their extended response sur-
veys after Workshops 1, 2 and 3 and focus group interviews following the second
and third Workshops are both insightful and provocative. There is clear evidence
of pre-service teachers’ developing knowledge and understanding, which is impor-
tant for working effectively with Indigenous students, their families and commu-
nities. The Workshops provided rich opportunities to challenge, stimulate and
provoke the pre-service teachers to interrogate their cultural positioning, under-
standing and values. The workshops thus acted as powerful stimuli for the pre-
service teachers, challenging both the researchers and the university with the call,
‘Where to from here?’ The challenge is to continue to offer multiple, ongoing
experiences that provide opportunity to understand and value the richness of the
tapestry of Indigenous life and culture. This grounding is critical to support pre-
service teachers to develop culturally-appropriate pedagogical practices that con-
nect with Indigenous students and their culture.
The findings from this study highlight the importance of providing pre-service
teachers with opportunities to engage directly with Indigenous people. These
opportunities help to develop pre-service teachers’ understanding capacities to
5 Developing Understanding of Indigenous Culture … 69
work effectively with Indigenous students, their families and communities. Since
their participation in the modified HCHC workshops the pre-service teachers have
advocated for more opportunities to engage with Indigenous people and their com-
munities. Their passion to continue this journey has resulted in their engagement
with Indigenous communities beyond their immediate milieu. Participants in the
HCHC programme have demonstrated increasing awareness of Indigenous issues.
References
Australian Government (2015). Closing the gap: Prime Minister’s report 2015. Retrieved from
https://www.dpmc.gov.au/sites/default/files/publications/Closing_the_Gap_2015_Report.pdf.
Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (2014). Professional standards for tea-
chers. Retrieved from http://www.aitsl.edu.au/australian-professional-standards-for-teachers.
Bennet, M., & Lancaster, J. (2012). Improving reading in culturally situated contexts. The
Australian Journal of Indigenous Education, 41(2), 208–217.
Bennet, M., & Moriarty, B. (2015). Language, relationships and pedagogical practices: Pre-
service teachers in an Indigenous Australian context. International Journal of Pedagogies
and Learning, 10(1), 1–12.
Bond, H. (2010). ‘We’re the mob you should be listening to’: Aboriginal Elders at Mornington
Island speak up about productive relationships with visiting teachers. Australian Journal of
Indigenous Education, 39(1), 40–53.
Commonwealth of Australia, Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (2016). Closing the gap
Prime Minister’s report 2016. Canberra, QLD, Australia: Council of Australian Governments.
Fraenkel, J. R., Wallen, N. E., & Hyun, H. H. (2012). How to design and evaluate research in
education. (8th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
Krakouer, J. (2015). Literature review relating to the current context and discourse on
Indigenous cultural awareness in the teaching space: Critical pedagogies and improving
Indigenous learning outcomes through cultural responsiveness. Melbourne: Australian
Council for Educational Research.
Lewthwaite, B. E., Osborne, B., Lloyd, N., Boon, H., Llewellyn, L., Webber, T., … Wills, J.
(2015). Seeking a pedagogy of difference: What Aboriginal students and their parents in
North Queensland say about teaching and their learning. Australian Journal of Teacher
Education, 40(5), 132–159.
Lingard, B., & Keddie, A. (2013). Redistribution, recognition and representation: Working
against pedagogies of indifference. Pedagogy Culture and Society, 21(3), 427–447.
McKnight, A., Hoban, G., & Nielsen, W. (2011). Using Slowmation for animated storytelling to
represent non-Aboriginal preservice teachers’ awareness of “relatedness to country”.
Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 27(1), 41–54.
Moore, L., & Creamer, P. (2009). Optimising learning for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
children: A Queensland case study. Every Child, 15(2), 6–7.
Moreton-Robinson, A., Singh, D., Kolopenuk, J., Robinson, A., & Walter, M. M. (2012).
Learning the lessons?: Pre-service teacher preparation for teaching Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander students. Melbourne: Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership.
Prepared in partnership with the Queensland University of Technology Indigenous Studies
Research Network.
Moriarty, B., & Bennet, M. (2016). Practicing teachers’ reflections: Indigenous Australian stu-
dent mobility and implications for teacher education. Social Inclusion, 4(1), 32–41.
Wilkie, M. (1997). Bringing them home: Report of the national inquiry into the separation of
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from their families. Sydney: Human Rights
and Equal Opportunity Commission.
Integrating Indigenous Ma¯ori Frameworks to
Ignite Understandings Within Initial Teacher
Education—and Beyond
Te Hurinui Clarke, Sonja Macfarlane and Angus Macfarlane
He tumu: Foundations
For many years now, the School of Teacher Education at the University of
Canterbury (UC) in Aotearoa New Zealand (NZ) has been developing and
strengthening the competency and pedagogical aspects of its ITE (initial teacher
education) programs. This has been in response to the Ministry of Education
(MoE) strategic educational focus on ‘getting it right’ for the Indigenous Ma¯ori
learners in pre-tertiary educations settings this country. The introduction of a 1
year Masters of Teaching and Learning (ITE-Masters) degree provided the
impetus for reconfiguring the way ITE courses and programs are delivered. The
outcome of this reformation signposts the significance of locating culturally-
responsive pedagogies and Ma¯ori epistemology at the core of the ITE-Masters
program (Ministry of Education, 2013a, 2013b). Whilst it may be pre-emptive to
generalise too broadly about the early indicators of the program’s efficacy, there is
a growing body of documented and anecdotal evidence that indicates how these
changes are supporting better outcomes in terms of Indigenous education and
culturally-responsive teaching pedagogies in schools. The ITE-Masters program
has had the benefit of drawing on the cultural knowledge and experiences of the
T.H. Clarke (✉) · A. Macfarlane 71
School of Education, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Macfarlane
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Macfarlane
School of Health Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
e-mail: [email protected]
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018
P. Whitinui (eds.), Promising Practices in Indigenous Teacher Education,
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-6400-5_6
72 T.H. Clarke et al.
UC Ho¯aka Pounamu Post Graduate Diploma in Bilingual and Immersion
Teaching1 team, to guide these developments.
In 2012, the NZ MoE launched stage two of its Ma¯ori Education strategy: Ka
Hikitia: Accelerating Success 2013–2017 (Ministry of Education, 2013a). This
strategy and Ta¯taiako: Cultural Competencies for Teachers of Ma¯ori Learners
(Ministry of Education, 2013b) provide guidance for teachers to better engage
with Ma¯ori students to enable them to realise their potential and fulfil their educa-
tional aspirations. In 2014, the School of Teacher Education at UC was one of the
tertiary institutions selected by the NZ MoE to implement a 1-year ITE-Masters
program, commencing January 2015. The values and cultural competencies under-
pinning the two aforementioned documents became the foundational platform for
the content and structure of the new degree.
From the outset, the team of academics tasked with creating this visionary pro-
gram saw an opportunity to create something that would be fundamentally
grounded on key Ma¯ori values and philosophies. Therefore, it was deemed neces-
sary to undertake a review of the existing undergraduate and postgraduate pro-
grams at UC, to ascertain the current status and visibility of these aspects. During
the review process, the strengths and weaknesses of each program were drawn on
to develop the new program.
The review determined that there was an active desire amongst the lecturing
staff who would be delivering this program to support the reshaping process. It
also revealed that there were pedagogical and technical skills as well as expertise
amongst current staff that were being underutilised, and that the Indigenous
knowledge content needed to be increased and more deeply embedded. These
findings led to accessing essential expertise located within other Schools at UC.
Specialists in ma¯tauranga Ma¯ori (Ma¯ori epistemology), te reo Ma¯ori (the Ma¯ori
language) and tikanga Ma¯ori (Ma¯ori protocols), Treaty2 law and culturally respon-
sive pedagogies were invited to contribute their respective proficiencies. Ka
Hikitia (Ministry of Education, 2013a) and Ta¯taiako (Ministry of Education,
2013b) were adopted as the guiding documents for the degree development. Ka
Hikitia is underpinned by five guiding principles (expanded on below) and these
provided a solid contextual platform from which to develop the course content.
The Treaty of Waitangi (Treaty) is the founding bicultural agreement of NZ,
and provides a framework for demonstrating how its three core principles are able
to be applied within educational contexts (Ministry of Education, 2013a).
According to Ka Hikitia, the Treaty provides a means for establishing collabora-
tive reciprocal relationships between the Crown (the Government and its represen-
tatives), and iwi (Ma¯ori tribes). This aspect maintains that the responsibility for
1Ho¯aka Pounamu extends teachers to use Ma¯ori language as the medium of instruction in the
classroom. It aims to develop graduates who will leader Ma¯ori language and knowledge in bilin-
gual, immersion and mainstream settings.
2The Treaty of Waitangi/Te Tiriti o Waitangi is an agreement signed in 1840 between Ma¯ori and
the British Crown. The three Treaty principles (partnership, protection and participation) provide
a foundation for educational policy specific to curriculum, teaching and learning.
6 Integrating Indigenous Ma¯ori Frameworks to Ignite Understandings … 73
enabling Ma¯ori students to ‘enjoy educational success—as Ma¯ori’ (Ministry of
Education, 2013a, p. 10) is shared between the MoE, on behalf of the Crown, iwi,
hapu¯ (sub-tribes) and wha¯nau (families). Educational professionals are tasked with
seeking out ways that facilitate genuine engagement with wha¯nau, hapu¯, iwi,
Ma¯ori organisations and communities; engagement processes that allow them to
contribute to, and provide support for, the success of their Ma¯ori students
(Ministry of Education, 2013a).
The program developers adopted the Treaty’s Principle One (partnership), and
feedback was then sought from Ma¯ori members of the Faculty. The Faculty at UC
includes Ma¯ori academics and support staff who have expertise in the various edu-
cational sectors spanning early childhood, primary and secondary contexts. Some
brought their expertise from Ma¯ori medium contexts (where the language of learn-
ing and teaching is te reo Ma¯ori), covering Ko¯hanga Reo (early childhood), Kura
Kaupapa (primary) and Wharekura (secondary) settings. Some Ma¯ori staff who
came together for this development process also contributed their expertise in the
area of teaching Ma¯ori language and customs, and were also representative of a
variety of iwi from throughout NZ.
Given that UC is located within the tribal rohe (territory) of the Nga¯i Tahu iwi,
wide iterative consultation was undertaken so as to seek feedback and guidance
from the Nga¯i Tahu Tribal Education Committee during the development phase.
This resulted in important changes being made from inception, and beyond.
Ko te whakarewanga o te waka hou (The Emergence of an
Innovative Journey)
From the time students apply for the ITE-Masters program the Treaty principles
guide the process. Applicants are interviewed, and questions are posed to assess
their knowledge and experience of working in diverse environments. The inter-
view also attempts to ascertain whether they are open to having their views and
assumptions challenged, to determine their propensity to reflect on what is fair and
equitable, and to adjust their thinking and approaches if necessary, so as to enable
Ma¯ori students in their care to reach their potential. Those who accept offers of
placement are provided with as many opportunities as possible to experience te
reo and tikanga Ma¯ori from the outset.
The program begins in mid-January during the summer break. The students are
welcomed with a mihi whakatau (ceremonial welcome)—which is conducted
mostly in te reo Ma¯ori, and follows the tikanga of the local hapu¯ of Nga¯i Tahu—
Nga¯i Tu¯a¯huriri. Upon completion of the mihi whakatau staff, students and guests
share kai (food); an important part of the mihi whakatau process that also models
two Ta¯taiako cultural competencies; manaakitanga and whanaungatanga.
Ta¯taiako defines manaakitanga in educational contexts as, ‘showing integrity, sin-
cerity and respect towards Ma¯ori beliefs, language and culture’ (Ministry of
74 T.H. Clarke et al.
Table 1 Ta¯taiako cultural competencies (Adapted from Ministry of Education, 2013b)
Teacher cultural Literal translation Observable and measureable aspect(s) or
competency practice
Ako Reciprocity: Learning with
Whanaungatanga and from others Enabling practices that transpire the
Relationships: Building and classroom and beyond
Tangata maintaining rapport
Whenuatanga Establishing relationships with students,
Manaakitanga Belonging: Connecting with schoolwide and the community—all with
place/location high expectations
Wa¯nanga
Caring: Putting others Drawing from the richness or place-based
before oneself stories, history, sociocultural awareness and
knowledge
Learning: Collective
approaches to gaining Modelling the values and integrity, trust,
understanding sincerity, equity within inclusive and safe
contexts
Creating opportunities for collective
communication, problem-solving and
innovation
Education, 2013b, p. 4). Manaakitanga also encompasses the way people, ‘show
respect or kindness; to entertain’ (Williams, 2003, p. 172). Ta¯taiako defines wha-
naungatanga as, ‘actively engaging in respectful working relationships with Ma¯ori
learners, parents and wha¯nau, hapu¯, iwi and the Ma¯ori community’ (Ministry of
Education, 2013b, p. 4); a competency that needs to be modelled in class. The
Ta¯taiako cultural competencies are outlined in Table 1.
The first class of the day is an introduction to te reo Ma¯ori, but is actually more
about cultural expressions of engagement, which include mihimihi (introductions)
manaakitanga, and whanaungatanga. The students introduce themselves, share
some information about their backgrounds, their reasons for enrolling, and articu-
late their aspirations for and of the program. The process is most often carried out
in the English language. Students who have prior knowledge in speaking te reo
Ma¯ori are encouraged to showcase their skills. This first class is also an opportu-
nity for the lecturer to model how mihimihi is enacted from a Ma¯ori perspective in
order to signify its importance in establishing whanaungatanga. It also provides an
opportunity to analyse the mihi whakatau process and its role and importance in te
ao Ma¯ori (the Ma¯ori world). The rituals of encounter discussion lead nicely into
the procedures they will establish in their classrooms when they encounter their
students for the first time. The ritual of encounter is an important step in the pro-
cess of establishing whanaungatanga. Critics sometimes comment on how long
this process takes (up to 45 minutes) so it has to be explained beforehand that
Indigenous processes take time, and that notions of ‘time’ are not necessarily com-
patible with Western notions. Critics’ views are also seen to change when they
observe the benefits that accrue in terms of participants’ attitudes, learnings and
confidence.
Incorporating other competencies from Ka Hikitia and Ta¯taiako further
strengthens Whanaungatanga and the cultural competency of ako is common to
6 Integrating Indigenous Ma¯ori Frameworks to Ignite Understandings … 75
both documents. Ta¯taiako defines ako as teachers, ‘Taking responsibility for their
own learning and that of Ma¯ori learners’ (Ministry of Education, 2013b, p. 4).
Ka Hikitia describes ako as, ‘a two-way teaching and learning process’ (Ministry
of Education, 2013a, p. 15). During the initial session students are encouraged to
share previous experiences they have had interacting with Ma¯ori. These discus-
sions are an important part of ako, as they highlight the fact that everyone brings
knowledge, learning and understanding with them—from across a continuum of
experience. The main purpose of these discussions is to understand that the stu-
dents with whom they will be working are able to make valid contributions to the
learning, and that ako is a two-way/reciprocal process rather than teacher-centred
and one-directional. The inherent message is that when the teaching and learning
environment embraces these principles and cultural competencies, then Ma¯ori
students’ potential to experience academic success ‘as Ma¯ori’ is more likely to
be realised.
The ‘Ma¯ori potential approach’ highlighted by Ka Hikitia declares that every
Ma¯ori student has the potential to make valuable contributions to the social, cul-
tural and economic well-being of their wha¯nau, hapu¯, iwi and wider community.
The classroom discussion is structured so that the students realise that all Ma¯ori
students possess untapped potential which needs to be realised. Discussions reiter-
ate the importance of having high but realistic expectations and the importance of
caregivers and wha¯nau sharing those expectations. According to Ka Hikitia, the
principle of ‘productive partnerships’ is also significant to Ma¯ori students’ success,
and is founded on understandings of mutual respect, shared aspirations and
acknowledging and celebrating similarities and diversity. All of these considera-
tions contribute to the setting of high but attainable expectations.
Understanding that Ma¯ori students bring their identity, language and culture
with them into the school and classroom is another vital element. Ka Hikitia states
that Ma¯ori students are more likely to achieve greater success when their cultural
values, knowledge and realities are positively reinforced and reflected in the teach-
ing and learning processes (Ministry of Education, 2013a). Ta¯taiako reaffirms this
by stating that the cultural competency of tangata whenuatanga (connecting with
place) affirms Ma¯ori learners as Ma¯ori and provides frameworks where their lan-
guage, identity and culture are affirmed (Ministry of Education, 2013b).
The analysis of the mihi whakatau and discussion about Ma¯ori learners also
serve another purpose; they help to prepare the students for their noho marae
(stay-over in a Ma¯ori communal space, often referred to as a ‘noho’) experience.
Preparation for staying at a marae (a traditional Ma¯ori communal space) is impor-
tant as many of the students have never been to a marae, making them waewae
tapu (newcomer). The noho marae encounter pushes many of the students outside
of their cultural comfort zone, and many are quite apprehensive and nervous.
The Ka Hikitia principles and Ta¯taiako cultural competencies are highlighted,
explored and brought together at the noho marae wherein theory is put into prac-
tice. The noho begins with the students being welcomed with a po¯whiri (a formal
welcome ceremony). As manuhiri (visitors), they are escorted by lecturers and
tutors who guide them through the process. The manuhiri assemble near the
76 T.H. Clarke et al.
waharoa (gateway) where they are briefed. It is customary to offer a koha (gift)
which is collected during the briefing. In traditional times a koha was often a pre-
cious ornament, garment or food. In contemporary times a koha is usually in the
form of a monetary donation. Once the manuhiri are ready, they assemble to sig-
nal their readiness to the tangata whenua (the hosts). Nga¯i Tahu tikanga requires
the women assemble at the front of the ope (group) and the men behind them.
The ope waits for the karanga (call) from a senior Ma¯ori woman from the tangata
whenua. Then the manuhiri start their whakaeke (entrance) on to the marae, reply-
ing with a karanga from a senior women in their ope. During the karanga
exchange, the tangata whenua are made aware of where the manuhiri are from and
the purpose of the visit. This ceremonial exchange also acknowledges those ances-
tors who have passed.
Once the ope arrives at the mahau (porch) of the wharenui (the large meeting
house) shoes are removed before entering. The wharenui is a physical manifesta-
tion of a tupuna (ancestor) and the removal of shoes is a sign of respect. Once
inside, the women sit behind the men, signifying the collaborative and equitable
nature of the po¯whiri wherein both men and women have a vital role to play in
the process. The men now have the opportunity to whaiko¯rero (engage in formal
speech making) by exchanging courtesies and establishing links with the tangata
whenua—an explicit demonstration of whanaungatanga. After each whaiko¯rero, a
waiata (song) is sung as k¯ınaki (adding flavour; enhancing) the whaiko¯rero. Once
the whaiko¯rero and waiata have finished, the koha is handed over, and the manu-
hiri are then invited to hongi (press noses). Following the hongi, the manuhiri are
invited to partake in kai (eating together). These three aspects of the po¯whiri pro-
cess are explicit demonstrations of manaakitanga. The tangata whenua and manu-
hiri start the ritual of encounter at a distance and both groups to slowly come
together and unite as one.
During the noho the students undertake several activities giving them first-hand
experience of several Ta¯taiako cultural competencies; whanaungatanga, ako, man-
aakitanga and wa¯nanga. They learn how to introduce themselves in te reo Ma¯ori,
and experience ako and manaakitanga in action. The oral traditions which are
enhanced by the whakairo (carvings), tukutuku (woven panels) and ko¯whaiwhai
(patterns) that adorn the walls and roof of the wharenui give meaning to the cul-
tural competency of tangata whenuatanga (connecting to place), enhancing their
awareness that literacy is more than reading and writing and may be expressed in
different forms.
The students are also asked to considering how they could incorporate their
mihimihi and oral traditions into their teaching, so as to validate their Ma¯ori stu-
dents’ identity, language and culture. Ideas are discussed in an open forum provid-
ing a physical manifestation and example of wa¯nanga. Confidence to participate in
this forum is instilled by assuring them that there are no wrong responses—
another example of manaakitanga.
Manaakitanga is also to the fore when they stand and say their mihi (personal
introduction). They have the option of standing alone, or with a friend or group of
friends; a strategy designed to provide them with reassurance and support when
6 Integrating Indigenous Ma¯ori Frameworks to Ignite Understandings … 77
presenting to the rest of the group. This highlights how vulnerable their own
students may feel when given tasks that require them to present to an audience.
They receive positive affirmation and feedback once they have completed this
task, and continue to work collaboratively until around 9 pm. The day concludes
with karakia (prayers; incantations) demonstrating that it is not only the tinana
(physical), hinengaro (cognitive) and wha¯nau (relational) elements of the noho
that are important, but that the wairua (spiritual) dimension also needs nourish-
ment. The karakia gives life to Durie’s (1998) Te Whare Tapa Wha¯,3 holistic fra-
mework, originally developed in order to improve responsivity to these four
domains of health and well-being.
Students are often energised after the day’s activities; others however are quite
weary and tired. Communal living is a very important part of the experience. For
many, sleeping in close proximity to others who are not familiar can create some
anxiety, however working collaboratively and getting to know each other better
during the day allays most of these fears.
The following morning, they are awoken at 7 am with karakia followed by
waiata. Breakfast follows and then the marae is cleaned and tidied in preparation
for the next group to be welcomed on. Students are encouraged to assist with the
necessary tasks involved in running the marae, including the serving of meals,
cleaning, tidying and other chores; important components of the entire experience.
They also prepare for the poroporoak¯ı (farewell) ritual; a less formal transition
process, but just as important as the po¯whiri. It is an opportunity for manuhiri to
share their thoughts and express gratitude to the tangata whenua; often an emo-
tional time as they realise that the experience is an enlightening one, and not as
challenging as first thought. The tangata whenua normally respond and the
encounter is completed with a karakia, waiata and hongi. The students now get to
experience the tuakana-teina role. The Ministry of Education (2009) explains that
the tuakana-teina concept of teaching and learning pedagogy developed from an
essential component of traditional Ma¯ori society, and provides a strong model for
reciprocal peer learning—explained in the following whakatauk¯ı (proverb):
Ma¯ te tuakana ka to¯tika te teina. Ma¯ te teina ka to¯tika te tuakana. From the older sibling
the younger sibling learns the right way to do things and from the younger sibling the
older sibling learns the right way to do things. From the younger sibling the older one
learns to be tolerant. (Higgins, Pararangi, Wilson, & Klaracich, 2005, p. 74)
The tuakana-teina approach also provides a good platform for learning the roles
and responsibilities of other wha¯nau members. The noho is a powerful context
for allowing the students to experience life on the marae as manuhiri and also as
tangata whenua. It is on traditional ground, adopting traditional practices and it
happens in real time with real people. Further expansion and enrichment occur
when the students participate in the po¯whiri the following day, now as tangata
whenua—the hosts. With their newly acquired knowledge, they fulfil the role as
3The Te Whare Tapa Wha¯ framework encapsulates four dimensions (relational, physical, psycho-
logical and spiritual) that reflect an holistic Ma¯ori worldview of health and well-being.
78 T.H. Clarke et al.
members of the haka po¯whiri (action song to welcome) as the new group of
manuhiri advance onto the marae. Performing the haka po¯whiri allows them to
view the po¯whiri from the perspective of the tangata whenua. It is a pleasure
to behold, watching them proudly welcome manuhiri on to their marae. Some
who were initially reluctant and anxious about embarking on the noho marae
experience now beam with pride, self-respect and dignity. This type of positive
transformation regularly transpires for many students—and staff members.
The noho is not compulsory for staff who do not have a teaching role at the
marae experience, however all staff are strongly encouraged to attend for as long
as they are able. However long they are able to attend demonstrates to the ITE-
Masters students that the marae is also a place where course content knowledge
can be taught and learned. Students do not have to be in a lecture theatre, lab or
classroom for learning to transpire. Most staff members realise that their atten-
dance and positive role modelling can positively influence student perceptions of
implementing culturally responsive practice. For staff, their presence is the whaka-
tinanatanga (enactment of putting theory into practice) of the following
whakatauk¯ı: Ho¯honu kak¯ı, pa¯paku uaua or ‘Deep throat, shallow muscles’ (Mead &
Grove, 2001, p. 341). If the program is to be underpinned by the philosophies of
Ka Hikitia and Ta¯taiako then staff need to ‘walk the talk’ as we expect our stu-
dents to do so when they enter their own classrooms. Staff also use the cultural
platform and underpinnings of the noho marae as integral and normal components
of their teaching practice in lectures. Normalising te reo and tikanga Ma¯ori in class
helps to normalise them also in everyday life.
Back on campus, the students engage in a two-day Treaty of Waitangi work-
shop, led by a UC staff member who is a recognised authority of Treaty law and
tribal history. The workshop compares and contrasts the Treaty from both Ma¯ori
and non-Ma¯ori perspectives. Students challenge their perceptions and understand-
ings of the Treaty and are invited to challenge the positions being represented by
the lecturer. Wa¯nanga (communication) is the medium by which the workshop is
facilitated. Whanaungatanga is also evident, as is ako and tangata whenuatanga.
Manaakitanga—also described as mana-enhancing (dignity-enhancing) practice
(Ruwhiu, 2009, p. 117)—allows each student, irrespective of their view, to leave
the workshop with their mana (dignity) intact. Whatever the outcome for each stu-
dent, it is imperative that they understand that everyone in the program is entitled
to their opinion as long as they can justify it at an academic level.
The students then transition back into a university learning environment.
Lectures continue to maintain strong links to Ka Hikitia (Ministry of Education,
2013a) and Ta¯taiako (Ministry of Education, 2013b) given that these strategies
underpin and thread throughout the entire program. The lectures take on a revised
fabric, regularly starting with karakia, waiata, whakatauk¯ı and k¯ıwaha (colloquial-
isms) which are all framed in an educational context. By utilising the following
whakatauk¯ı: Ahakoa iti, he pounamu (literally meaning ‘although small it is pre-
cious’—the notion that the thought or intention gives value to the small gift), the
students retain the same karakia, waiata, whakatauk¯ı and k¯ıwaha for a two-month
period. This is to ensure that they are firmly embedded in their minds before
6 Integrating Indigenous Ma¯ori Frameworks to Ignite Understandings … 79
moving on to the next set of whakatauk¯ı. Responsibility for leading the start of the
lectures moves from being lecturer-led to student-led. To that end, the class is split
in half, with each half being responsible for leading the start of the lectures for a
period of two weeks before handing responsibility over to the other half. How
they manage the start of the class is entirely up to them, exemplifying the concept
of tino rangatiratanga (self-determination). Some groups prefer to operationalise a
tu¯tira (stand united) approach, thereby expressing whanaungatanga in practice.
Other groups prefer to allocate specific days to an individual, pairs or smaller
groups of students, utilising a tuakana-teina approach.
Nga¯ pu¯ kenga: Skills Within the Academy
Lecturers responsible for development and teaching of particular curriculum areas
are pivotal to the overall rigor of the program. They embrace their respective
responsibilities to ensure that they make explicit links to Ka Hikitia, Ta¯taiako or
other frameworks that are premised on culturally responsive pedagogies—such as
The Educultural Wheel (Macfarlane, 2004), The Hikairo Rationale (Macfarlane,
1997) and Te Pikinga ki Runga (Macfarlane, 2009).4 The metaphor of the Braided
Rivers approach (He Awa Whiria) (see Macfarlane, Macfarlane, & Gillon, 2015)
is used to promote a sense of appreciation and understanding of what culturally
responsiveness looks and feels like when theories from different paradigms
(Western and Indigenous) are able to interlace. The Braided Rivers approach is an
appropriate metaphor for Canterbury, as the main rivers in this region are charac-
terised by their intricate, attractive interlacing. In the braided rivers approach all
curriculum areas, regardless of how different or similar they may be, are interwo-
ven and linked by a common theme—culturally responsive practice. This is an
example of tangata whenuatanga, linking the strategy to the contours and whaka-
papa (genealogy) of the land.
The ITE-Masters also has timetabled lectures specifically for learning te reo
and tikanga Ma¯ori. The Ma¯ori language classes are based on the Intercultural
Communicative Language Teaching (iCLT) philosophy (Ministry of Education,
2013c). iCLT applies the basic principle of Communicative Language Teaching
(CLT); that language is used for communication and that the goal of language
teaching is to develop communicative competence. However, iCLT is further pre-
mised on the notion that language is shaped by culture and that language and cul-
ture are inseparable. iCLT infuses culture into the language teaching and learning
to create a single educative approach (Rivers, 2010). It is suggested that students
4The Educultural Wheel and The Hikairo Rationale both draw from traditional Ma¯ori values that
support teachers to embed culturally responsive pedagogies in contemporary times. The former
emphasises effective class wide organisation; the latter emphasises behaviour management strate-
gies. Successful implementation requires teachers to interrogate their own attitudes and
dispositions.
80 T.H. Clarke et al.
who only learn grammar and vocabulary are not very well prepared to communi-
cate in that language (Liddicoat, 2008). Therefore, language learners need to also
experience cultural subtleties at the outset of their language learning journey.
Effective iCLT programs promote learning processes such as interaction, explora-
tion, comparison and the experience of language and culture to develop the lear-
ners competencies to equip them to communicate across cultural boundaries
(Rivers, 2010).
Good teachers of iCLT will infuse cultural practices and nuances into their lan-
guage programs from the outset. This serves to create awareness amongst the stu-
dents—at both implicit and explicit levels—of the cultural similarities and
differences and their links to the language. These teachers will also engage their
learners in as much genuine and authentic social interaction as possible. For exam-
ple, students learning te reo Ma¯ori would be encouraged to undertake a field trip
to a marae to experience te reo Ma¯ori in action. The teacher would then get their
students to explore and reflect on their experiences highlighting the use of the lan-
guage in its cultural context. Students then reflect on the similarities and differ-
ences that they noticed in the use of the language within that cultural context with
their own. Lecturers also provide feedback and feed forward emphasising and
encouraging communicative competence rather than native speaker competence.
The focus is entirely on achieving intercultural communicative competence, being
able to use the language in a manner that is culturally and contextually appropriate
and relevant for their teaching environment. The principles of instructed second
language acquisition developed by Professor Rod Ellis are drawn on to guide the
reo Ma¯ori program (Ellis, 2008) as there are synergies with the iCLT philosophy.
Another important component that makes up the reo and tikanga Ma¯ori class is
fun; that is generated in the pedagogy. Waiata composed for young children are
used because they stimulate learning, the tunes are easy enough recall, the words
are regularly repetitive, they are able to combine with body movements and they
are an additional means of teaching the language. The language needs to be taught
in context and waiata add an element of fun. The students are made aware that
waiata were used in traditional Ma¯ori society not for entertainment alone but as a
teaching and learning mechanism. Indeed this philosophy has been adopted by tea-
chers and academics in English medium schools as a means of engaging Ma¯ori stu-
dents (Whitinui, 2014). While tikanga is incorporated into the te reo Ma¯ori class it
is also examined in other ways. For example, every fortnight throughout the course,
the students are attributed a different pu¯ra¯kau (oral tradition, legend) to explore.
They are required to interact with the pu¯ra¯kau, looking for examples of cultural
competencies from Ta¯taiako. The pu¯ra¯kau start quite broadly with the Ma¯ori crea-
tion story. As the students progress through the pu¯ra¯kau they become more
focussed on Te Waipounamu (The South Island of NZ) and Waitaha (the
Canterbury region). Learning the whakapapa through a Ma¯ori lens reaffirms tangata
whenuatanga (connecting to place). The students are also required to search for the
subtle, implicit and less obvious themes and messages contained within the
pu¯ra¯kau. They are also challenged to investigate ways that they could incorporate
the pu¯ra¯kau into their teaching. This is normally an easier exercise for students in
The words you are searching are inside this book. To get more targeted content, please make full-text search by clicking here.
Home
Explore
ebook_Promising Practices in Indigenous Teacher Education by Paul Whitinui,Carmen Rodriguez de France,Onowa McIvor (eds.) (z-lib.org)
View in Fullscreen
ebook_Promising Practices in Indigenous Teacher Education by Paul Whitinui,Carmen Rodriguez de France,Onowa McIvor (eds.) (z-lib.org)
Discover the best professional documents and content resources in AnyFlip Document Base.
Search