10 Distinctive Pathways of Preparing Hawaiian Language Medium-Immersion Educators 133
Hawaiian language environments modeled after the Ma¯ori language Ko¯hanga
Reo, these language nests bring together fluent Hawaiian speakers to nurture
young children in culturally grounded early childhood activities through the
Hawaiian language. Pu¯nana Leo children become fluent very quickly; their abil-
ities to converse, play, sing, chant and pray—all in Hawaiian—are awe-inspiring.
As a phenomenon that has been repeated throughout these many years, the chil-
dren’s language abilities prevail as amazing testaments to the effectiveness of this
immersive approach to language acquisition and recovery as, ‘The voices of the
children became a sign of hope for our future’ (Alencastre, 2015, p. 2).
From its inception, the ʻAPL was instrumental in opening the way for like-
minded/hearted families and educators to converge as communities of cultural and
educational activists with a shared vision and commitment to education through
the Hawaiian language. Realizing the potential of creating new generations of
Hawaiian speakers has spurred educational reform focused on redefining the
essential qualities of education to emanate from a Hawaiian cultural foundation.
Particularly, the relevancy of Hawaiian language education is empowering Native
Hawaiian families to function as multi-generational units of language and cultural
transmission. Reliant on community-wide commitment, collaboration and perse-
verance, progress continues to be made towards re-normalizing the Hawaiian lan-
guage and culture within all aspects of daily life.
The Hawaiian cultural-based educational foundation established by the ʻAPL
has promoted community-wide engagement ensuring the continuity and growth of
Hawaiian language education by spearheading the creation of Hawaiian language
schools as viable educational options. As a collaborative process involving
families and communities throughout Hawaiʻi, the ʻAPL along with the ʻAha
Kauleo Advisory Board, the Hawaiʻi Department of Education, the University of
Hawaiʻi and numerous Native Hawaiian and community organizations, Hawaiian
language education now extends from infant-toddler through doctoral levels. The
growth of kula kaiaʻo¯lelo-kaiapuni Hawaiʻi has been arduous and incremental—as
early childhood, elementary, secondary and post-secondary level programs are
established one grade level at a time throughout Hawaiʻi’s island communities.
Currently, the ʻAPL maintains 13 preschools statewide through its private, non-
profit organization (ʻAPL, 2016). Elementary and secondary schools are known as
kula kaiapuni Hawaiʻi (Hawaiian immersion schools) and kula kaiaʻo¯lelo Hawaiʻi
(Hawaiian medium schools). Fifteen schools are administered as the Papahana
Kaiapuni Hawaiʻi Hawaiian Language Immersion program of the Hawaiʻi
Department of Education and an additional six are public charter schools. To add
to the complexity of the school models, two of these schools maintain additional
satellite or sections of the school adding four additional school sites (Hale
Kuamoʻo, 2016; Hawaiʻi Department of Education, 2015a, 2016). Higher educa-
tion programs including undergraduate and graduate Hawaiian language degrees
are housed at Ka Haka ʻUla O Keʻeliko¯lani College of Hawaiian Language at
University of Hawai’i at Hilo where this teacher education pathway is located.
(For timelines see Hawaiʻi Department of Education, 2015b; Kawaiʻaeʻa,
Housman, & Alencastre, 2007; Kawaiʻaeʻa ma¯, 2016.)
134 M. Alencastre and K. Kawaiʻaeʻa
According to 2015–2016 enrolment figures (Hale Kuamoʻo, 2016) there are
3,075 students being educated through the Hawaiian language from preschool to
high school with student population ranges from 6 to 458 (new to established
sites). Most schools are experiencing annual enrolment increases, many with
extensive waiting lists due to limited school facilities. Enrollment figures are
indicative of steady growth, yet when considered within the larger context of
Hawaiʻi K-12 public schools equate to less than 1.6% of overall public school
enrolment.
Kula kaiaʻo¯lelo-kaiapuni Hawaiʻi are innovative models of Hawaiian cultural-
based education explicitly focusing on developing and implementing culturally
appropriate pedagogies and assessments through the Hawaiian language. Kula
kaiaʻo¯lelo Hawaiʻi are designed to promote the language and cultural growth of
all faculty, staff, students and their families. With Hawaiian as the primary target
language both in and beyond the classroom, extensive language acquisition is pos-
sible as language exposure is extended and deliberate (Alencastre, 2015;
Kawaiʻaeʻa, 2012). Additionally, many of the programs are kula mauli ola
Hawaiʻi (Hawaiian cultural identity schools) that embrace the holistic cultural
foundation articulated by the Kumu Honua Mauli Ola educational philosophy
(ʻAha Pu¯nana Leo & Ka Haka ‘Ula O Ke’eliko¯lani, 2009). The focus of kula
mauli ola Hawaiʻi programming is ‘to deepen and expand the immersive nature of
the re-culturation process’ (Alencastre, 2015, p. 14) tending to the Hawaiian cul-
tural identity and well-being of the whole learning community.
There are a number of distinguishing features that both define and impact each
school’s overall capacities and capabilities. These features are reflective of the
dynamic and evolving nature of the kula kaiaʻo¯lelo-kaiapuni Hawaiʻi:
1. Eight are self-contained/stand-alone schools; 16 are programs within English
language medium mainstream schools;
2. They range in amount and quality of Hawaiian language usage within various
contexts by members of the learning community; and
3. They range in amount and quality of resources available including funding,
instructional, administrative and support staff, facilities, etc.
Despite the diversity that currently exists among models of kula kaiaʻo¯lelo-
kaiapuni Hawaiʻi, a primary objective that resonates among all is to provide a
high quality education through the Hawaiian language.
Collectively, kula kaiaʻo¯lelo-kaiapuni Hawaiʻi are educational models of
‘Native empowerment’ (Kawaiʻaeʻa, 2012, p. 12) propelling a social justice
agenda forward while actualizing self-determination as Native Hawaiians.
Implementing kula kaiaʻo¯lelo-kaiapuni Hawaiʻi within Hawaiʻi’s public school
system has necessitated making systemic changes towards achieving parity of cul-
tural and academic opportunities. Effecting change of this magnitude often
requires defiance against long-standing institutional agendas of assimilation, cul-
tural ignorance and neglect. As such, actualizing kula kaiaʻo¯lelo-kaiapuni Hawaiʻi
education has meant confronting educational policies, laws and attitudes that have
historically suppressed and impeded the well-being of Native Hawaiians.
10 Distinctive Pathways of Preparing Hawaiian Language Medium-Immersion Educators 135
He ma¯kaukau aʻo, He ma¯kaukau noiʻi ko ke kumu: Growing
Our Teachers as Educators and Researchers
The preparation of teachers for Indigenous language education has emerged as a
unique field within teacher education. Evident among conceptual frameworks of
university and tribal-based models of Native and Indigenous teacher preparation
programs are practices that are distinctive (Alencastre, 2015; Balto & Hirvonen,
2008; Beaulieu & Figueira, 2006; Ha¯wera, Ho¯hepa, Tamatea & Heaton, 2014;
Lee, 2002; Wilson & Kawaiʻaeʻa, 2007). Major program goals reflect the linguis-
tic, cultural and educative aspirations of their respective communities as program-
ming is designed to meet the diverse linguistic and academic needs of their
students and communities. Curricula objectives are integrated, holistic approaches
towards cultivating Native language proficiency, cultural competence and pedago-
gical knowledge and skills. While these represent integral approaches framing the
integrity of Indigenous teacher preparation, they may also be considered by main-
stream agendas as peripheral to institutional, state and accreditation requirements.
Asserting an Indigenous presence that promotes Native epistemology and praxis
within teacher education programs is frequently challenged by culturally incongru-
ent hegemonic policies. Particularly, there are expectations of compliance to
adhere to the standardization of the teaching profession (i.e. national standards-
driven programming, licensing and accreditation policies and mandates) which
often do not reflect or support Indigenous goals and practices.
Coinciding with the establishment and growth of kula kaiaʻo¯lelo-kaiapuni
Hawaiʻi is the demand for kumu who are ‘linguistically, culturally, and profession-
ally prepared to develop high levels of Hawaiian cultural competence and aca-
demic achievement of their students’ (Alencastre, 2015, p. 15). The capacity and
quality of instruction, as well as the overall impact made towards achieving the
critical and timely goals of language and culture revitalization through education
are heavily reliant on the quality of classroom teachers (Alencastre, 2008;
Beaulieu & Figueira, 2006; Beaulieu, Figueira, & Viri, 2005; Demmert &
Towner, 2003; Hawaiʻi Department of Education, 2015b; Kawaiʻaeʻa, 2008;
Kawaiʻaeʻa et al., 2007; Ledward & Takayama, 2008; Takao, 2010). Clearly,
expectations of kumu in kula kaiaʻo¯lelo-kaiapuni Hawaiʻi far surpass the usual
demands of the profession, as the abilities to effectively teach a wide range of aca-
demic content areas to multiple grade levels through the Hawaiian language from
a Hawaiian cultural foundation are also required.
Ke Kahua ʻIke o ke Kumu Honua Mauli Ola: The Foundational
Knowledge of the Kumu Honua Mauli Ola Philosophy
A cohesive Indigenous education model for preparing a new generation of
kumu for the Hawaiian language medium-immersion settings was envisioned
as a pathway including initial teacher certification and a Master of Arts
136 M. Alencastre and K. Kawaiʻaeʻa
Fig. 1 Kumu Honua Mauli Ola components
degree.2 Practices that are fundamental to both pre-service preparation and in-
service teacher education for kula kaiaʻo¯lelo-kaiapuni Hawaiʻi were developed
through a Native Hawaiian worldview to advance the cultural values and
beliefs expressed in Ke Kumu Honua Mauli Ola Hawaiian educational
philosophy.3
Expressed through a traditional Hawaiian worldview, Fig. 1 illustrates the three
components of the philosophy—mauli, piko and honua. The essence of these com-
ponents shapes the design and implementation of the teacher education model
including a comprehensive curriculum based on experiential learning. The mauli
is an individual’s life spirit that connects spirituality, traditional knowledge, lan-
guage and actions and behaviours as one’s cultural identity. The piko are found in
the three places of the body: at the centre of the head, the umbilicus and the geni-
talia connecting time—past, present and future—to one’s spiritual, genealogical
and creative abilities. The honua are the environments where the mauli is devel-
oped and piko connections are realized. The first honua is the ʻiewe, the protective
environment of the mother’s womb. Upon birth the child enters the k¯ıpuka, the
second honua environments of home and community. The third honua encom-
passes the ao holoʻokoʻa, the global world. Overall, the Kumu Honua Mauli Ola
philosophy has been extremely valuable as a holistic foundation for defining,
developing and implementing mauli ola Hawaiʻi education.
2http://www.olelo.hawaii.edu/khuok/mhhmulipuka.php
3http://www.ahapunanaleo.org/index.php?/about/kumu_honua_mauli_ola/
10 Distinctive Pathways of Preparing Hawaiian Language Medium-Immersion Educators 137
He La¯la¯ au no Kuʻu Kumu, He Kumu Mauli Ola Au: I Am a
Branch of My Source (Teacher), I Am a Mauli Ola Educator
The Kahuawaiola ITEP program is unique among Hawaiʻi’s 13 educator preparation
programs as all preparation (coursework and practicum) is conducted through the
medium of the Hawaiian language and implemented upon a foundation of traditional
Hawaiian pedagogy. Kahuawaiola ITEP (Kahuawaiola Indigenous Teacher
Education Program, 2016) prepares kumu for initial teacher licensure for preschool
through secondary levels of kula kaiaʻo¯lelo-kaiapuni by providing a strong founda-
tion in both cultural and professional knowledge and skills (see Fig. 2). Preparing
teachers as cultural and educational practitioners requires abilities from a new skill
set aligned with, yet different from, mainstream practices. Language, culture, commu-
nity, pedagogy, dispositions and content are the components of a Native-based
teacher education program. These six major components constitute a rigorous program
that contributes to the preparation of teachers as culture-based educators-teachers as
nation builders (Silva, Alencastre, Kawaiʻaeʻa, & Housman, 2008, p. 43).
Kahuawaiola ITEP currently offers two Hawaiian-focused preparation pro-
grams: (1) the Kaiaʻo¯lelo-kaiapuni Hawaiʻi (Hawaiian language medium-
immersion education) program; and (2) the Hawaiian knowledge program. In con-
cert with its philosophy Ke Kumu Honua Mauli Ola, the Na¯ Honua Mauli Ola
Hawaiian Cultural Pathways (Kawaiʻaeʻa ma¯, 2016) provide the framework for
cultural and professional learning outcomes which shape the program’s epistemol-
ogy and praxis (http://www.olelo.hawaii.edu/kwo/). Through immersive experi-
ences within living Hawaiian language environments, the aʻoa¯kumu (the teacher
in training) are personally and professionally transformed as professional, linguis-
tic, cultural and lifestyle aspirations are deepened, ‘O ka ʻo¯lelo Hawaiʻi, he ola, he
nohona a he lawelawe ʻoihana-Hawaiian language is a construct for life, living
and professional service’ (Kawaiʻaeʻa, 2012, p. 158).
As a graduate level certificate program, Kahuawaiola ITEP prepares cohorts of
students for initial teacher licensure through an intense three-semester program.
Traditional Hawaiian metaphors related to the rising of the sun provide imagery of
the growth and well-being experienced through experiential and reflective learn-
ing. Wanaʻao as the initial phase includes students’ experiences in cultural and
academic learning that has prepared them to become a kumu; these are considered
during the application process. Kahikole (phase two) is an intensive five-week
summer session focused on a core body of culture-based education philosophy
and pedagogy. Kahiku¯ and Kaulolo are the next two phases consisting of two
semesters of full-time practicum in kula kaiaʻo¯lelo-kaiapuni Hawaiʻi classrooms in
addition to weekly seminars. These initial teaching experiences are orchestrated as
collaborative efforts guided by the collective expertize of program faculty and
mentor teachers.
The ILCE was developed as an extension of Kahuawaiola ITEP to promote a
deeper understanding of Indigenous culture and educational issues both in Hawaiʻi
and globally. ILCE cohorts hone their reflective praxis as educational practitioners
138 M. Alencastre and K. Kawaiʻaeʻa
Fig. 2 Kahuawaiola Program Goals
10 Distinctive Pathways of Preparing Hawaiian Language Medium-Immersion Educators 139
by developing and conducting culturally appropriate action research to address
issues facing Indigenous education. As the capstone assignment, students share
their action research in formal presentations to their students, families, schools and
communities. An exciting component that broadens an Indigenous educational
lens beyond Hawaiʻi takes place in two of the courses: Cultivating Native Well-
being in Education, and Indigenous Culture-based Education. These courses part-
ner with national and international Indigenous graduate programs to share faculty
expertize and includes the University of Arizona (UA), the University of British
Columbia, the University of Alaska at Fairbanks (UAF) and Anchorage (UAA),
University of Montana and Te Whare Wa¯nanga o Awanuia¯rangi providing access
via distance learning technologies.
Kekahi Mau Hiʻohiʻona o ka Hoʻoma¯kaukau Kumu Mauli
Ola Hawaiʻi: Some Aspects of Kumu Mauli Ola Hawaiʻi
Preparation
The experiences of program graduates and mentor teachers are presented here as
highlights of programming that reflect the cultural growth and professional learn-
ing within Kahuawaiola ITEP. Collected in a recent study of Kahuawaiola ITEP’s
teacher preparation (Alencastre, 2015), distinctive practices aimed at cultivating
Hawaiian cultural and professional proficiencies as kumu kaiaʻo¯lelo-kaiapuni
Hawaiʻi are presented within three themes: ʻIke Pilina Ka¯koʻo (Collaborating as a
Community of Learners), ʻIke Mauli Ola Hawaiʻi (Hawaiian Cultural Identity) and
ʻIke Kumu Aʻo Mauli Ola Hawaiʻi (Hawaiian Culture-based Educational Praxis).
Excerpts from quotes provided by program graduates and mentor teachers eluci-
date many of the core ideas and experiences (translations of the quotes added by
the authors).
ʻIke Pilina Ka¯koʻo: Collaborating as a Community
Kahuawaiola ITEP relies on the collaboration of community-wide expertize enlist-
ing program staff and faculty along with kumu from kula kaiaʻo¯lelo-kaiapuni
Hawaiʻi from throughout the islands. Additional experts from the community
serve in an adjunct capacity providing topical instruction (i.e. traditional lifestyle,
arts, technology, special needs, licensing). Relationships created among the stu-
dent teachers, program instructors and mentor teachers foster a collective responsi-
bility for the mauli ola, the well-being and success, as a community of educators.
The pedagogical framework of Aʻo aku, aʻo mai provides a cohesive approach to
reciprocal teaching and learning by supporting and engaging each participant as
active members of this dynamic community.
140 M. Alencastre and K. Kawaiʻaeʻa
Program Graduate: ‘Makemake nui au i ka ikaika o ka pilina ma waena o na¯ moho a me
na¯ kumu ma ke kauwela’. I really liked the strong relationships among the student tea-
chers and the instructors that were developed during the summer.
Mentor Teacher: ‘Kakoʻo nui na¯ kumu Kahuawaiola i na¯ moho me ka hoʻomohala haʻa-
wina, ke aʻo ʻana, a me ka hikaloi ʻana’. The Kahuawaiola teachers provide a lot of sup-
port to the student teachers in learning to develop lessons, teaching, and to be reflective.
Being members of small cohorts makes it possible to cultivate a sense of shared
responsibility while promoting engagement as a learning community. The notion
of learner success is extended beyond individuals as it becomes collective and
inclusive of the group. Peer support among cohort members increases capabilities
of learning and teaching through the Hawaiian language as language development
and effective communication skills are supported.
Program Graduate: ‘Paipai ka¯kou kekahi i kekahi, hoʻoulu ka¯kou kekahi i kekahi ma ka
ʻo¯lelo Hawaiʻi’. We encouraged each other, supporting each other to strengthen our
Hawaiian language skills.
Two semesters of full-time practicum within kaiaʻo¯lelo-kaiapuni classrooms
provide extensive, experiential learning. A practicum support team is assigned to
each aʻoa¯kumu as the primary source of counsel, instruction, mentoring and
assessment. Initial teaching experiences are sequenced for the aʻoa¯kumu to
increase familiarity and effectiveness in planning and teaching. Regular opportu-
nities to dialogue with peers and support team members contribute to the develop-
ment of the targeted proficiencies. Program graduates especially relayed the value
of individualized support and mentorship provided throughout the intensive
sequence of classroom-based experiences in preparation for solo teaching. Having
access to numerous exemplars to observe and emulate was beneficial to becoming
aware of the distinct complexities within kula kaiaʻo¯lelo-kaiapuni Hawaiʻi envir-
onments. Program faculty and mentor teachers were recognized as being uniquely
qualified as exemplar role models who shared their extensive Hawaiian cultural
and academic expertize.
Program Graduate: ‘Ua ma¯kaukau au no ke aʻo hoʻokahi ma muli o ke komo ma
Kahuawaiola ma muli o ka hiki ke na¯na¯, hahai, aʻo me ke ka¯koʻo, a laila e aʻo hoʻokahi’.
I know that Kahuawaiola prepared me to teach as I had the opportunity to observe, fol-
low, as I was supported in learning to teach.
ʻIke Mauli Ola Hawaiʻi: Hawaiian Cultural Identity
The Hawaiian educational philosophy Ke Kumu Honua Mauli Ola is embraced
through intentional program design and guides program implementation to culti-
vate personal and collective understandings and practices valuing ʻike mauli ola
Hawaiʻi. Comprehensive programming provides opportunities to explicitly interact
and engage with the major components of mauli ola Hawaiʻi through application,
discussion and reflection.
10 Distinctive Pathways of Preparing Hawaiian Language Medium-Immersion Educators 141
Program Graduate: ‘A ma o ka hoʻonaʻauao i ka ʻo¯lelo, ka ʻike kuʻuna, ka pili ʻuhane a
me ka lawena ʻo kekahi mea aʻu e ʻike ai ma ke ʻano he hana koʻikoʻi e hoʻoulu ku¯pono
ai ka ma¯kaukau mauli ola Hawaiʻi’ Infusing education with our language, traditional
knowledge, spirituality, and behaviors were critical experiences which I feel appropri-
ately fostered mauli ola Hawaiʻi aspects.
Consciously aspiring to mauli ola Hawaiʻi attributes is a transformative journey
that connects to individuals on many levels. Engagement as active participants in
authentic and educative Hawaiian cultural practices contributes to a deepened
awareness in connecting to one’s cultural identity. A mentor teacher described this
as a natural progression, commencing with ʻike poʻo (cognitive awareness and
understanding), to ʻike naʻau (internalizing as deeper ‘gut-level’ understanding),
and becoming ʻike kino he ola maoli (fully realized and permeating into all
practices). An example of cultivating ʻike mauli ola Hawaiʻi is participating in var-
ious types of school-based protocol. Based on traditional concepts of piko as
related in Ke Kumu Honua Mauli Ola (Fig. 1), essential connections are fostered
by gathering the school community to commence and culminate each day. The
power of the piko lies in the intent of the words, prayers, songs and chants creat-
ing unity while fostering and internalizing ʻike mauli ola Hawaiʻi at personal and
communal levels.
Program Graduate: ‘He mea nui ke¯la¯ ma ka hoʻoulu i koʻu mauli ola Hawaiʻi. ʻO ke ku¯
ʻana ma ka piko, ka ma¯lama ʻana i ka pule, he ʻaoʻao ke¯la¯ o ka ʻike kuʻuna a me ka pili
ʻuhane’. Instrumental to cultivating my mauli ola Hawaiʻi was attending piko and offering
pule to connect traditional knowledge and practices with spirituality.
ʻIke Kumu Aʻo Mauli Ola Hawaiʻi: Hawaiian Culture-Based
Educational Praxis
Learning and teaching from a Hawaiian cultural perspective is considered vital to
employing an authentic Hawaiian culture-based praxis. Traditional Hawaiian peda-
gogy as a holistic process emanates from Hawaiian values and perspectives with
particular attention to cultivating the mauli ola Hawaiʻi. As such, Kahuawaiola
ITEP courses were intentionally developed to be Hawaiian-medium culture-centric
in order to provision aʻoa¯kumu with foundational knowledge, skills and disposi-
tions through a curriculum conducive to advancing cultural revitalization goals.
Through rigorous cycles of practice and reflection, Ma ka hana ka ʻike experiential
learning pedagogy provides a framework for process-oriented learning.
Throughout the courses, the complexities involved in teaching through the
Hawaiian language and culture for multiple grade levels of students with diverse
academic and linguistic abilities is a major consideration. Cultural perspectives
promote student learning by incorporating instructional strategies to address the
range of students’ needs and learning styles while focusing on Hawaiian language
and culture development along with academic content instruction. Coursework
142 M. Alencastre and K. Kawaiʻaeʻa
provides principles of Hawaiian culture-based education which progresses to
culture-based pedagogy applicable to each of the major content areas. A high
priority throughout the three-semesters is developing a fundamental level of
competence in creating, instructing and assessing quality, relevant culture-based
lessons using the Moenaha¯ framework, a Hawaiian culture-based curriculum
design and instruction method (Kawaiʻaeʻa, 2010). Moenaha¯ provides for develop-
ing conceptually aligned curriculum units that addresses learner goals, content,
language and culture standards through Hawaiian learning processes.
Additionally, Moenaha¯ enhances the development of teachers as reflective practi-
tioners to increase their awareness of the impact of their instruction on their stu-
dents’ learning.
Mentor Teacher: ‘He waiwai no¯ ke¯ia mau papa i ka moho ma kona aʻo ʻana ma na¯ kula
kaiaʻo¯lelo. Aʻo ʻia ke¯ia mau papa ma ke kuanaʻike Hawaiʻi a ʻo ia ka mea e waiwai loa ai
ka papa. A ʻo ia kuanaʻike Hawaiʻi a me ka hiki ke aʻo ma o ke kuanaʻike Hawaiʻi ka
mea e pono ai ke kumu ma¯kaukau ma na¯ kula kaiaʻo¯lelo’. These courses are valuable to
prepare for teaching in a Hawaiian medium school. Having these courses taught through
a Hawaiian perspective is what makes them so valuable. The Hawaiian perspectives and
the ability to teach through such a perspective is essential as a prepared teacher for
Hawaiian medium schools.
Extensive classroom-based experiences are an extremely valuable component
of pre-service preparation in preparing aʻoa¯kumu for the rigors of mauli ola
Hawaiʻi education: Kahuawaiola ITEP’s practicum requirement is twice the
amount of other Hawaiʻi preparation programs. Practicum placement is coordi-
nated to ensure the mentor teacher’s expertize, guidance and counsel supports the
aʻoa¯kumu’s experiences. The practicum is designed to ensure progression of scaf-
folded teaching responsibilities to allow aʻoa¯kumu to become familiar with parti-
cular contexts that affect their students’ learning. Numerous formative and
summative performance-based assessments have been developed to reflect
kaiaʻo¯lelo-kaiapuni cultural and professional proficiencies and are administered to
document and support each aʻoa¯kumu’s progress.
Mentor teacher: ‘Manaʻo au ʻo ke¯ia ka ma¯hele koʻikoʻi loa! Aʻo ke aʻoa¯kumu ma o ka
hana maoli ʻana me na¯ keiki’. I think student teaching is the most important part of
preparation-learning to actually work with children.
Mentor teacher: ‘Ku¯pono ka papamanawa; ʻo ka mua, na¯na¯ pono ka moho i ke kumu ia¯ ia
e aʻo ana ma ka papa a walaʻau ʻo ia me ke kumu no ka¯na hana ma ka papa. Ma hope
hoʻomaka ka moho me ka haʻawina la¯ a ho¯ʻike koke ke kumu i ka moho i na¯ mea ʻike
ʻia’. Scaffolding is good—observation and discussion followed up with guided lesson
planning, culminating with teaching with feedback provided.
Program Graduate: ‘Kohu ku¯lolo ia wa¯ Kaulolo. ʻOno loa i ke kalo, kanu o ka ʻa¯ina (na¯
hauma¯na Hawaiʻi hoʻi), ka wai-meli (na¯ ʻo¯lelo aʻoaʻo a na¯ kahu a me na¯ kumu i ko¯kua
mai iaʻu), ka wai niu (na¯ haʻawina like ʻole i hua mai ai mai loko mai o ka wa¯ aʻoa¯kumu),
a me ke ko¯paʻa (ke ko¯ o na¯ koina a pau e puka ai au a lanakila)’.
The last practicum semester was like ku¯lolo (taro pudding) as the Hawaiian students are
the delicious taro, the counsel from mentors and teachers is like honey, all the lessons
learned during is like coconut milk, and the victory of success is the sugar.
10 Distinctive Pathways of Preparing Hawaiian Language Medium-Immersion Educators 143
I Mua Ka¯kou: Moving Forward
The goals and potential inherent within kaiaʻo¯lelo-kaiapuni Hawaiʻi education
continue to inspire Hawaiian language and cultural restoration efforts. Renewed
visioning and collaboration serve to generate and sustain momentum critical to
progressing as a multi-generational quest of Hawaiian nation building. Kula
kaiaʻo¯lelo-kaiapuni Hawaiʻi have created communities that are actively transform-
ing Hawaiʻi’s educational landscape by re-culturing its foundation and creating a
cohesive, comprehensive P-20 Hawaiian language education.
For the past 17 years, the bold steps taken to establish Kahuawaiola ITEP and
the ILCE programs as part of the Hawaiian language college at UH Hilo are essen-
tial to resourcing kula kaiaʻo¯lelo-kaiapuni Hawaiʻi with a teacher workforce
uniquely qualified to teach in the Hawaiian language through a strong Hawaiian
cultural foundation. Advancing the distinctiveness of cultural and professional
learning aspired to within Indigenous teacher preparation has necessitated main-
taining a vigilant stand advocating for the recognition and valuing of Hawaiian
cultural proficiencies as an essential component within Hawaiʻi’s teaching profes-
sion. Elevating the value and integrity of the Hawaiian culture within Hawaiʻi’s
educational foundation requires a proactive stance of diligence and activism that is
strategically focused on continuing to make systemic changes as it remains
responsive to P-12 kula kaiaʻo¯lelo-kaiapuni Hawaiʻi.
Advocacy work spearheaded by Kahuawaiola ITEP faculty has resulted in sig-
nificant recent breakthroughs which address teacher preparation issues for kula
kaiaʻo¯lelo-kaiapuni Hawaiʻi. These include the revision of kaiaʻo¯lelo-kaiapuni
Hawaiʻi licensing standards, approval of a Hawaiian language proficiency assess-
ment, and modification of program accreditation mandates. Working in conjunc-
tion with the Hawaiʻi Teacher Standards Board (2015) (HTSB), a focus work
group of Hawaiian educators convened to review licensure fields and the
Kaiaʻo¯lelo-Kaiapuni Hawaiʻi and Hawaiian Knowledge licenses were revised to
embody these four areas:
1. ʻIke ʻIa Ka La¯hui O Ke Kanaka Ma Ka¯na ʻO¯ lelo: Knowledge of Hawaiian
Language and Culture
2. ʻO Hawaiʻi Ke Kahua o Ka Naʻauao: Hawaiian Pedagogical Knowledge and
Skills
3. He Manomano A Lehulehu Ka ʻIkena A Ka Hawaiʻi: Academic Content
Knowledge
4. Hana A Mikioi Lawe A ʻAuliʻi: Hawaiian Cultural and Professional
Dispositions.
In conjunction with HTSB’s approval of the newly revised standards was support
for a Hawaiian language assessment requirement for these license fields (Hawai‘i
Teacher Standards Board, 2015). This was an important step in recognizing the need
to ensure a high level of Hawaiian language proficiency among kumu in kula
kaiaʻo¯lelo-kaiapuni. The assessment, as developed and administered by Ka Haka
144 M. Alencastre and K. Kawaiʻaeʻa
ʻUla o Keʻeliko¯lani Hawaiian Language College, includes five areas of language profi-
ciency: (1) reading comprehension; (2) listening comprehension; (3) translation into
Hawaiian from English including the use of standard orthography in adapting older
Hawaiian language materials; (4) composition; and (5) oral language skills.
Lastly, the HTSB also fully approved Kahuawaiola ITEP’s request to modify its
national accreditation policy to allow Indigenous education preparation programs in
Hawaiʻi to be reviewed through a distinctive process that honours and supports the
Hawaiian language and culture. Engaging the expertize of the World Indigenous
Nations Higher Education Consortium (http://winhec.org/) a new teacher education
program accreditation handbook has been approved and will be the framework for
Kahuawaiola ITEP’s accreditation by a joint team of WINHEC and HTSB reviewers.
These steps are representative of the advocacy and systemic changes within the jour-
ney that Hawaiian language educators take to forge the pathway forward.
He Panina: Closing Reflections
Over the last 30 years kula kaiaʻo¯lelo-kaiapuni schools have made the largest con-
tribution towards the revitalization of ʻo¯lelo Hawaiʻi (Hawaiian language). From
under 50 native speaking children in 1983 to over 3,000 students currently
enrolled in pre-high schools (P-12), the recovery of ʻo¯ativ Hawaiʻi is an educa-
tional movement that restrengthens the place of ʻo¯lelo Hawaiʻi back into the
family and community (Hale Kuamoʻo, 2016; Kawaiʻaeʻa et al., 2007).
At the core of ʻo¯lelo Hawaiʻi growth and sustainability into the future is the
preparation and development of its kumu, proficient and articulate speakers of
ʻo¯lelo Hawaiʻi. It is kumu who have the passion for the profession and recognize
the kuleana (privilege and responsibility) and a role as keepers of the language
and culture and as educational professionals, family and community partners.
For Kahuawaiola, its origins reflect a Hawaiian family-based approach embodied
in an ‘ancient is modern’ praxis, pedagogy and educational philosophy. Evidenced
through its historic student enrolment, Kahuawaiola has experienced a consistent trend
of graduates, parents or ʻohana members of kula kaiaʻo¯lelo-kaiapuni students and a
growing number of students who have been touched by the power of ʻo¯lelo Hawaiʻi
in their lives. They hold in common a desire to uphold the brilliance of Hawaiian wis-
dom with a commitment to prepare the next generation for life success secured in their
sense of Hawaiian identity, belonging and well-being. These students who become
kumu are the ‘foundation’, the source for continued advancement of quality Hawaiian
education and renormalization of ʻo¯lelo Hawaiʻi for future generations.
PAPA HUAʻO¯ LELO HAWAIʻI/HAWAIIAN GLOSSARY
aʻo To teach, to learn
aʻoa¯kumu Student teacher, practicing teacher
honua Land, world
10 Distinctive Pathways of Preparing Hawaiian Language Medium-Immersion Educators 145
kahiku¯ To rise higher, of the sun, to a stage between kahikole
and kau i ka lolo (noon)
kahikole
The stage of the sun rising as the red glow of dawn
Kahuawaiola fades
kaulolo The name of the Indigenous Teacher Education Program
Ke Kumu Honua at Ka Haka ʻUla O Keʻeliko¯lani College of Hawaiian
Mauli Ola Language
k¯ıpuka
kula Noontime
kula kaiaʻo¯lelo- A Hawaiian educational philosophy
kaiapuni Hawaiʻi
kula mauli ola Hawaiʻi Opening, clear place, oasis
kuleana School
kumu Hawaiian language medium-immersion school
mauli
mauli ola Hawaiian cultural identity schools
Moenaha¯ Right, privilege, concern, responsibility
Teacher, tree, foundation, source
piko Life force, seat of life, well-being
Breath of life, healing life force
wanaʻao The name of a Hawaiian culture-based curriculum
ʻAha Pu¯nana Leo
(ʻAPL) design and instruction method
ʻiewe Umbilical cord, crown of the head, the reproductive area
ʻike of the body
Dawn, first light of day
ʻohana Hawaiian language medium preschools; lit, language
ʻo¯lelo Hawaiʻi
nest organization
Placenta, the first environment where the child is
nourished
To see, know, recognize, perceive, experience, be aware
of, understand
Family, relative, kin group
Hawaiian language
References
ʻAha Pu¯nana Leo (2016). Pu¯nana Leo Preschools. Retrieved from http://www.ahapunanaleo.org/
index.php?/programs/youth_programs_-_punana_leo/.
ʻAha Pu¯nana Leo & Ka Haka ‘Ula O Ke’eliko¯lani (2009). Ke Kumu Honua Mauli Ola: He
ka¯laimanaʻo hoʻonaʻauao ʻo¯iwi Hawaiʻi. A Native Hawaiian philosophy statement. Retrieved
from http://www.ahapunanaleo.org/index.php?/about/kumu_honua_mauli_ola/.
Alencastre, M. (Ed.) (2008). E lei i ke aloha o ka ʻo¯lelo, puke aukahi. Honolulu: Hawaiʻi
Department of Education Papahana Kaiapuni Hawaiʻi.
Alencastre, M. (2015). E hoʻoulu ʻia na¯ kumu mauli ola Hawaiʻi preparing Hawaiian cultural
identity teachers (Doctoral dissertation). University of Hawaiʻi at Ma¯noa, HI.
146 M. Alencastre and K. Kawaiʻaeʻa
Balto, A., & Hirvonen, V. (2008). Sámi self-determination in the field of education. Gáldu Cála/
Journal of Indigenous Peoples Rights, 2(2008). Retrieved from http://www.sh.se/p3/ext/res.
nsf/vRes/kalendarium_1409829617857_galdu_balto_hirvonen_2008_pdf/$File/Galdu_Balto_
Hirvonen_2008.pdf.
Beaulieu, D. & Figueira, A. (Eds.) (2006). The power of native teachers: language and culture
in the classroom. Tempe: The Center for Indian Education, Arizona State University.
Beaulieu, D., Figueira, A., & Viri, D. (2005, April). Indigenous teacher education: research-
based model. Paper present at the American Educational Research Association (AERA)
Annual Meeting. Monteral, Canada.
Demmert, W. G., & Towner, J. C. (2003). A review of the research literature on the influences of
culturally based education on the academic performance of native Americans students.
Retrieved from http://educationnorthwest.org/resources/review-research-literature-influences-
culturally-based-education-academic-performance.
Hale Kuamoʻo. (2016). Na¯ kula kaiapuni Hawaiʻi 2016-2017. Enrollment Count, University of
Hawaiʻi-Hilo, Hilo, HI.
Hawaiʻi Department of Education (2015a). Public and charter school enrollments remain
steady at 180,000 students statewide. Retrieved from http://www.hawaiipublicschools.org/
ConnectWithUs/MediaRoom/PressReleases/Pages/DOEEnrollment.aspx.
Hawaiʻi Department of Education (2015b). The foundational & administrative framework for
kaiapuni education Hawaiian language immersion program. Retrieved from Hawaiʻi
Department of Education website http://www.hawaiipublicschools.org/TeachingAndLearning/
StudentLearning/HawaiianEducation/Pages/FAFKE.aspx.
Hawaiʻi Department of Education (2016). Kaiapuni schools - Hawaiian language immersion.
Retrieved from http://www.hawaiipublicschools.org/TeachingAndLearning/StudentLearning/
HawaiianEducation/Pages/translation.aspx.
Hawai’i State Legislature, (3/19/86). Revised Statues, Section 298-2.
Hawaiʻi Teacher Standards Board (2015). HTSB Program standards teaching field on license:
Kaiaʻo¯lelo-Kaiapuni Hawaiʻi. Retrieved from http://www.htsb.org/standards/content-area-
standards.
Ha¯wera, N., Ho¯hepa, M., Tamatea, K., & Heaton, S. (2014). Te puni rumaki: strengthening the
preparation, capability, and retention of Ma¯ori medium teacher trainees. Report for the
Ministry of Education. Hamilton: Wilf Malcolm Institute of Educational Research, University
of Waikato.
Kahuawaiola Indigenous Teacher Education Program (2016). Retrieved from olelo.hawaii.edu/
kwo.
Kawaiʻaeʻa, K. (2008). “Hoʻi hou i ke kumu!” Teachers as nation builders. Indigenous educa-
tional model for contemporary practice: in our mother’s voice, II (pp. 41–48). New York:
Routledge/Taylor and Francis Group.
Kawaiʻaeʻa, K. (2010). Moenaha¯: a cultural-based curriculum design and instructional method.
[Unpublished training manual]. Hilo, Hawai'i.
Kawai’ae’a, K. (2012). A study on the cultural ecology of Hawaiian-medium and Hawaiian
immersion learning environments (Doctoral dissertation). Union Institute and University,
Cincinnati, OH.
Kawaiʻaeʻa, K., Housman, A., & Alencastre, M. (2007). Pu¯ʻa¯ i ka ʻo¯lelo, ola ka ʻohana: Three
generations of Hawaiian language revitalization. Hu¯lili: Multidisciplinary Research on
Hawaiian Well-Being, 4(1), 183–237. Retrieved from http://www.ksbe.edu/spi/hulili/vol_4/.
Kawaiʻaeʻa ma¯, K. (2016). Na¯ honua mauli ola: Hawaiian cultural pathways for healthy and
responsive learning environments. In L. Kinoshita (Ed.), Na¯ Honua Mauli Ola. Retrieved
from http://www.olelo.hawaii.edu/olelo/nhmo.php.
Ledward, B., & Takayama, B. (2008). Hoʻopilina Kumu: culture-based education among Hawaiʻi
teachers. Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools, Research & Evaluation Division. Retrieved from
http://www.ksbe.edu/_assets/spi/pdfs/reports/k-12/hoopilina_kumu_200802.pdf.
10 Distinctive Pathways of Preparing Hawaiian Language Medium-Immersion Educators 147
Lee, J. (2002). Akonga Maori: a framework of study of Maori secondary school teachers and
teacher education. Action in Teacher Education, 24(2), 64–74.
Silva, K., Alencastre, M., Kawaiʻaeʻa, K., & Housman, A. (2008). Generating a sustainable
legacy: teaching founded upon the Kumu Honua Mauli Ola. In M. K. P. Ah Nee-Benham
(Ed.), Indigenous educational models for contemporary practice: in our mother’s voice, II
(pp. 29–40). New York: Routledge/Taylor and Francis Group.
Ta¯kao, N. (2010). Te piko o te ma¯huri, the key attributes of successful kura kaupapa Ma¯ori.
Wellington: New Zealand Ministry of Education.
Wilson, W. & Kamana¯, K. (2006). “For the interest of the Hawaiians themselves”: reclaiming
the benefits of Hawaiian medium education. Hu¯lili: Multidisciplinary Research on Hawaiian
Well-Being, 3(1), 153–181. Retrieved from http://www.ulukau.org/elib/collect/hulili06/index/
assoc/D0.dir/doc152.pdf.
Wilson, W. H., & Kawaiʻaeʻa, K. (2007). I kumu; i la¯la¯: “let there be sources; let there be
branches”: teacher education in the college of Hawaiian language. [Special Issue]. Journal of
American Indian Education, 46(3), 38–55.
Huarahi Ma¯ori: Two Decades of Indigenous
Teacher Education at the University of
Auckland
Georgina Stewart, Tony Trinick and He¯mi Dale
Introduction
He Kupu Maioha1
E tangi ana, e mihi ana ki a koutou te tokomaha i para, i whakawa¯tea hoki i te ara mo¯ te
reo me nga¯ tikanga i roto i te whare wa¯nanga. Ko koutou nga¯ poutokomanawa, nga¯ wha-
karuruhau hoki mo¯ te ho¯taka o te Huarahi Ma¯ori, otira¯ nga¯ pouwhirinaki mo¯ nga¯ pouako
me nga¯ tauira i roto i nga¯ tau. Nga¯ ka¯kano i whakato¯ngia e koutou, kua pihi, kua tupu,
kua pua¯wai. E kore rawa koutou e warewaretia, heoi ka tiaho iho mo¯ ake tonu atu.
Te Huarahi Ma¯ori is a specialisation of the Bachelor of Education (Teaching)
initial teacher education (ITE) degree programme, taught in the Faculty of
Education and Social Work of the largest, most highly ranked research university
in Aotearoa New Zealand: the University of Auckland. Te Huarahi Ma¯ori is the
only Education degree taught within one School in the Faculty, namely Te Puna
Wa¯nanga—School of Ma¯ori Education. It is also unique as the only degree in the
university delivered in the medium of te reo Ma¯ori. Te Huarahi Ma¯ori is the most
versatile teaching degree the Faculty offers: graduates are qualified to work in
Ma¯ori-medium, bilingual and English-medium primary classrooms, or as second-
ary school teachers of te reo Ma¯ori as a subject. Many graduates also find
1Words of memorial: This paragraph is a traditional acknowledgement of the ancestors, and in
particular those who have passed on, who guided and supported the journey of Huarahi Ma¯ori
presented in this chapter.
G. Stewart (✉)
Te Kura Ma¯tauranga School of Education, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland,
New Zealand
e-mail: [email protected]
T. Trinick · H. Dale
Te Puna Wa¯nanga, Faculty of Education and Social Work, University of Auckland, Auckland,
New Zealand
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018 149
P. Whitinui (eds.), Promising Practices in Indigenous Teacher Education,
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-6400-5_11
150 G. Stewart et al.
employment in early childhood or in other sectors beyond teaching, such as Ma¯ori
media. This chapter tells the story of the Huarahi Ma¯ori programme from an insi-
der, Kaupapa Ma¯ori research perspective (Smith, 2012), highlighting the key prin-
ciple of tino rangatiratanga (self-determination, autonomy) in its development,
and the critical role of ITE in wider projects of equity and social justice for
Ma¯ori in education (Airini, 2013). Previous accounts of Ma¯ori-medium ITE pro-
grammes include a paper on the development of the Poumanawa Ma¯tauranga
Whakaakoranga programme by Te Wa¯nanga o Raukawa (Tu¯noho, 2001), and
another paper about the development of Te Korowai A¯ konga by Te Wa¯nanga o
Aotearoa (Jenkins, 2009). These are two of the three Wa¯nanga (the third is Te
Wa¯nanga o Awanuia¯rangi) that have been established in recent decades as Ma¯ori
tertiary institutions in the diversifying tertiary sector. Ma¯ori-medium ITE is one
area of strong competition between the Wa¯nanga and traditional universities
including University of Auckland. Both of the accounts mentioned above noted
difficulties the Wa¯nanga experienced with teaching ITE programmes that belonged
to external institutions, which eventually galvanised them to develop their own
unique programmes to meet their goals in relation to tino rangatiratanga.
The Huarahi Ma¯ori Journey
The development of the Huarahi Ma¯ori programme in the mid-1990s was located
in broader, macro-level, Ma¯ori language revitalisation efforts, as part of a response
by Ma¯ori educators to acute teacher shortages in the burgeoning Ma¯ori-medium
schooling sector. Throughout its history, Te Huarahi Ma¯ori has been affected by
most of the challenges that face the Ma¯ori-medium schooling sector, such as often
being positioned as subordinate to English-medium education needs.
Historical Context for the Emergence of Te Huarahi Ma¯ori
Initially, teacher education institutions were somewhat ambivalent about the
explosive growth in Ma¯ori-medium schooling, but by the late 1990s, institutions
were being compelled to respond to direct challenges from the schooling sector. It
is within the framework of these challenges that the antecedents of Te Huarahi
Ma¯ori are found. This section describes the programme and its history, from its
origins in the Auckland College of Education (ACE) in the 1990s, to the merger2
between ACE and the University of Auckland in 2004, through to the contempor-
ary political milieu in which Te Huarahi Ma¯ori continues to evolve.
2It could be said the use of ‘merger’ here is inaccurate, even misleading, but it was the term
widely used throughout the process, so for that reason is used in this chapter.
11 Huarahi Ma¯ori … 151
An early type of response to the crisis of te reo Ma¯ori teacher supply by provi-
ders of ITE were programmes such as Te Atakura (1987–1992), which fast-
tracked native speakers of Ma¯ori into a teaching qualification (Shaw, 2006). But
these programmes focused on meeting the demand for secondary teachers of te
reo Ma¯ori, and did not address the shortage of Ma¯ori-medium teachers being
caused by the rapid growth of Ma¯ori-medium schooling in the late 1980s and early
1990s. A different response was required in terms of training teachers who were
competent to work in these radically new schools (Ho¯hepa, Hawera, Tamatea, &
Heaton, 2014).
Eventually, ACE responded with a bilingual education pathway named
Kahukura, which was developed in the Diploma of Teaching in the early 1990s to
begin to address the need for competent Ma¯ori-medium teachers. While based on
good intentions, this programme followed similar patterns to those of taha Ma¯ori
(i.e. cultural appropriate activities) programmes in schools, whereby Ma¯ori culture
was acknowledged and even given some emphasis, but te reo Ma¯ori proficiency
was not a focus. Therefore, Kahukura did not meet the linguistic and cultural
needs of the Ma¯ori-medium schools (Smith, 1986). Meanwhile, bilingual school-
ing in Aotearoa New Zealand became equated with lower levels of immersion
(May & Hill, 2005) and tokenistic attempts to revitalise the Ma¯ori language
(McMurchy-Pilkington, 2004).
In 1990, ACE began hosting a ‘pilot project, funded by the Ministry of
Education’ for training KKM teachers, which was the ‘first programme of its kind
in the country’ (Shaw, 2006, p. 212), led by Tuakana (Tuki) Nepe (1991), a strong
advocate of reo Ma¯ori and tino rangatiratanga. The excitement of the times echoes
in the following note of its rapid growth: ‘As the number of kura kaupapa
increased, so did the demand for teachers, and numbers rose from ten trainees in
1990 to seventy-five by 1993’ (Shaw, 2006, p. 212). The initial excitement was
tempered by the requirements and constraints of being located within a larger
institution. The tensions and issues are not highlighted in Louise Shaw’s book on
the history of ACE, but the tino rangatiratanga goals of its advocates are clear:
By the mid-1990s, the kura kaupapa [teacher training programme] indicated that it wanted
to become fully independent, and with the support of the college it eventually broke away
to become a private training programme in 1999. (Shaw, 2006, p. 212)
This move away from the institutional umbrella of ACE established Te
Wa¯nanga Takiura o nga¯ Kura Kaupapa Ma¯ori o Aotearoa (www.twt.ac.nz) as an
independent ITE provider. The departure left a void at ACE in terms of Ma¯ori-
medium ITE, and provided an opportunity to establish Te Huarahi Ma¯ori, with the
benefit of lessons learned from the experience and history of the previous pro-
grammes. While the relationship between ACE and the pilot KKM teacher training
programme was often fraught with tension, it created a space for Ma¯ori-medium
education in the larger mainstream institution. That history undoubtedly impacted
on how ACE sought to accommodate Te Huarahi Ma¯ori, and provided a caution-
ary example for the Ma¯ori staff who later took on the mantle of Ma¯ori-medium
ITE within ACE.
152 G. Stewart et al.
Early Days for Te Huarahi Ma¯ori
The excitement and expectation placed on the new programme is clearly seen in
the following extract from the ACE magazine Te Kuaka (March 1996 issue,
pp. 6–7), featuring quotes from staff involved in establishing Huarahi Ma¯ori.3
Colleen McMurchy-Pilkington, Lecturer in the Centre for Education at the Auckland
College of Education, assisted with the development of Huarahi Ma¯ori, which she sees as
a momentous step forward in teacher education. We began this interview by asking her
what she found so special about this pathway to teaching.
Colleen: To me the most wonderful thing about this pathway to teaching—and I’ve got to
say it did bring tears to my eyes—was what was said both by the Chairman of the NZQA
panel and also one of the Ma¯ori representatives on the panel. What they said was that it’s
now possible to enter an institution as a Ma¯ori and leave as a Ma¯ori. That’s such a big
step forward because in the past, when entering an educational institution one usually had
to leave one’s Ma¯oriness behind. But our students taking the Huarahi Ma¯ori path will do
so as Ma¯ori and will graduate as Ma¯ori too (p. 6).
What will be the teaching opportunities for graduates from this degree pathway?
We feel with this programme our graduates will be really special people. It’s our big hope
that they will be the future leaders in the field of Ma¯ori education. Our graduates will
leave Auckland College of Education with a strong working knowledge of the national
Ma¯ori curriculum documents, and will be much in demand by schools and the commu-
nity. But added to that, our students will also be able to choose to work in mainstream
classrooms too. In their studies they will be meeting similar learning outcomes as students
choosing the other pathways. This means our students will have a tremendous range of
choices. They’ll be able to teach in conventional mainstream schools as well as in Kura
Kaupapa or a total immersion class (p. 6).
Pem Bird is Dean of Te Puna Wa¯nanga. We began this interview by asking him to com-
ment on the degree and especially the Ma¯ori pathway—Huarahi Ma¯ori.
Pem: This is a unique degree in a number of respects. It’s the first time a College of
Education has devised and designed its own teaching degree. It’s also the only teaching
degree in the country that offers a Ma¯ori pathway to teaching. This is really special. It
provides an authentic option for people who want to specialise in Ma¯ori and have the
option of being able to work in immersion schools and settings and bi-lingual schools and
units as well as mainstream classrooms. We are focusing primarily on children who have
been educated in [Te] Ko¯hanga reo and who wish to continue with their education
through the Ma¯ori language. We recognise there is a need out there for this particular area
of teaching and in a systematic and deliberate way we’ve set out to meet this need. That
is not only unique—it’s also exciting and challenging (p. 6).
What do you think will be special about the students who graduate through the Huarahi
Ma¯ori pathway?
We want them to be at home, both in the traditional world of things Ma¯ori and the con-
temporary world too. Our teachers graduating through the Huarahi Ma¯ori pathway must
3Extracted and reproduced with permission from Te Kuaka magazine, published by the Faculty
of Education and Social Work, University of Auckland (see www.education.auckland.ac.nz/en/
about/news/tekuaka.html).
11 Huarahi Ma¯ori … 153
be able to operate in the world of Aotearoa first and foremost, but they must also have the
confidence and the skill to work in a diverse range of contexts. That’s the challenge facing
us and one we aim to meet. Our graduates from Huarahi Ma¯ori will not only have the
knowledge and experience, but also the credibility and the mana to apply for a job in any
type of school in the country, whether it be immersion Ma¯ori or immersion English.
We’re talking about a graduate teacher with maximum versatility. In other words, this
degree will open all doors for our graduates. I mentioned two models—Ma¯ori immersion
and English immersion. They will be able to apply with confidence for teaching positions
at Mt Eden Normal Primary School, or Te Kura Kaupapa Ma¯ori o Hoani Waititi Marae.
All options are open. (Auckland College of Education, 1996, p. 7)
Nga¯ pakeke hei poutokomanawa: The Support of Elders
Huarahi Ma¯ori staff and students have been very fortunate in having a number of
pakeke (elders) who have contributed in various ways to the programme over the
years. They have generously offered the benefit of their wisdom to the staff and
students, often mediating between competing interests in very challenging times.
To name individuals carries the inevitable risk that other important contributors
could be left out—and for that we humbly apologise in advance.
The programme was mentored by a number of native speakers and educational-
ists, initially Sonny and Mona Riini and Te Ao Biddle, all from Tu¯hoe, and later,
Kepa Stirling and Tuteira Te Wano (Blackie) Pohatu from Nga¯ti Porou. Because of
their lived experience in te ao Ma¯ori, these pakeke have been critical in the kau-
papa Ma¯ori aspect of the development of the Huarahi Ma¯ori programme. The
legacy of these pakeke lives on in the graduates of the programme. Tribute also
goes to Wallace Wihongi who generously gave of his time and knowledge for the
establishment of the programme in Te Taitokerau. As time passes, Huarahi Ma¯ori
staff members are being asked to take on roles traditionally filled by elders: a chal-
lenge faced by Ma¯ori not only in Huarahi Ma¯ori but also throughout Ma¯ori society.
Delivering the Programme at Other Sites
In its early years, the Huarahi Ma¯ori programme leaders were approached by leaders
of Ma¯ori-medium education in Rotorua, with a request to implement ITE there, to
meet the needs of the strong local Kura Kaupapa Ma¯ori schools and communities.
The programme ran in Rotorua for two cohorts, or 6 years in total, 1998–2004,
teaching one cohort at a time. Huarahi Ma¯ori lecturers travelled from Auckland for
2-day teaching blocks. Key elements of the programme such as te reo and Te Aho
Matua4 were covered by the programme manager in Rotorua and local experts.
4Te Aho Matua is the definitive statement in Ma¯ori of the philosophy underpinning
Kura Kaupapa Ma¯ori, distilled from traditional Ma¯ori texts (see www.educationcounts.govt.nz/
publications/91416/105966/79522/he-pitihanga-te-aho-matua).
154 G. Stewart et al.
In response to requests from the community, the Huarahi Ma¯ori programme
was also extended to educate teachers in the region of Te Taitokerau Northland.
Initially, Huarahi Ma¯ori was taught in the town of Kaikohe from 2003 to 2005
under the leadership of Wallace Wihongi and Heather Peters. Since 2008, a sec-
ond cohort of Huarahi Ma¯ori students has been taught at the university’s Tai
Tokerau campus in central Whangarei.5
From College to University: Weathering Storms of Institutional
Change
Prior to 1990, ITE in Aotearoa New Zealand was provided by autonomous
Colleges of Education, which were state-owned institutions of higher learning. As
part of the wide-ranging reforms of education in the 1980s and in conjunction
with the emerging global crisis in the university sector, a series of mergers took
place around the country that brought teacher education fully into the disciplinary
structures of the university (see Table 1 below). The original four Colleges of
Education that dated back to the late 19th-century converted in 2004–2007, while
the two post-WWII colleges had already merged in the 1990s.
On 1 September 2004, Auckland College of Education merged with the
University of Auckland (Shaw, 2006), which was an historic change for the host
institution of Te Huarahi Ma¯ori, and Te Puna Wa¯nanga became a School in the
new Faculty of Education. Table 1 shows this change at Auckland as part of a
national process, which was inevitable and, as noted above, part of global changes
in university structures during the last decades of the 20th century (Furlong,
2013).
In each case, for each former college of education, the amalgamation inevitably
meant years and sometimes decades-long periods of transition and uncertainty.
Staff who had risen highly in the colleges, with programme and management
Table 1 Mergers of colleges of education with universities in Aotearoa NZ
Original teacher’s college Established Merged with Merged
Hamilton teachers college 1960 Waikato university 1991
Palmerston north teachers college 1956 Massey university 1996
Auckland college of education 1881 University of Auckland 2004
Wellington college of education 1881 Victoria university of Wellington 2005
Christchurch college of education 1873 University of Canterbury 2007
Dunedin college of education 1877 University of Otago 2007
5The Tai Tokerau Campus was established by ACE in 1992 and led by Heather Peters for two
decades until 2012.
11 Huarahi Ma¯ori … 155
expertise, now became at risk, primarily because of changes in performance
criteria, particularly related to doctoral degrees and research publication records.
Traumatic rounds of re-structuring often ensued.
Anecdotal evidence from Ma¯ori colleagues at other former colleges of educa-
tion reinforces the importance of the school status of Te Puna Wa¯nanga. At some
other institutions, the merger process had left programmes of Ma¯ori-medium ITE
struggling. Colleagues described how their school had disappeared, submerged
within the new structure, leaving them on a slippery slope to oblivion, from which
some have not recovered.
The School Status and Autonomy for Te Huarahi Ma¯ori
Te Huarahi Ma¯ori was protected from some of the effects of these changes by vir-
tue of the programme being delivered entirely within Te Puna Wa¯nanga, as noted
above. Already having a strong position within ACE, Te Puna Wa¯nanga became
one of the original schools in the faculty, and remains so today. The importance of
the institutional autonomy provided by the school status cannot be overstated. Te
Puna Wa¯nanga has always strived to be represented at the ‘top table’ (i.e. the high-
est level possible within the institution). In the ACE structure, this was reflected in
the position of Dean of Te Puna Wa¯nanga, which sat at the level directly below
the Principal. This appointment was key for Te Huarahi Ma¯ori: it increased the
programme’s visibility at management level within the institution, and helped to
ensure appropriate funding was made available.
From 2009, the position of Director of Ma¯ori Medium Teacher Education was
introduced as a Faculty role of equivalent status to Director of English Medium
Teacher Education, in recognition that Te Puna Wa¯nanga manages a whole pro-
gramme that carries a similar set of responsibilities and functions (recruitment,
marketing, programme functions), though on a smaller scale. Te Puna Wa¯nanga
differs from the other schools of the faculty in terms of the scope of its operations,
which are wider, though focused on Ma¯ori education. Under ever-decreasing bud-
gets, the autonomy of the programme and school has been important in resisting
changes that could compromise the programme: weathering the turbulence of the
reshaping tertiary sector in the age of global neoliberalism.
Autonomy can take different guises and be considered at different levels. For
example, the Wa¯nanga model for Ma¯ori tertiary institutions is based on the
imperative of autonomy, under the politics of tino rangatiratanga underpinned by
kaupapa Ma¯ori philosophy, but the Wa¯nanga as institutions are still constrained
by state funding imperatives. The Huarahi Ma¯ori programme illustrates another
form of delimited institutional autonomy, which has been an important part of its
goals from the beginning, and remains so today.
The next section describes the Huarahi Ma¯ori programme in more detail,
including theoretical foundations, programme design, language development and
its overall achievements.
156 G. Stewart et al.
Te Huarahi Ma¯ori: Pathways to the Future
The Huarahi Ma¯ori programme aims to produce teachers who can actively engage
in te ao Ma¯ori (the Ma¯ori world) in terms of language, knowledge, commitment,
pedagogy, understanding of tikanga (cultural customs), and how tikanga plays out
in a range of contexts. While this is a considerable challenge in the constantly
changing social and educational context, it is no less than the Ma¯ori community
deserves. This philosophy is reflected in the content and operations of Huarahi
Ma¯ori by not aligning to any one Ma¯ori philosophy, iwi or educational brand. The
importance of this principle can be seen by contrasting it with other models of
Ma¯ori-medium ITE that have been used around the country. For example, Te
Wa¯nanga o Raukawa (a Ma¯ori tertiary institution) established its Ma¯ori-medium
ITE programme in 1990 initially by working with Wellington College of
Education (Tu¯noho, 2001). Te Wa¯nanga o Raukawa is aligned with the ‘confed-
eration of three iwi (tribes) it primarily, though not exclusively serves, namely: Te
A¯ tiawa, Nga¯ti Raukawa and Nga¯ti Toa’ (Tu¯noho, 2001, p. 52). Another example
is the private tertiary institution Te Wa¯nanga Takiura o nga¯ Kura Kaupapa Ma¯ori
o Aotearoa, which aligns with the Te Aho Matua ‘brand’ (a philosophical founda-
tion of one type of Ma¯ori-medium schools) where the needs of the Kura Kaupapa
Ma¯ori community are given priority. Te Huarahi Ma¯ori works with all of these
institutions in their respective communities, recognising that there is much to be
learned from them.
The goals for the programme have always been all-encompassing, focused not
only on ITE, but also on actively developing the pool of potential applicants for
Maori-medium ITE through a bridging course centred on building te reo Ma¯ori
language proficiency, and on maintaining relationships of support with graduate
teachers in the schools. This strategy ensures the programme and its staff remain
current in terms of the needs and aspirations of Ma¯ori-medium schooling commu-
nities. The location of management, since 2013, of Ma¯ori-medium professional
learning and development (PLD) within Te Puna Wa¯nanga aligns with this holistic
strategy to develop the capability to respond to the community it serves (Fig. 1).
The complex nature of schooling means engaging with a wide range of key sta-
keholder groups, including Ministry of Education initiatives, the Education Council,
and other ITE institutions, especially the three Wa¯nanga (Raukawa, Aotearoa and
Awanui-a-Rangi), in the role of monitors for their Ma¯ori ITE programmes. But this
Ma¯ori sector engagement and leadership work is not highly valued in terms of uni-
versity criteria, which impacts on the career trajectories of the Ma¯ori staff.
Theoretical Foundations of the Programme
The Huarahi Ma¯ori programme is underpinned by the Ma¯ori-centric philosophy
expressed in Kaupapa Ma¯ori theory, which ‘takes for granted the legitimacy’ of
things Ma¯ori (Graham Smith, cited in Smith, 2012, p. 185). The use of the term
11 Huarahi Ma¯ori … 157
Fig. 1 Using the marae in the Huarahi Ma¯ori programme: exterior and interior (Photographer:
C. Berry. Used with permission)
‘Ma¯ori-centric’ makes clear that the programme does not claim or aspire to be
‘Ma¯ori-only’ necessarily, in that the programme is part of a larger ITE degree
from the country’s largest and top-ranking university. It is a pragmatic philosophy,
which allows for the use of the institutional structures to its own advantage as far
as possible.
158 G. Stewart et al.
A second principle of Kaupapa Ma¯ori is tino rangatiratanga, which is concerned
with ‘the struggle for autonomy over our own cultural well-being’ (Graham Smith,
cited in Smith, 2012, p. 185). Thus, the philosophy of Te Huarahi Ma¯ori is also a
politically critical one, which recognises the effects of a history of colonisation on
Ma¯ori people, language and culture, and the role of schools in disrupting the social
and intellectual heritage that is the birthright of every Ma¯ori child. The Huarahi
Ma¯ori programme is an important way in which the University of Auckland fulfils
its commitment to equity for Ma¯ori in university education, and to the Treaty of
Waitangi as the founding document of the nation. Philosophical pragmatism is also
beneficial in negotiating the ongoing tensions that arise by virtue of the clash in
values between Ma¯ori imperatives and those of the contemporary university context.
Programme Design and Curriculum
As noted above, Huarahi Ma¯ori is a version of the English-medium ITE degree
offered in the faculty. It is a 3-year full-time degree programme, comprised of
courses in each curriculum area and in various aspects of professional knowledge,
and includes a practicum or school placement each year, in which the student
practices taking increasing responsibility for classroom planning and management.
Te Huarahi Ma¯ori also includes a series of three unique papers, one taken each
year, which focus on te reo Ma¯ori language development. Curriculum papers in
Huarahi Ma¯ori are based on the Ma¯ori-medium school curriculum, Te Marautanga
o Aotearoa (tmoa.tki.org.nz/Te-Marautanga-o-Aotearoa). Placements are underta-
ken in Ma¯ori-medium kura (schools), and all student assignments are expected to
be written in te reo Ma¯ori.
Support systems provided for Huarahi Ma¯ori students are more extensive than
for the English-medium programme, and include pastoral, academic and language
support. Pastoral and academic support is required in view of the social and educa-
tional disadvantage of the Ma¯ori population from which incoming students are
drawn. Language support tutors assist students with the realities of studying and
completing assignments in an endangered minority language, and the fact that
many of the students are second-language speakers and learners. The philosophy
of pragmatism and the generosity of the host faculty intersect in the support for
adapting into Te Huarahi Ma¯ori useful elements and processes from the Primary
programme. The teacher education expertise and long-standing systems within the
faculty are also available to support the Huarahi Ma¯ori students and programme.
Language Development and Support
From its inception, Te Huarahi Ma¯ori has sought to address the complex chal-
lenges of language revitalisation of te reo Ma¯ori as an endangered Indigenous
language (Dale, McCaffery, & McMurchy-Pilkington, 1997) and the need to
11 Huarahi Ma¯ori … 159
intellectualise the language (Trinick, 2015). Language intellectualisation involves
the development of new linguistic resources for discussing and disseminating con-
ceptual material at high levels of abstraction (Liddicoat & Bryant, 2002).
Language development in Te Huarahi Ma¯ori entails the recognition that all lec-
turers are teachers of the language, and linguistic feedback is accepted as a matter
of course in assignment marking across all papers in the programme. Te Huarahi
Ma¯ori students are encouraged to augment their language learning by undertaking
other language studies while on the programme, such as evening classes or holi-
day programmes of language immersion. The three unique papers on language
development mentioned above focus on the students’ own agency in managing
and driving their growth in oral and written language competence; taking responsi-
bility for personal language development, as part of the commitment to becoming
a Ma¯ori-medium classroom teacher.
Applicants for Te Huarahi Ma¯ori are required to demonstrate an acceptable
starting level of language competency, which is assessed as part of the interview
process. Graduates are expected to demonstrate language competence according to
Ta¯taiReo, an oral and written proficiency framework for Ma¯ori-medium teachers.6
While students enter the programme with a wide range of language competence,
and learn at differing rates, the experience in Te Huarahi Ma¯ori is that for most,
development of language competence and teaching skills occurs simultaneously,
with the processes going hand-in-hand.
Overall Achievements of Te Huarahi Ma¯ori
A major achievement of the programme is as stated in the chapter title: it has been
going for 20 years now, and is still going strong, as the previous sections have
demonstrated. The kaitiaki (guardians) of Te Huarahi Ma¯ori are the changing
cohorts through the years of academic and professional staff who contribute to its
delivery and programme planning, including the co-authors of this chapter, two of
whom are founding staff of the programme. The exciting growth of Ma¯ori-
medium education in the 1990s has settled: the Ma¯ori-medium school roll shows
the sector has been stable in size since 2001.
Figure 2 shows the combined output of Huarahi Ma¯ori graduates from both the
Tamaki (Epsom) and Tai Tokerau (Whangarei) cohorts, noting when the pro-
gramme changed from being located within Auckland College of Education to
University of Auckland (UOA). The number of graduates each year has been
steady since the flat point during the merger (2004–2005), and boosted since 2010
by the additional Tai Tokerau graduates. Because of Te Huarahi Ma¯ori there are
now 304 more Ma¯ori-speaking qualified teachers in schools and the community,
which represents a significant positive contribution to Ma¯ori education and society.
6See details at: educationcouncil.org.nz/content/whakamanahia-te-reo-ma¯ori-project-0.
160 G. Stewart et al.
350 ACE UOA
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
11999989
222000000012
2222222000000000000006974385
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
Fig. 2 Cumulative Te Huarahi Ma¯ori graduate numbers
Conclusion
Equity in the form of tino rangatiratanga, even when relative and constrained
within a larger institutional structure, is critical for the long-term survival of pro-
grammes such as Te Huarahi Ma¯ori. Such programmes consistently challenge the
traditions or ‘norms’ of universities: the way they function, their institutional
structures, and so on. Te reo Ma¯ori is an official national language, so in this sense
must be considered ‘normal’ in language-based spheres such as education, includ-
ing in the university. The history of its decline, in which schooling was deliber-
ately used as a colonising strategy to break inter-generational transmission of
Ma¯ori language and culture, serves as a national imperative, in which ITE has an
undeniable responsibility. These considerations contribute towards the robust theo-
retical and philosophical grounds on which to argue for the ongoing relevance of
Te Huarahi Ma¯ori in the university.
Historical research and scholarship such as this chapter is not only retrospec-
tive, but also holds potential to resource discussions about the future. To theorise
our practice has become an accepted approach in educational research: particularly
relevant when our practice is directed towards a small, marginalised sector, such
as Ma¯ori-medium education. Ongoing improvement of a programme such as Te
Huarahi Ma¯ori is only possible if decisions about the future are informed by criti-
cal insider analysis of the current operating conditions. Accordingly, this chapter
represents a form of political work on behalf of the Huarahi Ma¯ori wha¯nau: those
Ma¯ori people past, present and future, whose lives are touched by this longstand-
ing programme of indigenous Ma¯ori teacher education.
11 Huarahi Ma¯ori … 161
Glossary
Kaupapa Ma¯ori Ma¯ori philosophy, approach, or political cause
Kura Kaupapa Ma¯ori-medium elementary schools
Ma¯ori
Pakeke Elder
Taha Ma¯ori Ma¯ori aspect
Te ao Ma¯ori The Ma¯ori world
Te Huarahi Ma¯ori Ma¯ori-medium initial teacher education degree
Te Ko¯hanga Reo programme
Te Puna Wa¯nanga Ma¯ori-medium early childhood language nests
Te reo Ma¯ori School of Ma¯ori Education at the University of Auckland
Tino rangatiratanga The Ma¯ori language
Wa¯nanga Autonomy, self-determination
Wha¯nau Kaupapa Ma¯ori tertiary institution
Extended family, school community
References
Airini (2013). Towards equity through teacher education. Waikato Journal of Education, 18(1),
(53–66).
Auckland College of Education (1996, March). Our new degree - Huarahi Ma¯ori. Te Kuaka, 1,
4–6. Faculty of Education and Social Work: University of Auckland, Auckland, New
Zealand.
Dale, H., McCaffery, J., & McMurchy-Pilkington, C. (1997, December). Wetewete i te reo:
Immersion plus one. Presented at New Zealand Association for Research in Education
Conference, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
Furlong, J. (2013). Education - an anatomy of the discipline: Rescuing the university project?
London and New York: Routledge.
Ho¯hepa, M. K., Hawera, N., Tamatea, K., & Heaton, S. (2014). Te Puni Rumaki: Strengthening
the preparation, capability and retention of Ma¯ori medium teacher trainees. Hamilton: Wilf
Malcolm Institute of Educational Research, University of Waikato. Retrieved from https://
www.educationcounts.govt.nz/publications/maori/105966/te-puni-rumaki-strengthening-the-
preparation,-capability-and-retention-of-maori-medium-teachertrainees-2014.
Jenkins, H. G. (2009). Te Korowai A¯ konga: A catalyst for change in teacher education at Te
Wa¯nanga o Aotearoa. MAI Review, 1, 4.
Liddicoat, A. J., & Bryant, P. (2002). Intellectualisation: A current issue in language planning.
Current Issues in Language Planning, 3(1), 1–4. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/
14664200208668033.
May, S., & Hill, R. (2005). Ma¯ori-medium education: Current issues and challenges.
International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 8(5), 377–403.
McMurchy-Pilkington, C. (2004). Pangarau: Ma¯ori medium mathematics curriculum:
Empowerment or a new hegemonic accord? (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Faculty of
Education and Social Work: University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
162 G. Stewart et al.
Nepe, T. (1991). E hao nei e te¯nei reanga: Te toi huarewa tipuna, kaupapa Ma¯ori, an educa-
tional intervention system (Unpublished master’s thesis). Faculty of Education and Social
Work: University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
Shaw, L. (2006). Making a difference: A history of the Auckland College of Education, 1881–
2004. Auckland, New Zealand: Auckland University Press.
Smith, G. H. (1986). Taha Ma¯ori: A Pa¯keha¯ Privilege. Delta, 37, 11–23.
Smith, L. T. (2012). Decolonizing methodologies: Research & Indigenous peoples (2nd ed.).
London/New York & Dunedin: Zed Books & Otago University Press.
Trinick, T. (2015). Te Reo Ta¯tai: The development of a mathematics register for Ma¯ori-Medium
schooling (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Faculty of Education: University of Waikato,
Hamilton, New Zealand.
Tu¯noho, T. R. D. (2001). Te whakatupu pouako: An Indigenous teacher training model. Te
U¯ kaipo¯, 3, 50–56.
Diving into the Language Work:
Preparing Teachers for the Diné Language
Classroom
Velma M. Hale and Louise Lockard
The Diné language is an essential element of the life students and culture and identity of
the Diné people. The Diné Nation recognizes the importance of preserving and perpetuat-
ing that language for the survival of the Nation. Instruction in the Diné language shall be
made available for all grade levels in all schools serving the Diné Nation. (Navajo Nation,
1984)
The Diné Dual Language Teachers Professional Development Project works
with a consortium of tribal and public schools to provide professional develop-
ment and a Master’s degree in Bilingual Multicultural Education (BME) at
Northern Arizona University to classroom teachers with proficiency in the Diné
language. The project seeks to recruit and retain highly qualified and fully certified
bilingual teachers in classrooms of consortium partners, to improve the ability of
project participants to support skills in the Diné language in their students and
to improve the ability of the university teacher education program to prepare pro-
spective teachers of Diné students (Lockard & Hale, 2013).
American Indians and Alaska Natives make up only one percent of the total
U.S. population; however, their languages account for 50 percent of the different
languages spoken in the United States and almost half of the self-reported speakers
of Native American languages are Navajo (McCarty & Nicholas, 2014). Although
many American Indian students enter kindergarten with significantly lower
reading, mathematics and general knowledge achievement scores than their
V.M. Hale (✉) 163
Center for Diné (Bilingual) Teacher Education, Diné College, Tsaile, Arizona, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
L. Lockard
Bilingual/Multicultural Education, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018
P. Whitinui (eds.), Promising Practices in Indigenous Teacher Education,
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-6400-5_12
164 V.M. Hale and L. Lockard
mainstream peers, there is evidence that American Indian students learn best when
they see their culture, language and experience reflected in the curriculum
(Balter & Grossman, 2009; Barnhardt, 2014; Haig-Brown & Dannenmann, 2008;
Kana’iaupuni, Ledward, & Jensen, 2010; Reyhner & Hurtado, 2008; Styres &
Zinga, 2013). Native American children who learn their heritage language in the
classroom in strong language revitalization programs learn English at about the
same rate as their peers who are not enrolled in an Indigenous language immersion
program (Begay et al., 2013; Holm, 2006; May, Hill, & Tiakiwai, 2004; McCarty,
2003; Reyhner, 2006; Rosier & Holm, 1980; Tedick, Christian, & Fortune, 2011;
Wilson & Kamana, 2011).
Building on a Foundation of Success
The current project builds on a foundation of three earlier projects; the Ford
Foundation project, the Annenberg Rural Systemic Initiative and the Title VII
Learn in Beauty Project which worked with consortia of schools on the Navajo
Nation to prepare Navajo teachers. From 1993 to 1997, as a member of a consor-
tium of five institutions of teacher education sponsored by the Ford Foundation,
Northern Arizona University offered courses leading to an undergraduate degree
in Elementary Education to paraprofessionals in Kayenta, Chinle and Tuba City
(Rude & Gorman, 1996). During the Ford Foundation project, a survey of 242
schools on the Navajo Nation was conducted, in which 1,222 Navajo classroom
teachers and 2,474 paraprofessionals responded. The Diné Division of Education
reported three key findings: (1) Navajo language and education courses are a legit-
imate part of a teacher education program; (2) students prefer courses delivered
on-site and (3) local schools need to retain and graduate teacher education candi-
dates (Navajo Nation, 2003). When funding for this consortium was phased out,
Northern Arizona University continued to offer undergraduate courses to cohorts
in these Reservation communities.
The Title III National Professional Development Learn in Beauty project was
initiated in partnership with an Annenberg Rural Challenge Grant from 1998 to
2003. The project was based on the success of the Annenberg Rural Systemic
Initiative that supports teacher leadership, promotes community engagement and
makes place-based learning the foundation of the curriculum. When the Learn in
Beauty professional development project was completed in 2003, 100 Diné class-
room teachers and curriculum specialists had achieved an M.Ed. in BME and a
Bilingual or ESL endorsement (Lockard, 2000; Lockard & deGroat, 2010, 2014;
Lockard, deGroat, & Bedonie, 2003).
Members of the 2011–2016 Diné Dual Language Teachers Professional
Development Project Consortium are: Rock Point Community School, Little
Singer Community School and the Arizona Unified Districts of Chinle, Window
Rock, Kayenta, Tuba City, Ganado, Flagstaff and Pinon. Each member of the
12 Diving into the Language Work … 165
consortium has been identified as seeking to implement the Diné Language and
Culture teaching perspective, a perspective based on the premises that (1) educa-
tion is best when it reflects a sense of place, (2) education should be based on the
philosophy and values of those being educated and (3) preparation of teachers/
mentors should reflect the Diné philosophy of education (Wilson, 2003). At
Northern Arizona University the core BME curriculum is continuously revised
based on the Master’s candidates’ project portfolio. This revision included a focus
on: (1) Knowledge: the program’s foundation courses develop students understand-
ing of the history, including government policies, related to the education of English
Language Learners; (2) Openness to new ideas and cultures: The program empha-
sizes the role of cultural identities in students’ educational success and the need
for candidates to understand their own cultural background and the cultural back-
grounds of their students in order to both empathize with and understand them;
(3) Human Development: The program design emphasizes information about
human development and second language acquisition which supports candidates
in becoming effective at determining what and how to teach particular students
so that the learning becomes useful; (4) Active engagement: The program’s
instructional methods focus on multisensory teaching approaches for candidates
that scaffold students’ linguistic and academic development and build on the
diverse backgrounds those students bring to the classroom and (5) Field-based
experience: The program’s candidates participate in field-based experiences which
engage them in classrooms in diverse settings in cooperation with faculty and
effective practitioners.
Master’s in BME
An initial cohort of 20 students from the consortium districts was identified in
2011. The District Superintendent nominated candidates based on: (1) academic
proficiency: a GPA of 3.0 out of 4.0 and completion of a B.S. or B.A. from an
accredited teacher education program; (2) residency in a nominating school dis-
trict; (3) completion of the Diné Language (NAV 211, 212, 350, 351, 301) or
Diné Culture Content Emphasis at Diné College or the equivalent at an accredited
University; (4) proficiency in the English language as demonstrated by completion
of English 105 or the equivalent with a grade of B and (5) commitment to profes-
sionalism based on participation in college, community and professional
organizations.
The university Project Director works with the Superintendent and the mentor
teachers at each consortium site to identify candidates for the project who meet
the requirements and who demonstrate a commitment to perform work related to
the training received that benefits the dual language program at each participating
site. Applicants submit an essay, which addresses the student’s career goals, life
experiences and personal and family expectations that will enhance the applicant’s
166 V.M. Hale and L. Lockard
career. The Project Director evaluates the student’s transcripts and develops a pro-
gram of studies, which allows the student to participate in cohort classes while ful-
filling academic requirements.
At Northern Arizona University, 10 courses are required for the Master’s
Degree. The College of Education is accredited by the Council for the
Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP) and by the Higher Learning
Commission (HLC) which guarantees high quality preparation of teachers in align-
ment with the Arizona Department of Education approved Interstate Teacher and
Support Consortium (InTASC) Standards. These courses are offered online during
the academic year with two weekend meetings and summer session at the Mountain
Campus in Flagstaff, Arizona. This method of course delivery allows students to
enrol on a part-time basis in coursework while they continue to live and work in
their local communities, which is key to their completion and overall success.
M.Ed. Course Offerings Leading to a Bilingual/ESL
Endorsement
The cohort of Master’s students begins with online courses Foundations of BME
and the Cultural Component of Bilingual and ESL Instruction during the fall
semester. They then enrol in Testing and Evaluation of Language Minority
Students and Foundations of Structured English Immersion during the spring
semester. In July, students enrol in Bilingual and Second Language Methodology
and in the Fall, Multicultural Perspectives of Human Diversity and Introduction to
Research. In the following Spring session, students enrol in their capstone course
and Fieldwork Experience. They return to the Flagstaff campus for Summer
Session for the Linguistics in Educational Contexts course. They graduate with a
Masters’ in BME with a content emphasis in bilingual education.
A second cohort of 20 students enrolled in the program in 2013. Participants
from Cohorts I and II attended the final Summer Institute in June 2016 to share
their use of Diné dual language curriculum in the classroom and to plan for assum-
ing the role of mentors with new dual language teachers. Because the demands of
work, family and study often require additional time to complete degree require-
ments, the Project Director works with mentor teachers and with students during
the final year of the project to assure that all students complete their M.Ed. degrees.
All coursework leads to the completion of the M.Ed. within three years of
enrolment in the project. Students who have been admitted to the graduate college
on a provisional basis or who have not completed the required Diné language and
culture coursework must satisfy all academic requirements within this three-year
period in addition to completing the cohort coursework. The Project staff works
with students to identify requirements needed and to identify Diné College courses
in Navajo Language which will meet these requirements during the period of
enrolment. This ensures that students will infuse their heritage language and cul-
ture into the curriculum and pedagogy of their future classrooms.
12 Diving into the Language Work … 167
In addition to courses and fieldwork experiences with Northern Arizona
University faculty, students receive individual support from the Project Director,
and the Project Coordinator. This ongoing mentoring will address academic, finan-
cial and family issues. Heavy Runner and DeCelles (2002, p. 29) write, ‘A close
examination of the retention factors for Indian students reveals that replicating
extended family structure within the college culture enhances the student’s sense
of belonging and leads to higher retention rates’. Project activities are designed to
guarantee the appropriateness and quality of this design.
Mentor Teachers
The District Superintendent nominates two Mentor teachers at each of the nine
consortium districts (listed above). Mentors are selected based on: (1) academic
excellence: completion of an M.Ed. in Bilingual education or curriculum and
instruction with a GPA of at least 3.0; (2) at least 3 years of classroom experience
in a dual language setting; (3) a valid Arizona Standard teaching certificate with a
bilingual endorsement; (4) excellence in the Diné language as demonstrated by
Diné Tribal language certification; (5) excellence in English communications skills
as demonstrated by oral presentations, publications and community service; (6)
excellence in classroom performance documented on the current district observa-
tion measure and (7) commitment to professionalism based on participation in
community and professional organizations.
The project develops Navajo dual language mentor teachers who: (1) employ a
variety of formative assessment tools and strategies; (2) accelerate Project
Teachers’ practice; (3) build Project Teachers’ capacity to analyze student work to
improve student achievement; (4) assist Project Teachers to demonstrate ongoing
self-assessment and reflection; (5) develop a professional learning community
among Project Teachers and Mentors and (6) increase the teacher retention rate.
Mentor teachers provide support with classroom problems and other issues
related to technology and academics. Mentors serve as cheerleaders, tutors and
staff developers. Their role is complex and consists of being an advocate, catalyst,
collaborator, data collector, demonstrator, facilitator, instructor, leader, learner,
problem-solver, resource provider and trusted listener. The literature suggests
mentors help new teachers and prevent them from leaving the profession owing to
what has been called ‘praxis shock’ (Kelchtermans & Ballet, 2002; Reyhner,
2003; Veenman, 1984).
The mentor teacher increases student achievement by developing a community
of professional educators that utilize formative assessment to accelerate practice.
Project teachers receive mentoring and are encouraged to reflect on their teaching
practices. Research in schools within rural reservation communities documents the
success of culturally contextualized curriculum and pedagogy as measured on
standardized assessments of student academic performance in English (Deyhle,
1992; Rosier & Holm, 1980).
168 V.M. Hale and L. Lockard
Three Diné Dual Language Math and Science workshops were designed each
year which provided students and classroom teachers at participating sites with
opportunities to strengthen the community of learners. The workshops were con-
ducted by the Mentor teachers who are Diné dual language teachers who provided
lesson plans, materials and teaching strategies appropriate to the interests of the
Master’s students in the content areas of science, and mathematics. Lesson plans
and online resources were added to the database of materials on the project web
page. Classroom teachers created culturally relevant science and mathematics les-
sons to improve achievement, creativity and motivation among talented bilingual
students in participating districts. These culturally responsive lessons support
student success (Babco, 2003; Boyer, 2006; Nelson-Barber & Lipka, 2008;
Nelson-Barber & Trumbull, 2015).
Over a period of five years from 2011 to 2016 the project enrolled 60 Master’s
candidates with 44 graduates between December 2011 and 2015. Of the 44 gradu-
ates; 39 work in pre K-12 schools serving Navajo ELLs, 2 work in tribal colleges,
2 work in community programs for Diné youth. In yearly surveys, program parti-
cipants indicated that the program was effective in preparing them to work in dual
language settings where Navajo was included in daily instruction in the main-
stream classroom. In the yearly end of program survey 2015 graduate Treva Sells
Yazzie wrote, ‘… specializing in bilingual and multicultural education has helped
me become armed even more with the skills I need to continue to support my
students in their learning. It is for their future …. I feel it is essential to understand
who our children are today because it will be their children who will be our
next generation’.
Theoretical Framework
The graduates reflected on their educational experiences in surveys and class dis-
cussions. Many expressed a feeling of being disconnected from their culture, lan-
guage and values. This disconnection led to a lack of respect for the school as an
institution. To address this concern, we must build on the foundation of an
Indigenous epistemology. This epistemology is grounded in the social-historical
conditions of the community (Trinidad, 2011, 2012). The Diné education philoso-
phy is a foundation for restoring cultural knowledge (Benally, 1994). The first
stage is Nitsáhakees (Tr: thinking). At this stage the researcher begins with an
awareness of the process of critical investigation. The direction of this stage is the
East. The direction of the next stage in inquiry is the south: Nahat’á (Tr: plan-
ning). At this stage the researcher identifies resources and sources for investiga-
tion. The third stage is the west: Iíná (Tr: living). At this stage the researcher
applies ideas and gains new information. The fourth stage is the north: Siihasin
(Tr: reflecting). At this stage the researcher evaluates and assesses her satisfaction
with the research and prepares to formulate new questions. This theoretical frame-
work is used to restore personal and cultural knowledge, stories, experiences, and
12 Diving into the Language Work … 169
social interactions and to provide insights which recognize the resilience and
self-reliance of indigenous and communities (Barnhardt & Kawagley, 2005;
Battiste, 2002).
What Have We Learned?
For our Years 3 and 4 Project Evaluation for the Dine Dual Language Teachers
Project we obtained written permission to interview project participants and gradu-
ates and to review online discussions with the participants. We asked, ‘What have
you learned which will support student success in the Diné language and culture in
the future?’ We asked participants to plan, teach and evaluate a lesson which
demonstrated their skills in preparing students for future success in their commu-
nities. We reviewed online discussions in the Cultural Component of Bilingual and
ESL Instruction course, and we reviewed surveys submitted by program partici-
pants as part of our annual program evaluation. Data analysis involved grouping
the responses and reading and rereading them to identify consistencies and differ-
ences. We followed Seidman’s (2006) process for rereading the unedited tran-
scripts and marking passages which we found interesting or important. Once the
transcripts had been marked, we organized the passages into categories and
attempted to narrow the categories into larger themes. We identified the following
themes: The Classroom, Returning Home and Activism. We continue to explore
these themes in discussions, essays and classroom observations. From these themes
we have drawn conclusions which inform our own praxis as teacher educators.
The Classroom
Teachers need information about successful program models, teaching strategies
and materials. They need to find a theoretical foundation for their work in the class-
room which supports their daily practice. For many of the teachers in the Diné
cohort, this foundation is the Diné Philosophy of Knowledge. A third grade teacher
responded in the survey, ‘The education I received from these classes helped me
focus more on how I teach Navajo children. I am focusing on the background of
each child. I have been holding parent group meetings to share with parents what
I teach their child in math and reading and how I teach those lessons’.
A former teacher and current Academic Coach responded in the survey, ‘I have
been encouraging teachers to select materials and activities that are culturally rele-
vant to students’ curiosity, interest and learning. I have also been emphasizing the
philosophical belief: Thinking, Planning, Living and Reflecting’. A secondary
Navajo language teacher responded in the survey with the following reflection,
‘The Navajo philosophy of learning and pedagogy can be applied to any teaching
in life. The paradigm is consistent with all that is in our universe. I remind my
170 V.M. Hale and L. Lockard
students every day that they must think before they act. When their thinking is
sound, even in their own mind, then they can begin to plan. As they plan, they
have to apply their sound thoughts to devise a well-rounded plan. As they finish
with their plans, they will apply to their life, perform the action for which planned.
Upon completion of their life-action, they will reflect upon the entire process and
ask themselves if it was good or if they feel that changes could have proven a bet-
ter outcome. Then also, within reflecting, they decide if and where they would
make those changes’.
Returning Home
Teachers need to discuss the funds of knowledge (Moll & Gonzalez, 2004) in their
communities; that is, the historically accumulated and culturally developed bodies
of knowledge and skills essential for well-being. Teachers need to establish set-
tings in the school and community where children are immersed in their home lan-
guage. For many of the teachers in the project this understanding was gained first
as parents, then transferred to their role as teacher in the classroom. A fifth grade
teacher and 2015 graduate reflects, ‘I am currently learning about the ceremonies
of my culture. Once I am immersed in the actual ceremony, I sense that gratitude
and pride that was not necessarily all there when I was a child. Since I am relearn-
ing the language, I understand the meanings to the songs and prayers. They are
becoming alive before my eyes. It’s a wonderful experience and I want that for
my own children and for my students’.
As part of our yearly evaluation a secondary teacher and 2015 graduate reflects
in an online discussion: ‘As a Navajo and as a married mother of four children,
I feel that education begins in the home. I believe that if various past traditions
were reincorporated at home and more cultural-based teachings were placed in
school curriculums, our children would be more successful’.
Activism
Teachers need to identify roles in the classroom and the community which
advance the language rights of their students for future generations. In interviews
and surveys, which we conducted as part of our project evaluation, we asked our
graduates how we could support them in meeting their current or future profes-
sional goals. One participant surveyed wrote, ‘I plan to join the local tribal col-
lege; Navajo Technical University in planning a Navajo Language Program. The
language is so vital in our community and the benefits are so broad. Both parents
and students can learn from this awesome journey of speaking in two languages’.
A second graduate reported, ‘I would like this cohort to remember that advocating
for students and their language is key and it’s okay to use Navajo in the
12 Diving into the Language Work … 171
classroom’. One participant asked project staff to, ‘work more with the partner dis-
tricts to see how the teachers can implement their degrees into their daily teach-
ings’. An elementary Navajo language teacher and 2015 graduate reflected in an
online discussion posting, ‘We tell our children: If you hear dogs barking outside,
let them bark. You do not need to put yourself in harm’s way by going into the
dark. The storm will pass. On the other hand, If my heart is threatened, then I will
defend my passion …. I am a language activist’.
Chen, Kyle, and McIntyre (2008) document the success of their work with tea-
chers to recognize the rich funds of knowledge of the family and the community
in parent workshops developed for ‘We R Family’, a 21st Century Community
Learning Center Program, by Valencia Edgewater, a 2015 graduate who extended
this model to weekend Diné language classes for parents and community members
in the Hard Rock Chapter (Landry, 2015). Valencia reports, ‘In August I sched-
uled two days to work with adolescent youth in basic Navajo language. I will be
offering this workshop only for those who are interested in learning their
language. I am coordinating this work with the Chapter. I decided to move
forward … to dive into the language work’.
Conclusions
The themes led to the following conclusions. We continue to explore them in discus-
sions, teacher research projects and in our own reflections on our roles as teacher
educators preparing future Navajo bilingual teachers for the dual language classroom:
1. The Classroom: Teachers need information about successful local program
models, teaching strategies and materials. Teachers need to find a theoretical
foundation for their work in the classroom which supports their daily practice.
2. Returning Home: Teachers need to discuss the funds of knowledge in their
communities which motivate parents to transmit their language and culture to
their children. Teachers need to establish settings in the school and community
where children are immersed in their home language.
3. Activism: Teachers need to identify roles in the classroom and the community
which advance the language rights of their students for future generations.
Many of our graduates expressed a sense of being disconnected from their cul-
ture, language and values in previous school settings. We know that many teacher
education programs are negatively affected by ‘external’ educational policies that
fail to take into consideration the nature of the local community. Most education
policies in the United States today are informed by a deficit or monolingual view
of linguistic and cultural diversity. The Diné Philosophy of Knowledge connects
teachers, community members and students and serves as a foundation for restor-
ing cultural and linguistic knowledge.
We build on a foundation of tribally and university led teacher education
projects which certified Navajo teachers and administrators and supported teacher
172 V.M. Hale and L. Lockard
leadership and place-based learning. Our current program supports active engage-
ment for teacher candidates which builds on the culture and history of the commu-
nity. Our graduates seek to infuse their heritage language and culture into the
curriculum and pedagogy of their future classrooms. Mentor teachers work with
our graduates to develop a community of professional educators who reflect on
their own practice and share lesson plans, materials and teaching strategies with
colleagues. Treva Sells Yazzie expressed a sense of being ‘armed with skills she
needs to support her students’.
In our work as teacher educators, we call for teachers to examine the relations
of power and the ideologies which define their roles as teachers of Diné language
and culture and to apply the insights gained from this process to their work. We
see an opportunity to positively impact the current focus on ‘student achievement’
and ‘school improvement’ by expanding schools’ thinking about how they can
focus their efforts to enhance Navajo student learning and expanding conventional
ideas of what effective, integrated, meaningful teaching and learning can look like
in schools with Navajo learners. We encourage the kinds of dynamic school and
community structures that create the conditions for Indigenous learners and the
types of professional training that helps teachers to incorporate the strategies that
make a difference for Navajo student success. We support teacher agency in the
revitalization of the Diné language as teachers ‘dive into the language work’ in
their families, classrooms and communities.
References
Babco, E. (2003). Trends in African American and Native American participation in STEM
higher education. Washington: Commission on Professionals in Science and Technology.
Balter, A., & Grossman, F. (2009). The effects of the No Child Left Behind Act on language and
culture education in Navajo public schools. Journal of American Indian Education, 48(3),
19–46.
Barnhardt, R. (2014). Creating a place for Indigenous knowledge in education. In D. Gruenwald
& G. Smith (Eds.), Place-based education in the global age. Local diversity (pp. 113–134).
New York: Psychology Press.
Barnhardt, R., & Kawagley, O. (2005). Indigenous knowledge systems and Alaska Native ways
of knowing. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 36(1), 8–23.
Battiste, M. (2002). Indigenous knowledge and pedagogy in First Nations education: a literature
review with recommendations. Ottawa: Indian and Northern Affairs Canada.
Begay, S., Dick, G. S., Estell, D. W., Estell, J., McCarty, T. L., & Sells, A. (2013). Change from
the inside out: a story of transformation in a Navajo community school. Bilingual Research
Journal, 19(1), 121–139.
Benally, H. (1994). Navajo philosophy of learning and pedagogy. Journal of Navajo Education,
XII(1), 23–31.
Boyer, P. (2006). Building community: reforming math and science education in rural schools: a
report on the National Science Foundation’s Rural Systemic Initiative. Alaska Native
Knowledge Network, Center for Cross-Cultural Studies, University of Alaska Fairbanks,
Fairbanks, AK.
12 Diving into the Language Work … 173
Chen, C., Kyle, D. W., & McIntyre, M. (2008). Helping teachers work effectively with English
language learners and their families. The School Community Journal, 18(1), 7–20.
Deyhle, D. (1992). Constructing failure and maintaining cultural identity: Navajo and Ute School
leavers. Journal of American Indian Education, 32(2), 24–47.
Haig-Brown, C., & Dannenmann, K. (2008). The land is the first teacher: the Indigenous
knowledge instructors’ program. In Z. Bekerman & E. Kopelowitz (Eds.), Cultural
education-cultural sustainability: minority diaspora, indigenous, and ethno-religious groups
in multicultural societies (pp. 245–266). New York: Routledge.
Heavy Runner, I., & De Celles, R. (2002). Family education model: meeting the student retention
challenge. Journal of American Indian Education, 41(2), 29–37.
Holm, W. (2006). The “goodness” of bilingual education for Native American children. In
T. L. McCarty & O. Zepeda (Eds.), One voice, many voices: recreating indigenous language
communities (pp. 1–46). Tempe: Arizona State University Center for Indian Education.
Kana’iaupuni, S., Ledward, B., & Jensen, U. (2010). Culture-based education and its relation-
ship to student outcomes. Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools Research and Evaluation.
Kelchtermans, G., & Ballet, K. (2002). Micropolitical literacy: reconstructing a neglected
dimension in teacher development. International Journal of Teacher Research, 37(8),
755–767.
Landry, A. (2015) Importance of language: grassroots efforts to revitalize the diné language. Indian
Country Today, November 4. Retrieved from http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com
Lockard, L. (2000). Language revitalization in Navajo/English dual language classrooms. NABE
News, February.
Lockard, L., & deGroat, J. (2010). He said it all in Navajo! Indigenous language immersion in
Early Childhood Education. International Journal of Multicultural Education, 12(2), 1–14.
Lockard, L., & deGroat, J. (2014). A history of the Navajo head start immersion project. In
P. McCardle & V. Berniger (Eds.), Narrowing the achievement gap for native American stu-
dents: paying the educational debt. New York: Routledge.
Lockard, L., deGroat, J., & Bedonie, C. (2003). Learn in beauty: a professional development pro-
ject for Navajo bilingual teachers. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the National
Association of Bilingual Education, New Orleans, LA, January 29–February 1, 2003.
Lockard, L., & Hale, V. (2013). The Diné Dual Language Professional Development Project. In
J. Reyhner, J. Martin, L. Lockard & W. S. Gilbert (Eds.), Honoring our children: culturally
appropriate approaches for teaching indigenous students. Flagstaff: Northern Arizona
University.
May, S., Hill, R., & Tiakiwai, S. (2004). Bilingual/immersion education: indicators of good
practice. Final report to the New Zealand Ministry of Education. Wellington: New Zealand
Ministry of Education. Retrieved from http://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/publications/
schooling/5079.
McCarty, T. L. (2003). Revitalizing indigenous languages in homogenizing times. Comparative
Education, 39, 147–163.
McCarty, T. L., & Nicholas, S. E. (2014). Reclaiming indigenous languages: a reconsideration of
the roles and responsibilities of schools. Review of Research in Education, 38, 106–136.
Moll, L. C., & González, N. (2004). Engaging life: a funds of knowledge approach to multicul-
tural education. In J. A. Banks & C. A. M. Banks (Eds.), Handbook of research on multicul-
tural education. 2nd ed. (pp. 699–715). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Navajo Nation Department of Diné Education. (2003). The diné nation teacher education initia-
tive and SITE. Window Rock: Author.
Navajo Nation Division of Diné Education (1984). Navajo Nation education policies 10 § NNC
111. Window Rock: Author.
Nelson-Barber, S., & Lipka, J. (2008). Rethinking the case for culture-based curriculum.
Conditions that support improved mathematics performance in diverse classrooms. In
M. E. Brisk (Ed.), Language, culture and community in teacher education (pp. 99–126).
New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc.
174 V.M. Hale and L. Lockard
Nelson-Barber, S., & Trumbull, E. (2015). The common core initiative, educational outcomes
and American Indian/Alaska native students: observations and recommendations. The Center
on Standards and Assessment Implementation.
Reyhner, J. (2003). Native language immersion. In J. Reyhner, O. Trujillo, R. Carrasco &
L. Lockard (Eds.), Nurturing native languages (pp. 1–6). Flagstaff: Northern Arizona
University.
Reyhner, J. (2006). Education and language restoration. Philadelphia: Chelsea House.
Reyhner, J., & Hurtado, D. (2008). Reading first, literacy and American Indian/Alaska native stu-
dents. Journal of American Indian Education, 47(1), 82–95.
Rosier, P., & Holm, W. (1980). Bilingual education series: 8; The rock point experience: a long-
itudinal study of a Navajo school program (saad naaki bee na’nitin). Washington: Center for
Applied Linguistics.
Rude, H., & Gorman, R. (1996). Navajo nation teacher education initiative. [Unpublished
report]. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED394753.
Seidman, I. (2006). Interviewing as qualitative research: a guide for researchers in education
and the social sciences. New York: Teachers College Press.
Styres, S., & Zinga, D. (2013). The community-first land-centered theoretical framework: bring-
ing a ‘Good Mind’ to Indigenous education research. Canadian Journal of Education, 36(2),
284–313.
Tedick, D. J., Christian, D. & Fortune, T. W. (Eds.) (2011). Immersion education: practices,
policies, possibilities. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Trinidad, A. (2011). Sociopolitical development through Critical Indigenous Pedagogy of Place:
preparing Native Hawaiian young adults to become change agents. Hulili: Multidisciplinary
Research on Hawaiian Well-Being, 7, 185–221.
Trinidad, A. (2012). Critical Indigenous pedagogy of place: a framework to Indigenize a youth
food justice movement. Journal of Indigenous Social Development, 1(1), 1–17.
Veenman, S. (1984). Perceived problems of beginning teachers. Review of Educational
Research, 54(2), 143–178.
Wilson, S. (2003). Reclaiming Indian Education through partnerships with engaged institutions.
In D. T. Williams (Ed.), Engaged institutions: impacting the lives of vulnerable youth
through place based learning (pp. 39–52). Washington: Rural School and Community Trust.
Wilson, W. H., & Kamana, K. (2011). Insights from indigenous language immersion in Hawai’i.
In D. J. Tedick, D. Christian & T. W. Fortune (Eds.), Immersion education: practices, poli-
cies, possibilities (pp. 36–57). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Building on Achievements: Training Options for
Gumbaynggirr Language Teachers
Susan Poetsch, Michael Jarrett and Gary Williams
Introduction and Overview
Teachers of the Gumbaynggirr language in schools today did not grow up hearing
their language, and most have no formal teaching qualification. Therefore, their
training needs include language proficiency development as well as skills for lan-
guage teaching (Poetsch, 2014). On both fronts the Gumbaynggirr community has
achieved a great deal in recent decades. From a range of possible strategies for
strengthening languages (McIvor, 2009), Gumbaynggirrr people have selected
ones that are most suited to their context. They have both driven and taken oppor-
tunities as they have arisen from government and university support.
The first and most proven action Gumbaynggirr people took was to establish
their local community-controlled language and culture centre, which has done exten-
sive research, compiled numerous resources, and began teaching adults their lan-
guage in 1997 (Ash, Hooler, Williams, & Walker, 2010). A second important action
has been Gumbaynggirr people’s uptake of the Master of Indigenous Languages
Education (MILE) program, which has been offered at the University of Sydney
since 2006. This course is designed for Indigenous people who want to become
teachers of their languages, and has also led some graduates to assume management
roles in the education system (Hobson, Oakley, Jarrett, Jackson, & Harris, this
S. Poetsch (✉)
Faculty of Education, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Jarrett
Consultant Community Trainer, Resource Network for Linguistic Diversity, Sydney, Australia
e-mail: [email protected]
G. Williams
Muurrbay Language Teacher and Researcher, New South Wales, Australia
e-mail: [email protected]
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018 175
P. Whitinui (eds.), Promising Practices in Indigenous Teacher Education,
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-6400-5_13
176 S. Poetsch et al.
volume). Thirdly, a new opportunity has recently arisen through a New South
Wales (NSW) government plan launched in 2014. The languages and cultures
aspect of the plan is being implemented through the state’s Department of
Education. It aims to increase the number of learners and teachers of Gumbaynggirr
(and four other languages in NSW) by building a continuous pathway from pre-
school through to tertiary education (Aboriginal Affairs NSW, 2013). Each of these
three initiatives is considered in this chapter, with respect to its contribution to pre-
paring Gumbaynggirr people to teach their language. But first, we provide back-
ground information about the Gumbaynggirr language, and the context of these
initiatives.
Background Information: Gumbaynggirr Country and
Language Revival
Gumbaynggirr country is located along more than 100 km of the sub-tropical
region of the mid-north coast of NSW. It stretches inland to the Great Dividing
Range and incorporates several river valleys including the Nambucca, Kalang,
Bellinger and Clarence Rivers, which flow in an easterly direction to the Pacific
Ocean (see Fig. 1). Tourism is one of the main industries in this part of NSW.
Gumbaynggirr country is characterised by native vegetation, national parks and
marine reserves, rainforest, rural farmland, coastal areas and a mountainous hinter-
land. The major regional town of Coffs Harbour (population approximately
50,000), the town of Nambucca Heads (population approximately 10,000), and
numerous small coastal and inland towns are within Gumbaynggirr country.
Gumbaynggirr people reside throughout the region, and many also move away
temporarily or long-term for work and study opportunities, for family and
extended family responsibilities. Aboriginal people comprise a small proportion of
Gumbaynggirr
language area
New South wales
Fig. 1 Map of Gumbaynggirr country and its location in Australia
13 Building on Achievements … 177
Program types Defining characteristics
Language maintenance All generations in the community are
full speakers of their language.
Language Language There is a generation of older speakers,
revival revitalisation who use the language with each other
daily. Children don’t produce their
Language heritage language but are likely to have
renewal good passive knowledge of it.
The language is no longer spoken in the
Language community in its full form but there is
reclamation sufficient knowledge and use of it in the
community to develop a program to
Language awareness strengthen it.
There has been a break in
intergenerational transmission of the
language but there is sufficient
historical material available to enable
linguistic reconstruction and learning of
the language.
Non-speakers learn about a language no
longer spoken, for which there are only
traces of the spoken language left, and
little or no archival documentation
available.
Fig. 2 Overview of the Australian Indigenous languages framework
the total population of NSW, approximately 2.8%.1 Being a minority language
with a small population in an English dominant society adds challenge to asserting
a Gumbaynggirr presence and raising general public awareness that they are liv-
ing, working and travelling in Gumbaynggirr country.
NSW has 120 dialects which can be grouped into 35 distinct languages
(Wafer & Lissarrague, 2008). As the present day NSW was the first part of the con-
tinent to be colonised from 1788 on, Aboriginal people and languages in this state
have long endured the impacts of invasion and dispossession. Although people
may not speak their languages today, they still identify strongly with them. At this
stage Gumbaynggirr is one of the few languages in NSW that are in the process of
rebuilding a speech community, and has been one of the most successful in that
enterprise (Walsh, 2001). It is comprised of northern coastal, southern coastal and
inland dialects. Typologically Gumbaynggirr belongs to the Pama-Nyungan family,
so it is a suffixing language, with a large pronoun set and complex verb structure
(Morelli, 2015; Wafer & Lissarrague, 2008). These are all grammatical characteris-
tics which its learners and new speakers are keen to maintain and use.
A framework which characterises the resources and needs of different program
types in Australia, dependent on the vitality of the language (see Fig. 2), differentiates
broadly between (a) languages which are spoken as a first language by all genera-
tions, (b) languages for which most generations in a community are second language
1http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/mf/3238.0.55.001.
178 S. Poetsch et al.
learners of their heritage language and (c) languages which have been most critically
damaged (Senior Secondary Assessment Board of South Australia, 1996).
In school settings, bilingual education is suitable for maintenance programs
since children in those communities begin their school years not able to speak
English. For revival programs, schools and communities offer the language as a
discrete subject. For language awareness programs, classes are a component of
social studies (rather than languages) curriculum. Languages in the revival cate-
gory, especially those in the renewal and reclamation sub-categories, are more
akin to many languages in North America which might participate in a Breath of
Life archival-type program (Hinton, 2011, 2012). Whereas, languages in the revi-
talisation category are more akin to languages which could implement a Master-
Apprentice program (Hinton, Vera, & Steele, 2002) or a Hawai’ian or Ma¯ori style
Language Nest program (King, 2001; Wilson & Kamana, 2001).
This chapter describes a revival context in which knowledge held by remem-
berers of Gumbaynggirr is combined with archival research and linguistic analysis to
rebuild the language and bring it back into use. Of all the languages in the state it
has more archival sources than most, including audio recordings of speakers from
earlier generations. Such recordings are rare for languages in NSW. It is also a lan-
guage which had elders with some knowledge of the language who have passed
away now, but are close relatives of the current generation of adult language learners
and activists. In 1986 a group of those elders approached Brother Steve Morelli, and
asked him to assist them to protect and nurture their language. He learned all he
could from them, and also studied linguistics as a tool to support his work on the lan-
guage, which he has continued for 30 years. As an outcome of his research and
learning, and his work with community members, there is a comprehensive diction-
ary and grammar of Gumbaynggirr now in its second edition (Morelli, 2015) and a
core group of adults who have begun to learn and speak their language again.
Some languages that are being revived achieve important symbolic use (e.g.
people learn set spoken texts such as songs and speeches but generally don’t also
produce their language spontaneously in daily conversations). Gumbaynggirr,
however, is a language which is beginning to be used, not only symbolically but
also conversationally at a functional level by a small group of approximately 8–10
adults in the community who have made the strongest proficiency gains. Two of
the authors of this chapter (Jarrett and Williams) are members of this group. They
have been learning Gumbaynggirr since the late 1990s and have worked together
at Muurrbay, where they can use their language with each other on a regular basis.
They have experience in teaching both school and adult classes and are the ones
most deeply involved in the ongoing research and decisions for rebuilding the lan-
guage (e.g. creating new words, and using old words in new ways, to describe
new objects and ideas).
Beyond that core group of advanced users is a larger group of adults who have
gained at least some basic knowledge of their language, as described in Ash et al.
(2010, p. 107):
There are more Gumbaynggirr speakers in 2009 than there were ten years ago. You could
say that the language has had its lowest ebb, but now the tide of speakers is slowly but surely
rising. We estimate that there are now several hundred partial speakers of Gumbaynggirr.
13 Building on Achievements … 179
Muurrbay Aboriginal Language and Culture Centre
The first of three initiatives considered in this chapter is the one that has been in
operation the longest: Muurrbay Aboriginal Language and Culture Centre.2 The aim
and purpose of Muurrbay is to support Gumbaynggirr people to revive and maintain
their language and culture, and so strengthen their sense of identity and links to
country (Ash et al., 2010, p. 107). One of the authors of this chapter (Williams) is
the current Chief Executive Officer of Muurrbay. His role is to work with the
Centre’s advisory board, manager and staff, to ensure that the work done for
Gumbaynggirr reflects Muurrbay’s purpose, and benefits the growing community of
learners. He and the Centre additionally play a key role in advising other language
groups along the coast of NSW who also want to strengthen their languages.
Language and culture centres such as Muurrbay are an important feature of
Australian language revival activity and there are approximately 20 of them across
the continent.3 When centres were first established, from the early-mid 1980s,
they were in more remote parts of the continent where elderly speakers were still
available and younger generations were shifting to English or contact varieties
(Hudson & McConvell, 1984; Schmidt, 1990). From the 1990s, centres also began
to be established in regions where language loss had been even greater and com-
munities desiring language revival required the assistance of archival sources.
Centres foster relationships between communities and researchers and produce
resources which are community-friendly and accessible. They are primarily funded
through a government source by annual application (Australian Government
Department of Communications and the Arts, 2016a, 2016b). Crucially, they
employ local Aboriginal people to work on their own languages.
Muurrbay officially began to operate in the late 1990s when (what was known
then as) the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission purchased a suita-
ble building for this community work and it has been consistently successful in
its applications for recurrent funding since then. The Centre summarises its work
in three steps: find everything known about the language; analyse those sources
to establish how the language works; and develop teaching resources so that
community members can learn their language (Ash et al., 2010, pp. 115–117).
For Gumbaynggirr these steps have been in progress for decades and the process
is constantly reviewed and expanded: when additional sources of information
about the language are discovered4; when adults who have not attended classes in
2Muurrbay means ‘white fig tree’ in the Gumbaynggirr language.
3Some centres service large regions and numerous languages, while others cover smaller areas.
Some have been stable, while others have struggled to remain viable. Some have operated for
many decades, while others are relative newcomers.
4For example, around 2,000 Muurrbay acquired copies of Gumbaynggirr materials recorded by
Gerhardt Laves, a University of Chicago postgraduate student, who did fieldwork on a number
of Australian languages 1929–1931 http://www.anu.edu.au/linguistics/nash/aust/laves/. This
source enhanced understanding of use of avoidance language, politeness and ways of joking in
Gumbaynggirr, which could then be incorporated into the most recent edition of the dictionary
and grammar.
180 S. Poetsch et al.
the past decide they would like to learn their language; and when more schools
request teachers.
Although Muurrbay is not a teacher education provider, its role in training
Gumbaynggirr people to teach their language in school programs has been signifi-
cant. This training has involved both adult language proficiency development and
basic teaching skills development for community members who are not qualified
teachers, as described in the following sections.
Muurrbay: Developing Adults’ Language Proficiency
In order to gradually rebuild a Gumbaynggirr speech community, Muurrbay began
to offer classes for adult community members in 1997, and has continued to do so
intermittently since then, depending on the availability of teachers and demand
from the community. The Centre has been achieving this in four main ways. First,
Muurrbay became a registered training organization (RTO), a status it has held
periodically since the late 1990s when it developed and delivered certificates in
Gumbaynggirr Language and Culture in 1997–1998. These certificates were
designed to develop participants’ knowledge of culture, understanding of grammar
and communication skills in the language.
Secondly, during periods when Muurrbay’s RTO status lapsed, the Centre stra-
tegically used certificates available through the public provider of post-secondary
non-university education in NSW: Technical and Further Education (TAFE). In
2007 TAFE developed three Certificates in Aboriginal Languages in response to
need and interest expressed by communities in various parts of the state. These
certificates were designed to enable students to progress through three levels to
develop listening, speaking, reading and writing skills in their local language and
knowledge of their local culture (Cipollone, 2010). For example, in the first half
of 2016 the Certificate 1 was offered as a weekly evening class at three different
TAFE campuses in three different towns in Gumbaynggirr country, all taught by
Gumbaynggirr people employed by TAFE. Since a number of people successfully
achieved Certificate 1, TAFE offered Certificate 2 classes in the second half of the
year at the same campuses.
Thirdly, Muurrbay offers informal classes from time to time, in various towns.
These are for people who do not wish to gain a formal certificate (which comes
with the pressure of attendance and assessment requirements) but would rather
learn their language in a relaxed atmosphere.
Fourthly Muurrbay staff taught Gumbaynggirr classes in summer schools, held
in January 2008, 2009 and 2010, hosted by the University of Sydney, and funded
by the NSW Department of Aboriginal Affairs. These were informal rather than
certificate courses, consisting of two-week, full-time, intensive classes, catering
for community members who were living in Sydney, approximately 550 km from
Gumbaynggirr country.
In the early days of offering adult classes Brother Morelli (mentioned above)
took a major role in the teaching, in collaboration with the most fluent of the
13 Building on Achievements … 181
Gumbaynggirr learners. In more recent years, the core group of adults with more
fluency and confidence has increasingly taken over the teaching of adult classes
themselves. Morelli continues to take an active role though, developing linguistic
resources and supporting the advanced users of the language.
Muurrbay: Developing Adults’ Language Teaching Skills
The various courses and classes discussed above all have a common focus on
developing adult language proficiency. Participants have been strongly motivated
by connecting with each other and their linguistic and cultural heritage. However,
a few adults were also motivated to establish school programs. This began in the
early 2000s in three towns located close to former Aboriginal reserves. The
Aboriginal enrolment in the schools was high, making teaching Gumbaynggirr in
them a priority. In subsequent years a number of factors led to a significant
increase in the number of primary and secondary schools wanting to introduce a
Gumbaynggirr language learning program:
• The success of the programs in the first three schools provided a model for
other schools in the region. At the same time Gumbaynggirr adults gained con-
fidence through their teaching and were open to the idea of working in more
schools.
• The NSW curriculum and assessment authority developed the Aboriginal
Languages K-10 and Senior Secondary syllabuses in collaboration with com-
munities (including Gumbaynggirr representatives) who had begun to teach
their languages in schools on a small scale (Board of Studies NSW, 2003;
Board of Studies Teaching and Educational Standards NSW, 2015).
• A change in Muurrbay policy in the mid-2000s, whereby all students would be
welcome to learn Gumbaynggirr, significantly increased participation beyond a
handful of students who learned their heritage language as an extra-curricular
activity when their non-Aboriginal peers were in art or sport classes.
Muurrbay’s policy change came from a sense of confidence in the community
that their language was stronger and safer, and could therefore be shared more
widely. Muurrbay also recognised the many educational and social benefits of
Gumbaynggirr classes for non-Aboriginal students, for broader community
cohesion and cross-cultural understanding.
• A funding stream for school language programs was created and managed by
the Aboriginal Education unit of the NSW Department of Education. This
enabled schools to apply for funding to pay community members who were
given the position title of Language Tutor. The tutors had no teaching qualifica-
tion, but could be employed on a casual basis to teach their language. Although
their title suggests one-on-one or small group teaching, in fact they teach full
classes of students. However, classes must be held with the presence of a quali-
fied teacher.
182 S. Poetsch et al.
As a consequence of this range of factors, since the early 2000s Muurrbay has
received more requests from schools for tutors each new school year. Of course
teacher education is highly regulated; it can only be delivered through universities
with degrees accredited by the Board of Studies, Teaching and Educational
Standards (BOSTES NSW). There is currently no initial degree specifically
designed for Indigenous people wanting to become teachers of their languages.
So, as a community organisation, Muurrbay has been creative in its approach to
preparing adults for working in the paraprofessional role of tutor. Keeping up with
school demand has been an ongoing challenge since not all adult learners want to
work in schools, or feel confident about taking on that job. Also, there is a high
turnover of tutors each year, in part attributable to the irregular hours and casual
nature of the employment. Muurrbay’s strategy has been to periodically offer
informal classes specifically catering for those interested in this work.
In terms of teaching skills, Muurrbay develops tutors’ ability to use two meth-
ods which are helpful for beginner language learners and teachers: James Asher’s
Total Physical Response (TPR)5 and Professor Stephen Neyooxet Greymorning’s
Accelerated Second Language Acquisition (ASLA)©™.6 Inspired by TPR and
ASLA, Muurrbay also produced its own resource Mayalambala which consists of
three poster scenes (bush, river, beach) and 200 small images of people, animals
and objects that can be manipulated on the posters. These are the dominant meth-
ods currently used by Gumbaynggirr tutors (New South Wales Department of
Education and Training, 2005). They extend the tutors’ teaching skills beyond
greetings, songs and single isolated vocabulary items on flashcards. They move
the language content of lessons from word to sentence level, and focus on oral lan-
guage, which is a higher priority for the community than literacy skills. The tutors
can now say short commands and sentences for students to hear and respond to
with actions and movement. Through these methods, tutors themselves can pro-
duce more Gumbaynggirr than they could before, and can deliver lessons which
develop their students’ listening comprehension skills.
The Master of Indigenous Languages Education (MILE) at the
University of Sydney
The second initiative considered in this chapter is Gumbaynggirr people’s uptake
of the MILE program at the University of Sydney. MILE was established in
response to increasing language revival activity in recent decades in NSW and the
growth in school programs following the development of the syllabus (Hobson,
2004, 2006, 2008a, 2008b, 2011). The Master’s program has been offered since
2006 and has produced 61 graduates to date who are teachers of numerous NSW
5http://www.tpr-world.com/.
6http://www.umt.edu/nsilc/.
13 Building on Achievements … 183
languages and others that are in a similar process of revival (Hobson et al., 2017).
One of the authors of this chapter (Poetsch) is a lecturer and another (Jarrett) is a
graduate of the program.
MILE is a postgraduate coursework degree for Indigenous Australian people
who are already qualified teachers, with experience in primary or secondary educa-
tion. Proficiency in their languages is not an entry requirement and students are not
taught their languages as part of the program. Rather, the course consists of units
of study in the phonetics and phonology, morphology and syntax of Australian lan-
guages; theories and approaches to second language learning and teaching in lan-
guage revival contexts; and culminates in a classroom-based research project. In
addition to these units of study, students are expected to take opportunities in their
local communities to develop their proficiency. Gumbaynggirr students in the
MILE program have an advantage, since their local language learning opportunities
are considerable compared with languages at earlier stages of revival.
Since MILE is a degree for Indigenous people, it supports community owner-
ship and direction of the teaching of their languages locally and statewide. MILE
graduates are motivated to teach their languages in mainstream schools in their
hometowns to have a positive impact on the attendance, engagement and educa-
tional success of Aboriginal students, and to increase non-Aboriginal students’
understanding of and respect for local Aboriginal knowledge and expertise.
Having gained experience in teaching their languages locally, some MILE gradu-
ates have taken up the limited number of leadership and management roles avail-
able in the education system for Aboriginal languages, for example three of the
five Department of Education ‘Language and Culture nests’ in NSW (discussed
below) are coordinated by MILE graduates, and the two Department of Education
positions to support establishment and effective implementation of language pro-
grams in schools across the state have both been held by MILE graduates.
With respect to Gumbaynggirr, the MILE program has added to the pool of
adults able to deliver language programs in local schools. These teachers comple-
ment the work already being done by the Gumbaynggirr tutors, who are in fact
more numerous. The majority of Gumbaynggirr tutors (and tutors in school pro-
grams for other languages in NSW) are not qualified teachers nor MILE graduates.
This points to the need for an initial teacher education degree program. There
have been attempts to establish one at the University of Sydney, though imple-
menting the proposal has faced many challenges to date (Hobson, 2014; Hobson
et al., 2017).
Professional development is an important opportunity that in-service teachers
of all subject areas should be able to access. In 2015, MILE program staff in col-
laboration with Aboriginal languages staff of the NSW Department of Education
delivered a workshop at the University of Sydney for Aboriginal languages tea-
chers. Twenty MILE graduates participated from all over NSW, including two
from Gumbaynggirr country. All participants funded their own travel, and the
workshop was held during school holidays, indicating the strong commitment of
the teachers to continuing development of their language teaching knowledge
and skills.
The words you are searching are inside this book. To get more targeted content, please make full-text search by clicking here.
Home
Explore
ebook_Promising Practices in Indigenous Teacher Education by Paul Whitinui,Carmen Rodriguez de France,Onowa McIvor (eds.) (z-lib.org)
View in Fullscreen
ebook_Promising Practices in Indigenous Teacher Education by Paul Whitinui,Carmen Rodriguez de France,Onowa McIvor (eds.) (z-lib.org)
Discover the best professional documents and content resources in AnyFlip Document Base.
Search