NAVAL SCIENCE 3 TEXTBOOK

106 SELECTED GLOSSARY OF 01AVAL K;\'OWLEDGE TEIUlS

intelligence-any information of possible military value about an quarantine-a limited form of naval blockade directed against spe-
enemy. cific prohibited cargo.
intermodal ship-a ship that carries cargo that is thcnloaded raid~a sudden attack against a limited area or t:lcility.
directly onto other forms of transport, such as railroad cars or
R&D-research and development.
vehicles.
regulations-a body of written rules for conduct and procedures
internal (inland) waters-waters located within the established
in a military organization.
boundaries of a nation.
reprisal-retaliatory action for an injury or attack.
international waters-waters external to any nation's territorial seas
restriction (punishment)-to keep on board a ship or shore station
or internal waters, open to free use by the ships of all nations.
for some prescribed length of time as a punishment for a disci-
littoral-coastal regions along a shore, vulnerable to attack by
pline oftense.
naval torces.
sea power-the ability of a country to use and control the sea, and
littoral nation-a country having at least one shoreline bordering
to prevent its use by an enemy.
on international ·waters.
sovereign~a self-governing independent country.
LNG carrier-a merchant ship specially designed to carry liquefied
specified command- a broad command ·within a functional area.
natural gas.
strategic forces-forces capable of delivering offensive nuclear
Maritime Administration-the department of the U.S. govern-
weapons against an enemy.
ment charged with the control and oversight of the U.S. maritime
industry. strike forces-forces intended to carry out an oftensive attack
against an enemy.
military law-regulations and rules pertaining to the discipline
and administration of the armed torces. surface action group (SAG)-surlilCe warliue ships comprising a
battle formation.
naval attache-a naval officer on duty at an embassy, whose major
duties are advising and representing the ambassador on naval sweep-a series of strikes against several enemy targets in a gen-
matters and collecting intelligence. See also ALUSNA. eral area.

naval operations-significant activities conducted by naval forces telecommunications-communication by electronic transmission
at sea; day-to-day activities within the operations department of of impulses, as by telegraphy, radio, or microwave.
a ship. territorial sea-the ocean waters within 12 miles of the shoreline,
neutrality-the state of nonparticipation in a war. controlled by the coastal sovereign state.
nonjudicial punishment-punishrnent by a commanding officer thalweg-a boundary line between two nations consisting of the
imposed on a service member without trial by court-martial. center of a navigable channel in a waterway separating them.
NRL-Naval Research laboratory. UCMJ-UniforIn Code of Military Justice.
OAS-Organization of American States; an organization com- unauthorized absence-absence from a militar), unit without
posed of ahnost all non-Communist states of the ''''estern proper authorization.
Hemisphere.
unified command-a command with a broad continuing mission
ONR-Olfice of Naval Research. within a geographical area of responsibility.
peremptory Challenge-the automatic removal of a prospective unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-any of a number of small
member of a military court-martial on demand from the accused, remotely piloted aircraft used tor reconnaissance, fire control, and
with no reason necessarily given. other military purposes.
preventive war-a war initiated by making a strike against an U.S. flag ships-merchant ships registered in the United States
enemy to prevent the enemy from taking a presumed aggressive and operating under the American flag on the high seas.
action.
USNS-United States Naval Ship; a ship owned by the U.S. Navy
psychological operations (PSYOPS)--{)perations intended to inllu- but not commissioned as part of the Navy. Normally crewed by
ence the emotions, motives, objective reasoning, and/or the civilians and operated by the ?vfilitary Sealift Command.
behavior of target organizations, groups, and individuals.

LEADERSHIP

The Challenge of Leadership











111 Nnm/ Science 2 YOll were introduced to basic principles of le<1d~ Navy is made up of people, navallei\(.krs llluSt learn to understand
ership thilt wiJI help you rise to higher levels of responsibility in and value the mallY individuals with whom they must work.
your NJROTC unit ilnd in other life activities in which you mnr The naval leader must have a philosoph)' of leadership based
he involved. This section will exp.md on the prinriples ),oulearned on firmly held mom I values and integrity of character. Leaders
earlier, and provide informat ion 011 more advanced topics YOli will must understand how to act toward seniors, peers, and juniors.
need as YO LI proceed to higher lewis of leadership within yOUI' unit A l1::lvallcllder will be ineffective if he or she dues not understand
and elsewhere. ivlall)' of the practices and qU<llities that arc COIll- good leadership and ::ldministration and is not ::lble to get the team-
man to successful leaders both ill the military and in civilian lite work necessaq' for the lin it to GllTy out its mission.
will be discussed. In addition, some insight into the eVilluation of Leadership involves human relations-specifically those
performance of subordinates will be provided, along with infor- between a leOlder and ,,' group. A leOlder must be able to impose,
mation about effective techniques of how to give instruction, both either through command or persliOlsion, his or her will upon that
of which will be very useful to YOll as YO ll assume greater leader- group. Also required is i1 willingness on the part of the leOlder to
ship roles within your unit. s::lcrificc personal time ::lnd nmterial gain to achieve this person::ll
"power." Still, a person who is to become a truly sllccessfulleader
mllst first of all have learned the principles of goocl "followl"rship,"
Basis for Effective Leadership as set forth in 1\'(1\'(/1 Sciellce J.
Good leadership stresses the qUlllities that enable a person to
inspire and nHlIlllge a group of people successfully. Effective leOld-
Philosophies of Leadership
ership, therefore, is bOlsed all persollOlI example, good orgmlization
and administration, and persollOllmoral responsibility. The second Philosophies of leadership ditrer widel),. One extreme view holds
of these, organization and i.ldministmtion, deills with a lellder's that leaders are born, not made. The opposite extreme cOlltends
personal attention to <llld supervision of subordinates. Because the that anyone who can master various leadership principles Ci.lll



15ai,


, .
. '


















Leadership is an art, gift, or science by which a person can direct the thoughts, plans, and actions of others in order to obtain their obedience,
respect, confidence, and loyal cooperation. This NJROTC class is fortunate to receive guidance from two very proficient naval leaders.
(Kenneth Hendrix)


108

INTEItNATIONAl. l.A\\' AND TIlE SEA 109

le<ld effectively. Other viewpoints stress le<ldership <IS <l m<lnage- Reasoned obedience is the type most often desired in the Navy
rinl process, or as a matter of character and moral development. and N1ROTC. Navy work involves col1stant learning, and it is known
Still another holds that leadership can best be learned b), stud),- that people work and learn best when allowed to use their own ideas.
ing the lives of great men and women. Each of these philosophies Most da)'-to-day routine orders give the receiver some fi'eedom in
has merit, but none, by itself, answers the question of how effective deciding exactl}' how to carry them Ollt in a responsible manner.
leadership can be developed. Orders may be given in various ways. Polite phrases such as
There is no denying that some people arc born with physicill "please" or"would you" and other common courtesies ma)' be used
and mental qualities that make them natural leaders. Howe\'er, by a senior when giving orders, but even if the order has the sound
histor), is Ili11 of examples of people who reached great heights of of a request, it is still an order. \Vhen time permits, the leader may
leadership as the result of study, discipline, and hard work, in spite explain the reasons for an order. The juniors Illny be encouraged to
of handicaps such as small size. physical disabilities, or a lowly ask reasonable questions. or even suggest possible alternatives, but
family background. this does not imply that subordinates ma)' decide whether or not
Leadership is an art, gift, or science by which n persall can they will abe),. Often. ho\\'ever. a more specihc form of order called
direct the thoughts, plans, and actions of others in order to obtain a COllllllmin may be appropriate.
their obedience, respect. confidence. and loyal cooperation. Each A command calls for immediate blind obedience. Courteous
of these objectives is essential. Lack of an)' one probabl)' would terms normally are not used in commands. There is usually no
cause failure in any situation where leadership is needed. time for hesitation or questions regarding such orders. Examples
might be commands to commence fire 011 an enemy. or to abort a
dangerous landing approach to"1Il aircraft carrier,
Obedience
People obey the orders of lawful authorities because of either
Obedience is the most important of the qualities that good leaders the hope of reward or the fear of punishment. Reasoned obedi-
should strive to instill in their personnel. Obedience is necessarily ence to an order often involves hope of some kind of reward. This
the first lesson that lllust be le;;lrned by any military person. may take the form of a simple verbal compliment (such as "\'Vell
The first lessons learned by children from their parents involve done!"), public recognition and praise, the privilege of greater
obedience: cOlile here. go there, sit down, eat, don't touch, be care- responsibility, or improvement of status in the organization. Blind
ful, pick it up. etc. Obedience is necessary to teach the child to do obedience to a command seldom lends itself to particular reward
basic activities and to protect him or her from dangers. In adult at the moment. imd is more often associated with the threat of
life, however. obedience is of greater concern in military life than punishment should it be disobeyed,
in most civilian environments. The good leader should strive to have the respect, confidence.
\'''hile disobe)'ing the law will result in punishment of one sort and loyal cooperation of subordinates, but it is impossible for him
or another in either environment, the loss of their jobs is proba- or her to lead without first obtaining their obedience.
bly the mosl significant result when civilians disobey their boss.
The militar), "product," however. is defense of our cOlilltr)' and our
The Military Leader:
Wily of life. Milit'H), service people. theretore, must be more ide-
A Legal and Moral Obligation
alistic than the average civilian, since the)' are serving, protecting,
and defending the United States and its allies-even to the extent Civilian executives hold their positions by virtue of superior
of giving lip their lives in peace or war. Thus there is a greater need knowledge and experience and strong character or personality.
for obedience from service members illllniform. The executive probably is not legally responsible for the persons
employed, and any concern for the well-being of subordinates is
Obedience in the Military Services primarily a moral one.
Military leaders, all the other hand, have both a legal and a moral
I n the militar),. an order is a directive to action of some kind,
obligation to do all in their power to lead their subordinates efiective-
generall)' given b)' a senior to a junior. In the oath of service takcll
Iy and to be concerned about their welfare. The president. as repre-
by all enlisted personnei upon enlistment. the)' promise to faithfully
sentative of the people of the United States. has granted each military
abe)' and calT)' out the lawful orders of those appointed over them.
leader extensive authority to do so based on a legal contmct.
Obedience to orders has two forms in the militar)" each with its OWI1
The military leader must depend upon subordinates to accolll-
time and place. Blil1d oiJedience is automatic response to orders sllch
plish assigned missions. Consequently, leaders Illust be aware of
tiS commands isslled during dose order drill. or steering cOlllmands
their subordinates' capabilities and their limitations. The leader
to a helmsman. There is no time for questioning or determining the
must personally be concerned with subordinates' health. we1t~lre,
reason for this type of order. ReaSVllen oiJedience, on the other hand,
and any problems that may affect their peace of mind and effi-
allows for some personal initiative in calTying out an order.

110 I.EADEItS HI P

STUDY GUIDE QUESTIONS

1. 'Vhat is the challenge of leadership?
2. Upon what is effective leadership based?
3. ' Vhat are the two extremes in philosophy of leadership?
4. \Vhat is the fi rst lesson that militaqr personneIlllllst learn?
5. \Vh)' must military personnel have a morc idei.llistic outlook
0 11 the importance of obedience?
6. A. \Vhat arc the two forms of military obedience?
ll. \Vhy is there a need for each?
7. ' Vhilt is the difference between a senior's request or order and
a command?
These NJROTC cadets are learning firsthand that it takes everyone 8. ' Vhat makes the military leader difterent from the civilian
pulling together with all their individual strengths and weaknesses to executive?
accomplish a mission. (Annapolis HS NJROTC)
CRITICAL THIN K ING
ciency on Ihe job. such as family iliness. debts. and 01 her diflicul-
ties. The leader must gtlin the confidence of his or her personnel so I. In which ways is it harder to be a leader in the military than in
that the)' wiU feel free to consult the leader about an)' problems. civilian life? In which wa),s is it easier?
2. \"hat are some ways of getting the cooperation of a
disinterested or uncommitted subordinate?
The Challenge of Leadership

The leader htls illl especially difl1cult task in trying to motivate dis-
VOCABUL ARY
interested persons or troublemakers who always seem to be present
in mosl groups of people. Ideally. the leader will be able 10 guide Illoral responsibUit)' order
and assist most slich individuals to gain a sense of moral respon- reasoned obedience command
sibility so the)' too can become assets to the organization. After all, blind obedience
everyone IllllSt live by rules and regulations, whether in the Navy
or in civilian life. These rules, if followed, make life mure pleasant
and easier for all.
Personnel l11l1st be taught that the more they discipline them-
selves. the less Ihey will have to be disciplined by others. They must
be fully aware of their importance to the tealll. Their shipmates
Illust be able to depend on them in day-to-day routine matters,
as well as in battle. All should be led to understand that learning,
advancing in rate, and assuming more responsibilities are duties of
ever)' Sailor and citizen, not just the choice of a select fe\\'.
In the Navy, as in the other military services, officers and petty
officers ha\'e the responsibilities of leadership. Although each
leadership posilion may be different. the challenge of leadership
remains the same: to get people to do the job.
Leadership and discipline are vital in any milit<1q' organiza-
tion. The same qualities that make ;l good leader in the military
services arc equaily helpful to the civilian leader.

fJ Qualities of a Leader










No two leaders are exactly alike. They do not possess the same initiative to learn about tasks and billets demanding increased lev-
!miIS; neither do they accomplish their goals in the S<lme ways. All els of responsibility. Positive recommendations, advancements, and
grroH leaders, however, have certain characteristics and nbilities. promotions are likely to result ti'om such performance of duty.
Not evcry leader will possess every quality disclIssed here, but all A young person showing ambition on the job in a ci\'ilian firm
will have many of them. It stands to reason that it is important for is considered a valuabJe asset; such a person might e\'entually be
a leader with less natural ability to work on those qualities needed considered for a management role. I\,lere ambition is not enough
to become morc cfTectivt'. in the militaql service, however. All in the militar), are expected to
ploee dut), obO\'e selt: All must do their dut), to the best of their abil-
ity at all times-not because of the personnl gnin that might occur,
Moral Responsibility but because that is the best way to accomplish the mission. The unit
A high sense of moral responsibility is one of the most important might I~lil in its mission if some individuals ':liJ to do their part.
leadership chnracteristics. AJI truly great leaders have had personal
codes of conduct that would not permit them to lise their abili-
ties and positions to take unfair advantage of their fellow citizens
or subordinates.
Most of us understand the written and unwritten Jaws that
guide OU]' actions and know that appropriate punishments will
likely result if we break them. It is more difficult, however, to define
mOrilllaws, since Illost of these cannot be legally enforced. Each
person must establish these laws for himself or herself. Depending
upon the person's character, the sense of moral responsibility may
be extensive or almost nonexistent. The only enforcer is the indi-
vidual's own conscience.



Loyalty
LO),;'llty means f..1ithful and enthusiastic devotion to one's cOllnt!')',
organization, and associates. In the military this must be broad-
ened to include one's superiors and subordinates. Ever)'one IllUSt
eom the right to loyalt)"
Lo)'alt)' is a two-way street. Subordinates arc particularly sen-
sitive about loyalty extending downward to them and arc quick to
notice when it is absent. The loyalty of a senior toward his or her
personnel has a great effect on the morale within the organization,
and this may translate into that extra effort that is so often neces-
sary to accomplish a mission.


Devotion to Duty
Devotion to duty ma)' be defined os loyalt)' to the position or job
Master Chief Petty Officer of the fleet West has demonstrated the
one holds. In general, devotion to duty is shown by someone who best qualities of naval leadership throughout his service career. Note
not only exerts maximulll ettort on the present job, but also takes the new Navy working uniform he is wearing. (Jenni fer Villalovos)


III

112 LEADERSHIP

Professional Knowledge Courage
The person who knows the job thoroughly is t~lr better qualified It would be difficult to imagine a true leader who did not possess
to lead than one who does not. Mere schoolbook knowledge is courage. Courage is the quality that enables us to accept our respon-
not sufficient; experience is also essential. The new leader, there- sibilities and to carry them out regardless of the consequences. A
tore, must not hesitate to call upon more experienced individuals courageous person can meet dangers and difficulties with firmness.
to assist when appropriate. A courageous persall is not necessarily fearless, but has learned to
The person being relieved by a new leader normally pro- conquer inner tears in order to concentrate on the tasks at hand.
vides information concerning the duties .md difficulties of the Courage is a quality of the mind and may be developed and strength-
job and the abilities and personalities of the assigned personnel. ened with usc. Each time i\ person overcomes an obstacle-whether it
Subordinates will be eager to help, if their new leader shows inter- is a tough examination, or a sports opponent, or peer pressure--the
est in gaining from their experiences. It pays to be willing to listen courage of that individual will be strengthened.
to advice and suggestions, for most people will lose the desire to \'Ve should be careful to add, however, that continuous success
help if their leader shows lack of interest or caring. with every problem, while encouraging and satisfying at the time,
may not necessarily prepare an individual for the disappointment
of failure. Courage grows when a person learns to strive again lor
Self-Conf idence
success after an initial setback.
Self-confidence is aile of the most important qualities ofleadership.
As a leader's knowledge grows, self-confidence should also grow.
Moral Courage
In fact. knowledge is meaningless without confidence and ability.
Past accomplishments ilnd educational degrees by themselves will Moral courage means a show of firmness in difficult situations
not sufllce; proven ability on the job is the Illost basic requirement. where the danger of death or injury is not an immediate con-
Arrogance on the part of an untried, inexperienced junior officer cern. It is a form of courage less glamorous than physical cour-
or new leading petty officer will result in the loss of subordinates' age-risking one's lite to save another, being fearless in the face of
respect, which will make the leader's job much more difficult. enemy fire, or braving the unknown dangers of the deep seas or
outer space. Situations requiring moral courage, however, occur
f~lI' more often than the more glamorous ones.
Init iative and Ingenuity
The pressures of our daily lives can be great at times, and this
The military services have so many regulations, instructions, and is where moral courage comes in. It may be easier to allow the
policies that a new leader might believe there is little room for per- wrong thing to be done and to say nothing, or to observe incor-
sonal initiative and ingenuity in the service today-but this simply rect procedures or damaged equipment and let it go unreported.
is not so. Actually, with new ships, new equipment. new weapons Sometimes it is hard to disagree with a senior-or worse, to agree
systems, and new concepts of warfare, the demand tor officers and with a senior when you arc certain that he or she is wrong. Fear
pett), officers with these qualities is greater now than e\'er before. of .1Ilger from seniors, fear of ridicule b)1 peers, and lack of confi-
All of these new developments require leaders with the imagina- dence due to immaturity or ignorance are some of the pressures
tion, skills, and daring to fl11d the best ways to use new systems and that make the exercise of moml courage difficult.
new ideas. 1\'1oral courage is necessary to ensure that seniors get the infor-
Tn the NjROrC as in the Navy, few days will pass without some mation they need to make good decisions--even if such informa-
opportunity to exercise initiative and ingenuity. The new leader tion upsets them. A person needs moral courage to bring forth Ilew
must take advantage of small, everyday opportunities in order ideas for improvement, especially if those ideas go against prece-
to gain the self-confidence necessary to handle bigger challenges dent or well-laid plans. The person who says nothing, or agrees with
when they arise. seniors and then criticizes them behind their backs, loses both the
Before tackling any problem, though, it is necessary to have respect of juniors and the trust of the seniors. On the other hand,
solid background knowledge of that problem. You can be sure the leader who shows respect lor the opinions of others, especially
that problems that ex.ist today did not suddenly materizLiize out subordinates, is admired and respected for having moral courage.
of thin air; problems grow over a period of time, as do new ideas It takes moral courage to admit one's mistakes. It takes moral
and new equipment. Consequently, when problems need to be courage to be honest, just, and truthful at all times. It takes moral
solved. it is wise to be aware of what has been tried before. Ib try courage to insist on abiding by regulations and laws when they are
again with a tbwed method that has failed before is orten a waste being disregarded by many others. It takes a very special moral cour-
of time and effort. age to stick to one's high principles in the t~\Ce of ridicule by peers
and fi'iends, because everyone wilnts to teellike "one of the gang."

l NTE HNXl'l ONAL LAW AND T11E SEA 113


acquire the qualities he or she needs for sllccess. \·Vhen leaders'
conduct is outstanding, those around them are often inspired to
pattern their own actions after them, to the good of the whole
organization. No leader, then, can live by the rule of "Do as I say,
not as I do." It will not work. As many recent e\'Cnts have shown,
lllallY bad things can happen to elected, appointed, and cOlllmis-
sioned and noncommissioned military <md civiliallieaders jf what
they do in their private lives is not .. lS exemplary as their public rllld
professional lives.
No leader can ignore rules and regulations and still expect sub-
ordinates to follow them. Such a leader will not be trusted and will
lose control of subordinates. Regaining respect and control once
they ore lost is exceptionally difficult.
Rank has its privileges, but that does not excuse improper con-
duct. Rather, when it comes to conduct, it should be stressed that
rank also has its responsibilities. "Conduct" in the military means
conduct ashore, as well as aboard ship or station. No good citi-
zen and certainly no service member would do anything to dis-
honor the uniform, for such conduct can bring dishonor upon the
United Sti1tes and its armed forces.
All young people have a need for good examples of how to be the
best they can be. This sharp NJROTC cadet demonstrates pride in
himself and in his unit as he goes aboard a Navy train ing ship. Mutual Trust and Confidence
(Annapolis HS NJROTC)
Officers and pett), officers must set a proper example by letting
subordinates know that they are trusted. If leaders fail to show
Ability to Organize and trust in their subordinates, they will soon find themselves COI1-
Make Decisions stillltly checking up on their people, distrusting the records and
reports prepared by them, and consequently pertorming their own
A military leader's primary job is to coordinate the eft-orts of their
duties less efficiently.
personnel to achieve a common purpose. Leaders must be able to
organize their subordinates so that their labors and training can
be used to achieve the best results. A first requirement tor effective
organization therefore is a full awareness of the skills and capabili-
ties of assigned personnel.
\"'hile it is entirely proper to call upon the expertise and experi-
ence of seniors to assist in the accomplishment of a mission, young
leaders must eventually make 1110st of the final decisions themselves.
\Vithout the ability to make good decisions, a leader is useless.
Subordinates expect clear-cut decisions from their lead-
ers when they bring personal problems to them for discussion
or when professional problems require solutions. If complicated
problems arise, especially those clenrly beyond n junior's authority,
he or she will want to discllss them with n superior. Honesl mis-
takes will occasionally occur, but from mistakes comes experience,
and from experience comes wisdom.


Personal Example
All young people have a strong need for examples to live by. By These two members of a NJROTC relay race team know that it takes
following the good example of someone admired-father, mother, mutual trust and confidence in each other's ability to make a good
sibling, teacher, sports hero, or celebrity-the young person (an exchange of the baton in the stress of competition. (Annapolis
HS NJROTC)

114 LEADERSHIP

It would be l1,ft've, however, to suggest that all leaders in the warned, but the supreme threat is the loss of the job by firing. On
N~vy, the government, business, or anywhere else are continu- the other hand, a worker who is dissatisfied with a job may quit.
ollsly efficient, invariabl)' honest, ~nd always perform their duties In the military, corrective actions are a primi.H}' responsibil-
responsibly and with honor. ""e know that our kadel's should do it}, of leadership. The leaders must know their personnel and take
things that wily, of course, and we hilve a right to expect thilt they Cilre of their needs, and mllst insist on the acceptance and exercise
do. When leaders f.1il to fulfill their responsibilities, society has the of personal moral responsibility, The naval leader must accept this
right to demand correcli\'e action, and in seriolls cases, punish- responsibility by regulation, but must also do so for the practical
ment under the lilw. reason that it is necessary if the crew is to be a working team that
In an}' event, when a leader fails to back subordinates, shows can respond properly to emergency situations and carry out the
favoritism, condones dishonesty, allows sloppy work, 01' evades unit's mission.
legitimate regulations, the reputation of not just the leader involved
but of all leaders in the organization is jeopardized. ~\'Illtual respect,
Discipline
trust, and understanding can prompt all hands to exercise a greater
degree of personal responsibility. Then morale will be higher, effi- Discipline is the basis of true democracy. It requires rules of con-
ciency will be improved, and burdens will be lighter. duct that humans, through experience, have found desirable for
The word of a leader sholiid be dependable. Consequently, if governing relations among members of civilized societ}'. Such rules
leaders cannot make good on their word or their promises, they of conduct do not deprive Illl individual of fundamental rights; in
should not make commitments. NeFer promise IV/wt ((fIlIlOt be fact, they protect everyone's equal rights.
delil'ered. Keeping your word is important evidence of personal Formal rules that are put into eftect by duly constituted author-
hOllOI'. If you do not m ~ke a special efforl to uphold your word, ity, such as a city council or state legislature, are called law:), Other
you will lose the respect of subordilllltes and Ilssocilltes, and the informal rules that hi.",e become a part of our culture by custom
attitudes of all around you will be adversel), affected. A sense of and usage are caUed COI/ I'elltioIlS.
honesty and mutual trllst must be present if a military unit is to Discipline is the training that develops self-control, charac-
op~rate efficiently, ter, or efficiency. It is important both in civilian Illld military life.
Discipline does not imply severity, unreasonable restraint of free-
dom, or unnecessary restrictions. Discipline means control of COI1-
Conduct in Uniform
duct so there can be a coordination of effort fo r the good of all,
The naval leader mllst do all in his or her power to prcvent improper A dictionary defines discipline as "control gained by enforcing
actions by naval personnel. Often the cause for such actions is dis- obedience," or "that state of orderliness gained through self-con-
satisfaction with conditions in their unit, ship, or statioll. If a per- trol and orderly conduct." A description of discipline in military
sall docs not like the work assignment or living conditions, feels terms would be "that degree of control which moves an organized
that command policies are unfair, or has troubles ilt home, weaker group to appropriate action upon receipt of an order. or in antici-
subordinates may resort to unauthorized absence, to alcohol or pation of that order when circumstances prevent its being gh'en."
substance abuse, or to other forms of escape. Such individuals may A military organization could not function properly without
make it impossible for the unit to accomplish its mission. orderliness and orderly conduct. Admiral Arleigh llurke. USN. a
A military leader hilS the responsibility to know the needs of former chief of naval operations, stated: "i\ well-disciplined orga-
subordinates and to know their am:.ieties. It is his or her duty to nization is one whose members work with enthusiasm, willingness,
remind them of their responsibility to conduct themselves prop- Illld zest, <IS individu<1ls and as a group, to fulfill the mission of the
erly nt all times, to reflect credit on their families, their service, and organization with expectation of success." The signs of discipline in
their nation, .md to be ready to perform their duties whenever i.l military org.miztltion can be seen in smart stllutes, proper wearing
required to do so. of the uniform, and prompt and correct action in any emergency.
The big ditlerence between civilian and military leadership, The purpose of discipline in the military services is to develop
hO\\'e\'er, comes in the corrective actions expected of the leader- an efficient organization of personnel trained to achievc i.l common
ship. In civilian institutions a certain degree of concern is gener- goal. Each person should know where he or she fits into the orga-
ally exercised, often reflected in things like insurance coverage nization. Each should understand that all ill the group hiwe i.l com-
Ilnd some concern for health and safety conditions all the job, mOil purpose and that all are to follow and abc}' their leader. Such a
1110stly to increase productivity, sat is~' laws, or abide by union group is so well organized and trained that it Ci.U1 handle any emer-
agreements. But there is little concern for, or involvement in, the gency, as well as normal routine tasks. A \\'elJ-disciplined military
employee's home life, recreation, financial well-being, ethics. or liv- unit responds automatically to an emergenc)' and will not panic.
ing conditions. The worker punches in, does the job, punches out,
and leaves. A worker who doesn't do the job satisfactorily may be

INTERNATIONA L LAW AND THE SEA 115

Deln)' in taking appropriate disciplinary action brings resent-
ment toward the entire system- especially if the offender "gets off
because of a time Inpse that dulls memories or makes it seem ns
though the offense hns been overlooked. \ Vrong Olcts and poor per-
(onmmce require immediate guidance and correction in order to
bring about the necessaqr changes.
New leaders l11a)' have a tendency to be too lenient with minor
infractions, thereby penalizing good people while favoring bad
ones. \Vhen this error is pointed out to some junior leaders, they
mily become uncert<lin of thelllseives, and in trying to compensate
for the tilUlt, they overreact, becoming too nrbitrary. In either case
the leader will lose the confidence of subordinates because of such
inconsistency. It is best to chart a steady course when denling with
disciplinary matters.
A good leader knows that everyone responds to recognition for a job
well done. Here, these NJROTC cadets receiving the winner's trophy
after a dril l competition know that their discipline and hard work has Loss of Temper = Loss of Control
been acknowledged and rewarded. (Central HS NJROTC, David Poe)
A leader cannot afford to lose his or her temper. Losing one's
temper is usually considered to be a personal weakness and usu-
Self-Discipline
ally does not improve the effectiveness of the leader and his or her
True discipline demands loyal but rensoned obedience to status within the organization. 'tb be sure, it is not always eas), to
authority. Such obedience allows for initiath'e and is present even refrain from anger, but a consciolls eftort to do so must be made.
in the absence of the leader. Self-discipline, therefore, is essential A person who loses control of himself or hersclf usunlly loses
before true discipline can be de\'eloped. The self-disciplined per- control of the situiltion. Rare is the cnse when proper action or
SOil will always be dependable and will cury out responsibilities desired results come from an expression of anger. In admonishing
under all circumstances without need of direct supervision. error or ndministering punishment, the leader IllllSt remain calm,
Self-discipline lessens the need for specific rules and regula- impersollnl, and dignified. A leader who is extremely incenscd
tions. Traffic laws, the Uniform Code of Militar}' Justice, civil rights might want to pace the deck for a few minutes rather than take
lnws, alcohol and drug laws, and cvell things like school dress codes unwise, precipitolls actioll. The calmer the leilder is in the usual
would be unnecessary if we wt.:Te all perfectly self-disciplined indi- performance of duty, the more action he or shc can get when the
viduals. Self-disciplined people need little or no supervision. occnsiull demands. The leader who is inconsistcnt, quick-tem-
Self-discipline begins with the realiz;.ltion that there is a pered, or constantly shollting only creates confusion and soon
Ileed for self-control. Development of self-discipline comes only stops being effective, sincc those actions e,'entunll}, will get little or
through repeated prilctice of self-control. The person who has no response from subordinates.
developed self-control in da),-to-day life is also the one who can
hold up in the tace of hardship and danger.
Knowing Personnel

Consistency In Disciplinary Action It is vital that leaders get to know the people working for them. As
part of this, it is importnllt for the young leader to develop a style
In the military, disobedience of regulatiolls must be hnndled
of communication with personnel thnt will creilte mutual respect.
immediatciy, justly, and consistently. \Vrong*doing thnt is dealt
The key to this is learning the personality and chnracter of every
with scverely one day cannot be treated ilS insignificant the next.
one of those juniors- understanding what makes thcm tick.
Such an approach can only result in confusion, poor morale, and
It is the duty of the leader to stud), their people, watch them,
distrust of the leader.
learn their nppronch to problems, work with them, nlld guide
If service members are allowed to de~' a regulation opcnly,
them. To Illnintnin discipline, the leader must always be genuinely
they will develop an indiftcrent attitude toward other regulations
concerned about his or her people, Olnd should not wait until they
as well. Two fUlldnmental rules apply: (1) never make a regulation
get into difficulties to help them. This means ensuring that they arc
that you canllot or will not cnforce, nnd (2) take immediate, filiI'
comlortable and as well cared for OlS circllmst;'lI1Ces permit; seeing
action thnt leaves no doubt in thc mind of the offender about the
thnt they receive their f..li r share of earned privileges; o.llld shmving
n.~aso n for the reprimand or punishment.
thnt their personal Olnd f..l111 ily lives are of reill interest. The good

116 LEI\DERSHIP

leader will always make sure people are fully aware of what is being not be tolerated in the Navy or other milit<lry services, and those
done all their behalf. found guilty of this type of behavior are subject to severe disci-
A leader should bear in mind that everyone wants, needs, and pline or separation ti'OJll the service. ~'[ost civilian institutiolls are
responds to recognition. If the best in people is to be brought out, vel")' concerned abollt these issues as well, both because of poten-
they must be made to feel important. They must feel respect from tiallegal issues and also because of their impact on the productiv-
their ilssociates, and they Illust feel that their superiors think they ity and morale of the organization.
ilrc competent.
A good leader continuall), strives to appl)' all that he or she
can learn about human nature through experience ilnd study. This
knowledge can be obtained only by working at the job of human STUDY GU IDE Q U EST IONS
relations. The better his or her insight into hU111illl nature, and the
I. \ Vhat are the qualities of il good leader that are discussed in
better he or she understands the intelligence, education, and back-
this chapter?
grounds of personnel, the 1110re effective the leader will be in han-
2. \ Vh)' must lo),alty be a two-wa), street?
dling people.
3. A. What is devotion to duty?
R. How does it relate to health}' personal ambition?
Friendship versus Familiarity
C. How does it relate to the ability to take orders?
In recent years personal relationships between leaders ilnd subordi-
4. \Vhat two main qualifications are necessary for a leader to be
nates, especially between those of the opposite sex, have become an
regarded as knowledgeable?
area of great concern, both in the military and civilian life. The rela-
5. How Ciln courage be strengthened?
tionship between leaders and their subordinates influences disci-
pline. There is a great difference between familiarity and friendship. 6. A. \ Vhat is moral courage?
The leader who talks to subordinates in a friendly manner, taking a B. \Vhat arc the principal factors that make moral courage
personal interest in them and being concerned with their problems, difficult?
quickl}' gains their confidence and respect. Young men and women C. How can a lack of moral courage lead to the loss of both
want to be able to look to their seniors for guidance; they want to be the respect of juniors ilnd the trust of seniors?
proud of their leaders. Such leaders, because they nre friendly and
7. \ Vh)' could it be especiall)' dangerous to neglect reporting a
approachable, will be the first ones turned to for advice. disagreeable filCt to a commander?
On the other hand, leaders who become too familiar with
8. A. \Vhy is decision making important for a leader?
their subordinates will often have difl1culty in leading them. The
B. How can the young leader obtain help when confronted
old adage " f~lIl1iliarity breeds contempt" is applicilble to these situ-
with problems beyond his or her experience to solve?
ations, because subordinates who perceive themselves as f~lVored
may feci the leader will not require them to obey and perform well. 9. \Vhy is the leader's personal exalllple so important in leading
Those who do not feel so J~wored may perceive unfnir or unequnl subordinates?
treatment, whether or not it actually exists. 10. \Vhy are mutual trust and confidence so import<lJlt in dealing
The N.wy and the other selyices all have strict regulations with people?
against seniors becoming overly familiar (developing close per- II. \Vhat is Admiral Bmke's definition of a well~discipliJled
sOllal relationships) with persollilel of lower rank, especially those organization?
ill their immediate chain of command. Such relationships are
12. \ Vhat is the purpose of militar)' discipline?
called Imtcmizatioll. Unsolicited or otherwise undesirable or inap-
13. HO\\' does a person ,KCIuire self-discipline?
propriate advances of one service member toward .mother based
on sexual attraction, especially invoh'ing promises of reward or 14. \ Vhy is consistency in disciplinary action essential?
threats of punishment or other forms of intimidation, is called sex- 15. \ Vhy is it importallt 110t to make rules that arc unenforceable?
//(/1 hamssment. 16. \ Vhat is the usual result if leaders lose their temper?
Fraternization and sexu<ll harassment call be extremely
17. \-\,h)' is an understanding of human nature important in
destructive to the morale of both those directly affected and their
dealing with people?
fellow crew members or coworkers on the job. Such actions cal1-

l NTE]{NATlONAL LAW AND TilE SEA 117

18. A. \Vhy is fraternization or familiarity between officers and VOCABULARY
enlisted personnel prohibited in the military services?
ehameter ti'aternizatioll
B. \,"hat is the differellce beh\'eell friendship .Ind t~lmiliarity?
loyalty sexual harassment
19. A. \'Vhat is sexual harassnlent?
self-confidence leniency
13. \Vh)' can it not be tolerated in the military services? arrogance infraction
initiative famil iarity
CRIT ICAL T HINK ING

I. \Vhy is the issue of friendship and filllliliill'it)' beh\'een leaders
and subordinates within the sallle military unit of greater
concern than beh\'een indi\'iduals working within a civilian
firm?

2. \Vhat are sOllle ways in which h,'o individuals of different
rank within a miJitary unit call1llaint,lin a friendship while
not violating military rules ag,linst fraternization?

II Evaluation of Performance











All people are involved in evaluation from illl carly age. Babies llation were right. Further out in lime, it might sometimes refer to
respond to some types of personalities better than others. potential performnnce. tor example, a long-distance rullner may
YOllngsters select friends based 011 performance and satist)'illg their be hampered in a particulnr race by illness, but basic ability is not
needs for companionship. The process becomes more sophisticated qucstioned. One often he<lrs comments on potential performance
and important as years go by. In the Na\T and in NJROTC. offi- such as, "He could do it ifhe renll)' tried," or "She just doesn't seem
cers are concerned with the selection of personnel for instructors, to care." In the final nllalysis, true ability cnHnot be judged except
for school nominations, for advancement in rale, for filling billets b)' observing performance. It is the results thnt count!
in the unit, and for carrying out specific assignments. The overall Both performance ;:1I1d ability refer to the present-wh;:l1 the
pcrformill1cc rating of a naval leader is greatly afiixted by ability to person is doing, or can do. now. Aptitude, on the other hand,
select appropriate people for various roles, and to judge their C<lpa- refers to potential skills nnd abilities in the future. Aptitude tests
bilit)' tu take on future assignments of greater responsibility. of many varieties, such as the SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test) nnd
ASVA13 (an armed services aptitude test), as wdl as evaluation
of background expcriences, can be used with good reliability to
Performance, Ability, Aptitude, select individuals for training in certain areas. For example, high
Achievement school ll1l1sicians proved to be ver)' adept radiomen in \Vorld \Var

PCljo/"ma/lce refers to what a person does-actual behavior or II, when <Ill individual's ability to read international Morse code
actual output. Ability is often confused with performance. Ability was crucial to the rating. Likewise. the I;mnhand who Ims driven
often applies to performance over a considerable period of time; it and repaired tractors, cnrs, and mnchinery since age ten is il good
also applies to what a person could do at a given moment, if the sit- prospect to become <I sllccessful enginel1l<lll or machinist's Illate. A
long list of such examples could be Illade.
Aciliel'elllent generi.\lIy refers to performance in the past, often
that which has alre;:ldy been eVi.lluated. Achievement applies to
work that has been done. \"hen properly evaluated. past achieve-
ments of individuals in the same field cnn be quickly compared for
selection for promotion or future job assignments. Properl)! eval-
uating the achievcments of their subordinates is one of the most
important responsibilities of a leader.


Evaluation in the NJROTC

Developing leadership ability is one of the main objectives of
N]ROTC. Students enrolled in this course should strive to become
leaders in their school. unit, and community. and prepare for
higher leadership roles later in life.
Already. the cadet officers of an NJROTC unit have been
through a selection process to attain their ranks and their posi-
tions. Their predecessors undoubtedly helped their naval science
These NJROTC cadets are going though an important phase in per- instructors to make the current appointments. Perhaps more
sonal development cal led progress assessment. Upon completion of important to the cadet is the fact that their current oll1cers and
this quiz, the individuals taking it can use it to judge for themselves instructors must evaluate ilild nominate their successors at some
how well they learned the material presented to them, and can take
time during the school year.
personal corrective action to improve future performance if neces-
sary. (Annapolis HS NJROTC)


118

INTERNATIO NAl. I.AW AND TilE SEA 119

To advance in the NJROTC, as in the Navy, an
individual needs to grow steadily both personally and
professionally. The experience these cadets are get-
ting as they learn how to handle the helm and engine
order telegraph aboard a Navy training ship will serve
them well. (Annapolis HS NJROTC)































Evaluations of prospective NJROTC cadet officers nrc based to buy a Ilew piece of athletic gear, or as complex as getting an A
0 11 character, honesty, motivation, academic effort nnd success, in a tough high school course, or getting a job in a desired protes-
cooperation in ullit ventures, record of loynlt)' to school and unit, sian. Depending 011 how difficult the goal is to attain, one or more
appeilrance in uniform, and mi1l1)' other i.lttributes. These e"nluk subgoals may also ha\'e to be identified- like waypoints along the
tions will be renected in their leaders' recommendations and result route to the final destinatioll.
in awards, nd\·i.1IlCements, and promotions. Such is the way of the
Nnv}' as well, and it really is no different in civilian life. The system Progress Assessment
works; sOllnd evaluation grounded in sound personal leadership
Once realistic goals ha\'e been decided upon, the next step is
is the key.
to assess progress toward them. In the school setting, such prog-
ress assessment is facilitated by the assignment of periodic prog-
Self -Evaluation ress grades by the teacher. Uroader progress can be assessed by
such standardized tests as the preiiminnl"}' and regular Scholastic
It is not necessnry for a person to wait until a formal evaluation
Aptitude Tests (PSAT and SAT ) and vnrious achievement tests. In
timc or period to evaluate his or her 0\\,11 performance. Everyone
the military, progress is measured by periodic formal and int<mnai
in the NjROTC, or anyone who aspires to get ahcad either in the
performance filtings, advancement exams, and aptitude tests such
militnry or in civilian life, should go through a periodic .~I!If-e\l{lll1tl­
as the ASVAll. Similar methods are used to assess progress in civil-
I iOI/ process. Such a process is roughly like guiding a ship from one
ian occupations.
place to another. As navigator, you have to know your presellt 10Gt-
However, in all roles of life, truly successful peoplc do not sit
tion and where the ship is going, or you canllot possibly determine
back and wait until they are formall), e\'aluated to judge their prog-
whether or not YOli arc on the correct course to get there.
ress tow;.ud the goals they have set for themselves. Rather, they go
through an almost continuous process of self-evaluation to deter-
Goal Setting mine lo r themseh'es how they are progressing and whether cor-
;"Iost people who have been successful in lite did not achieve rective action is necessary to get back on track. After all, it is much
their Sllccess by luck or by proceeding in a random manner. Rather, easier to stay on course toward a goal b}' making periodic small
a common thread in al most every success stor), is the setting of corrections than it is to make large corrections only once or h\'ice
realistic and attainable gonls. Such goals may be as simple as saving along the Wity.

120 LEADER SHIP

The Self-Evaluation Process STU DY GUIDE QUESTION S
The main tasks in an)' self-evaluation process are to set realistic
I. Explain why evaluation of performance of subordinates is
criteria by which one ma)' measure progress, and to make realistic important to officers in the Navy and the NJROr c.
assessmellts of performance against those criteria. In school, stich
2. \Vhat is the difterence between '1 person's ability and his or her
judgments might involve performance on daily or weekly quizzes.
performance?
In athletics, such criteriil as times to run various distances in track,
3. Why should NjROTC cadets know abollt performance
percentage of foul shots nlilde thilt day in basketball, or percentage
eVilluation?
of first serves good in tennis might be useful. In personal relations,
how well one handled tensions between oneself and, sa)'. il teacher 4. \Vhy is self-evaluation import;:mt?
or friend could be assessed. The important thing is to be truly hOIl- 5. "Vhat is a common tactor in most persoIlal Sllccess stories?
cst with yourself so that a realistic evaluation call be Ill::lde.
6. How call a persall assess his or her progress toward a personal
If the self-evaluation inciic::ltes that some corrections are nec- goal?
ess::lry, the next step is to decide on the most effective course of
7. \Vhat are the main tasks in self-evaluation?
::lction to make the desired adjustment, such as by study or improv-
8. \ Vhat must a person do to advance in the Navy or in any other
ing technique in the academic or sports nreas, or personal behavior
large organization?
in the case of interpersonal relations. It is here that more successful
individuals are often separnted frolll those less sLlccessful, because
such ncijustments and ch::lllges in behavior arc often nccolllplished CRITICAL THINKING
only b)' hard and continuous etTort.
I. \ Vhy is it important to seek input from a c::lelet's peers and
To advance in the NJROTC, the Navy, or another armed
their cadet leaders ",hen evaluating them for possible cadet
service-and indeed in almost any organization- an indi\'idual
leadership positions?
needs to grow steadily both personally and professionally. One of
2. How can the ability to go through a periodic self-evaluation
the best ways to do so is to set both short-term and long-range
process be of great benefit to those desiring to be better
goals for yourself in each are::l of concern, and thell to take appro-
students or athletes in addition to those trying for leadership
priate corrective action whenever trends develop that, if left ullcor-
positions in the NjROTC?
reeted. would hinder your progress. The process may not always
be fUll, but it is exciting, and it provides you with a real feeling of
accomplishment as YOll meet each short-term goal. Ultimately, VOCABULARY
YOll e 1l1 get the most Ollt of life as you achieve your major long-
perlorm<lnce progress assessment
term personal and professional objectives.
CVaill<1tion self-evalu<lt iOIl
aptitude

II How to Give Instruction











As YOli become an upperclassman in your school and achieve
higher ranks within your NJROTC units, you will often be called
50
upon to give either formal or informal instruction to schoolmates
or to junior NJROTC cadets. In this chapter we will discllss man)'
0
things that will be helpful when YOll find yourself in this situation. -------- ~
These include leaning theory, preparation for instruction, and 0
techniques for delivery. \
0
~
Learning Theory 0

The good instructor is Ilmster of m<1ny skills. Successful instruc- o
tion demands competence in the subject matter and knowledge of o 10 W m ~ m ~ ro w ~ 100
teaching skills. Utlt the methods of instruction depend largel), 011 Number of Trials
an understanding of how people IL'nrn and the ability to apply that
A typical learning curve for acquiring a ski ll. As the number of trials
understanding.
increases, the number of errors decreases rapidly until a learning
"plateau" is reached, after which further improvement comes slowly.
What Learning Is
One of humankind's outstanding characteristics is the abilit}, to
learning process may include many types of learning, ali taking
learn. People learn continuously from the time they are born until
place at once.
they die. As a result of a learning experience, people mily change Research has shown that some of these types of learning appear
ways of perceiving, thinking, feeling. and doing. Thus, learning can to take place mainly on one side of the brain, while others OCCllr
be defined as a change in behavior as a result of experience. The mainly on the other side. Activities involving numbers, logic, word
behavior can be physical ilnd apparent, or it c;m be intellectual or puzzles, alld analysis appear to stimulate the left side of the bmin,
attitudinal, not easily seen. while activities involving music, imagination, colors, motion, i1l1d
Each student sees the classroom situation diA-erently because creative expression stimulate the right side. For many people, how
he or she is a unique individual whose past experiences aftec! read- they think, behave, and leaJ'Jl appears to be dominated by one side
iness to learn and understanding of the requirements invol\'ed. or the other, although much interaction takes place between the
The responses difter because each person acts in accordance with
two sides. Traditionali}', academic instruction has focused Illore 011
how he or she sees the situation. left-side activities, while somewhat neglecting the right side. Not
Most people have fairly definite ideas about what they want to surprisingly, much recent educational research has shown that the
do and achieve. The student brings these purposes and goals into rate of learning can be greatly increased when instructors in\'olve
the classroom. Some of these purposes may be persona!, and oth- both sides of the brain in their teaching strtltegies.
ers mny be shnred with classmates. Individual needs may deter- The process of learning a skill appears to be much the same,
mine what the student learns as much as what the instructor is regardless of ",hether it is a right- or left-brain nctivity. Graphs of
tr)'ing to get him or her to learn. So the eftective instructor seeks the progress of skilliearnillg usually foliow the same pattern (see
ways to relate new learning to the student's personal goals. the figure). There is rapid impro\'ement in the endy trials. ilut the
Learning is an individual process. The instructor cannot do it clll've may tend to level off thereafter for significant periods of time.
for the student; he or she cannot pour knowledge into the latter's Such a development is il leamillg plateali and ma}' signify all}' of a
head. The student can learn only from that which is experienced. number of conditions. The student may have reached the limits of
Psychologists sometimes classify learning by types: verbal, COI1 - his or ht'r capability; the student may be consolidating the level of
ceptual, perceptual, IllataI', problem solving, and emotionnl. The



121

122 LEADERS HIP




































Navy divers give instruction in water survival skills to a group of NJROTC cadets during a Leadership Academy. The effective instructor is careful
and thoughtful in the way he or she interacts with students. They should be challenged to learn, not intimidated. (James Foehl)


skill; interest mily hilve wilned; or the student may need a diA-erent An instructor should be cautiolls about using Ilcgntil'c /1lOtj-
method for incrc;:lsing progress. Olle should keep in mind that the 1'(1(;011 in the classroom. Impressing students with the seeming
apparent lack of progress does not necessarily mcan that further impossibility of a problem can make the teaching task difficult.
learning is impossible. The point is that a le\'eling process is nor- Usually it is better to show that i1 problem is not impossible ::It
mal, especially when learning 1110tor skills, ::Ind should be expected all, but is within the student's capability to understand and so"'e.
nltcr iln initial period of rapid improvcment. The instructor should Regardless of tht.: learning situation, it should contain at least some
prepare the student fa]' this situation to ward otT discouragement. things that affect the student positively and give him or her a feel-
If the student knows this may occur, frustriltion 111<l}' be lessened. ing of satisf<lction. Every learning experience docs not ha\'e to be
Getting a student ready to learn is important. A student with entirely successful. nor docs the student have to master each les-
a strung purpose, i1 clear objective, and a wcll-ddillcd reason for son completely. But a studt.'nt's ch"lllce of Sllccess is increased if the
learning something makes more progress than one who lacks learning experiellCe is pleasant.
motivation. A student who is ready to learn meets the instructor at Certain states of mind of the learner are known to affect learn-
least halfw<lY, and this simplifies the illstl'llctor's job. ing. Motil't1tioll is the drive or desire to do a particular thing. No
Several t~lCtorS in the learning situation are known to speed, one will learll somcthing very well that he or she doesn't want to
slrel1glhe11. or othen\'ise ellilance learning: learn. The t~lCtor that has perhaps the greatest inOuence on learn-
ing is motivation. the fo)'(.:(' that causes <l person to move toward a
Learning occurs best when it progresses from kllOIl'1I to
goal. This force can be rooted in allY or all of the necds of the stu-
/II/kIWII'll and col/crete to nbstmct. The new learning can be
dent- fo r example. the lleed for security. for new experience, fa r
attached to areas of existing knowledge.
recogn ition, tar self-esteem. for belonging. or for helping others.
Learning is strengtht.:Jled whell accompanied by a pleasant or
Such needs C<luse people to act, to movc, to start working toward
satis~'illg feeling, and learning is weakened when it is associ-
an objective, or to achieve a purpose. The instl'llctor's responsibil-
ated with all 1I1lpleasilnt fix'iing. An experience that produces
ity is first to recognize and identi~' thcse needs in students, and
feeli ngs of defeat, ti'ustratioll, anger, confusion, or filtility in
then to seek WilYS of siltis~'i ng them through teaching.
the student is unpleasant.

I NTER NATIO NAL LAW A N D T1-I E SEA 123

Major Factors that Influence Learning interactions can either improve or hinder le<lrning. Therefore, the
instructor lllllst be <)Wi.lre of and work to <l\'Oid <lny of the conditions
lvluch research has been done ill recent years about the criti-
that inhibit learning.
cal factors that intluence how learning takes place, Some of these
The conditions thilt tend to hinder learning include the fol-
have already been discllssed above. The resuits of this research are
lowing:
slIlllmarized below, in the fOl"m of nine l1l<1jor tactors that influ-
Destructive sarcasm. Sarcasm (a mocking or cutting remark)
cnce Ic'lrning:
c<ln be funny- when w<ltching a comedian dishing it out. It is
New Immillg takes place ill the COli text (~fpnst persOIwl expe- not so funny to be on the receiving end in linnt of peers. It can
ricllcc. Students need to undcrst,lIld how new information hurt <lnd embarrass students, and it effectively stifles learning.
relates to that which the), .1lready know. Illstructors do best to target sarcasm.
Leamillg is depe1ldellt IIPOlllllotil'(llioll. A student must want Intimidation. Some people have faced physic<ll intimidation,
to learn the new material. and that is pretty scary. tiut intellectual intimidation lllay be eWJl
worse, especiall)' when it comes to learning. It is the message that
Leal'llillg is reillj(JI'C/xl throllgh paso/wi experience. If a student
says the student is <l stupid person whose opinions have no value,
has hands-on experience with a subject, he or she will put it
whose knowledge h<ls no depth, and whose insights miss the mark.
into context better.
The intimidator picks out the student's errors and m;lkes sure thilt
Lmmillg is Iacilitatea by linkillg with prior k/lOlI'ledge. It is
everyone else knows about them. If the intimidator is the instruc-
mllch easier to learn Ilew material that is linked to something
tor, the student will dread the ChISS, and learning will suffer.
alreild), known. One of the main gOi.lls of teaching is to help
Boredom. Boredom comes with monotony, with too much of
students make these links.
the same. It comes with irrelevance and blandness. \Vhen bored,
l.eamillg is lIIore eJJiciclIllVhellllclI' iliforlllatioll is logically students no longer pay attention. They daydream. This 1~lilure to
related. By grouping Ilew information in logicll ways, the pay .lttention greatly hinders learning. No one likes to be bored;
brain forms it schema, or concept, and gives it meaning. the result can be a poor attitude toward le;lrning.
Leamillg is clliJnllced by providillg I illlc for rej7ectiol'. Frustration. Frustration occurs whcn students keep trying to do
Reflection, or extellded thillkillg, helps put ne\\' infonnation tasks beyond their abilities, or when tasks take too long to COIll-
in long-term memol')'. Activities sLlch as group discussion and plete. The result is increased tension and a desire to get aW<1Y from
writing ill journals assist in this process. the task. It is cured through shortening tasks, making them easier
Leamillg is ellhallced by sellsllnl alld ClllotiOll(l1 illI'oh'Clllellt. to complete, and eliminating b<lrriers to their completion.
The more senses and emotional stimuli that i.He involved in Fatigue. Tiredness, whether physical or mental, inhibits le;lrn-
learning new material, the better it will be ret;lined in long- ing. It reduces <lttention and motivation, <lnd it decrcClses ;!Ctive
term memor),. involvement. Fatigue comes as a result of tasks that <lre too long
or too difficult. Breaks, movement, .md changes of p<lce revit<llize
LC(lwillg oCCllrs best ill {/II clll'iroll/lICllt thaI wllNes more th(1II
learners.
olle killd oflcamillg. Students have mallY different kinds or
lack of IJUrpose. If the student does not see any point in what
styles of intelligence (motion, visual/spatial, verbal/linguistic,
he or she is doing, it is going to be all the harder to learn. Sense of
Illusical, etc.) that need to come into play during learning.
purpose provides direction, helps tocus attention, increases Illoti-
Leamillg requires repetitiol,. It has been found that without
vation, and thus assists learning and retention. \Vithout it, students
repetition, new learning begins to fade in about thirty sec-
drift; they resist learning.
onds. Instructors need to cover important new information
Sense of failure. A sense or I~lilure depresses learning. It reduces
se\reral times in several different ways.
motivation. It Ill<lkes things seem not worthwhile. Errors can help
students learn, but failllre cannot. The key point is that there is a
Interpersonal Interactions world of diflerence between making errors <lnd feeling oneself a
failure. The difference depends on the instructor's ability to help
Learning requires much of students. They mllst p;l), attention. They
his or her students le;UJl.
have to involve themselves actively, responding <lnd nwnipulating. At first it may seem unnecessary to spend time telling prospec-
They are supposed to participate responsibly. To do all these things, tive instructors about these conditions. The)' seem like COllllllon
students must feel secure, accepted, and capable of success. But even sense. However, new instructors are often overwhelmed by the role
the most perlect lesson plan cannot dew lop such positive <lttitudes <lnd feel safest when focllsing their attention ;md energies 011 pre-
and feelings. The creation of such <In en\'ironment is the instruc- paring and delivering a "good" lesson. It takes more than just good
tor's responsibility, and the type and manner of instructor-student mechanics to produce learning. Instructors must understand and

124 I.E/\IJERSIIII'

<lppreci<lte the tiKt that every classroom interaction is a potentinl If audiovisual equipment will be required, is it available,
teachable mOlllent. hooked up, tested, and ready to run?
Are sufficient numbers of any instructional materials such as
books, h<lndollts, paper, pencils, and the like present?
Preparation for Instruction
Is any necessary equipment/llilrdwarelcomputers on hand in
Every instructor, no matter how competent and experienced,
adequate !lumbers and properly set up?
needs to prepare before trying to present instruction. How well a
lesson "'<lS prepared has a direct bearing on the amollnt of learn- Similar checklists can be made up for exterior sites such as the drill
ing that cnn t<lke place. Adequate preparation is a must for efficient hall or field, basketball court, or other places of instruction.
and effective instruction.
Personal Preparation
The Lesson Plan Along with readying the lesson plan, you should ha\re decided

The first step in prep<lring to instruct is to prepare a lesson on the best method of instruction to use for the occasion, based
plan. Sometimes a lesson plan will ,llready be prepared for YOll, in on the students nnd their level of knowledge or prior exposure to
the case of lessons presented in conjunction with a formal course the subject matter. Depending on the method used, you may want
of instruction. ]\·10st Navy educational programs fall into this cate- to rehearse your delivery, techniques tor chalkboard work, equip-
gory. The instructor need only become tamiliar with the plan, and ment handling, and the like. You may \\, .. \I1t to review the names of
perhaps personalize it with a few notes. In other cases, however, no the students, in order to be able to ask questions and respond to
plan exists, and so you must make one lip. students by name. Just before entering the area where the students
Format of a lesson plan. A lesson plan, as a minimum, should are, you may want to check the personal appe<lrance of hair, cloth-
contain the following items: ing or unitorm, <lnd shoes.
The objec/il'e or ol/tcome of the lesson, including some specific
criteria that should be achieved by the trainees. Techniques for Instruction
The illtelu/ed (ll/diellce for the lesson. No one technique of instruction is ideal for all occasions on which
Identification of any tmilling aids/eqlliplllellt needed for the instruction will be given. The technique you choose should fit the
lesson. type of material to be presented, the objective of the instruction,
the nahlre of the students who will receive the instruction, and
The teclllliql/e(s) of illStrtlctiol1 you will use.
your experience and personality.
An olltlinc oIthe II/aterial to be prescllten, with enough detail to
There are seveml main methods of instruction that have been
meet the needs of the instructor.
widely used by those invoked in education both in the military
The /IImllS the il/stl/etor willl/se to assess the effectiveness of the and in civilian life, over the years. These are the lecture method, the
instruction. lecture with audiovisual support, the demonstration. role playing,
A closing or SIl II1I1WI')' of the lesson. case study, the discussion method, and coopemtive learning. E;1(h
of these will be described in the following sections, along with the
The length of the lesson plan can run ti'om i1 page or less to sev-
particular ad\'antages, disadvantages, and procedures for the more
eral pages or more, depending on the materi<ll to be presented and
commonly llsed methods.
your experience.
Lecture
Site Preparation
A lecture is a presentation of information, concepts, or prin-
Before instruction begins, you should ensure that the site of
ciples by a single individual to a group of listeners. It is one-way
the instruction is adeqll<ltely prepared. If the instruction is to take
communication. The lecture <lssumes the instructor knows all
place in a classroom, for example, ),ou might check the following:
and the student is ignorant of the subject matter. In this form of
Is there an adequ<lte nllmber of seats/desks/tables for the instruction, the students have little opportunity to ask questions or
expected Ill1111ber of students? offer comments during the lecture.
If lighting, ventilation, heating, cooling, electric power, or Advantages. The lecture is the most efficient instructiOlwl
other services will be required, are the), sufficient and in good method tor presenting l11ill1y fiKtS or ideas in a relatively short time.
working order? Material that has been logically org,lIlized can be presented rapidly
and concisely. The lecture is particularly suitable for introducing a
Is adequate demonstration/board space and markers/chalk!
subject. To ensure thM all students have the necessary background
erasers availnble?

il\'TERNATlONAL LAW AND THE SEA 125


A lecture, as in this presenta-
tion about a ship's vertical
launch system to a group of
NJROTC students, is a fast
and efficient way to impart a
maximum amount of informa-
tion in a minimum amount
of time, but students often
have little opportunity to ask
questions or offer comments,
(Joseph Caballero)
























to learn a subject, the instructor can present basic information in skills on the part of the student. All students may not possess these
a lecture, A brief introductory lecture can give direction and pur- skills.
pose to a demonstration or prepare students for a discussion. The
lecture is a convenient method for instructing large groups, If nec- Lecture Procedure
essary, a public address system can be used to ensure that everyone
The first ti.lsk for the instructor is the gathering of the required
can hear. The lecture is sometimes the only efficient technique to
information for presenting the topic. He or she must determine
use if the student -to-instructor ratio is high.
the point of view from which the subject is to be presented and tai-
The lecture is often useful to supplement, summarize, or
lor the lecture to the student. After this preliminary preparation,
emphasize material from other sources, or for information difficult
the delivery technique for a lecture includes three main steps:
to obtain in other ways, If students do not have time for research,
Step one: introduction, The instructor establishes contact with
or if they do not have access to reference material, the lecture can
the class by introducing himself and stating the objectives of the
fill the bill.
topic, He or she gets the student ready to learn the material by
Disadvantages, Lengthy or overly ti'equent lectures without
developing interest through explanations of how the student will
questioning of students can easily lead to boredom, The lecture
use the lesson material, why the student needs to know the mate-
tends to promote student passiveness. There is always the danger
rial, and how the material will apply to future topics or the student's
that the instructor may only be restating or repeating what a stu-
work. He or she then gives an overview of the lesson as a whole,
dent could easily understand by quickly reading a few paragraphs
Step two: presentation, The instructional material breaks down
in a textbook.
the general concepts into their simplest component parts, which
The lecture does not lead to maximum achievement ill cer-
are presented one by one. The instructor provides examples, illus-
tain types of learning. Speech skills, cooperative group thinking,
trations, explanations, and the like.
and motor skills, for eX<lmple, are difficult to instruct through the
Step three: summary. The instructor provides recapitulation
lecture. lkcause it allows for little or no student participation, the
(a summary), which emphasizes and ties together the principal
lecture may also be inefficient for lessons in which complicated
points of the lesson, including the objectives. This helps the stu-
concepts and principles are developed,
dents to select and take note of the most important parts of the
It is hard for the instructor to judge how well the audience is
information presented,
reacting and whether student needs and interests arc being met.
Guidelines for effective use of the lecture, Know the specific
The lecture assumes acti\'e listening and adequate note-taking
objectives of the topic. Ensure the lecture is well organized, Avoid

126 LE,\J)EltSHIP

monotonous instructing by varying voice stress and intcnsity. lor should help students grnsp whole concepts where word expla-
\Vatch the class actions (attentiveness) to determine the eftcctivc- nntions are often inadequate.
ness of the instructioll. The student's imagination, while necessary to learning, can-
not be expected to form completely accurate mentnl pictures of the
Lecture with Audiovisuals concept ,lboLlI which he or she has been hearing. Thus it is impor-
tant that the instrLlctor use some kind of audiovisual material to
The addition of audiovisual aids, such as the chalkboard, the
relate concepts being discLlssed to reality. As soon as the object or
movie i.mel slide projector, and the overhead projector or presenter,
picture is presented, the word descriptions come into focus with
is the most common Vi.lricltion of the lecture instructional tech-
new meaning and lasting effect. The drill instructor, tor example,
nique. This strategy encourages comments and questions frolll
would find it very difficult to communicate drill procedures with-
students. Although audiovisual aids arc both appropriate and use-
out the use of charts, drawings, and diagrams. This, in turn, permits
ful with all instructional techniques, the)' are especially important
the student to translate the content into logical nnd meaningful
with the lecture. A Illultiple approach through several senses makes
knowledge . . Man)' students are visual learners, and cnnnot absorb
tor more complete understanding and greater retention.
material well if it is just presented orally with no visual links.
Instructors who rely only on oral presentation find that their
Advantages. The lecture with audiovisuals is an efficient
students frequently arc unable to relate the new learning to any
instructional method for presenting man}' t~lCtS or ideas in a rela-
previous experience. The background of the group may be so var-
tively short time. Materinl that has been logically orgi.lI1ized can be
ied that the new learning does not result in a clear concept com-
presented concisely in rapid sequence.
mon to all, but rather emerges in as many shades of meaning as
The lecture with audiovisuals is particularly suitable for intro-
there are students. Frequent use of visual materials by the instruc-
ducing a subject, to ensure that all students have the necessary
bnckground.
The lecture with nudiovisuals is often useful to supplement,
summarize, or emphasize material from other sources or to pro-
vide information difficult to obtain in other ways. This is especially
true when complex material is being presented. The audiovisuals
will help to focus the student's attention on the specific concept
being presented.
Disadvantages. The lecture with audiovisuals is not good for
de\'eiopment of 1110tor skills. Although the use of audiovisuals will
help to hold the attention of the student, it still requires consid-
erable skill in speaking 011 the instructor's part. This strategy also
assumes active listening and adequate note-taking skills on the
part of the student.

Procedure for Lecture with Audiovisuals

The first task tor the instructor is the gathering of the required
audiovisual aids to r presenting the desired topic. The instructor
should determine the point of view from which the subject is to
be presented. After this prelimillnry preparation, the delivery tech-
nique for a lecture using nudiovisuals is similar to the basic lecture
method discussed earlier.

Demonstration
Demonstration is thc process wherein one person docs somc-
thing in the presence of others to show them how to do it or to illus-
trate a principle. The demonstration is the 1110St commonly llsed
small-group teaching technique done in a classroom or laboratory
A lecture with audiovisuals, as this senior chief damage control man to develop students' ability to operate equipment or acquire phys-
is giving to a group from the Royal Thai Navy, helps students grasp ical skills. It involves the presentation or portrayal of a sequence
whole concepts in situations \-vhere word explanations alone are of events to show n procedure, a technique, or an operation, fre-
inadequate. (Matthew White)

INTERNATIONAL LAW AND THE SEA 127


Others should normally be presented in the actual environment or
l<lboratories, in conjunction with demonstrations.
Position the students and training aids properly I f the instruc-
tor directs the students to gather around a worktable or a training
aid, he should recheck their positioning to make sure that ever},-
one has an ullobstructed view.
Show and explain the operations. Perform the operations in
step-by-step order. Wherever possible, simultaneollsly tell and do.
Do not hurry; speed in performing operi.ltions, or in moving from
one operation to another, should normally not be emphasized in the
demonstration step. The instructor should make cert<lin that the stu-
dents understand the first step before he or she proceeds to the sec-
ond, and so on. Repeat difficult operations. Pause briefly after each
operation to observe reactions <lnd to check for understanding.
Special mention should be made of skills in which a distinc-
A group of NJROTC cadets takes part in a demonstration of how to
handle a fire hose. Participation in a demonstration like this one tion between right and left is important-for eXilmple, the man-
is an excellent way for students to learn new skills. (Everett HS ual of arms, or knot-tying. For teach ing the manual of arms, or
NJROTC, Casey Jones)
skills of a similar nature, the use of an assistant instructor or a \\'e1l-
coilChed student is advisable. The assistant stands so that the class
qucntly combining explanation with the operation or handling of may see what he or she is doing and performs the activity at the
systems, equipment, or material. Thus demonstration utilizes both direction of the instructor. Meanwhile, the instructor can observe
hearing and sight to cOlllmunicate the information. the reaction of the students.
Advantages. Demonstrations are especially beneficial in skill Observe salety precautions. It takes a few Illore seconds to rig a
areas. They add to learning by giving students the opportunity to satet)' line, put on gloves, or tag an electrical cable, but the time is not
see and hear what is actually happening. They can be used to illus- wasted. The students are being shown the importance of exercising
trate ideas, principles, and concepts for which words are inade- extreme care ill dealing with potentially dangerous equipment.
quate, thus holding the student's attention. Give proper attention to terminology. The instructor must call
Demonstrations can save money, since only the instructor each part of a training aid by its proper name each time he or she
needs materials. Demonstrations can reduce hazards before stu- calls attention to it. But something more than just mentioning the
dents begin experimentation or handling of materials involved. names of parts is necessary if the students are to retain the correct
This is especially true in tabs or workshops. Demonstrations lead nomenclatl\l'e. The following suggestions will prove helpful:
to a reduction in the length of trial-and-error time.
List the names of parts on a chalkboard or chart.
Disadvantages. The demonstration cannot be properly used in
Refer students to a previously made chart that shows the parts
large classrooms or with extremely small objects because all stu-
and their terminology.
dents cannot see. Demonstrations can be ineffective if the instruc-
tor only "shows and tells" without oblaining feedback ti'OIll Conduct a terminology drill on the parts of the training aid
students. while the aid is in its assembled or disassembled condition, as
appropriate.
Demonstrations m<1y lead to imitation without understanding.
Unless given proper direction ilnd guidance, students may concen- Check student comprehension carefully. Ask questions duri ng
Irate on the <lids used and ignore the lesson itself. the demonstration that require the students to recall nomen-
Demonstrations can become time consum ing. clature, procedural steps, underlying principles, safety precau-
tions, and the like. \Vatch the class for reactions indicating lack
Demonstration Procedure of attention, confusion, or doubt, but do not depend solei),
upon visual observations.
The actual steps in a demonstration "'ill vaq' as the situation
changes. There are three basic steps, with several variations of step Stell two: repetition. Keeping in mind the definition of the
two. demonstration strateg)" the lesson plan will always call for a dem-
Step one: show and tell. Related to ever), skill, melltal or phys- onstration step and usually a performance step. But genel'<lU)' there
ical, there is a body of b<lCkground knowledge that the student is a need for the inclusion of one or more repetition steps between
must know to perform the skill properly. Some kinds of back- the demonstration step and the performance step.
ground knowledge can best be taught in a standard classroom.

128 LEADERSH I P

Step three: performance. The performance step is the step in Role pillying provides insight into cOlllmon individual and
which the students practice under supelyision untiJ they have group problems. reveals different attitudes, and tests vllrious ideas
attained the required proficienC)l. During this step, they apply what in a practical situation. Students learn to organize thoughts and
they have previously learned as a result of the demonstrations. responses instantly while reacting to a situation or question.
Guidelines for effective use of the demonstration. Practice or Disadvantages. Students sometimes emphasize perfornllll1ce
rehearse the demonstration in its entirety with an eye on time lim- (showing off) over the intended objectives of the topic. Role play-
itations. \Vhen it is time to put on the demonstration. make sure ing is time-consuming. Some students are unable to identi~' with
that all materials are at hand. Make sure that the students are situ- the roles or situation. Hot topics and controversial issues some-
.. lied such that all can sec and hear. Use questions during the dem- times get out of hand in role playing. Role playing ma)' benefit
onstration to obtain feedback. At the end of the demonstration, only the Ilctllal participants unless the objectives for the class have
conduct it brief review of the steps involved or a short summary of been clearl), specified.
what has happened.
Case Study
Role Playing
The case study is an instructional approach that requires the
Role pla)'ing is an instructionlll technique involving a spon- student to analyze problem situations that may be hypotheticlll or
taneous porlm),'.ll (acting out) of a situation. condition. or cir- relli. The student receives a "case"-a report containing 0:111 pertinent
cumstance by selected members of the class. It is a form of data. The student then must analyze the data, e"aIullte the 1l000ture of
improvisation in which the participants assume the identity of the problem. decide upon applic<1ble principles. Ilnd finllUy recom-
other persons and then fellct as they believe those persons would mend a solution or course of action. The case 111<1)' be handled by
in a particular situation. Role playing is especially useful in helping the class as a whole. by subgroups of the class. or by <1n individual.
students understalld perspectives and different ethllic and cultural Also, the case may be designed to be handled in varied time peri-
backgrounds, and in problem-solving situations where different ods, ranging from a single class period to the entire course.
roles are in opposition to each other. Role playing is often effective Analysis of the data involves sllch things as the usc of reference
in counseling or tutoring. materials prepared for the study, or knowledge and theory already
Advantages. Role playing Gill be fun, interesting, motivating, possessed by others and listed in manuals and books. Evaluating
Ilnd meaningful, and helps to break the routine of other classroom and determining applicable principles calls upon the students to
experiences.


Cooperative learning, as in this
group of Sea Cadets learning
to spit-shine their shoes, is an
excellent way to achieve a group-
learning goal. (Dave Gordon)

INTER NATIONA l. LAW AND THE SEA 129

make some kind of "reasons-why-this-has-happened" statement. Conclusion
Recommended solutions should be a natural outgrowth of the
No one can teach something to someone without doing it in some
analysis and evaluation.
particular way, and that way of instruction has signinc<lllt elfects on
the learning outcomes. In deciding which technique is best for a par-
Discussion
ticular lesson or series ofiessolls, the instructor must consider the 101-
The discussion technique of instruction is basicaU}' a super- lowing aspects: the number, ability, maturity level, .md previous expe~
vised conversation during which the students take an active role riellce of the students; the nature of the subject matter; and what
b}' stating their views on a certain topic, at the same time that the needs to be emphasized-skills, knowledge, or values/attitudes.
instructor guides the group to discover certain principles. The instructor mllst also consider the time requirements, the
The discussion ma}' be implemented in a number of ways. demands the technique will make on the instructor and students,
The types of discussion include whole-class discllssions, debates, the materials required, and the results expected. There is no single
panels, buzz sessions, and forums. Each type has its own slightl}' correct way to instruct a class; there are many good ways. Some
different characteristics. The whole-class discussion is the type things can be learned more thoroughly by observation or group
generally referred to when instructors lise this technique and is the involvement than through lectures or drill. Some materials need
type often found in the NJH.OTC classroom. The instructor sim- experimental and demonstration treatment. Controversial topics
pI)' leads an informal discllssion involving the class as a whole. The lend themselves best to discllssion or role playing. The instructor
instructor asks questions, clarifies comments, and makes tentative must learn how to usc the different techniques.
summaries to help students achieve understanding of the topic
and stay on task. The emphasis is on student-centered rather thiln
instructor-centered learning.
Discussion techniques get at attitude dcvelopment.13y taking part STUDY GUIDE QUESTIONS
in meaningful discussion with fellow students, the particip;1I1t finds
I. \'Vhat is the definition of learning?
his or her own values and beliefs both reinforced and challenged.
2. \Vhat mental characteristics does the student bring into the
Discussion provides students with the opportunity to develop
classroom?
questioning skills and responses. It gives them the chance to
develop organization and formulate answers. 3. What are the types of learning as classified by psychologists'
DisclIssion is motivational. Since the role of the student is not 4. Describe the shape of the typical learning curve.
as passive as with some other strategies, the student maintains a
5. When do people learn best?
high degree of mental alertness.
6. \'Vhat are the factors that speed and strengthen learning?
Cooperative Learning 7. A. \'Vhat is motivation?
13. \'\lhat is negative motivation?
In cooperative learning, a class of students is subdivided
into groups or teams within which the members work with and 8. \·Vhat are the conditions that tend to hinder learning?
depend upon each other to accomplish a learning goal. Each team 9. \Vhat should a lesson plan include?
member is responsible for accomplishing some portion of the
10. \Vhat are the main techniques for delivery of instruction?
assigned objective as an individu~1 goal. They then instruct other
11. \Vhat are the adv.mtages and disadvantages of the lecture with
team members about what they have learned or accomplished,
alldiovisllals?
and receive similar information from the other members. Team
members are encouraged to assist others to achieve their individ- 12. \'Vhat are the steps for the demonstration type of instruction?
ual goals when needed, and to work together to achieve the over- 13. \'Vhen is the use of the role-playing type of instruction
all group objective. The instructor monitors the individual group appropriate?
activities and may be used as a resource for the group, but does not 14. \,Vhat is the case study approach to instruction?
actively take part in the group work efiort.
15. \·Vhen is the use of the discussion method of instruction
A cooperative learning strategy is best used when sufficient
appropriate?
time is available for the group to gather, discuss, digest, and dis-
16. Under whilt conditions can cooperative learning strategies be
seminate intormation. It is an excellent strategy to use when the
employed?
material to be learned is complex or important, and requires both
mastery and retention in long-term memory.

130 LEADERSHIP

CRIT ICAL THINKING VOCABULARY

1. Learning requires much from the person receiving instruction learning theory i ntimidatioll
as well as the instructor. \Vhat are some things a student psychologists audiovisual aids
can do to maximize their ability to learn during all types of learning plateau role playing
instruction? abstract case study
2. lvlake up a complete lesson plan for delivering instruction on negative motivation demonstration
some aspect of the NjROTC 10 fellow NjROTC cadets. S'HCi.1SIll lesson plan
right-brain, left-brain cooperative learning

NAVAL SKILLS



UNIT

~













Ship Construction and


Damage Control




av)' ships arc complicated. They have propulsion plants. weapons, store-
N rooms, repair shops, offices, and operating spaces. They provide for their
crew's living, sleeping, and eating needs. The)' are almost like cities with their
lighting, sanitary, cOIl1J1lllIlicalions, mail delivery, water, and power systems.
Large ships have libraries. dental and medical offices. legal services, newspapers,
TV stations, chapels, and recreation spaces. All must be able to operate on their
own tor long periods of time.
Unlike commercial ships, naval ships must be capable of continuing their
missions even if they are damaged either ill battle or as a result of operations.
Because of this, Nav)' ships have a damage control organization to deal with
whatever damage may occur while keeping the ship in optimulll operating COI1-
dition. The following chapters will discuss the principles and nomenclature of
naval ship construction and the damage control capabilities of naval ships.

Ship Construction











Ship designers try to buiJd as many good features as possible into EI/(jllmllce is the Illaximulll time a ship can steam at a given
their ships while keeping in mind their intended missions. All ships speed. It depends on fuel capacity, freshwater capacity, fuel con-
are the result of compromise; not every desired feature can be built sllmption, and storage space and refrigeration for food provisions.
into every ship. Nevertheless, all ships have certain essential quali- [viost oil-powered ships Ci.ll1 steal11 for one to two weeks without
ties. This chapter will highlight these characteristics and will dis- refueling, while nuclear-powered ships can steam for years. Fresh
cuss the fundamentals of ship construction and the nautical terms provisions need to be replenished about every thirt)' days, but dry
Llsed to describe ships. stores (including canned foods) may be kept much longer. Another
term sometimes used for endurance is [l"IIisillg rfllige.
Habital'ilit)' refers to the features designed to provide com-
Princip les of Ship Construction fortable living conditions for the crew. Adequate heads (lavatories)

The major factors considered in the construction of any naval ship and washrooms; laundries; air conditioning; and comfortable, safe,
are mission, armament, protection, seaworthiness, maneuverabil- and cleiln berthing and messing spaces are important habitability
ity, speed, endurance, and habitability. feahlres.
The lIIi5Sioll, or main purpose, of a ship is the biggest consider-
ation in its design. The weapons systems, speed, crew size. and almost
Nautical Terms
everything else are dependent on the ship's intended missioll.
The nrtlllllllellt consists of all the offensive weapons used to J n civilian life you become accllstomed to using terms like upstairs,
fight an enemy on or under the sea and in the air. Generally, we downstairs. windows, floors, ceilings, walls, hallways, and so forth.
think of armament as being guns. torpedoes, missiles, and so forth. In the Navy, you must learn to describe objects and places aboard
However the term also includes aircraft llsed for offensive pur- a ship using n<luticallanguage. To lise civilian terms aboard a ship
poses (an extension of the ship's attacking capability) and hll1ding marks YOli as i\ I(//uf/llbbcr, one who knows nothing of the sea.
craft used for amphibious operations. In some Wil),S, a ship is like a building. lis outer walls form the
Protection means defensive features that help a ship survive hllll, the supporting bod)' of a ship. floors are called decks. inner
enemy attack. In addition to its weapons, a ship's sturdy construc- walls are called blllkhenris or partitions, ceilings are termed over-
tion, armor, and compartmentatiol1 to limit the spread of flooding heads, and hallways are pnssagewn),s. Stairs are called Indders; an
make up its protective features. nccol1ll1lodatioll ladder is the stairs from the ship to a pier, and a
Sen\\,orthiness describes the ship's ability to operate in all kinds jnwb's laelrier is a portable ladder made of rope or metal used to
of weather, high winds, and heavy se;.lS. Stability, size, ilnd fi-ce- climb lip the side of a ship. The qllarterdeck might be compared to
board (the hull space between the waterline and the main deck) an entrance hall or foyer ill a building.
determine a ship's seaworthiness. Stnbility refers to the way tl ship The lengthwise direction 011 a ship is fore and nft; crosswise is
returns to an upright position after a roll in heavy seas. Stability ntlllvnrtships. The front of il ship is the boll'; to go in that direc-
also affects the value of a ship as a weapons or aircraft platform. tion is to go forward. The back of the ship is the stem; to go in that
JVfnllellvembility means the way a ship handles in turns, in direction is to go afro The maximum width of the ship is the beam;
backing down, in going alongside another ship, or in evading locations oft' to the side are abenlll. Locations behind the be;'lI11 are
enemy weapons. Combat,mts such as carriers and destroyers must abnft. Rehind the ship, in the water, is nstel"ll. The torward part of
be able to change course and speed rapidly. the main deck is the forecastle (pronounced foc'sle), and the back
Speed is affected by the weight (displacement) of the ship, its part is the jill/lnil.
underwater shape. iHld the power of its propulsion plant. Speed A ship is divided lengthwise in halfby the cellfer/ille. Everything
gets a ship to the scene of action quickly ;.md enables it to outma- to the right of the centerline is to s(nrIJOard, and ever}'thing to the
neuver an enemy. len is to port. The direction from the centerline toward either side
is outboard, ;.U1d from either side toward the centerline is illiwnrd.




134

SIIIP CO NSTR UCTION AND DAl\IAC,E CO NT ROL 135

The section of the ship around the midpoint area is called amid- age from collision or grounding. The spaces between the inner and
ships. Sightings by lookouts are noted and reported as bei.ng off the outer bottoms may form tauks or bilges, which may be used for
port or starboard bow or beam, and off the port or starboard quar- fuel and water stowage or bal1ast (usually concrete or pig iron). If
ter (area abaft of the beam toward thc stern). they are empty, they arc called J10ids (air spaces).
You never go downstairs in a ship; you always go bela IV. To Many of these tanks are fitted with pumps that can transfer liq-
go up to the main deck or above is to go topside. However, if you uids from one tank compartment to another to help keep the ship
climb the mast, stacks, rigging, or any other areas above the solid level or "all an even kee\." The tanks at the extreme bow and stern,
structure of the ship, you go aloft. called the forward (or forepeak) and after peak tnllks, are used for
tril1l//ling the ship (leveling it fore-and-aft).
The top of the main hull is called the //lain deck. The intersec-
S hip Structure
tion of the main deck with the shell or side plating is called the
The hull is the main body of the ship. It is like a box. Its inner con- gllnwale (pronounced gUIl'el). Projections at the joint between the
struction might be compared to the girders of a sted bridge. The side plating and the bottom plating are called bilge keels; their pur-
keel is the backbone of the hull; it is on the centerline like an I-beam pose is to reduce rol1ing of the ship. (A ship rolls from side to side;
running the full length of the bottom of the ship, with heavy cast- it pitches when it goes up and down fore and aft; it yaws when the
ings fore and aft called the stem and stem posts. Girders attached to bow swings to port and starboard because of wave action.)
the keel, cill1cd trmlSl'erse frallles, run athwartships and support the ivlost warships built today have unarmored hulls. Ships of the
wi.ltertight skin or shell platillg, which forms the sides and bottoms last cenhlry with armored hulls (the old battleships and heavy
of the ship. Most Nav)' ships also have /Ollgitlldilltll frames fun- cruisers) had vertical armored belts of very thick steel running
ning fore and aft. \,"hen covered by plating, the longitudinal and fore and aft along the sides of the hull to protect engine rooms and
athwartship frames form a honcycomb structure in the bottolll of magazi.nes from torpedoes, shell nre, and missiles. They also had
the ship called a double llOtt011l. This type of construction greatly horizontal armor-steel plates built into exposed decks to protect
strengthens the bottom and 111i.lkes the ship Illore resistant to dal11- against plunging bombs, shells, and missiles. The I\'aterlinc is the













fRAME



f~:~~::::IT::::~:;:::~~~:~;;;;;~' LONGITUDINAL BULKHEAD
LIGHTEN ING HOlE
1: TRANSVERSE
~~;~~:~~~~f~~~~~~5~;i;~-- DECK LONGITUDINAL
BULKHEAD










CENTER VERTICAL KEEL
BILGE KEEL



Transverse and longitudinal structure of a ship. Note that transverse beams and bulkheads run athwartships, while longitudinals run the "long
way," from stem to stern.

136 NAVAL SKILLS


UPPER DECK
r SIGNAL "'DGE
SUPERSTRUCTURE DECKS~
~R:: NAVIGATING 8RIDGE
SECOND DECK 1 ~ "--, FORECASTlE DECK -:.>
MAIN DECK
,.
fAN,~AIL THIRD DECK I
I hi PLATfORM DECK I I--- j
" '-.r-- j
6.

,,~ "I-- J STEM
INNER BOTTOM I
ENGINE RO'OM fLAT HAlf DECK
AfTER PEAK TANK
FIRE ROOM flAT BOTTOM TANK FORWARD PEAK TANK

Decks are named by their position in the ship and their function.



wilter level along the hull of the ship. The vertical dist.lI1ce from The comp;:lrtments of cargo ships. and main storage spaces of
the keel to the waterline is the ship's draft. Freeboard is the distance all ships. are called holds; holds are normally larger in merchant
frOI11 the waterline to the main deck. ships than in naval combatants or civilian passenger ships.
Decks are named by their position in the ship ilnd their func-
Decks and Spaces tions. Decks that extend throughout the ship from side to side ilnd
stem to stern are called colllpictenecks. In Illost ships the uppermost
The "Ooors" of a ship are Ci:lllcd decks. The)' divide the ship into
complete deck is called the mail I rieck. The next complete deck
la)'ers in the same way that Hoors ofa building divide it into stories.
down is the seCOlln neck. and the third the third rieck. and so 011.
Decks help strengthen the hull and form the inner spaces (roOIllS)
In aircraft carriers. the uppermost complete deck is the fligl,t
or compnrflllclltS. The undersurface of each deck forms the over-
deck. from which aircraft take off and land. and their main deck is
head of the spaces below. Sometimes spaces are called rooms, such
the hangar deck below. where aircraft arc stowed ilnd serviced.
as the wardroom (officers' dining room), staterooms (officers' bed-
A partial deck at the bow above the main deck is GlUed the fore-
rooms). and engine rooms. but usuall), they are referred to sim-
enstle neck. Amidships it becomes an IIpper deck. and at the stern it
pi)' as compartments. The dining area for enlisted crew members
is a poop neck. lvlain deck areas between the forecastle and poop
is called the m('5S deck. and their living quarters are called berthillg
decks ;:1re called well necks. Ver), few Navy ships have forecastle and
compartmellts. Officers' living spaces are collectively called officers
poop decks today. but these are often built into merchant ships.
(Ol/Ilfry. l3athroollls on a ship are called "eans. All spaces nboard
A half deck is ony partiol deck betwccn complete decks. Platforlll
a ship are identified by standardized compartment numbers that
decks are partial decks below the lo\\'est compit:te dcck.
locate them and indicate their usc.
SHIPS
BUILT
AFTER
MAR.;49

- - - - - - - - - - - - -..:::: =:"QC
--- --'--
2
_-_-:: ::C
BOILER AND
MACHINERY SPACES _-=::-=-:~::t
·- ______ 7_
'O"UIILE BOTTOMS


The deck numbering system of all U.S. naval ships is standardized to the system shown here. The main deck is always numbered 1. Decks below
are numbered sequentially 2,3, 4, etc., while decks above are ca lled " levels" and are numbered 01, 02, 03, etc.

SH IP CONSTH UCTIO N AND DA~IAGE CONTROL 137

The term lW!(/t"er deck includes all parts of decks that ar(' The top of a mast is called the trtlck. The pigsrick is <1 slender
exposed to the w(';Hher. Blilwarks are a sort of low, solid-steel fence vertical ex1ension above the Illast from which the ship's commis-
along the gunwale of the main deck, fitted with sCllppers, rubber sion pennant is flown. The galT extends abaft of the mainmast. It
or metal drains that allow water to run off the deck during rain or is from the gaff that the national ensign is flown when the ship is
heavy seas. under \Va)'. The small vertical pole at the bow on the forecastle and
Any deck above the main deck, fOrCCi.lstle deck, or poop deck is the slightly raked (diagonal) pole at the stern are called the jack-
called a sllpcrstnlctllre dcck. These decks ilre generally called lel'e/s. staffand the j7ngstnjrrespcctivci)'. When a Navy ship is at anchor or
The first level above the main deck is the 01 (pronounced oh-one) moored, it flies the jack on the jackstall and the national ensign on
level, the second the 02 level, and so on. These decks mily have the tlagstaA-' from 0800 hours to SUllset.
other names related to their use, such as boat deck, signal bridge, The stack of a ship supplies air to the main propulsion engines
<md llilvigating bridge. and exhausts smoke and hot gases from them. Nuclear-powered
ships do not need stacks, because their reactors requirc no air for
Superstructure combustion, so thc)1 produce no smoke or gas.
The slIperslrllctllre of a ship includes all structures above the
main deck. It will vary according to the type of ship, but 1110st war- Watertight Integrity
ships have ;:1 pilothouse, bridge, signal bridge, chart roOl11, combat
In order to pre\'ent the spread of flooding, watertight bulkheads
information center, "radio shack," and probably a sea c.lbin for the
<lre built in naval ships to divide the hull into a series of watertight
captain.
compartments. This is called watertight iniL'Srit)', meaning sound-
The superstructure is topped by the II/asl. It will be at least one
\'ertical pole fitted with a horizontal yardarm that ex1ends above ness or without leaks. The more watertight compartments a ship
has, the more secure it will be from flooding. \Vatertight integrity
the ship and carries flag halyards (ropes) and navigational and sig-
is intended to limit flooding, which (;:lJl cause a ship to list (lean) to
nallights. The mast may also be in the form of a structural tripod.
port or starboard, lose trilll (be "down" by the bow or stern), mpsize
On most ships there <llso will be electronic devices, radar anten-
(tip over), or sink.
nas, radio aerials, and meteorological instruments on the mast or
\·Vatertight doors and hatches allow access through bulkheads
the yardarm. iVlost Navy ships have only one lll<lst, but Illany mcr-
and decks, respectively. Any ship could be made almost unsinkable
chant ships and somc naval vessels have two. The one forward is
called the foremast, and the one aft of this is called the mni/ll//asl; if it were divided into enough watertight compartments, but too
the mainmast is lIsllall)r taller than the foremast, making it nor- much compartmentation would interfere with the arrangement of
milll)' the highest structure above the main dcck. mechanical equipment, ilnd C;'lSC of movement within the ship. A
strong watertight bulkhead ilt the after end of the forepeak tank
































The principal parts of a typical auxiliary ship. With the exception of cargo holds and booms, all of these features are found on warships as well.

138 NAVAL SKILLS

is called the collision lmlkhend. If one ship rams <mother head Oil, After being raised to high pressure and temperature in a super-
the bow structure would collapse, hopefully, somewhere fonvard heater in another part of the boiler, the steam flows through pipes
of the collision bulkhead, thus preventing flooding of compart- to turbines, called the "main engines." fresh water used to produce
ments aft of it. the steam in the boilers is distilled from salt water by evaporators.
ivlaintenance of watertight integrity is a function of damage A steam turbine consists of a central rotating shaft, to which are
cO/it mi. The purpose of damage control is to keep an}' damage from attached se\'eral rows of movable blades similar to those of a fan,
spreading elsewhere in the ship. All doors and hatches through with stationary blades between. The shaft and blading arc enclosed
watertight bulkheads or decks must be watertight. \Vherever steam, within a thick, airtight casing. As the steam passes through the tur-
oil, or air piping, electric cables, or ventilation ducts penetrate a bine, it is directed through the stationary blades onto the rotating
watertight bulkhead or deck, they go through a watertight sllIffillg ones, causing the shaft to spin rapidly.
tlIbe (a cylinder plugged with watertight filler material) or other Because turbines operate most elTicientl), ilt speeds of several
device to prevent leakage. All watertight doors and hatches carry thousand revolutions per minute (rpm) but propellers are not very
markings that indicate ,,,hen they ma}' or may not be opened. effective above a few hundred rpm, redllction genrs like a transmis-
sion in an automobile mllst be used to make the transition from
the high speed of the turbine to the necessarily slower speed of the
Propulsion Plants propeller shafts.
Today's naval ships are propelled mainly by conventional steam In recent years the gns lllrbille CIIgille has been adapted for ship
plants, gas turbine engines, or nuclear power plants, although the propulsion. Developed frOlil aircraft engines, this engine pow-
usc of diesel engines is steadily increasing. A conventional steam ers several classes of destroyers and frigates, Aegis cruisers, mine-
propulsion plant consists of boilers, main engines (steam tur- sweepers, Coast Guard cLitlers, and landing craft. The Navy's new
bines), reduction gears, propeller shafts, and propellers. Nuclear- littoral combat ships (LeSs) are powered by a combination of two
powered ships have steam propulsion also, but the steam is pro- gas turbine engines and two diesels.
duced by heat from a nuclear reactor instead of oil-fired boilers. Gas turbines ilrc made up of three basic parts; a compressor,
A boiler consists of a boxlike casing containing hundreds of a combustion chamber, and a turbine. Thc compressor draws in
water-filled steel tubes near the top, which arc arranged so that air, compresses it, and sends it under pressure to the combustion
heat from furnace-like fireboxes bene.:lth passes over them, turn- chamber, where it is combined with atomized (small droplets) fuel
ing the water into steam. Fuel oil, sprayed into the fireboxes under and burned. The combustion gases expand and flow through the
high pressure, ignites and burns intensely, producing the heat. turbine blades, causing the turbine to rotate and drive the shaft
and propeller.














hUI!!:'-
fun C~YUIUI ID I H~o.>IAI. ~NnGV
IN ~o;l [~ FII",,-,"=(
------ ~
D:R£C'~OF
REACtl~£ fO~£ - - - --,
r~\lSn ,
,
IAI« :
~~.c ___ _ ____ ,





1>I("""'l £NE lIGf Of
oW'"''''lIH''' I>iElOU.I. UlIOlIGTOF
CDHYUITEO 10 ~~lJl wrr (1)\,1,1)$1 11( ....
~[(H.I.);tQ.l f""'IIGT USlOHUI[ TO >I(A I AKI
Of.[ou.Tf fH OW~T U
Processes and components of the basic steam cycle of a conventional (oil-fired) steam-driven ship.

SHIP CONSTRUCTION AND [)A~.IAGE CON THOL 139


However it is produced, propeller shafts carry the power to
the propellers. They run from the reduction gears through long
Propulsion
, ___ , power wi.ltertight spaces called shaft alleys in the very bottom of the ship.
SIJrter coupling Propellers drive the ship. Aircraft carriers and many cruisers have
~==~:;:::==I Turbine four propellers. 1vlost destroyers have two propellers, but many
r
ShJfi
newer ones have only one. They are mriable-pitch propellers, the
blades of which can be rotated on the hub ("0 provide more or less
,\uno.\pheric Exhamt to bite into the water for additional control of the ship's speed or to
air illtah ;Hnl05pherc
provide reverse thrust.
Basic parts of a gas turbine.

S hipbuilding
The gas turbine has several advantages over a conventional
Almost all large ships constructed in shipyards throughout the
steam plant. It is more compact, lighter, and easier to maintain and
world today are built in dry docks. The dry docks have a number
repair. Because it has a spark ignition system, much like a car, it
of large blocks on the bottom upon which the hull is assembled.
can go from "cold iron" shutdown to fully ready to turn the shaft in
The blocks under the ship are high enough so workers can work
only one minute, in contrast to the several hours of warm-up time
under the hull while the ship is being built. As the hull is built, scaf-
required to bring a steam engine on line.
folding is raised along the sides to make construction easier.
\,Vith a nuclear power plant, the primary system is a circulat-
ing water cycle. This consists of the reactor, loops or piping, pri-
mary coolant pumps, alld steam generators. Heat produced in the
reactor by nuclear fission is transferred to the circulating primary
coolant water, which is pressurized to prevent it from boiling. This
water is then pumped by the primar}' coolant pumps through the
steam generator, where steam to run the turbines is produced, and
then back into the reactor, where it can then be reheated for the
next cycle. The steam produced in the generator and used to run
the turbines circulates in a separate loop outside the reactor, to
avoid problems with radioactivity.
Because the generation of nuclear power does not require oxy-
gen, submarines can operate underwater for extended periods of
time. Since there are high levels of radioactivity in the reactor dur-
ing operation, no one is permitted to enter the reactor compart-
ment. Heavy shielding around the reactor protects the crew so
well that they receive less radiation than they would from natural
sources ashore.


















Schematic showing steam flow from a nuclear reactor to the ship's
propulsion unit. Nuclear fuel (uranium) in the reactor heats the water Today large portions of ships are often built in subassembly bays
to produce steam, much like burning fuel oil does in a conventional away from the site where the main part of the ship is being built.
boiler. The rest of the propulsion system, with turbines, condenser, Here shipbuilders at Bath Iron Works Corporation, Bath, Maine, posi-
and reduction gears, is essentially the same. tion the 97-ton upper bow on a new merchant ship.

140 NAVAL SKILLS


Today in many shipyards, large portions of the ship are built in toon with tracks. The pontoon is towed into deep water and bal-
subassembly bays away from the main assembly site. As whole scc~ lasted down. \Vhen submerged far enough, the ship is towed off to
tions of the ship are completed, they are carried to the main build- the outfitting docks.
ing site with large cranes, where they are welded together. Some of The name of a ship is chosen by the secretary of the Na\'y upon
these sections weigh more than 50 tons. This method of building recommend3tioll of the chief of naval operiltions (eNG). A female
enables the projects to move along much faster. sponsor is selected by the secretary of the Navy according to n:w,11
The first operation in constructing a ship is erecting the keel tr3ditioll. At the time of launching and christening, the sponsor,
sections on the building blocks. After the keel is laid, it is extended 113val officers. ofilcials of the shipbuilding company, and the com-
in both directions, from the center outboard, and at the same time, mandant of the naval district in which the ship is being built meet on
forward and aft. Ever)1hing is scheduled step-by-step. Earll' in Ihe a nag-decorated platform at the bow of the ship. There may be some
construction process the main propulsion plant and major iluxil- speeches, and a chaplain offers a prayer: "rvlay this new vessel of our
iary machinery and shafting are installed. The whole bow section Navy be guarded by Thy gracious providence and care. Mil)' she bear
is usually assembled at a subassembly site and placed in position the sword to bring peace all Guth among the nations. Let her be i1
late in the building schedule. The last step in the prelaunching con- terror to those who do evil and a defense to those who do weU."
struction is painting the exterior hull of the vessel. The band plays the national anthem, flags and pennants wave,
and as the ship begins to move, the sponsor breaks on its bow a
gilil)! wrapped bottle of champagne, wine, or water, saying, "I n3me
Launching
YOll in the name of the United States." She often adds, "May suc-
A ship can be launched in one of three ways: dry-dock launched, cess 31ways 3ttend you."
side launched, or float-off launched. In dry-dock launching, the After the christening 31ld launching, the ship is fitted Ollt along-
dock is simply flooded to the outside water level and the ship is side a pier, where gi3nt cranes hoist the heavy equipment into
floated out. Side launching is often done tor small ships like tugs the ship. Masts, guns, machinery, and electronic components are
and other harbor craft. In the noat-offlaunching method, the ship installed, and spaces are painted and fitted with furniture and equip-
is constructed on powered pallet cars, which are rolled onto a pon- ment. The fitting-out period may take over 3 year for brge ships.










































Side-launching the littoral combat ship USS Freedom (LCS 1). (Lockheed Martin)

SHIP CONSTH UCTION A N D DAi\IAGE CONTHOL 141


Navy ships have both a name and a number, called a desig-
Ilali01l, which is a group of letters and numbers that identify the
ship. The letters tell the ship type and general lise; the hlllllllllllbers
indicate the number of ships of that type built, in sequence. These
designations are used in correspondence, records, and plans, and
appear on ships' boats and ships' bows.
The first letter in a designator is a general classification. The
designator letters are as follows:
A Auxiliary L Amphibious, littoral
II llattleship M Mine warfare
C Cruiser P Patrol
CV Carrier S Submarine
, D Destroyer T Military Sealift Command

F Frigate Y Yard and service craft
Christening of the littoral combat ship USS Freedom (LCS 1).
(Lockheed Martin) Tn combatant designations. the letter N means nuclear propul-
sion and the letter G means that the ship carries guided missiles.
Other letters serve to further identif)' the vessel and its purpose.
Commissioning \"'hen a Ilumber of ships are built to the same design they make up
a class, which is named for the first ship in it.
\'Vhen the ship is ready for coillmissioning, the shipyard COIll-
mander or another senior officer representing the eNO is ordered '1\\'0 examples of ship designations are as follows: the USS
to place it in commission. On that day, its otlleers and crew assemble Kidd (DDG-993) and USS Ohio (SSGN-726). The Kidd is a guided
in dress uniforms. j\'Iany dignitaries and guests arc Llsuall}, present, missile destroyer. DD meaning destroyer and G meaning guided
along with the eNO's representative and staff As the band plays and missile. The Ohio is a nuclear-powered guided missile submarine,
all stand at attention, the representative orders the national ensign 5S meaning submarine, G, guided missile, and N, nuclear pow-
hoisted to designate the ship in the official service of the govern- ered. The Ohio also happens to be the first of the latest class of
ment, and the commission pennant is unfurled at the mainmast. guided missile submarines, so that group of ships is known as the
The eNG's representative then formally turns the ship over to Ohio-class guided missile submarines. All Navy ships can be easily
the prospective commanding officer. The CO reads aloud orders identified as to their type. mission, armament, and propulsion by
from the Navy Department to command the ship. The first order is their designator.
"Bring the ship to life and set the watch!" The officers and crew file Tn recent years many auxiliary-type Navy ships have been
aboard and take their stations in the new ship. assigned to the lvlilital)' Sealift Command and crewed by contract
After commissioning, the ship starts sea trials. The weapons civilians. These ships arc identified by a T preceding their designator.
are fired and calibrated. All gear is checked out and tested. The ship for example, the replenishment oiler USS Neosho 01\0-143).
goes on a shakedown cruise to veri~' seaworthiness, speed, endur-
ance, and ability to maneuver as designed. After the ship returns to
the outfitting yard, any problems are corrected. J\'lore checks and
STU DY GUIDE Q U ESTIO N S
tests arc made at sea of fuel consumption, speeds, propeller revolu-
tions, and many other functions. Finally the ship and crew undergo I. List the major factors considered in the construction of nayal
a training cruise lasting from SL,,{ to eight weeks, usually out of San ships.
Diego or Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. Upon successful completion of
2. Provide the nautical terms for these civilian terms:
this cruise, the ship is ready to join the fleet.
A. Outer walls
13. Inner walls
S hip Designations
C. Floors
The Navy has some three hundred oceangoing ships operating D. Ceilings
under their own commanding officers. Tn addition to these. there
E. Hallways
are over one thousand service craft. many without crews and some
F. Stairs
with no self-propulsion.
G. Entrance hall

142 NAVAl. SKII.I.S


3. \·Vhat nauticaln<1mes are given to these parts of a ship? 18. \-Vhat are the purposes of the sh,lkedowil and underway
training cruise?
A. Front part
19. A. \Vhat is a ship's designation composed of?
B. Back part
B. \-Vhat are the first-letter designators of major naval vessels?
C. Middle of ship, lengthwise
20. A. \·Vhat determines a class of ships?
D. Lengthwise direction
B. \Vhat do the letters G and N indicate in a ship's designator?
E. Crosswise direction
C. \Vhat does a T before a ship's designator mean?
E lvlidpoint iuea
G. Widest part of ship
CRIT ICAL THINK ING
H . . Main deck, forward
I. Main deck, aft 1. How does the construction of a naval warship differ from a
J. Main deck and above typic<ll dry cargo nlerchant ship? \·Vhy the differences?
K. Below the Illain deck 2. Research some of the features that have been incorporated in
new naval warships built during the 1990s and beyond that
L. Right of centerline
make themlllore resistant to damage than ships built earlier.
1vl. Left of centerline \Vhat provided the impetus for these changes?
N. In the rigging 3. Briefly describe the different types of propulsion systems
4. A. \Vhat name is given to the girders attached to the keel that found on present -day naval warships.
support the watertight skin of the ship? 4. J\·lake a table listing common features of a building sllch as
ll. What is the watertight skin called? foundations, walls, doors, as so on, then list in the table the
corresponding Ilautical features in a boat or ship.
C. \·Vhat additional strengthening beams run fore and aft?
5. \-Vhat is another name for the deck edge where the main deck
meets with the shell or side plating? VOCABULARY
6. How are all compartments in a ship identified? propulsion plant weather deck
7. A. How are decks numbered below the main deck? armament scuppers
sea\\'orthiness list, trim
B. Above the main deck?
endurance collision bulkhead
8. A. \-Vhat llame is given to all structures above the main deck?
habitability superstructure
B. \,Vhat is the highest structure above the main deck?
landlubber mainmast
C. \-Vhat equipment is installed on this structure? bulkhead foremast
9. A. \'Vhat main components does a steam propulsion plant overhead pigstick
have? quarterdeck jackstaft·
B. \Vhat is the biggest difference between a steam and nuclear- fore. <lft stack
athwartships reduction gear
powered vessel?
bow, stern rpm
10. Briefly describe how a gas turbine engine works.
forecastle propeller shaft
11. \·Vhat part of the propulsion system actually drives the ship
"\11 tail nuclear reactor
through the water?
watertight integrity variable-pitch propeller
12. \'Vhy is there heavy shielding around the reactor compartment amidships subassembl)'
of a nuclear propulsion plant? port, starboard christening
13. \'Vhere are ships built? beam commission pennant
14. \-Vhat are the basic steps in building a ship? quarter shakedown cruise
keel hull number
15. In what three ways can a ship be launched?
gunwale ship designator
16, \Vho chooses the Ilame of a new ship?
roll, pitch, yaw compartment
17. A. \-Vho places a naval ship in commission? draft wardroom
13. \-Vhat is the first order of the new cOlllmanding officer after freeboard head (ship compartment)
he or she reads the orders? stateroom

lEI Damage Control and Firefighting










A ship's ability to do its job may one day depend all its crew's dnlll- teams to detect chemical. biological, or radiological (CBR) attacks,
age control abilities. Damage control covers firefightillg, collision and routes casualties to battle dressing stations.
and grounding damage, explosion damage. battle damage, and
care of the injured. The duties and responsibilities of thc ship's
damage control orgililization are outlined in the ship's battle bill Repair Parties
and co\'crcd in detail in the Damage COl1trol lHml//nl. They include Repair parties consist of personnel who attempt to make emer-
routine and emergency maintenance of damage control equip- genc), repairs to any vitnl damaged equipment or ship's structure.
ment ilnd closures; control of damage and flooding caused byacci- They nrc the main components in the DCA's damage control orga-
dent or hostile action; and defense against chemical. biological, nization. The number and r;:ltings of crew members assigned to il
and radiologic.,1 attack. repair part)' are determined by the location of its station, the size
of the area to be covered by that station, and the total llumber of
people available.
The Damage Control Organization
Each repair part)' will have nn officer or chief petty officer in
The shipboard damage control organization consists of dall1<lge charge, a scene leader to supervise all on-scene activities, a phone
control central (DeC), repair lockers, and repair parties stntioned talker, messengers, and personnel equipped with special oxygen
in and responsible fo r varioLls areas of the ship. The engineering breathing apparatus (OIlA). (For further discussion of OBA, see
officer is the clnmnge control ofHcer. He or she is assisted by the the section on protective fire clothing.) Repair part)' personnel
damage control nssistnnt (DCA), who is responsible for preventing nre assigned to various teams within each repair party, including
nnd repairing dnmage, tmining the crew in damage control, and investigation teams, hose teams, dewatering. plugging. and patch-
caring for machinery, drainage, and piping assigned to the damage ing teams, shoring, piping repair. structurnl repair, casualty power.
cont rol org,lI1izatioll (such as firemains, foam systems, and water interior communicatiolls repair. and electrical repair teams. There
\\'ashdown systellls). In addition to these key leaders, each depart- are also CUR (chemical. biological, and nuclear warfare) monitor-
ment has a damage control petty officer, who coordinates the ing teams and decontamination teams. Besides the general repair
trai ning of dep,utmental personnel in both damage control proce- parties, on some ships there arc special departmental teams to
dures nnd mnintenance of damage control fillings and equipment handle aviation fuel repair. aviation crash and salvage. and ord-
ill their depnrtlnental sp'Kes. nance disposal.
Dalnnge control central is the headquarters for all damage COll- Repair parties ~ue assigned to each major part of the ship, and
trol activities in the ship's battle organization. It is located in a pro- to propulsion and electronics repair. Repair parties must be capa-
tected space welt within the ship. Dee coordinates alt the repair ble of:
parties for hull, propulsion, electronics, weapons, air operations,
Evaluating and reporting correctly on the extent of damage in
and the battle dressing (first aid and emergency operating) sta-
their areas
tions. It receives reports from damage cont rol parties, nssesses the
damage, and decides which damage is most in need of repairs. It COlltrolling nnd extinguishing all kinds of fires
also advises the colllmanding officer (CO) on what must be done Giving first aid and transporting the injured to battle dress-
to keep the ship in fighting shape. ing stations
The DCA has a battle station in the DeC. where he or she Detecting, identifying. and measuring nuclear radiation and
uses various visual aids to help coordinate plans to contain dmn- biological and chemical agents, and carrying out decontami-
age. These include charts and diagrams of the entire ship, its sys- nation procedures
tems. ;:md access routes to difte rent areas. A casualty displny board
Performing the special duties nssigned to their parties, such as
enables the DCA to keep track of the damage sustained and the
propulsion and electronics repairs. and maintaining water-
progress of corrective actioll, based on repair party reports. The
tight integrity, structural integrity. and ship's maneuvcrability
DCA also coordinates the decontamination stations, monitors


t43

144 NAVAL SKILLS






































Sailors man Damage Control Central (DCC) on the aircraft carrier USS Ronald Reagan (CVN 76) under direction of the ship's damage control
assistant (center) during a general quarters drill. Note the protective hoods and gloves worn by all, and the schematic diagrams of the ship's decks
posted on the bulkhead to the right. (Aaron Burden)


In addition to repair parties, each ship also has an auxiliary Condition X-RAY ofters the least protcction.It is set when the
at-sea and in-port fire party organization, consisting of enough ship is in no danger of attack, such as when at anchor in <l well-
on-duty repair party personnel to handle a moderate-sized fire. A protected harbor or secured at home port during regular working
large fire requires the crew to go to general quarters (GQ) and aU hours. During this condition, any closure (door, hatch, valve, and
repair parties to be fully manned to fight il. so on) with a black X on it will be secured. X-RAY fittings are also
Battle dressing stations are first aid stations equipped to han- closed for conditions YOKE and ZEBRA.
dle casualties and are manned by medicli department personnel. Condition YOKE provides for a bit more protection than
Stretcher cases may be brought directly to a station by the repair X-RAY. YOKE is set and maintained at sea. In port, it is maintained
party stretcher-bearers. Emergency supplies of medical equipment at all times during war, and outside of regular working hours dur-
are placed in first aid boxes at various places throughout the ship ing peacetime. YOKE closures are marked with a black Y; they are
in addition to those stored at the battle dressing stations. also closed during condition ZEBRA.
Condition ZEBRA provides the highest level of protection
possible without securing ventilation. It is set before going to sea or
Material Readiness Conditions when cntering port during W,lr. It is set il1lmediately, without fur-

The success of damage control depends partly on the maintc- ther orders, when general quarters stations are manned. Condition
nance of watertight integrity. As discllssed in the last chapter, each ZEBRA is also set to localize and control firc and flooding when
ship is divided into compartments to control noDding, withstand not at C;Q. \Vhen condition ZEBRA is set, illl closurcs marked with
CBR attacks, protcct and strengthen the structure of the ship, and a red Z are secured.
maintain buoyancy and stability. The watertight integrity of a ship Once a material condition is set, no fitting marked only with
may be reduced or destroyed by enemy action, storms, collisions, that or lower condition symbols may be opened without pcrmis-
or ncgligcnce. sian from the cOlllmanding officer, givcn through the DCA or
NJ\')' ships have three basic material conditions of readiness, Officer of the deck (OOD). However, to allow for access to criti-
each representing a different degree of "tightness" and protection. Cill Sp,lCCS, ccrtain fittings baving a circle around the basic mark-
These are conditions: X-RAY, YOKE, and ZEBRA. ing; (or ex,lmple, a circle X-RAY may be temporarily opened for

SHIP CONST IWCTlON AND DAi\IAGE CONTROL 145


nccess without prior permission. Ventilation fittings mnrked with ''''hen other methods of communication fail. messengers must
a W (WILLIAM) are never closed. Those marked with a circle be used to relay orders and information. Messengers IllUSt learn
'·VILLlAM ma), be closed to limit air circulation in a space during how to get nrou11d the ship to all the repair part}' stations and other
a CUR attack. ZEBRA (marked with a Z) fitt ings within a capital arens.lvlessengers will often be given written messages for delivery,
D are called DOG-ZEBRA fittings; the), are closed ror darken ship. but they must also be able to deliver oral messages accurately.
It is the responsibility of nil hnl1ds to maintain whatcvcr material
condition has been set for the ship,
Fire and Firefighting

Any person aboard ship who discovers a fi re IllUSt give the alarm.
Damage Repairs
Another person must be notified to go for help. The fire report
llaule damage repair is cl11ergency action taken to keep the ship lllay be spread by any means, sllch as the telephone or other inter-
afloat and fighting. OrilJs and personal qualification training arc llill communication s),stem. Damagc control central is the head-
continuously done to teach cvcryone how to use damage control quarters area for fighting any fire. Once the alarm has sounded.
equipmeIlt. An important part of winning in n11y emergency is to nllyone nearby should act promptly to contain or e)..1inguish the
keep calm, remain alert. and work rapidly with the tools at hnnd, fire. Other personnel in the fire or repair party will arrive quickly
Unless the damage is very bnd, there is much thnt damage control on the scene with the necessary equipment to carryon the fight.
teams can do to kccp the ship afloat nnd read)' for action. Fire is a constant threilt ilboard ship. All nppropriate measures
Any rupture, break, or hole in the ship's outer hull plating below must be continually taken to prevent fi res. An)' fire of significant
the waterline can let in seawater. If flooding is not controlled, the size that does occur can threaten the survivability of the ship and
ship will sink. ' '''hen the underwater hull is pierced, there are onl)' everyone aboard. They may start from spontaneous combustion
two wa),s to control flooding. The first is to plug the holes; the sec- (self-generated heat), carelessness, hits by cllcmy shells or missiles,
ond is to establish and maintain flood bound<lfies llsing the water- explosio11, or collision. A fire Illust be controlled quickly, since it
tight compnrtmelltation in the ship so flooding will not spread, may Ciluse extensive damage or loss of the ship.
In order for a fire to occur, three physical requirements must
be met: there must be i1 burnable fuel, it IllllSt be heated eJlough to
Communications burn. and there must be enough oxygen to keep it burning, These
Good communications between dift-erent parts of the damnge three requirements form the fire triangle. whose sides consist of
control organizntion arc of vital importance. There are three main i l/e1, heat. and mygell. Removing any side of the triangle will result
communication systems used in the damage control organiz<ltion: ill extinguishing the fire (putting it out). Pirefighters must deter-
the geI1eml announcing system (usually called the I ivIC). sound- mine the best way to put a fi re ollt-in other words, which side of
powered telephones. nnd messengers. the triangle to remove. This is not "Iwa)'s an easy choice.
The l~'I C is not the primary means of tmnsmitting dalllnge Removing the fuel is often not possible. It could be done, how-
control information. but it is a way of getting orders. information, ever, in an instance where liquid fllel was being fed by a pipeline.
and alarms throughout the ship. It may be used to illlnOUnCe the Closing the valves would cut the now or the fuel, and the fire could
location of a bomb or shell hit, nre, or collision. then be allowed to burn itself Ollt. Sometimes combustible mate-
Emergency alnnns include the general alarm, lIsed to call the rials call be removed or soaked with water-another way of elimi-
crcw to general quarters because of impending enemy attack, and nating fuel.
gcncml qUilrters for fire, collision, and CDR attack. The general
alarm llsed for attack or fire is i1 series of single gong tones; the
chemical alarm is a steady tone signal; and the collision alarm COIl- OXYGEN
sists of a series of three pulses. with a short pause before the next
series. Battlc st<ltions are manned for all of the emergency alarms.
The ship's battlc circuits use sound-powered telephones. They
are the principal means of cOllllllunication throughout the ship.
Their advnntage over other systems is that they require 110 external
source of power other than the talker's voice. Each repair party has
its OWI1 circuit connecting it to damage control central. to its rov- ~ FUEL
ing patrols. ilnd tn other stntions in its area.

The fire triangle,

146 NAVAL SKILLS


Oxygen ClI1 be removed in h\'o ways. In a closed space, carbon rules for preventing fires Me generally the same anywhere, but
dioxide (CO) can be pumped in to displace the ox,'gen and starve special precautions must be taken in the Navy and aboard ships
the fire. Another method is to smother the fire with a blanket of because of the concentration of flammable fuels and explosives.
chemic.ll powders, toam, or sand. The first rule is to keep things squared away-clean, in good
Removing the heat side of the triangle, or cooling the fire, is order, and in their proper places. rIammable materials must be
the method most often employed, usually b)1 the use of lots of kept awa), from potential fire starters sllch as torches, cig<lretles,
water, both solid stream and fog (spray), to cool the burning sur- and sparking equipment.
lace rapidl),. Hrefighting equipment must be welll11aintained.lf a fire starts,
the right gear must be immediately available and operating prop-
erly to prevent the fire from spreading.
Classes of Fires
One of the more common causes of Class A fires is lighted cig-
There are four classes of I1res, depending on the type of fuel or arettes or matches thrown into trash cans. Smoking in bunks is
material burning and the methods required to extinguish theill. strictly forbidden by regulations, but the regulations have been bro-
Class A (Alpha) fires involve solid combustible materials such ken with serious consequences. Through spontaneous combustion,
as wood, cloth, or paper. They often leave ashes. Explosives are also piled up oily rags and papers also comlllonly cause stich fires.
in this categor)'. \Vater is the usual means of putting out Class A Class 13 fires are very difficult to predict, especially if fumes leak
fires. Carbon dioxide (CO) may be used on small fires, but not on in voids and tanks aboard ship. Sparking from welding torches,
explosives. The flames of a large fire arc usually cooled down with light switches, and even flashlights can be sufficient to calise an
fog. Then a solid stream of water is used to break up the material explosion and fire with gasoline fumes. Grease fires in galleys are
for further cooling. not uncommon if hot oil or grease spills onto burners. The smok-
elms B (Bml'o) fires involve flammable liquids such as oil, gas- ing lamp (term for permission to smoke in authorized spaces) is
oline, other fuels, cleaning agents, and paints. COl is good for put- out whenever handling fuels or explosives aboard a ship.
ting out small Class B I1res. For larger fires, light water (a mixture Paint and oils should be kept away ti'olll electric wires. Fl"il}'ed
of water and chemicals) or water fog or spray should be used. A or worn wires and insulation must be repaired or replaced imme-
solid stream of water should never be used on Class B fires; it will diatel}'. Dust alld dirt should 110t be aUo\\'cd to accumulate around
only scatter the fuel and spread the naIlleS. electrical equipment. Unauthorized c1ectric.ll i.lppliallces and over-
Clms C (Charlie) fires are those burning in electrical or elec- loaded circuits, extension cords, and plugs are an open invitation
tronic equipment stich as radios, radars, generators, and electric to overheating and fires.
control panels. The main extinguishing agents are COl and dry
chemical extinguishers. Liquids should not be used bec.ll1se they
Firefighting Equipment
will damage the equipment and may be a shock hazard. If at all
possible, electrical gear should be deenergizcd before any I1re- The fire main s},stem aboard ship is designed to deliver se,lwa-
fighting is undertaken, to eliminate the potential shock hazard. ter to fireplugs and sprinkler systems, just like i.l cit}"s fire main
Electricity can trawl along wet decks and electrocute firefighters. delivers water under pressure to the fire hydrants. 1\\'0 connected
Clnss D (De/ta) fires involve combustible metals such as mag- 50-foot lengths of fire hose---one end attached to the I1re main,
nesium, titanium, sodium, and in some cases, aluminum. These the other fitted with a nozzle-arc placed on racks at each fire sta-
elements arc used in certain parts of ships, aircraft, missiles, some tioll throughout a ship. AdditiOlli.lllengths of hose are rolled and
weapons, and computers and other electronic gear. A magnesium stowed in repair lockers.
aircraft parachute flare, for instance, can burn ilt a temperature Sprinkler systems are installed ill magazines, gun tUITets,
greater thaI14,000° Fahrenheit, with a brilli<l11cy 01'2 trillion candle- aml1lunition-handling rooms, spaces where flammable materi-
powcr. Dry powder e)\1inguishillg agents containing sodium chlo- als arc stored, and hangar bays aboard ships that operate aircmft.
ridc granules or copper powder arc lIsed on this type of fire. "\'<lter Some systems are automatically triggered when the temperature
can excite these fires and make them worse. firefighters dealing with in the protected compartment reaches a certilin temperature. but
Class 0 fires should wem welders' goggles with dark lenses to protect most are operated manually by control valves.
their eyes from the ollen-intense glare of this type fire. Light water used to fight Class 13 fires acts as a blanket that
floats 0 11 top of the burning liquid and smothers the fire. It should
not be llsed on Class C fires because of the potential shock haz<lrds
Fire Prevention
involved.
A fire is certain to GlllSe some damage. The most firefighters C1I1 Two types of portable extillgllishers are cOlllmon: CO and
2
do is to minimize the damage and keep the fire from spreading. purple-K powder (PKP). Both are effective in nghting Class 1l and
A main objective, therefore. is to prevent fires from starting. The Class C fires. The COL extillgllisher is used mainly for putting out

SII [I' CONSTR UCT ION AN D DA~IAGE CONTROL 147


electrical Ilres but is ei1ecth'e on any small fire. Because COl is are lIsed in this type extinguisher. They are often installed in spaces
heavier than nir. it lorms a smothering blanket OYer the fire. CO is that have materials in them that can be involved in this class offire.
2
quick to use and kaves no mess, but Ci.lfbon dioxide "snow" can be
blown away by wind or draft. It is not poisonous. but contact with it
Protective Fire Clothing
GlJl cause painful skin blisters.
Dry c/tf!l1Iim/ PKP extinguishers ilrc milinly for Class 13 fires. Anyclothing that covers the skin will protect it from Hash burns <lnd
The chemiCi11 used is potassium bicarbonate (similar to baking· other short-duration flames. Tn addition to their uniforms, person-
soda). It is called purple-K powder. or PKP. PKP is not poisonous nel aboard Navy ships ilnd shore stations that may be exposed to
.. md is four times as effective as CO! for extinguishing fires. The dry flame and heat in emergency conditions arc isslled flame-retardant
chemical is an excellent firefighting agent, but its effects are tempo- hoods and long gloves that arc worn whenever w;'1I"I""1I1ted. Eyes are
rary. It has no cooling eftect and provides no protection against protected with antitlash goggles. If clothing catches on fire, one
reflash. PKP should be used sparingl)' in confined spaces because it should not run, since this wiII fan the names. Lie down and rol1
will reduce visibility and make breathing difficult. up in a blanket. coat, or an·),thing that will smother the flames. If
PKP can be lIsed with light W;.lter to produce a highl)1 enectivc nothing is ;;wailable, the person should roll over slowly, beating out
extinguishing agent. The dry chemical beats down the fire. and the the flames with his or her hands. If another persoll's clothes catch
light water prevents a reHash. 0 11 fire. he or she should be put down and covered up (except the
DI)' powder extinguishers are used to combat Class 0 fires. As head) with a blanket or coat.
previously mentioned, sodium chloride granules or copper powder

















































Two crew members aboard the guided missile cru iser USS Vella Gulf(CG 62) outfitted in fire proximity suits carry a simulated casualty to safety
during a flight deck fire drill. The suits do not al low the wearer to enter burning spaces or walk through flames, but only to get close enough to
rescue victims or assist in firefighting. (Jason Zalasky)

148 NAVAL SK ILLS


The proxilllity firefightillg s/lit (close-in suit) consists of cov- As soon as the extent of the fire is determined, a full report
eralls, gloves, helmet, and boots. Its helmet provides a protective is made to damage control central. Upgraded material readiness
cover for the o','gen breathing apparatus (OBA or SeRA) that conditions are set around the entire area.
is normally worn with it. It is lightweight and resists penetration \·Vhile the firefighting is under way, the team sets up fire bOll1ld-
of liquids. The suit allows crew members to enter overheated or aries to isolate the fire and keep it from spreading. Fire boundaries
steam-filled compartments and to make crash fire rescues. The arc set in sevcral ways. Combustible materials in adjoining spaces
wearer is not expected to enter burning spaces or walk through are mo\'ed or cooled to prevent spread of fire by heat transmission.
flames, only to get close enough to rescue victims or assist in put- Since fire can blister and ignite paint on bulkheads in adjoining
ting the fire out. compartments, fog or sprinklers are lIsed to cool the bulkheads,
The Navy's OUA is a self-contained unit designed to protect decks, and overheads in adjoini ng spaces. Ventilation systems in
the wearer in a place lacking oxygen or containing harmful gases, the area are secured to cut oft'the oxygen supply to the fire and to
vapors, smoke, or dust. The wearer breathes in a closed system in limit the spread of smoke and gases to other compartments. Fire
which oxygen is supplied by a chemical reaction in a disposable watches are posted in surrounding compartments.
canister. All Navy personnel are trained in the use of the OBA in \Vhen the fire is isolated, electrical circuits in thc area should
boot camp and ill fleet training schools, as well as aboard ship dur- be deenergized to protect against shock. Doors should be checked
ing repair party training sessions. for heat and pressure behind them before their door dogs (heav),
latches) are full), opened.
After the fire has been extinguished, the area must be over-
hauled to prevent reflash of the fire. All smoldering or· charred
materials should be saturated thoroughly and removed if possi-
ble. The compartments must be checked for explosive vapors or
liquids that might remain. Dewatering (removing water used in
fire fighting) is then begun. At this time, a full report is made to
damage control central on fire and smoke damage and flooding.
The final step in fighting the fire is to set a rej7ash watch to be sure
that the fire does not start again from a smoldering fragment or
through vapor ignition. Gases, especially from fuels, can be ignited
by heat or sparks if allowed to concentrate in or ncar an area that
has not been properly ovcrhauled.


A damage control petty officer adjusts the OBA on a trainee in dam-
age control school. The DBA is designed to protect the wearer in
places lacking oxygen or containing harmful gases, vapors, smoke, or STU DY GU IDE Q U ESTIO NS
dust. It is a closed self-contained unit in which oxygen is supplied by
chemicals in a canister that purifies exhaled air. A newer model, the 1. A. \Vhat does damage control include?
SCBA, uses a rechargeable air cylinder vice a canister.
13. \·Vhat are the duties of a ship's damage control
organization?
Fight ing a Fire 2. A. \Vhich officer is the ship's damage control officer?
B. \·Vho is the principal assistant?
A fire may gain considerable headway before smoke is detected,
especially if it has started in an unattended space. The first sign may 3. A. \Vhat is the name given to the control station lor shipboard
be smoke coming out of a ventilation outlet or seeping around a damage control?
door or hatch cover. The smoke may have traveled some distance. B. \·Vhat is the name given to the on-scene groups of people
Therefore, the first job of a repair or fire party is to locate the fire. who are responsible for damage control in assigned
This is done by team members called illI'estigators, normally the sections of the ship?
first people to go out to respond to any damage or fire that may 4. A. \Vhat is the task of a repair part)' scene lcader?
have occurred. B. \Vhat are the special teams within a repair party?
The investigators check bulkheads, decks, and vents for heat
5. A. \'''hat is a battle dressing station?
to see if the fire is in an adjoining compartment. They may have to
B. \·Vho brings stretcher cases to the battle dressing station?
follow a trail of smoke. Once the fire is located, they check adjoin-
ing compartments to be sure it has not spread to them.

SHIP CONSTRUCTION AND DA ,\\AGE CONT 1{OL 149


6. A. \Vhat arc the three basic material conditions of readiness? 17. \Vhat is the purpose of the Navy's o:\:ygen breathing
B. \Vhat is the extent of protection for the ship in each? apparatus?
7. \,Vhat are the two ways to control flooding? 18. A. Wbat are tbe first steps a frrefighting party must take in
fighting a fire?
8. A. \"'hat are the emergency alarms used aboard ship?
B. Wby do tbey cbeck bulkbeads and decks lor heat?
B. \·Vhen are they used?
19. \Vhat is the purpose of a fire boundary?
9. A. \·Vhilt is the principal means of internal cOllllllunication
throughout a ship? 20. \Vhat is dewatering?
B. \·Vhat is the particular advantage of this system?
C. \Vhen internal phone and electrical systems fail, what CRIT ICAL THINKING
method is llsed to relay messages?
I . Explain why quick response to damage sllch as fire or flooding
10. \·Vho should be the first person to report a fire? is even more critical on board a ship than in the case of
II. A. Wbat is tbe fire triangle? buildings ashore.
13. How can a fire be put out? 2. Summarize the variolls classes of fires and the extinguishing
agents lIsed for each.
C. \Vhat is the method Illost often Llsed?
12. List the four classes of fires, fuels for each, and best method of
extinguishing each. VOCABULARY
13. \Vhy must a stream of water never be used to put out fires damage control sound-powered telephones
in electrical or electronic equipment before it is completely
DCA, DCC OBA,SCIlA
deenergized?
repair party fire boundaries
14. A. \Vhy must special precautions against fire be constantly ilwestigator reflash watch
observed aboard ship? battle dressing station dewatering
13. \Vhat are some of the key rules for shipboard fire water fog reflash
prevention? smoking hllnp fire triangle
C. \Vhy do these rules make sense in )'our own home? carbon dioxide (CO,) light water
PKP door dogs
15. \Vhere are shipboard sprinkler systems used?
dry chemical e:\1inguisher dry powder extinguisher
t 6. Wbat sbould you do if your clotbes caleb on fire?

UNIT
















Shipboard Organization

and Watchstanding




naval ship's crew is made up of the officers and enlisted personnel neces-
A sary to fight the ship. A ship's organization, then, is set up to meet com-
bat needs. The crew can operate efficiently in peacetime but can adapt quickly to
meet wartime needs. \"'hether in time of peace or war, each crew member has all
important job. The chapters in this unit will discuss the way ships' personnel are
organized in the U.S. Navy.

Shipboard Organization











The basic shipboard departments [lfe operations, combat systems istr<1tioll and training of the ship. The CO gives directions to the
(weapons), engineering. slIppl},. and, 011 ships having 1ll<lllllCd air- executive ofl1cer. That officer then works with the ship's depart-
craft, air. There mily be sOllle other departments ;]5 well, depending ment heads to conduct training. exercises, and drills to keep the
upon the type and size of the ship. crew ready.
Each type of ship has what is known as an nrf",illislmtil'c orgn- The main responsibility of the CO is the silfety of the ship.
lIizntioll for running the ship. The administrative organizntioll This means, alllong other things, proper hilndling and stowage of
described in this chapter is that of a typical naval fighting ship, or ammunition, making sure the ship is wiltertight, careful navig<1-
cOllli}(l tall t. tion, posting of proper lookouts, and safe maneuvering and navi-
gilt ion. Since the CO C<1!lIlO! handle nil these matters personally, he
or she depends on the assistance of good subordinate officers. For
eX<llllple, the navigator must know the ship's position at illl times,
but the CO is still responsible for the safe navigation of the ship.
During combat, the CO's bilttle station is thilt station from wruch
he or she can best fight the ship. In the el'ent of the loss of the ship,
the CO waits until <111 persollnel are off the ship before leaving.
The CO supervises everyone under his or her command.
He or she must direct the investigation of conduct offenses, and
assign punishments under the Uniform Code of tvlilitilry Justice.
The CO, in turn, is held responsible for his or her cOlllmand by
higher authority.
The welfare, morale, ilnd living conditions of the crew Me a CO's
COllstilnt concern. The executive officer and his or her assistants
m<lnage these affairs, but the CO must always be concerned also.


Executive Officer
The commanding officer of a guided missile destroyer (right) greets
visitors from the Chinese navy. (Matthew White) The CXCCllf;l'C officer. often called "the exec" or "XO," is the line offi-
cer next in mnk to the CO. He or she is the direct representative of
the Co. The XO is responsible for alll11ilttcrs relating to personnel,
Commanding Officer
ship's dilily routine, and discipline in the ship. All orders issued by
Ever)' cOlllmissioned ship in the Navy operates under the iluthorit)' the XO have the same force as if issued by the CO.
of an officer ordered to cOlllmand it. Rcg.trdless of rank, he or she The executive officer is responsible for:
is called "captain." The cotlllllallnillg officer (CO) is the line omcer
Coordination of <11J depilrtmcnts
in actual command of a ship.
Assignment of persollnel ilnd upkeep of their records
The CO is tot<1l1y responsible for the cOlllmand. His or
Preparation and maintenance of ship's organization bills and
her autllorit)' is also toti.ll, within the limits set by law and Nm'),
orders
Regllia/ions and the reporting senior. Subordinates in the chain
Supervision and coordination of work, exercises, tmining, and
of command may be delegated authority to manage the details of
education
running the ship, but delegation of 3uthority in no way relieves the
Supen,isioll of loading and berthing plans
CO of responsibility for the s<1fet)' and operation of the command.
Navigation (smaller ships onl}')
The CO strives to keep the cOlllmand re<1dy for war service. He
Supervision of ship's correspolldencc
or she is assisted by the executive officer, who has ch<1rge of admill-
152

SHIPIlOAIW ORGANIZATION AND WATC HSTAND ING 153



I Commanding Officer I
r Executive Officer I




Navigator
r Admin. Assistant
(if assigned) I


Ship's Personnel Educational Senior
Secretary Officer Training Services Watch Legal
(CO's writer) x Div. Officer Officer Officer Officer Officer



Chief Combat Special
PAO Postal Career
Chaplain Master-at- Cargo Services
Officer Officer Counselor
Arms Officer Officer
The executive officer's assistants in a typical combatant ship. In smaller ships, many of these tasks are assigned as collateral duties.



\,Vith the help of department heads, the XO coordinates all The navigator's staff nlilintains records of all observations
ship's work. This includes drills and exercises, the personnel orga- concerning navigation of the ship. They obtain and correct allnav-
nization, policing of the ship through the master-at-arms force, igalional charts, sailing directions, light lists, and other navigation
and inspections of the ship. The XO is responsible for the c1eanJi- publications.
ness, good order, and military appearance of ship and crew. The navigator is responsible tor the operation and cafC of
The XO supervises the department heads in the performance navigational equipment. He or she is also responsible for the care
of their duties and is in charge of the instruction of junior officers. and proper operation of the steering gcar, except for the steering
The XO is responsible for the entries made in the crew's service engines and motors. In general, the navigator is in charge of the
records. He or she investigates matters involving conduct and dis- bridge. pilot house, chart room, and wings of the bridge for main-
cipline of the crew, normally through the executive assistants. tenance and upkeep.
He or she supervises whene\'er all hands are c:llled for any par-
ticular duty, exercise, or evolution, except during combat. \'Vhen the
Executive Assistants
ship is cleared for action, the XO inspects it, receives reports from
the v .. uiolls departments, and reports to the CO the condition of Several additional officers and senior enlisted personnct work
the ship. If the CO is incapacitated or killed, the XO becomes the directly under the Xo. The size of the staff depends on the size of
acting Co. for this re .. lson, the XO's battle station is located sOllle the ship. In slllall ships several of these duties are assigned to one
distance from the captain's. In modern ships, the CO often is in the person, or as colfateml dllties, that is, in addition to primary duties.
combat information center (CIC), and the XO is on the bridge. These assist"lI1ls, and their b..lsic duties, are as follows:
The administrative assistant helps the XO ill details of admin-
istriltion.
Nav igator
The persDlllleI officer assigns enlisted personnel according to the
The navigator is responsible to the CO for the sale navigation ilnd ship's bills. He or she is responsible for the enlisted service records.
piloting of the ship. In small ships, navigation is an extra duty of The enlisted career colll/selor keeps all crew members informed
the xo. Large ships Llsually have it sCpMate navigator. about career and educational opportunities. He or she counsels all
The navigator keeps the CO, XO, and officer of the deck enlisted crew members aboLit <111)' career decisions or career-related
advised on the ship's loc .. lIion and maintains it position plot by problems they may have.
celestial, visllal, electronic, or other navigational means. He or Larger ships ma)' have i.l chaphlin, i.l legal officer, and a public
she must study all charts and other sources of information before aft~lirs offlcer.
entering pilot waters and give carefuJ attention to the course of the The (haplaill is responsible tor religious activities of the com-
ship and the depth of water when near land or shoals. mand. The chaplain ministers to the spirihli.1l needs of ship's per-
sonnel and often helps with personal counseling.

154 NAVAL SK ILLS


The legal officer advises the CO and XO Ollll1atters collcerning Command Master Chief
discipline and administration of justice. He or she often serves as
The command master chief, normally the senior enlisted chief
an investigator for the XO all disciplinary charges.
petty officer aboard, serves as the principal enlisted <ldviser to
The pllblic affairs oJJicer (PAG) carries oul Ihe public aft'lirs
the Co. The command master chief has direct access to the CO
program of the ship. He or she keeps the CO and XO informed on
on matters that affect the welfare, momle, and well-being of the
public relations matters and prepares articles and photography for
enlisted crew.
release to the news mediJ (newsp<lpers, r;.ldio, and TV).
The combat cargo officer in amphibious ships has charge of the
loading and unloading of troops, billeting and messing of troops, Heads of Departments
and the loading, stowage, and unloading of cargo.
A ship's major departments are operations, combat systems or
The special sen'ices officer organizes all the welt~ue, recreational,
weapons, engineering, supply, and air. Each has a department
and athletic activities of the ship. In foreign ports, he or she oneil
head, a middle-grade officer in charge of that department. Except
arranges tours for members of the crew.
in staff departments (medical, dental, supply), the department
The sCllior watch <1ftccr (SIVG) is responsible to the CO for
head is a line officer eligible for command in the event of the loss
assignment of all deck watchstanders, both under way and in
of his or her superior olTicers. In aircmft carriers, the operations
port. The 5\"'0 prepares the officer deck watch bills, supervises
and air departments arc headed by naval aviators.
the enlisted watch bills, and coordinates and directs the training of
The head of a department represents the CO in all matters
deck watch officers.
related to the department. All persons assigned to the department
The chief IIU1ster-at-nl"II/S (OHAA), normally one of the more
are subordinate to him or her. All departmcnt heads have equal
senior petty officers on board, is responsible for enforcing regula-
status. They report directly to thc XO for administrative matters,
tions and keeping good order and discipline. He or she is in charge
ilnd directly to the CO on matters i.n their departments affecting
of supervising most working parties. and is responsible for the
overall readiness of the ship, while keeping the XO informed of
security and welfare of <lny prisoners in the ship's brig. The ClvlAA
sllch reports.
may have sever,ll assistant petty officer masters-at-arms (kfAAs) to
The department heads' duties cover a broad area. They assign,
help ClIT}' out these duties.
organize. and train their personnel. They are members of the XO's
training bO<lrd. They are responsible for the proper use and care of

Command ing Officer




Executive Officer's Executive Officer Navigator
Assistants


r I 1 I

Operat ions Combat Systems Engineering Supply
Department Department Department Department } Small Ships

r I

Repair Medical Reactor Air
Department Department Department Department
Additional Departments
on Larger
} Specialized Ships
Aircraft
Intermediate Air
Maintenance Wing
Department

Typical shipboard organization chart.

SHIP IIO,\RD ORGANIZATION ANO WATCHSTANDING 155

departmental equipment, as well as the cleanliness and upkeep of visual and electronic communications and all the communica-
spaces assigned. tions equipment. He or she is also responsible for thc routing of
I-leads of departments and their principal assistants are all mcssages in the ship. He or she must be f~1I11iliar with aU tactical
assigned battle stations where they (;111 best supervise their assigned and communications publications. He or she is in charge of com-
personnel in combat. munications watch and signal officers. conducting their training,
and supervising their watchstanding.
The COlllllltlllications ofi1ccr supervises cryptographic
(encoded cOllllllunications) opefi.ltions, and looks after the secll-
rity of crypto publications and equipment.

Combat Systems Officer or First Lieutenant
Most newer navill warships have either a combat systems or a
deck department. Ships mainly concerned with ordnance or air-
craft have a combat systems department headed by i.\ combat sys-
tellls officer. Other ships, such as amphibious and logistics ships,
have a deck department headed by the first lieutelJ(lIlt, who is
assisted by a weapons or gunner}' officer. (Some older ships have a
lI'enpol/S depart/llellt headed by a weapolls officer, instead of a COI11-
bat systems department and officer.)
Aviation units in a ship without an air departmcnt are assigned
to the combat systems department; they make up the aviation divi-
An operations specialist monitors air contacts in the CIC of the sion. These units retain their own basic organization even when so
cruiser USS Lake Champlain (CG 57). (Greg Messier)
assigned. An embarked ivfarine Corps detachment is assigned to
the combat systems or deck department, also.
The combat systems officer is responsible for the operation
Operations Officer and maintenance of the ship's armament and fire-control equip-
ment. He or she must see to the stowage and care of ammunition,
The operatiolls officer collects, evaluates, and disseminates
including the magazines and sprinklcr systems.
combat and operational information wherever needed in the com-
The first lieutenant is in charge of deck e\'olutions and repair
mand. He or she also is responsible tor operations of the ship and
and care of the ship's exterior, and in control of the paint, sail, and
assigned airborne aircraft.
boatswain's lockers. This officer is in charge of lifeboats and rafts,
The operations department is responsible for:
life jackets, and other sur\'i\'al equipment. He or she sees that all
Surface, air, and subsurface search (radar and sonar) gear about the weather decks is properly secured. The first lieu ten-
Electronic warfare (listening to and jamming enemy commu- ant is in charge of all surface underway replenishment opemtions.
nications and electronics equipment)
Aircraft when airborne and under combat or operational COI1- Engineering Officer
trol of the ship
Operation and maintenance of the ship's machinery are
Collection, display, analysis, and dissemination of intelligence
assigned to the engineering department. Damage control and cer-
intormation
tain types of repair ilre also handled by the divisions that make up
Preparing operations plans and training schedules
the department: am;:iliaries, repair, boiler, main propulsion, and
Planning of seamanship evolutions
electrical.
C;athering weather information and informing the command
The ellgineering oDicer. sometimes called the chief ellgilll.'er, is
Ship's cOlllmunications, if there is no communications
the head of the engineering department. He or she. is responsible
department
for the operation, care, and maintenance of all propulsion and aux-
iliary machinef}', electrici.ll-powcr generators, switchboards, and
Communications Officer wiring. Engineering personnel operate the ship's engines, power,
light, telephone, ventihltion, heat, refrigeration, compressed air, and
In 1110st ships the C0111111ll11imtiollS officer is a division officer
wilter systems. The engineering officer is in charge of the stowage,
in the operations department. In some large ships, however, such
care. and use of fuels and lubricants. He or she maintains the engi-
as aircraft carriers and amphibious command ships, he or she is
neering log, engineer's bell book, and other engineering records.
a department head. The communication officer is responsible for

156 NAVA L SI\ ILI.S

A dalllage COI/trol (155;51(1111 working with the engineering om.- Air Officer
cer Illilintilins the ship's dillllage control organization, including
In ships that l13ve 3n air department, the head of that depart-
the control of ship's st.lbility, list, and trim, ilnd the ship's damage
ment is the air officer, who directs the launching and landing of
control equipment. He or she is responsible lor tmining ship's per-
aircraft and their handling on dcck. He or she is responsible for
sOllnel in dilJllage contro!' including defensive meilsures against
crash salvage operations and aircraft firefighting. The air officer is
chemical. biological. and nuclear weapons.
in charge of aircraft-handling equipment sllch ilS elevators, cata-
A lIIaill propllisioll assistant assists the engineering officer in all
pults, and arresting gear, and is responsible tor the carc, stowage,
duties pertaining to the maintenance and operation of the ship's
and isslle of aviation fuels ,md lubricants.
propulsion and auxiliary machinery.
On .\ircraft and helicopter c"rriers, the (Iir lVillg (Ollll/tallaer is
the hC'l\d of the embarked air squadrons. The title usually is apia-
Reactor Officer
(ioll officer in the case of a helicopter detachment on a nonaviation-
Nuclear-powered ships have a reactor departmcnt headed by type ship.
il reactor officer. whose job is the operation. carc, and safety of the The air wing commander directs tactical training of the air
reactor plal1ts and auxiliaries. wing, coordinates .mel supervises all act ivities of the embarked
The reactor officer is a technical assistant to the CO on mat- squadrons and detachments. and sees to the material readiness of
ters of re<lctor safet)'. He or she supervises disposal of radioilctive the wing as a whole. The air wing commander works with the ship's
wastes from the ship's reactor plants. is responsible for the opel'il- operations officer in matters concerning employment, scheduling.
tion of the main engines, and m3intains the engineer's bell book. training. and tactical air operatiolls.




























liel. llI




















A member of the Air Department explains to some NJROTC cadets how aircraft are spotted on the flight deck of the amphibious assault ship USS
Wasp (LHD 1 I (Grandby HS NJROTC, Crystal Raneri