Towards_Sustainable_Neighborhood_Design

4.2 Design Elements

This chapter focused on main design elements of any sustainable urban design for
Neighborhood. The research focused on 5 main systems which are natural systems, land
use systems, mobility systems; energy systems; environmental management systems
which are supporting all physical urban functions. It discusses and analyzes each of
these systems and the design criteria related to each of them and their interrelationships.

4.2.1 Natural Systems

The quality of the natural environment is directly related to people’s quality of life.
Population growth and economic development have effects on the natural ecosystems.
Sustainable design should ensure that the location and character of urban development
minimizes all expected impacts on the natural environment.

Inventory should be performed defining the characteristics of the urban environment.
It should initially be drawn on a regional scale to capture the forces of larger natural
systems that affect the urban community. Once resource maps and databases have been
compiled as shown in figure (4-9), they should be analyzed to identify environmentally
sensitive areas that should be protected and the predominant natural subsystem
characteristics that would adversely impact or benefit development.

There are four natural subsystems land, water, climate and habitat that must be
discussed in order to define the context for urban development. The four subsystems are
summarized as follow:

4.2.1.1 Land:
Every site has a carrying capacity for development and human activity. Site analysis

should determine this capacity based on the sensitivity of site resources. The study of
capacity of land and its suitability for development should be considered on various
macro and micro-scales as an essential consideration in the planning and design
processes. The study includes topography, geology, slope, visual form, vegetation, soil
composition and permeability and on their interactions with water elements in the
natural landscape.

4.2.1.2 Water:
Water Bodies are studied to ensure that the water is safe for human recreational use

and to show the impact of human activity on beaches and natural waterways. High
levels of bacteria can directly impact on the health of all human, animal, and plant
communities.

It includes the study of all water types such as all surface waters and watercourses,
groundwater in underground aquifers, floodplains, and wetlands and its characteristics
which are natural direction of flow, velocity, circulation, and carrying capacity.

Figure 4-9: Land resource inventory and suitability analysis example,
Source: (Donald Watson and others, 2003)

4.2.1.3 Climate:
Climate considerations (sun & clouds, wind, temperature, humidity, and

precipitation) have a significant impact on the built urban environment. Unsustainable
developments depend on the use of artificial climate control systems and their
associated energy consumption. Climate analysis has a great effect on the optimization
of building forms and spaces to provide safety, thermal comfort, air quality and the
application of renewable energy resources. Climate zones and design objectives could
be summarized as following:

Hot, dry regions
Neighborhoods should be planned so that distances for walking people and playing

children are short especially on summer days to mitigate heat stress. Outdoors (working,
shopping, playing, strolling) and sidewalks should be shaded as much as possible, either
by trees or by the buildings along them. An additional objective is to improve the
thermal comfort inside individual buildings

Hot, humid regions
The main urban design objectives in hot, humid regions involve two types of issues:

• Minimizing the risk of floods from excess rainwater.
• Enhancing comfort by providing good natural ventilation and penetration of the wind
into the heart of the town through effective street layout and building forms and
orientation.

Cold climate
The objective is to reduce the need for commuting. In winter in cold climates there

are 2 scenarios: whether to “escape” the winter in enclosed spaces or to develop an
infrastructure enabling the inhabitants of the town to enjoy potential winter outdoor
activities. Pressman (1988) suggests that mixed land use will improve the self
sufficiency of the neighborhood because a broader range of services can be made
economically viable with improved accessibility implying more intensive use of the
land and promoting public transit through urban planning

In Egypt, climatic design zones could be classified as shown in table (4-4). Generally
Egypt lies between 22° and 31° N latitude; thus falls in the hot dry subtropical region -
except for the northern area which is considered moderately warm. The daily thermal
range increases when moving away from the north coast towards the southern region

Table 4-4: Climatic design zones in Egypt, Source: (El-Sudany, 2009)

Mediterranean-Like Zone:
This region is characterized by its high relative humidity, low daily
thermal range, and relatively high amount of precipitation.

Dry zone:
This region is distinguished by its high daily thermal range with
moderate percentage of relative humidity.

Semi-Dry Zone:
The relative humidity of the semi-arid zone is equal or less than
some areas in the Mediterranean zone, besides, the daily thermal
range exceeded the previous zone.

Desert Zone:
This region is distinguished by its high thermal range and by the
low percentage of relative humidity that is even less 30%, it is also
characterized by very little percentage and clear sky for most of the
year.

4.2.1.4 Habitat:
Traditional Urban development directly affects habitat and the natural web of life

through the direct impact on land, water, and air resources. The interaction between the
pervious natural subsystems creates the conditions that enable all habitats to exist which
are plants and animals existed on site and its surroundings. Sustainable development of
natural subsystems helps diverse animal and plant life to flourish providing food,
shelter, and protection.

4.2.2 Land use Systems

Land use planning is done to identify alternatives for land use and to select and adopt
the best land use options. The main objective of land use planning is to allocate land
uses make and maximum use of established infrastructure and the management of
natural resources depending on natural systems inventories to meet the economic and
social needs of people while safeguarding future resources. Sustainable Land use
planning should determine the distribution of land required for future development.
Land use analysis could be defined as following (Una McGeough and others, 2014):

 Suitability analysis considers topographical slopes, access to roadways, and other
physical factors that make an area suitable for development for each particular urban
use.

 Opportunities analysis to focus new development in areas that maximize the use of
utility infrastructure and services

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 Analysis of “carrying capacity” assesses the natural and built systems and
infrastructure capacities relative to lands suitable for additional development.

The designation of land uses could be illustrated through 5 aspects:

4.2.2.1 Designation of uses

Land use analysis provides a clear vision to classify and design lands through zoning
for specific uses (figure 4-10). Functional uses could be classified as (Una McGeough
and others, 2014):

1. Urban – residential, commercial, industrial, institutional, transportation,
communications, and utilities.

2. Agricultural – cropland, orchards, confined feeding, and dairy operations.
3. Forests – evergreen, deciduous, and mixed.
4. Wetlands – forested and non-forested.
5. Barren lands – mines, pits, desert, and nonproductive transitional lands.

Figure 4-10: Land use systems - Designation of uses, Source: (Llewelyn-Davies, 2007)

Within the urban context, the dominant land use tends to be residential but a
functional urban area requires industrial, retail, offices, infrastructure and other uses.
Table (4-5) shows the uses percentages of Neighborhoods in new cities in Egypt.
Traditional land use regulation typically separates activities by type. In case of
separation heavy industrial and residential, is quite reasonable while the strict separation
of all uses by type doesn’t provide mixed-use developments which lead to many
problems such as the consumption of urban resources, increasing unnecessary
transportation-related energy consumption and air emissions.

Table 4-5: Uses percentages of Neighborhoods in New Cities in Egypt, Source: (El-Wakeel, 2006)

Residential Commercial Institutional Recreational Industrial

40 - 50 % 2% 2% 10 - 12 % 5-9%

Public facilities Educational Roads and Open areas Total
Transportation
1% 1.5 % 20 - 30 % 100 %
15 - 20 %

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The redefinition of urban land use classification and zoning, together with the design
of essential urban components, such as nodes, special districts, and paths, can enable the
creation of compatible mixed-use growth and sustainable development. According to
Kevin Lynch, the key for sustainable form of urban development is identifying and
reinforcing the existing urban “nodes, paths and districts” He defined them as following
(Una McGeough and others, 2014):

 Urban nodes: “peaks of density, special
activity, or access, such as shopping
centers and major terminals.” Creating
balanced development of mixed-use
activities around these nodes (figure 4-
11). Hierarchies of size, density and
specialization of uses would emerge
among these nodes, creating primary,
secondary, and even tertiary centers of
development.

 Special districts: “areas of appreciable Figure 4-11: Urban nodes, Source: Researcher.
size associated with memorable
activities, character or associations. In

particular these include the large
institutions, ports…heavy industry, the
central business district or other special
office districts, the major open spaces or

recreation zones, and the special
historical areas.” (Una McGeough and
others, 2014)

 Path: channels for movement of people and goods including included streets, rail
lines, canals, and promenades. These paths should be determined by the roles they

serve, the quality of movement in urban space and their spatial relationships to the

hierarchy of nodes and special districts.

4.2.2.2 Mixed-use development and Social mix

Mixed land-use can be applied at different spatial levels: city, neighborhoods, blocks
and buildings. Traditional planning which adopt single-use zoning strategies has
resulted in serious problems for cities. These problems could be identified as increasing
urban sprawl, the declination of quality and vitality of many urban centers and car
dependence and traffic congestion (UN-Habitat, 2014).

Mixed uses promotes a variety of activities such as housing, offices, stores, and
restaurants, medical, commercial, and high-tech/light-industrial facilities. It enhances
safety, vitality and sense of place and community. It provides more housing
opportunities and choices. Figure (4-12) shows a case study for mixed use development.

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Figure 4-12: Mixed use development - Case study South yard Enclave in Devonport, Source: (Llewelyn-Davies, 2007)

It also promotes pedestrian & bicycle travel while reducing car dependency, roadway
congestion, and air pollution. The compatibility of different land uses depends mainly
on the noise and pollution levels (UN-Habitat, 2014). The Location of mixed use areas
within neighborhood can be discussed as follows in table (4-6):

Table 4-6: Location of mixed use areas and neighborhood form, Source: (Hugh Barton and others, 2003)

Location of mixed use areas and neighborhood form

It might seem appropriate and It may be advisable to locate it It is even better to
convenient to locate the mixed at a more visible nodal point acknowledge and design for
use area in the center of a to attract more users the fuzzy reality or
neighborhood neighborhoods

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Social mix and mixed land-use are interdependent and promote each other. Mixed
land-use lead to social mixing generated for residents from different backgrounds. They
provide job opportunities with different income levels and could attract additional
services to the neighborhood. Figure (4-13) shows a variety of residential buildings with
different sizes to accommodate all residents according to their ability and needs.

Figure 4-13: Mixed use and Social mix, Source: (Llewelyn-Davies, 2007)

4.2.2.3 High density development
Compared with low density, high density has economic, social and environmental

benefits as it provides efficient land use, reducing public service costs, car dependency
and parking demand, increasing support for public transport, public open space and
more energy efficiency.

Neighborhoods do not have the same density through there zones. Housing diversity,
densities and types of housing must be varied. Density gradients were proposed by
Calthorpe for Sacramento County’s transit-oriented developments (TOD) in the late
1980s. “Graded density” refers to the concept of providing high density population
around a mixed-use service center while gradually decreasing toward the farthest
reaches of the neighborhood as shown in figure (4-14). This strategy will support
pedestrian-oriented neighborhood services and also provide a range of choices in
housing types and costs (El-Ariane, 2012).

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Figure 4-14: High-density, Mixed-use district, Source: (Cliff Moughtin and Peter Shirley, 2005)

There are different ways of calculating residential density. It is usually expressed as
dwellings per hectare (dph). It could be either net or gross. See table (4-7) and figure (4-
16).

Table 4-7: Net and Gross Density, Source: (Hugh Barton and others, 2003)

Net density Gross density

It is the immediate housing environment It includes the schools, distributor roads, parks,
(buildings, plots, access streets and play spaces). playing fields and community facilities as well as
The assumption behind dwellings per hectare housing. It can be used to refer to the average
unless specifically stated otherwise tends to be density of a whole neighborhood or town.
net density.

Dwellings per hectare can be misleading measure because of the variation in
dwelling size. However it is widely used by planning authorities because housing need
is calculated in terms of households and dwellings. Bedrooms per hectare are a more
accurate reflection of the residential environment but don’t reflect population levels as
many 3 bedroom houses may be occupied by one person. Figure (4-16) shows different
forms for the same density in which 75 units per hectare are arranged.

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Figure 4-15: Comparing density measures, Source: (Biddulph, 2007)

Figure 4-16: Different development forms at 75 units per hectare, Source: (Biddulph, 2007)

4.2.2.4 Planning and Building legislation
Sustainable planning should provide regulations for neighborhood improvement Plan

relating to detailed physical matters, such as site, use, construction and building.
Planning and building regulations define the location of public facilities, local roads,
small parks, open spaces, footpaths ...etc. Building regulations define land use, floor-
area ratio, building coverage ratio, setback of building from the boundaries, scale of
building lot, design, hedge, green space ratio…etc. It advocates for the preservation of
historical and green areas. Figure (4-17) shows an example for planning and building
legislation required for any planned area.

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Figure 4-17: Planning and Building legislation, Source: (MLIT, 2003)

4.2.2.5 Neighborhood Services and Facilities

Neighborhood services and facilities include educational, health, commercial,
administrative, cultural, religious, social services and green space. These services vary
in size and nature of urban units as the population and size of the Neighborhood,
districts and cities. Figure (4-18) shows the services elements and construction phases
according to functional needs for specific population.

4.2.3 Mobility Systems

Neighborhood is mainly defined by size which is based on the comfortable walking
distance from the center of the neighborhood to its edge that suggests an area of 40 to
160 acres as discussed in chapter 3. Street network develop an urban form that depends
less on long distance mobility and more on local mobility. Mobility systems should
serve as the foundation of a walkable environment discouraging automobile-dependent
urban development.

Many factors should be considered while improving the existing network or creating
a new street pattern in relation to the various modes of transportation. These factors are
safety, air quality, convenience of journey, speed, walking down and up kerbs,
pedestrian crossings, pedestrian and cycle (Toucan) crossings, segregated path, quality
of transport, over bridges, underpasses, severance, noise, pollution, visual amenity,
variety in visual amenity, pavement congestion, road congestion, quality of pavements,
quality of roads, cycle facilities … etc (Llewelyn-Davies, 2007).

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Figure 4-18: Construction Phases Priorities for Services according to population density

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4.2.3.1 Roads Network
“Sometimes nature provides us with excellent precedent for design work. Here, a leaf

structure provides a connected layout (figure 4-19). Primary and distributor roads
should be clearly defined. Other roads/spaces should relate to the shape of a site, and
maximize natural traffic calming characteristics and shared surfaces” (Minchin, 2003)

Figure 4-19: Leaf Structure and Road Network, Source: (Minchin, 2003)

Inspired from leaf structure, the mobility system and road network be based on the
user hierarchy. Applying the hierarchy will lead to a design that increases the
attractiveness of walking, cycling and the use of public transport. Street networks should
be connected or permeable to encourage walking and cycling, and make places easier to
navigate through. The more direct the links between main streets, the greater the
potential for mixed use development. The following maps in figure (4-20) illustrate how
to design main road network for new area within existing urban fabric providing
connectivity, permeability and hierarchy.

Figure 4-20: Design Process of Roads Network, Source: (Llewelyn-Davies, 2007)

Figure (4-21) shows an example of road Network at Neighborhood scale defining
primary and secondary network and building entries

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Figure 4-21: Road Network at Neighborhood scale, Source: (UPC, 2012)

Table (4-8) shows the analysis most popular different urban patterns with the
advantages and disadvantages of each of them.

Table 4-8: Urban Patterns Analysis, Source: (Donald Watson and others, 2003)

Rectilinear Grid
Savannah Pattern:
Advantages:
 Excellent directional orientation
 controllable lot depth
 Provides end grain of blocks for fast traffic
 Even dispersal of traffic through the web
 Straight lines enhance rolling terrain
 Efficient double-loading of alleys and
utilities
Disadvantages:
 Monotonous unless periodically interrupted
 Does not easily absorb environmental
interruptions
 Unresponsive to steep terrain

Syn. : Orthogonal Grid, Gridiron

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Concentric Grid

Mariemont Pattern
Advantages
 Hierarchy with diagonals for through traffic
 Even dispersal of traffic through the web
 Monotony interrupted by deflected vistas
 Diagonal intersections spatially well-
defined
Disadvantages
 Tends to be disorienting

Syn. : Unwin Model, Spider web

Washington Pattern
Advantages
 Hierarchy with diagonals for through traffic
 Even dispersal of traffic through the grid
 Diagonals focus on terrain features
 Diagonals interrupt monotony of the grid
Disadvantages
 Uncontrollable variety of lots
 High number of awkward lot shapes
 Diagonal intersections spatially ill-defined

Syn. :City Beautiful, Haussmann Model

Irregular layouts

Nantucket Pattern

Advantages
 Hierarchy with long roules for through

traffic
 Even dispersal of traffic through web
 Responsive environmental interruptions
 Monotony eliminated by terminated vistas
 Follows traces on the landscape

Disadvantages
 Uncontrollable variety of blocks and lots

Syn. : Sitte Model, Townscape

Riverside Pattern

Advantages
 Monotony interrupted by deflected vistas
 Easily absorbs environmental interruptions
 Highly responsive to terrain
 Even dispersal of traffic through the web

Disadvantages
 Highly disorienting
 Uncontrollable variety of lots
 No intrinsic hierarchy

Syn. : Olmstedian

Radburn Pattern

Advantages
 Good street hierarchy for locals and

collectors
 Controllable variety of blocks and lots
 Easily absorbs environmental interruptions
 Responsive to terrain

Disadvantages
 Congestion of traffic by absence of web

Syn.: Cul-De-Sac

4.2.3.2 Walkable Environment

Walking and cycling are the most convenient and sustainable mode of transport at
Neighborhood level. Neighborhood is principally planned and designed to encourage
people to walk more rather than using private vehicles. Walkability reduces carbon
emissions, air pollution, noise and congestions. It enhances liveability via increased a
sense of community and health benefits. Street design and urban fabric should serve for
pedestrian by improving safety, comfort, and attractiveness including pedestrians,
cyclists, motorists and public transport users of all ages and abilities.

It is a useful approach to design the pedestrian environment using the ‘Five C’
principles (Llewelyn-Davies, 2007):
 Connections:

Do good pedestrian routes connect the places where people want to go?
 Convenience:

Are routes direct, and are crossings easy to use? Do pedestrians have to wait more
than 10 seconds to cross roads?

 Convivial:
Are routes attractive, well lit and safe, and is there variety along the street?

 Comfortable:
What is the quality and width of the footway, and what obstructions are there?

 Conspicuousness:
How easy is it to find and follow a route? Are there surface treatments and signs to
guide pedestrians?

The pedestrian realm is the area between the curb and the property or building line.
Pedestrian areas are also included at junctions and crossings, as well as bus stops,
waiting platforms, and taxi lay-bys. Figure (4-22) shows pedestrian realm zones.

Figure 4-22: Pedestrian Realm, Source: (UPC, 2012)

Comfortable walking distance calculations Figure 4-23: Comfortable walking distance for
appear to be based on younger adults through different people ages, Source: (El-Wakeel, 2006)
different trips. But people in their mid-70s
cannot walk further than 10 min without a
rest and will take around 10-20 min to walk
400m to 500m. Walkable routes should be
designed to accommodate the needs for
different people ages. Figure (4-23) shows

Comfortable walking distance for different
people ages.

Horizontal mixed-use development provides zones of different activities. The range
of services especially for daily needs should be within a reasonable distance to
encourage cycling and walking and giving new opportunities for social contact and
interaction. It is encouraged to locate centers of working and shopping near to public
transport stops and connecting them into local cycle or pedestrian network encouraging
people not to rely on cars. Figure (4-24) shows the walkable distances and possible

facilities. All “local hubs” should be within easy walking and cycling distance while
table (4-9) and figure (4-25) shows examples of hierarchy of facilities which can be
reached at different distances in a relatively high-density urban area.

Figure 4-24: Walkable Distances and Possible Facilities, Source: (Vivienne Brophy and others, 2000)
Table 4-9: Hierarchy of Facilities which can be reached at different distances, Source: (Towers, 2005)

5-minute walk 10-minute walk 20-minute walk, 4minute journey
short journey
Major urban park
Open space Communal Local open space Small urban park country park
garden
Education Primary school Secondary school Further and higher
Nursery, child General hospital education
Health miner Doctor's surgery
dentist Specialist hospital
Shops
Communal Daily needs Weekly needs Occasional needs

activities Meeting room Community Sports center Sports club
Entertainment center, library swimming pool
theatre
Pub/ cafe Restaurant Cinema

Figure 4-25: Hierarchy of Public spaces which can be reached at different distances, Source: (Hugh Barton and others,
2003)

4.2.3.3 Transportation

Walkability in a neighborhood is measured by the walking distance to key services
which is from 400 to 500 m. Planners should consider walkability firstly but when it’s
too far to walk or cycle the best alternative to the car within an urban area is generally
the bus (figure 4-26). The movement framework for new development should provide
for a direct bus route.

Figure 4-26: Consider First Walkability, Source: Researcher.

Combining walkability and public transport catchment, the suggested distance
between two arterial routes is between 800 to 1,000 m. This distance is considered as
the constraint for the street grid design, urban structure design and neighborhood size
(UN-Habitat, 2014). Table (4-10) and figure (4-27) shows public transport catchment
which is an important factor in designing a street hierarchy.

Table 4-10: Catchment population for Public Transport, Source: (Vivienne Brophy and others, 2000).

Minibus Bus Guided bus Light rail Rail

Stop interval 200m 200m 300m 600m 1,000m+
Corridor width / area 800m 800m 800m 1,000m
320-640 480-1760 1680-3120 4800-9000 2,000m+
served 24000-
24000
Catchment per stop

Figure 4-27: Public Transport Catchment Areas, Source: (UPC, 2012).

Other transportation method, the recent
introduction of the Segway™ and GMs new
battery-operated “GEM” neighborhood vehicle
(figure 4-28) are ideally suited for local mobility

and suggest an important role for automobile
companies to play in supporting more
sustainable mobility (Una McGeough and

others, 2014). Figure 4-28: GEM neigh orhood vehicle,
Source: (GEM, 2015).

Public Transport and movement framework should be planned through over the

whole city connected with the regional mobility systems. Figure (4-29) shows an
example of a scenario of mobility and transportation systems and its hierarchy through a
city.

Figure 4-29: Public Transport and movement framework, Source: (Hugh Barton and others, 2003).

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4.2.3.4 Roads types and their design

Neighborhoods must contain different street types that are relevant to and correct for
the specific use in a specific place. Table (4-11) shows 3 main road types such as
residential, commercial and boulevards.

Table 4-11: Street Types analysis, Source: (Urban Design Associates, 2013).

Street Types

Residential Streets: Small-scale
streets are designed to discourage
high-speed traffic with narrow
cartways, on street parking , tree
lawns, and side-walks. Typical street
widths vary from 22'-0" to 30'-0" and
are sized to match the type and
number of houses they serve.

Commercial streets: Streets must
accommodate higher volumes of
vehicular and pedestrian traffic and be
organized to provide excellent
mobility. They are designed with
slightly wider cartways, on-streets
parking, generous sidewalks, safe
crosswalks, and transit stops.

Boulevards: Boulevards carry higher
volumes of traffic and connect to
significant destinations. Designed as
linear parks, they have deep setbacks
for buildings, generous landscaping,
and adequate lane design to
accommodate traffic volumes and
access to adjacent development.

Neighborhood streets should be designed and evaluated through 6 main aspects
which are design speeds, street dimensions and character, public transport, street design
details, materials and trees. Table (4-12) shows the main design criteria for streets
according to the 6 main aspects and there specification form Upton, Northampton
design code as an example.

Table 4-12: Design code for particular street character type in Upton, Northampton. Source: (DFT and DCLG, 2007).

Criteria Street Specification

Standard Design Variation 1 Variation 2
(One - sided parking) (variable kerb)

Design Speeds

Speed Limit 20 mph (at entrance )

Control Speed 20 mph ( internally)

Street dimensions and character

Minimum 5.5 m
Carriageway width

Footway 2.0-3.0 m on each side

Cycle way No - Parallel routes provided on other streets

Verge No

Private strip 2.0 m

Direct vehicular Yes
Access to properties

Plot Boundary 2.0 m private area to building line with up to 1.0 m encroachment 0.9-1.1 m railing
Treatment on plot boundary with footway

Maximum number of Not restricted
properties served

Public Transport

Bus access No

Street design details

Pull out strip No

Traffic calming Features at 60 m-80 m Non parallel kerbs,
c/c, parking, trees, variations in planting/
formal crossings building lines, parking

Vehicle swept path to be Removals/ refuse vehicles enter and leave using Refuse vehicle passing car
accommodated own side of road only (assuming 20 mph) on street

On street parking Yes, both sides, 2.0 m Yes, one side, 2.0 m wide Yes, one or both sides,
wide informal
Gradients (footways)
Maximum forward 1:15 Maximum, footway to follow carriageway
visibility
Junction sightlines (x/y) 33 m, 20 m (measured 1.0m out from kerb)
Junction spacing-same
side/other side 2.4 m/33 m
Junction radii
60 m/ 30 m

4m

Stats services (excluding In footway, each side. In footway, each side. Footways, where necessary
storm and capping layer Drainage below Drainage below
drainage carriageway carriageway

Materials  Natural grey, pre-cast concrete paving flags, 63 mm thick staggered joint,
variable size: 600*450 mm, 450*450mm-10%, 300*450 mm
Footway Surfacing
 Natural grey tumbled pre-cast concrete paviors n/ a
Parking Zone 800 mm thick with 225-300 mm exposed granite

Kebing aggregate pre-cast kerb 20 mm high

Carriageway  225-300 mm wide*200 mm square edged exposed granite aggregate pre-cast
kerb 125mm high.
Pedestrian Crossing
Street Lighting  225-300 mm wide*200 mm square edged exposed granite aggregate pre-cast
Street Furniture kerb 20 mm high.

Trees  Black-top

Street Trees  5 rows of 100 mm * 100-250 mm cropped granite setts
Feature Trees
Stainless steel tactile Tactile Paving
study inserted into
paving/ tactile paving

Define maximum and minimum height s

Acer platanoides "Obelisk" for example according to locations
Corylus Colurna - according to specific locations

4.2.4 Energy Systems

Sustainable developments should advocate for different set of clean energy
technologies and systems. They offer much higher efficiencies, greater reliability, and
security. The current model of central power plant energy generation produce emissions
released into the atmosphere and spent cooling water which is released into the aquatic
environment. It delivers only about 30% of their input fuel energy to end users. The
remaining 70% of the fuel energy is lost at the plant and in transmission. Using efficient
natural-gas-fired combined-cycle turbines at central power plants is a step forward to
decrease pollutant emissions and operate more efficiently.

Distributed generation (DG)

technologies and combined heat and power

(cogeneration - CHP) systems as shown in

figure (4-30) also offer more sustainable

solutions than central power plants for

cooling, heating and energizing. They

support all industrial, commercial,

residential, and institutional structures and

activities with required energy. Figure 4-30: CHP is more efficient than Conventional Generation,
Source: (Hugh Barton and others, 2003)

Renewable energy sources are recognized as an important solution for global energy
problem. The various renewable energy technologies available are not uniformly

applicable especially in developing countries because of lack of information, lack of
technical or commercial skills, inaccessibility of Technology, and risk involved with
high costs. However, most forms of renewable energy still have a significant way to go
before they become competitive with fossil fuel technologies, especially for power
generation. This requires intensive of Research & Development efforts (El-Sudany,
2009).

By 2100 oil, gas, coal and Figure 4-31: Transforming The Global Energy Mix: The Exemplary Path To
nuclear, as shown in figure 2050/2100, Source: (WBGU, 2003)
(4-31) should cover less than
15% of world energy
consumption while solar
thermal and photovoltaic
should cover about 70. This
means that all energy needs
for the building, industry and
transport sectors will increase
their reliance on renewable

energy resources.

The Implementation of
Renewable Energy Projects in developing countries delivers clear benefits for energy
efficient technologies. Successful implementation requires the identification of
neighborhood energy plan which could be discussed as follow (Hugh Barton and others,
2003):

Stage 1 - Involving stakeholders
Engage partners and potential users in a briefing workshop; define the scope,
objectives and broad strategy.

Stage 2 - Baseline survey
Assemble basic local information. Conduct a demand and user survey, a site and
energy source, survey, and an institutional, management and stakeholders survey,
Connect the neighborhood with its surrounding context. The stakeholder groups may
need to be extended following this strategic issue for the area.

Stage 3 - Develop options
Generate basic proposals and options with key actors. All proposals and options will
be reviewed at a second briefing workshop with stakeholders. Include proposals for
delivering user advice/ training and support during and after implementation.

Stage 4 - Refining solutions and implementation
Further integrate the energy criteria into the main spatial framework for the
neighborhood; Technical consultants will usually drive the later steps of this stage.

9

Table (4-13) summarizes renewable energy sources, applications and conversions

Table 4-13: Renewable Energy Sources, Applications and Conversions, Source: (Trubiano, 2013)

conversion Application Production Cost ( US$ 2011 )

Photovoltaic Electrons in light- Widespread potential. Typical rigid panels Typical residential-
sensitive Best production in produce around 200 W scale systems cost
regions with little of electricity per square around $4 per watt
semiconductors are annual cloud cover. meter (W/m^2) when of peak generation,
excited by solar Works well at small sun is at its peak (solar or $35.000 for a 5
radiation and
create an electric scale (residential) and irradiance of around kW system.
current. large scale. 1000 W/m^2). This

equates to 20%
efficiency.

Geo-thermal Low-impact hydro Wind turbines Wind velocity Limited to regions Small-scale turbines Small-scale systems
(kinetic energy) (shorelines, plains) available in the 2.5 to5 installed with poles
spins an electrical with consistent strong kW range and installed
turbine driven by a winds with average on 20 to 30 m (60 to cost between
wind speeds greater $50.000 and
propeller. 100 ft.) poles are
than 6 m/s (12 suitable for stand-alone $75.000
mph).
installation.

Water velocity Limited, Must be With a 3 m (10 ft.) Low-impact hydro
(kinetic energy) adjacent to waterway drop, a flow of 0.25 cm systems are site
spins an electrical or large body of water
turbine driven by a with significant flow (cubic meters per specific due to the
second) is required to design of dams,
propeller. and change in
elevation (< 3 m (10 generate 4 kW of flumes, etc.
electricity
ft.)).

Steam or hot water Must be adjacent to At this time there are Not applicable.
from geothermal significant geothermal no residential-scale
activity is used to
spin an electrical activity such as applications of
geysers or volcanoes. geothermal electricity.
generator.

Solar thermal Collects and Widespread potential. A typical flat-plate or Typical residential
concentrates solar Used for space evacuated-tube system for domestic

radiation into heating and hot water collector can produce hot water costs
thermal energy but production. 20 MJ to 40 MJ around $5.000.
does not convert it (20.000 to 40.000 Systems for space
BTU) of thermal heating will cost
to electricity. energy per day. significantly more.

4.2.5 Environmental Management Systems

Environmental Management Systems deals with
urban solid waste, water management and sustainable
drainage systems which provide for the essential
protection of the natural systems. The integration of
these environmental control and energy generation
technologies would offer an integrated system to support
sustainable urban nodes and districts. These systems
could by classified into 2 main issues: water and waste
systems.

4.2.5.1 Water Systems Figure 4-32: Water types at Neighborhood Level,
Urban water systems represent focused public Source: (Hugh Barton and others, 2003)

investment to withdraw, treat, store, distribute, collect,
re-treat, and then discharge water resources. Water types
at neighborhood level (figure 4-32) could be classified as
follows in table (4-14):

Table 4-14: Water types at Neighborhood Level, Source: (Hugh Barton and others, 2003)

Water type Source Options for user or discharge

Blue Running or standing water Use to enhance amenity and wildlife on site
White Mains water
Drinking, body washing, cooking
Grey Baths, showers, washing
machines Treat then user for washing cars, watering
gardens, flushing WCs
Dispose to reed bed or other local biological
treatment

Green Captured roof rain water Washing cars, watering gardens, flushing WCs
Black
Flushing WCs, Kitchen sinks Dispose to main sewer, cess-pit or local
biological treatment

Water as an important source for our life should be managed well l to save and
improve its quality .Water management strategies should be accomplished to achieve
the sustainability of our life. The conservation of water strategy can be summarized in 4
main aspects which are:

1. Reducing demand
It is important to reduce first neighborhood water demand. The reduction could be

achieved at neighborhood level through the installation of water-efficient devices and
appliances. A range of products are available such as showers, water-saving baths, low

flush toilets, spray taps, more efficient dishwashers and washing machines and dry
composting toilet system.
2. Harvesting rainwater

Rainwater on roofs can be collected for an individual house by a rainwater butt, It
could be used for irrigation for gardens. At large design scale (street, home-patch or
even neighborhood) rainwater can be fed into a communal treatment and distribution
system. Rainwater could be collected as run-off from paved surfaces. It tends to be more
contaminated than that from roofs. It could be infiltrated directly into the ground or fed
in to surface water systems such as reed beds or ponds.

3. Gray water treatment and reuse
The installation of gray-water systems can be initially expensive, but it can be cost-

effective in the long term. There are public health concerns that can make it difficult to
implement water recycling project but this could be solved by regular systems
maintenance. Systems need to be designed with expert advice on water treatment and
public health. There are two main approaches for gray-water recycling which could be
illustrated in table (4-15).

Table 4-15: Two Main Approaches for Gray-Water Recycling, Source: (Hugh Barton and others, 2003)

Approach Description Pros and cons

Individual  Gray water collected by waste pipe Pro: No influence on neighborhood
house systems from appropriate sources, In-house spatial design
Con: Increase in household plumping
collection, treatment header tank for maintenance

use in WCs
 A number of proprietary systems are

on the market.

 Grey water collected by waste pip from Pro: Treatment plant can be integrated
appropriate sources to central treatment with amenity uses
Pro: Central maintenance
facility Pro: treatment possible to higher quality
Shared systems  Distribution back to houses by therefore more uses for water produced
Con: Land required for treatment
secondary "recycled water" rising main Con: Community or residents
 Bespoke design the terrace, home- management company required

patch or sub-neighborhood scale

4. Black water treatment
Origins from toilets and kitchens is collected in a separate system and disposed to main
sewer. It should be treated in a central waste water biological treatment plant.

Other important issue is sustainable drainage Systems (SUDS) which are designed to
efficiently manage the drainage of surface water in the urban environment. The concept
of sustainable drainage systems is to achieve best practice in drainage using a multitude
of techniques to control quality and quality of run-off as close to the source as possible.
The main objectives can be summarized as follow:
 The Attempt to control water discharge as soon as possible after precipitation

(source control).
 Slow down the speed of discharge off-site (control of quantity).

 Use passive techniques to filter and settle suspended matter (control of quality).
 Design the Suds solutions as the layout plan emerges so that the components are

fully integrated with development footprint, landscape character, amenity,

movement and wildlife.

Table (4-16) shows some of the main methods of control in SUDs.

Table 4-16: Main Methods of Control in SUDs, Source: (Hugh Barton and others, 2003)

Method Description
 Filter strips and Swales
 Vegetated surface features that drain water evenly from
 Infiltration devices impermeable areas.

 Swales are long, shallow channels, Filter strips are
gently sloping areas of ground.

 They can be designed into public open space or road
verges. Native grassland species can be introduced for

wildlife and visual amenity.

 Infiltration devices drain water directly into the ground.
A common example is a soakaways, but they can also

be in the form of trenches, swales and basins.
 These areas can be used as playing fields and public

with trees and shrubs for biodiversity.

 Basins and ponds  Basins are usually dry, such as detention basins and
flood plains. Ponds are designed to remain wet (for

example, balancing ponds, wetlands, lagoons).
 Basins can be used for sport an passive recreation,

Ponds can provide public and wildlife amenity.

 Filter drains and permeable  Devices with a volume of permeable material below
surfaces ground to store surface water.

 Filter drains are liner devices; permeable surfaces are
area-wide such as grass, gravel block paving or other

permeable paving.
 It could be used as car parks and non-adopted access

roads; however, in such locations an impermeable

membrane should be placed around the filtration

material to prevent ground water pollution.

Energy costs are expected to increase due to regulatory-driven water quality
treatments. Population growth and reduced water supplies have also generated greater
pressure to develop marginal source of water, such as saline water supplies, sea water
supplies, and used water sources (water reuse). These water sources are more costly to
develop and typically require energy-intensive treatment methods, such as
microfiltration, reverse osmosis, and advanced oxidation. New technologies are
resulting in lower energy cost or greater removal efficiency per unit of water volume.

For example, reverse osmosis membranes have shown fairly consistent reduction in the
energy consumption per unit of water treated (Spiro Pollalis and others, 2012).
4.2.5.2 Solid waste systems

The most important consideration in designing a solid waste infrastructure is public
health and safety. Modern life would not be possible without safe, reliable, and sanitary
systems for collection, also are important. Figure (4-33) shows the classic and widely
accepted hierarchy of preferred approaches to MSW management. In general should be
recycled into other useful goods. That which cannot be recovered and recycled should
be burned for its energy value, some of the residuals beneficially used for other
purposes, and the leftovers should be placed in properly designed landfills.

Figure 4-33: Hierarchy of MSW management approaches, Source: (Spiro Pollalis and others, 2012)

Recycling and composting is an important factor for approaching sustainability
(figure 4-34) but they represent only a portion of the MSW waste stream. Sustainable
approach to solid waste management must include land filling for at least a portion of
the waste stream as recycling and composting can account for only a portion of the
MSW waste stream.

Figure 4-34: Waste Management and Sustainable Society, Source: (Hugh Barton and others, 2003)

Best Value indicators for waste could be identified as:
 The total tonnage of household waste arising

Recycled, composted, used to recover heat, power and other energy sources and land
filled Percentage
 Weight of household waste collected, per head
 Waste collection per household cost
 Municipal waste disposal, per ton cost
 Number of collections missed, per 100.000 collections of household waste
 People expressing satisfaction percentage with recycling facilities and civic amenity
 Population percentage served by a kerb side collection of recyclable waste, or within
1 Km of a recycling center.
In addition to Identifying and separating waste materials and re-use, reducing the
transport required for import is very essential for saving resources and reducing
pollution. It is important to determine how far waste should be transported using the
proximity principle - close resource loops as close to the source as possible. See figure
(4-35).

Figure 4-35: Proximity principle; Waste Management, Source: (Hugh Barton and others, 2003)

At Neighborhood scale, Solid waste should begin from Domestic separation. Storage
in the house where in many areas there is a kerbside waste collection of separated
materials direct from households. Developers can assist through provision of storage
under the sink unit for immediate storage of recyclables prior to them being taken

5

outside the house. Designers should give thought to providing for four types of waste:
organic matter, dry recyclables (glass, tins, cans, textiles and shoes), used paper and
residual waste (Hugh Barton and others, 2003).

For blocks or home-patches where are already communal rubbish collection facilities
there could become mini-recycling centers. They can encourage high participation and
are cheaper than separate collection from households. They could be located close to
people's homes. Badly sited banks can lead to an increase in traffic movements and care
has to be taken to ensure people put the right material in the right bin as It could damage
the value of the collected materials.

In some countries, local storage and collection point for large items such as fridges,
batteries, furniture, other white and brown domestic goods for collection and repair/re-
use could be located within neighborhood scale as a small covered and gated local
enclosure.

Separating and collecting household biodegradable waste (known as putrescible
waste) can be used for composting. These are large commercial operations needing
waste licenses and industrial or farming locations. Sites not storing over 1.000m2 (500
tones) at any time can apply for exemption from waste licensing regulations. Sites at
this scale can be integrated into neighborhood planning, providing local employment
and community participation, in addition to recycling.

Other methods like waste parks which Built at the township or whole-city scale, a
waste park is like a civic amenity site but the aim is to reclaim, repair, renew and return
for re-use. Other facilities like Pyrolysis and gasification offer a clean burn waste
facility process can produce energy and heat (CHP), a well-designed pyrolysis and
gasification plant can accept a very wild range of fuel types: household, commercial and
industrial waste, clinical waste, shredded used tyres and biomass (Hugh Barton and
others, 2003).

Finally, policies and legislative guidelines are increasingly demanding the creation of
neighborhood with effective reuse and recycling regimes. Advice and assistance could
be managed by a community waste sector which is a number of national networks and
their individual members covering recycling, composting, re-use and education raising
awareness.

4.3 Computational Simulation for Urban and Neighborhood Analysis

This part discusses the use of computational simulation in the design and
construction to achieve high-performance buildings and urban spaces. Energy, solar
radiations, lighting, thermal comfort and airflow are the main domains defining the field
of urban and building simulations.

Simulations are (numerically based) representations of the behavior or characteristics
of a system. They are used to imitate real-world phenomena with the aim of better

understanding its behavior. Performance can be represented by experience or perception
(a quality) or as the efficiency of a system (a quantity).In order to achieve a well-
designed building, both the qualitative and quantitative aspects of performance are
essential. The use of simulations is one of the main methods for quantitatively
measuring building performance (Trubiano, 2013).

The history of simulating building began at late 1960s when building simulation
tools dealt primarily with heat flow analysis. In the late 1970s till 1990s, substantial
programming and experimental testing efforts were made to transform building
simulation tools into versatile, validated and user-friendly tools. Until the mid 1990s,
sophisticated energy simulation tools such as DOE-2, ESP-r and TRNSYS, dominated
the landscape. In the late 1990s, new simulation domains (such as lighting and airflow)
other than energy were increasingly the focus of specialized tools and as a result a
variety of new computational simulation tools were developed.

In spite of the growing specialization and sophistication of these new tools,
drawbacks continue to exist such as the need to employ multiple simulation tools to
predict a range of performance aspects. To overcome this limitation, "integrations"
between algorithms are being developed; a concept which is quite different from the
1990s idea of expanding energy domains. The main concept is to packaging different
domain programs into a single software tool, it promotes interoperability between
differing domains to increase the accuracy and functionality of the disparate parts. For
example, CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) tools provide more site-specific
weather conditions (e.g. wind speed, direction and air temperature) for use in energy
simulations, which then in turn generate more site-realistic values of energy
consumption.

A range of simulations software is developed and could be applied to simulate and
analyze the performance and compare between design alternatives to predict the impacts
of environmental and urban systems. In this part, some of simulation programs will be
defined and discussed which will be applied on neighborhood and buildings scale as
shown later in (Chapter 5) and (Chapter 6).

1. Autodesk Ecotect Analysis 2011 software is a comprehensive concept-to-detail
sustainable design analysis tool, providing a wide range of simulation and analysis.
It is one of the best-known simulation tools used by the larger design community. It
is used to analyze the main aspects of building's environment such as energy, solar
radiation (figure 4-36), light, airflow, thermal performance and acoustics. On March
20, 2015, new licenses to Autodesk Ecotect analysis software were no longer being
available for purchase. Simulation tools and plugins similar to Ecotect analysis are
integrated into the Revit product family. This change will allow Autodesk to shift
resources, maximizing development efforts on BIM and cloud-based solutions for
building performance analysis and visualization.

Figure 4-36: Autodesk Ecotect Interface, Source: (Archdaily, 2009)

2. Revit is Autodesk’s flagship BIM product. It is a full-featured parametric building
information modeling platform for use throughout the design process. It has tools for
architectural design, MEP design, and structural design. It could be used for
conceptual energy analysis, simulating and visualizing lighting (qualitatively),
analyzing HVAC load calculations and thermal properties of constructions.
Revit/Vasari (Beta3) simulation tool, Revit/solar radiation plugin and Formit are

used for performing the solar radiation (figure 4-37). It is quick, easy to use and iterative
test for visualizing and quantify the amount of solar radiation received by buildings
receives while creating the conceptual mass of buildings forms (Autodesk,
2014). Autodesk Vasari public beta was scheduled to time out on May 31, 2015.

Figure 4-37: Revit/solar radiation analysis, Source: (Autodesk, 2014)

Revit/Flow Design is used for Air flow analysis. It is well suited for architectural
applications. It is able to quickly model wind behavior around (not inside) closed
buildings. As a design aide, it is not principally intended to provide exact measures, nor
does it replace traditional CFD or physical wind tunnel testing (Autodesk, 2014). Table
(4-17) shows the recent Autodesk family for environmental analysis and modeling
programs.

Table 4-17: Autodesk Environmental analysis and modeling programs, Source: (Autodesk, 2015)

Design features Autodesk programs
Shape modeling and FormIt
analysis
Dynamo for Revit and Dynamo Studio
Parametric and Revit
computational design
Flow Design plug-in for Revit
Energy modeling Revit

Wind analysis Lighting Analysis for Revit

Climate analysis Revit
Revit plugin on Labs
Day lighting and Electric
lighting analysis FormIt, Revit

Whole building energy
analysis

Solar Analysis

Solar Studies

3. Autodesk CFD software provides computational fluid dynamics and thermal
simulation tools. It is increasingly being used as a tool for the analysis of outdoor
and indoor air flow and thermal conditions. Figure (4-38) shows an example for
solar heating analysis using CFD. It could be used for the prediction and the
assessment of pedestrian wind environment around buildings at design
stages. Accuracy of CFD results has been proven in every realm of architectural
design and engineering, so much so that organizations such as ASHRAE consider
CFD an essential tool for sustainable design (Trubiano, 2013).

Figure 4-38: Solar heating analysis using CFD, Source: (CFD, 2014)

4. ENVI-met is a computer program that predicts microclimate in urban areas. It is
based on a three-dimensional and energy balance model. ENVI-met software’s
result is more precise and reliable in comparison with other software. This model
takes into account the physical processes between atmosphere, ground, buildings
and vegetation and simulates the climate within a defined urban area with a high

9

spatial and temporal resolution, enabling a detailed study of microclimatic
variations.

ENVI-met has two basic steps before Figure 4-39: ENVI-met application in Young Cities, Source: (TU-
simulation is running. The first step is Berlin-B03, 2013)
to model the urban area to be tested
and define materials. The second step
is editing the configuration file to
define information about temperature,
wind speed, humidity, and databases
for soil types and vegetation. The
simulation is then processed using
both input and configuration files
(TU-Berlin-B03, 2013). ENVI-met
outputs binary files which have to be
imported into program LEONARDO
to visualize the results (figure 4-39).

The output generated files can be separated into two groups: main data files; contain
the complete state of the 3D model, including the atmosphere, surface and soil. Receptor
files; these files are generated if were defined receptors inside the model area to watch
specific points in more detail.

5. SOLARCHVISION is a computer program designed to improve efficient
integration of weather data in design and operation of buildings and cities. It is
mainly used for architectural solar analysis (figure 4-40). In addition to calculating
and mapping solar radiation models, it develops a new vision for discovering the
advantages and the disadvantages of design decisions about the kind and unkind
faces of the sun in each location and through any period of time. It also analyzes
different points of building skin and outdoor areas simultaneously to find out the
proper or improper solar response of architectural design inside different climates.
The program has been developed and is still under-development in order to advance
parametric thinking as well as solar-environmental planning and operation at
R.M.M. solarch studio (Solarchvision, 2014).

Figure 4-40: SOLARCHVISION Analysis,
Source: (Solarchvision, 2014)

4.4 Conclusion

The pervious chapter discusses and analyzes the integrated interdisciplinary
development of solutions and concept of neighborhood design elements to achieve its
sustainability. The design elements which are supporting all physical urban functions
are discussed within the framework for the management of planning process. The design
process and elements integrates smart growth, New Urbanism, and green building
practices.

Neighborhood Development should be drawn by the diverse skills of a
comprehensive team of professionals. In addition to selecting a multidisciplinary project
team (including Urban planning, Architecture, Civil engineering, Transportation
planning, Mechanical and electrical engineering, Landscape architecture, Social
sciences and Biology and botany disciplines) consider important local partners like
public agencies and utilities with controlling authority or services.

Simulation tools are important that they be applied to evaluate different scenarios as
they form the basis of the evaluation of the projects effects and impacts as indicators
Specified and defined for simulation to be in line with the matrices developed for
project evaluation (TU-Berlin-Vol.2, 2011).

Chapter 5

Neighborhood Case
Studies

 Crystal City Palace, Washington, USA
 The Solar Settlement in Freiburg, Germany
 Hashtgerd new town, Tehran, Iran

5 Neighborhood Case Studies

The design elements and computational simulation for urban and neighborhood analysis
will be analyzed through 3 case studies (Crystal City Palace, Washington, USA - The Solar
Settlement in Freiburg, Germany - Hashtgerd new town, Tehran, Iran). The design element
are analyzed partially through each case study which develop the best practice for each
design element, the reasons for selection the 3 case studies and how the design elements are
analyzed through them could be illustrated as follows:

 Crystal City Palace, Washington, USA
The case study concerns with the renovation and upgrading Crystal City to act as a vital,

mixed-use neighborhood with increased densities and a neutral carbon balance is a vision for
an environmentally sustainable place. It is submitted as (LEED) for Neighborhood
Development (ND) pilot program project and received a LEED-ND “Certified” rating. The
case study analyzes and focuses on land use and mobility systems upgrading, which will be
analyzed briefly in this chapter.

 The Solar Settlement in Freiburg, Germany
Energy systems could be discussed and analyzed at this case study briefly as it is

considered to be the solar capital of Europe; it is famous with the integration of innovative
renewable energy design from the level of public policy and urban planning down to the
details of architectural form and technologies.

 Hashtgerd New Town, Tehran, Iran
The case study is Iranian-German research Project “Young Cities: Urban Energy

efficiency, Developing Energy-Efficient Urban Fabric in the Tehran-Karaj Region. It
develops methodologies for sustainable and energy-efficient planning and design in Iran. In
this case study, the last design element; environmental management systems will be
discussed. The research analyzes only water and waste water management. The use of
simulation tools and programs is performed on the urban buildings forms and spaces at
neighborhood scale.

Crystal City Palace Solar Settlement in Hashtgerd New Town
Freiburg

Land Use Systems Energy Systems Environmental
Mobility Systems Management Systems

Computational Simulation

Figure 5-1: classification of Design elements through Case studies

Solid waste management won’t be discussed in case studies as it could be applied with
domestic separation, kerbside waste collection of separated materials and development
rubbish collection facilities at neighborhood level. Other methods are more efficient at larger
scale.

5.1 Case Study 1: Crystal City Palace, Washington, USA.

Location (figure 5-2): Potomac River from Washington, D.C. and adjacent to Ronald
Reagan Washington National Airport

Figure 5-2: Location of Case study 1: Crystal City Palace, Source: Google Earth

5.1.1 Background

Crystal City is the largest high density mixed-use neighborhood in south Arlington, and
one of Arlington’s primary “economic engines”. Almost four decades after its first high-rise
building was built, Crystal City is approaching full build-out within the scope of existing
land use plans. Looking forward, any potential for additional growth will need to balance
competing priorities, while improving the quality of life within Crystal City. Figure (5-3)
shows the existing illustrative plan 2007 of Crystal City.

By 2030, the whole region will gain 1.2 million new jobs and 1.6 million new residents.
Selected 2005 demographic estimates for the Crystal City Planning Area report a population
of about 8,100 residents in roughly 5,000 households. Projections for 2030 anticipate a 28%
increase in the County’s total number of housing units, however during the same period; the
number of housing units in the study area is forecast to increase by nearly 70%. For the same
period, Crystal City’s workforce is expected to increase by 22%, compared to a County wide
increase of 40%. While a good portion of this future projected growth in households and jobs
will be absorbed by the development underway in the Potomac Yard/South Tract area,
additional development capacity could be provided within Crystal City to keep pace with
these projections (Arlington, 2010).

The Illustrative Concept Plan (figure 5-4) has been the primary means to develop and test
ideas for growth and improvement in Crystal City. In December of 2008, the County Board
adopted the Illustrative Concept Plan and Policy Framework (Vision Statement, Goals and
Objective, Policy Directives, and corresponding Policy Maps) to guide future development.
A variety of Design Guidelines are provided addressing street and frontage configuration,
building massing, height, tapering, and architectural design. These guidelines incorporate
common best practices, as well as standards typically applied in Arlington County. These
guidelines also provide recommendations for future design proposals (Arlington, 2010).

To ensure that Crystal City is already and will
become even more of a sustainable neighborhood
through the Plan, the draft elements of the Crystal
City Sector Plan were submitted as a Leadership in
Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) for
Neighborhood Development (ND) pilot program
project administered by the United States Green
Building Council’s (USGBC’s), and received a
LEED-ND “Certified” rating.

5.1.2 Objectives and Goals

Seven goals were established to outline the key
aspirations for the revitalization of Crystal City:
 Creating a high quality public realm which

strengthens the sense of place
 Providing social mix and mix of balanced uses

including office, residential, retail, cultural, and
civic uses.
 Promotion of human scale in relation to
architectural and urban design.
 Enhancing multimodal access and strengthening
permeability and connectivity
 The application of sustainable and green building
principles among urban development and
architectural design.
 Preserving the integrity of the single family
neighborhood to the west
 Ensuring long-term economic sustainability for
Crystal City.

The vision for Crystal City as a vital, mixed-use
neighborhood with increased densities and a neutral
carbon balance is a vision for an environmentally
sustainable place.

Environmental sustainability design focuses on
maximizing energy efficiency, minimizing carbon
footprints, and reducing generated waste. Potential
components of sustainable development for new site
and building construction in Crystal City should
include the following (Arlington, 2010):

Planning development: Figure 5-3: Existing Illustrative Plan 2007 of Crystal City,
 Use LEED-ND program as general guidance to Source: (Arlington, 2010)

5

ensure overall sustainability of the Crystal City area.
 Conduct an energy demand assessment
 Establish a mixed use and target balance

between office and residential uses
 Establish a minimum quantity of moderate-

and low-income residential units to enable

citizens with a wide range of economic

levels and age groups.
 Continue the farmer’s market within Crystal

City to minimize environmental impacts

associated with transporting food over long

distances and increase direct access to fresh

food.
 Encourage Crystal City residents, employees

and visitors to travel more frequently by bus,

transit way, Metro, VRE, carpool, bicycle or

walking
 Promote optimal energy efficiency, and

educate tenants and residents on how to

attain greater efficiencies.
 Promote purchase of sustainable energy

through local power companies.

Site and Building Construction:

 Encourage the best available technology at Figure 5-4: Illustrative Concept Plan of Crystal City, Source:
the time of development required for green (Arlington, 2010)

infrastructure and low impact development.
 Include retrofits of redevelopment projects

to the best available technology for pollution

control.
 Encourage district heating and cooling and

distributed energy systems
 Encourage building and site deconstruction

strategies and programs that minimize waste

and maximize building and materials reuse.
 Maximize sustainable storm water strategies

through the use of low impact development

practices, such as pervious paving,

infiltration tree pits, rain gardens and bio-

retention swales, green roofs.
 Encourage the integration of rainwater

harvesting systems into the design and

construction of public open spaces.
 Maximize use of native, drought tolerant plant

and tree species.
 Maintain good indoor air quality through the use of zero emission or low off-gassing

adhesives, paints and other materials.
 Promote use of non-carbon energy production at each building.
 Use Energy Star rated and Water Sense fixtures, equipment and appliances to minimize

energy and water use.
 Maximize natural day-lighting in all buildings.
 Apply the most advanced technologies for water conservation in interior (toilets, faucets,

etc.) and exterior (irrigation, water features, etc.)
 Utilize grey-water recycling for non-potable water needs, where feasible.

The Illustrative Concept Plan incorporates key urban elements and design strategies to
enhance Crystal City’s districts and create a great place with a built forming a legible
framework of streets and blocks, high-quality parks and plazas, vibrant street front retail
areas, an integrated transit network, and a balanced mix of uses. Figure (5-5) shows potential
future and redevelopment opportunities for Crystal City.

Figure 5-5: Perspective of Crystal City Redevelopment opportunities, Source: (Arlington, 2010)

Figure (5-6) identifies buildings anticipated to remain over the plan’s lifetime, possible
new sites for development, and likely redevelopment sites within Crystal City. Each site
provides opportunities to either stimulate the redevelopment of obsolete building, or to better
define the edges along public parks and streets in order to enhance the public realm.

Figure (5-7) shows the block structure
comparison between the existing (left side)
and proposed conditions (Right side).

Figure 5-7: Block structure comparison between the
existing and proposed conditions, Source: (Arlington, 2010)

Figure 5-6: Crystal City Redevelopment opportunities, Source: As follows, it is important to discuss a
(Arlington, 2010) more detailed design approaches for each
district. As an example, the following maps
in figure (5-8) are for the west bank area
showing urban redevelopment for it. The plan
anticipates the existing residential building
will stay in place with some residential infill.
It visualizes preserving and retaining small,
neighborhood oriented retailers. The West
Side will benefit from many of the street and
intersection proposals in the Master Plan.
Creating complete streets throughout the
district, which will accommodate pedestrians,
bicyclists, bus riders, and motorists, is an
important objective. It includes preservation
of existing open spaces and the provision of
new public open spaces within the West Side
neighborhood.

Figure 5-8: Detailed design approaches for the west bank area redevelopment, Source: (Arlington, 2010)

9

From the previous maps, the plan legend could be illustrated as the following:

1. Infill Frontage – As a long-term objective, the removal and reconfiguration of the
highway on/off ramps at 15th Street will create an infill opportunity to provide building
frontage along Jefferson Davis Boulevard with sidewalks and building entrances.

2. 22nd Street Park – This new park will provide neighborhood serving recreational
facilities.

3. Restaurant Row – While the Master Plan anticipates only some near-term infill
development on the blocks immediately north and south of 23rd Street, the plan provides a
long-term vision to ensure that the scale and density of any future development is
appropriate for the surrounding neighborhood.

4. 23rd Street Intersection – As part of the general reconfiguration of the intersection at
Jefferson Davis Boulevard, some modification to the western side of the intersection can
be anticipated to improve the intersections performance and reduce traffic congestion.

5. Pedestrian Connections – A series of open spaces are proposed for the blocks south of
23rd Street that will provide connections between the neighborhoods within a park setting.
These small parks will be designed with interactive park elements and seating for residents
to enjoy between Eads Street and Jefferson Davis Boulevard.

6. Removal of Highway Ramps – As a long-term vision, the removal of the highway ramp
as part of the National Circle reconfiguration will provide an opportunity to create new
building sites on the land between Eads Street and Jefferson Davis Boulevard.

7. New Park – A new park is provided near the intersection of Fort Scott Drive and Eads
Street. The park will include active recreational facilities that will be selected to
compliment facilities in Eads Park and will include paths, shade trees, and seating.

The Spatial framework of Crystal City case study can be analyzed through land use and
mobility as discussed in chapter 4.

5.1.3 Land use systems:

5.1.3.1 Designation of uses:

The Land use map (figure 5-9) shows the proposed mix of uses developed in the Master
Plan. The legend indicates allowable uses by zone, with minimum percentage requirements
for some uses in certain areas. It doesn’t specify the precise balance of uses for any given
zone, beyond the minimums already described, and even then, there should be flexibility in
meeting these minimums when doing so would further other goals of the Plan.

5.1.3.2 Mixed Use and social mix:

The design focuses on increasing the range of residential building types, number of
bedrooms per unit, and overall price points. The plan will be better suited to encourage the
development of a more diverse mix of housing types. Within the Planning Area, current
housing types are exclusively multi-family units, consisting of condominiums and rental
apartments. The proposed pattern and research depending on existing inventories suggests
that most units are either one or two bedrooms in size. To accommodate larger families, there

will be challenge, because providing units with three
bedrooms or more has not been the norm.

The height of existing residential buildings is
typically 12 to 18 stories. Some new buildings
introduced on the west side are lower in height. The
residential buildings size proposed in the Master Plan
ranges from three-story buildings with relatively small
footprints located on the western edge of the planning
area to high-rise multifamily residential towers located
in the core neighborhoods of the east side.

The types, quantity, and mix of retail
establishments proposed in the Master Plan should
satisfy the demand for neighborhood residents,
workers, and visitors. The plan encourages enhanced
visibility and accessibility to retail establishments,
expansion in the quantity and type of retail
establishments, and greater synergy between the
street-front and internal retail spaces. As a mixed use
example, figure (5-10) shows the relationship of the
underground concourse to street-front retail in a
building section.

5.1.3.3 High density development

Master plan advocates for increasing the quantity,
availability, and affordability of housing in Crystal
City. By 2030 the demand for housing in the planning
area should increase 95%, resulting in a pressure on an
already tight housing market. Under the master plan, a
proposed increase in residential gross floor area of just
over 70% by 2050 should help to face this demand.
The master plan proposes increased maximum
building heights across much of Crystal City. Relative
conditions, areas targeted for increased density, and
other considerations informed the proposed height
limits. Figure (5-12) shows the base density map and
the maximum height limits for rentable floor area

5.1.3.4 Building legislation

Building legislation is described as mass strategy Figure 5-9: Land Use Designation of Crystal City,
and buildable envelopes and setbacks in figure (5-11). Source: (Arlington, 2010)

Figure 5-10: The relationship of the underground concourse to street-front retail in a building section, Source: (Arlington, 2010)
Figure 5-11: Building legislation- Mass strategy and buildable envelopes and setbacks, Source: (Arlington, 2010)

Figure 5-12: Base Density (Left side) and Building Heights (Right side) at Crystal City, Source: (Arlington, 2010)

The Crystal City skyline will change significantly as a result of high density and mixed
use master Plan approaches. By increasing allowable height in certain areas, replacing some
buildings, and creating new building sites, the appearance of the skyline from any number of
vantage points will be affected as shown in figure (5-13).

Figure 5-13: Crystal City Skyline, Source: (Arlington, 2010)

5.1.3.5 Neighborhood Services and Facilities:
The Master Plan offers an array of community and civic amenities. It provides a network

of retail frontages along streets, public spaces, and within the Underground. The basis of this
approach is to identify the priority areas for ground floor retail without over prescribing an
amount of retail that is not supported by market demand. It provides several retail oriented
public open spaces intended as neighborhood activity centers (figure 5-14). These retail
plazas should be intensely programmed to promote the retail experience and social
interaction.

The Plan’s recommendations define anticipated near-Term needs and services which can
be listed as follow:

 Police Substation – The Police Department
identified a need for a police substation in Crystal
city, to service the growing population.

 EMS/Fire Station – Crystal city is served by the
newly constructed Fire Station, additional service

capacity may be needed
 Day care Facilities – Increased residential and

employee populations in Crystal City will likely
increase demand for child day care facilities. It

proposed to be located within existing or new
development, preferably street level or hybrid retail

space in the Underground, or part of a larger multi-
purpose community or civic venue. Space also

needed to provide required outdoor play area.
 Grocery Stores – As of 2009, there are no full-

service grocery stores within the city study area.

(Full-service grocery stores are considered those
that stock a wide array of food products, typically

including vegetables, fruits, meat, poultry, dairy
products, breadstuffs, etc.). These stores can be
successful at a smaller scale (such as between

15,000-30,000 square feet), sized appropriately to
accommodate the local population. This Plan

envisions one or more
 Urgent Care Facilities – Although there is a

hospital center is within five miles of Crystal city,

it should be a local urgent care facility. It should be
placed within existing or new development,

preferably street level or hybrid retail space in the
Underground that is highly visible from the public

realm.

Future needs services and areas to monitor:

 Schools – Based on generation rates prevalent Figure 5-14: Retail Frontage and open spaces in Crystal
today in Crystal City (0.03 students per housing City, Source: (Arlington, 2010)
unit), the Plan is projected to increase student
figures by 170 students by 2040, or an average
increase of approximately 5 students per year.
Based on this assumption, there would be a net
increase of 360 students by 2040, or an average
increase of 12 students per year. If needed,
additional school capacity could be created by:

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