Sociology In Modules 2

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The Internet's Global Profile

The old notion of an Inter- FIGURE A Internet Users by World FIGURE B Internet Penetration by
net accessed primarily in the World Region
United States and dominated Region

by English-only content is Asia North 87.9
passé. In fact, usage patterns America
are changing so fast, gener-
alizing about global use of Europe 604 Europe 73.5
the Internet requires careful 339 73.2
research and phrasing. Latin 327 Australia/ 55.0
America 314 Oceania 52.2
For example, Figure A, 123 46.1
Internet Users by World Africa Latin 40.0
Region, shows an Internet America
that is dominated by users North
in Asia and Europe, two America Middle
relatively populous con- East
tinents. However, Figure Middle
B, Internet Penetration by East WORLD
World Region, shows a dra-
matically different picture, Asia
one in which the proportion
of people in each region Australia/ 27 Africa 28.2
who access the Internet is Oceania

0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 ....I.
Millions of users 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Penetration rate (96 population)

highest in North America.

That is, numerically, most America. Figure B shows dramatically

Internet users live in Asia and Europe, low Internet use in Africa, where less tha n The old notion of an

but the likelihood of a person being 30 percent of residents access the Internet accessed primarily
an Internet user Is greatest in North global network. in the United States and

FIGURE C Internet's Top 10 Languages dominated by English-only
content is passé.

English

Chinese 705 Though English is still the primary
language of Internet users, as Figure C
Spanish 245 shows, use of the Chinese language has
156 become much more common. Interest-
Arabic 1'PN 111111 132 ingly, 91 percent of all Japanese speakers
Portuguese 115 use the Internet, compared to 61 percent
• of all English speakers, though in abso-
Japanese lute terms, speakers of Japanese are a
significantly smaller group.
Russian III103
LET'S DISCUSS
Malay 94
1. Of the three figures shown here,
French 11 82 which do you think presents the
most sociologically significant
German 84 statistics? Explain.

Rest of world -11111111111•11111111111•111 694 2. Why do you think the use of
languages Chinese on the Internet has
increased so dramatically in just a
decade?

Source: All data taken from Internet World Stats
2015 as of November 15, 2015, for Figures A and
B and June 30, 2015, for Figure C.

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Millions of users

Flags: © admin_design/Shutterstock RF

Global Social Change s 455

FIGURE 60-1 Estimated Global Sale of Industrial Robots, These predictions are by no means airtight;
2010-2018 changes in many variables could affect the
researchers' probability estimates. For example,
600 even if a technology can be developed to per-
form a specific skill, access to cheap labor or
500 400 relatively high technological costs could pre-
7). vent automation of that skill. Labor organizing
264 could also defer such an outcome. Nevertheless,
400 around 47 percent of total U.S. employment
.c 121 falls into the high-risk category, in danger of
L/I being automated within the next decade or two.

300 Privacy and Censorship in a Global

sEtro) 200 Village
z
Today, new technologies like robots, cars that
100 can park themselves, and smartphones are
bringing about sweeping social change. While
0 2015 2018 much of that change is beneficial, there are
Year some negative effects. Recent advances in com-
2010 puter technology have made it increasingly easy
for business firms, government agencies, and
Sources: International Federation of Robotics 2015a, 2015b. Robot: iLexx/Getty Images RF even criminals to retrieve and store information
about everything from our buying habits to our
Increasingly, routine jobs are done robotically. In addition to industrial robots typically used in web-surfing patterns. In public places, at work,
manufacturing and delivery, service robots work in every area from surgery to window washing.
The growth in use of autonomous operating devices has led to the observation that jobs are
increasingly divided into two categories, lousy and lovely, with fewer and fewer ordinary jobs In
between.

adaptability, has brought about an astronomical TABLE 60-1JOBS PROJECTED TO BE ELIMINATED BY
rise in the sale of robots in the industrial work- COMPUTERIZATION
place (see Figure 60-1).
Unlikely to Be Eliminated by Technology (probability under 0.5 percent)
The unsettling aspect of this technological
innovation is the possibility that such advances Emergency management directors
could eliminate people's jobs. Even jobs that Mental health and substance abuse social workers
have recently been offshored are expected to be Audiologists
replaced by robotic devices. Already, people who First-line supervisors of firefighters
monitor the performance of digital networks have Dietitians and nutritionists
been replaced. It is anticipated that within about
five years workers who field calls from bank cus- Choreographers
tomers or from people seeking to reset their elec-
tronic devices will be replaced by robots like those Physicians and surgeons
that respond to online chat lines (Moss 2016). Elementary school teachers

The concern that machines will take over Likely to Be Eliminated by Technology (probability over 98 percent)
people's jobs is not new; throughout the 20th
century, first machines and then sophisticated Models
robots took the place of human workers. Today, Bookkeepers, accountants, and auditing clerks
with software becoming steadily more sophisti- Credit analysts
cated and affordable, the pace of technological Umpires, referees, and other sports officials
innovation is increasing. Researchers at Oxford Photographic process workers
University looked at 702 occupations in the Tax preparers
United States in terms of the worker's role in Cargo and freight agents
manipulating objects, thinking with originality, Watch repairers
negotiating with or persuading others, and gaug- Hand embroiderers and sewers
ing others' emotions and reactions. They then
used their findings to predict the likelihood that Note: Probability that an occupation could be computerized in the next decade or two. Occupations
existing or foreseeable technologies could auto- selected from those extremely likely or unlikely to be computerized on a list of 702 U.S. occupations.
mate those 702 jobs within the next decade or two. Source: Data from Appendix in Frey and Osborne 2013.
Table 60-1 summarizes a portion of their research.

456 s Social Change in the Global Community

and on the Internet, surveillance devices now track our every perspective, the Internet performs the latent function of empow-
move, be it a keystroke or an ATM withdrawal. The ever-present ering those with few resources—from hate groups to special-
cell phone enables the most pervasive and sophisticated attacks interest organizations—to communicate with the masses.
on people's privacy and anonymity. In response, some people Conflict theorists, in contrast, stress the danger that the most
are beginning to advocate for the creation of a new agency that powerful groups in a society will use technology to violate the
would respond to electronic viruses the way the CDC (Cen- privacy of the less powerful. Indeed, officials in the People's
ters for Disease Control and Prevention) responds to biological Republic of China censor online discussion groups and web
threats. However, the trade-off for ensuring total privacy is to postings that criticize the government. The same abuses can
restrict the ability of law enforcement to search electronic com- occur in the United States, civil liberties advocates remind us,
munications for messages that reveal potential threats, whether if citizens are not vigilant in protecting their right to privacy
those are theft or terrorism (Lucas 2015; Rosen 2015). (Magnier 2004).

From a sociological point of view, the complex issues of If anything, people seem to be less vigilant today about
privacy and censorship can be considered illustrations of culture maintaining their privacy than they were before the information
lag. As usual, the material culture (technology) is changing faster age. Young people who have grown up browsing the Internet
than the nonmaterial culture (norms for controlling the use of seem to accept the existence of the cookies and spyware they
technology). Too often, the result is an anything-goes approach may pick up while surfing. They have become accustomed to
to the use of new technologies. adult surveillance of their conversation in electronic chat rooms.
Many see no risk in providing personal information about them-
Legislation regarding the surveillance of electronic com- selves to the strangers they meet online. Little wonder that col-
munications has not always upheld citizens' right to privacy. In lege professors find their students do not appreciate the political
1986, the federal government passed the Electronic Communica- significance of their right to privacy (Turkle 2004).
tions Privacy Act, which outlawed the surveillance of telephone
calls except with the permission of both the U.S. attorney general use your sociological imagination
and a federal judge. Telegrams, faxes, and e-mail did not receive
the same degree of protection, however. Then in 2001, one month Do you hold strong views regarding the privacy
after the terrorist attacks of September 11, Congress passed the of your electronic communications? When using a
Patriot Act, which relaxed existing legal checks on surveillance smartphone or similar device, do you ever suspect
by law enforcement officers. As a result, federal agencies are now you, are being watched or your actions monitored?
freer to gather electronic data, including credit-card receipts and
banking records. In 2005, Americans learned that the National Biotechnology and the Gene Pool
Security Agency was covertly monitoring phone calls with the
cooperation of major U.S. telecommunications companies. Since Another field in which technological advances have spurred
then, federal courts have ruled that wiretapping without warrants global social change is biotechnology. Sex selection of fetuses,
is legal (ACLU 2015b). genetically engineered organisms, cloning of sheep, cows, and
some small animals—these have been among the significant yet
Sociologists' views on the use and abuse of new technolo- controversial scientific advances in the field of biotechnology.
gies differ depending on their theoretical perspective. Function- George Ritzer's (2015) concept of McDonaldization applies to
alists take a generally positive view of the Internet, pointing to the entire area of biotechnology. Just as the fast-food concept has
its manifest function of facilitating communication. From their permeated society, no phase of life now seems exempt from ther-
apeutic or medical intervention. In fact, sociologists view many
0 Andre Kudyusov/Photodisc/Alamy RF aspects of biotechnology as an extension of the recent trend
toward the medicalization of society. Through genetic manipu-
lation, the medical profession is expanding its turf still further
(Clarke et al. 2003; Human Genome Project 2016).

One notable success of biotechnology—an unintended con-
sequence of modern warfare—has been progress in the treat-
ment of traumatic injuries. In response to the massive numbers
of soldiers who survived serious injury in Iraq and Afghanistan,
military doctors and therapists have come up with electronically
controlled prosthetic devices. Their innovations include artificial
limbs that respond to thought-generated nerve impulses, allow-
ing amputees to move prosthetic legs, arms, and even individual
fingers. These applications of computer science to the rehabilita-
tion of the injured will no doubt be extended to civilians.

Global Social Change s 457

C Trevor Snapp/Bloomberg via Getty Images and unwanted ways. In particular, con-
troversy has been growing concerning
A Ugandan farmer checks the price of coffee beans on his cell phone. genetically modified (GM) food, an issue
that arose in Europe but has since spread
One startling biotechnological advance is the possibility of to other parts of the world, including the
altering human behavior or physical traits through genetic engi- United States. The idea behind the tech-
neering. Fish and plant genes have already been mixed to create nology is to increase food production
frost-resistant potato and tomato crops. More recently, human and make agriculture more economi-
genes have been implanted in pigs to provide humanlike kidneys cal. But critics use the term Frankenfood
for organ transplant. William F. Ogburn probably could not have (as in "Frankenstein") to refer to every-
anticipated such scientific developments when he wrote of cul- thing from breakfast cereals made from
ture lag over 80 years earlier. However, advances like these or genetically engineered grains to fresh
even the successful cloning of sheep illustrate again how quickly GM tomatoes. Members of the antibio-
material culture can change, and how nonmaterial culture moves tech movement object to tampering with
more slowly in absorbing such changes. nature, and are concerned about the pos-
sible health effects of GM food. Support-
Although today's biotechnology holds itself out as totally ers of genetically modified food include
beneficial to human beings, it is in constant need of monitoring. not just biotech companies, but those who
Biotechnological advances have raised many difficult ethical and see the technology as a way to help feed
political questions, among them the desirability of tinkering with the burgeoning populations of Africa and
the gene pool, which could alter our environment in unexpected Asia (Shuttleworth 2015).

In contrast, less expensive and con-
troversial technologies can further agri-
culture where it is needed more, in the
developing world. Consider cell phones. Unlike most new tech-
nologies, the majority of the world's cell phones are used in less
developed countries. Relatively cheap and not as dependent as
computers on expensive communications infrastructure, cell
phones are common in the world's poorest areas. In Uganda,
farmers use them to check weather forecasts and commod-
ity prices. In South Africa, laborers use them to look for work.
Researchers at the London Business School have found that in
developing countries, a 10 percent increase in cell phone use is
correlated with a 0.6 percent rise in GDP (Bures 2011).
While farmers in the developing world use cell phones to
improve their incomes, others set out for foreign countries. The
Social Policy section that follows considers transnationals, immi-
grants who travel back and forth between the developing and
developed worlds, forging human rather than technological links.

oolicy and globalization I Transnationals

Around the world, new communications technologies—cell on their own to take advantage of it. In the process, many of
phones, the Internet—have hastened the process of globaliza- them become migrants.
tion. Yet without human capital, these innovations would not
have spurred the huge increase in global trade and develop- To facilitate trade and investment with other countries,
ment that occurred over the last several decades. Who are the migrants often exploit their social connections and their
people behind the trend toward globalization? Often, they are familiarity with their home language and culture. In Southeast
people who see a business opportunity abroad and strike out Asia, for example, Chinese migrants dominate the trade with
China. Some migrants invest directly in their home countries

—Continued

458 s Social Change in the Global Community

—Continued

to get the manufactured goods they sell abroad. Opportunities "stayers"—that is, people who continued to live in the coun-
abound, and those with capital and good business skills can tries where they were born (United Nations 2013).
become quite wealthy (Guest 2011).
Figure 60-2 shows the worldwide movement of workers
The millions of migrant laborers who leave home in with and without the legal right to immigrate. Several areas,
search of a better life also play a role in the global economy, such as the European Union, have instituted international
filling jobs where there are shortages in the labor market. agreements that provide for the free movement of laborers.
Although they do not become wealthy working as landscap- But in most other parts of the world, immigration restrictions
ers or short-order cooks, they consider themselves better off give foreign workers only temporary status. Despite such
than they were in the old country. Unfortunately, citizens legal restrictions, the labor market has become an increasingly
of the host countries often react negatively to the migrants' global one. Just as globalization has integrated government
arrival, worrying that they will take jobs away from the policies, cultures, social movements, and financial markets,
native-born. it has unified what were once discrete national labor markets.
So today, for example, immigrants from at least eight different
Looking at the Issue countries work in one small Middle Eastern state, Dubai.

About 232 million people, or 3 percent of the world's popula- Globalization has changed the immigrant experience as
don, were international migrants. That is more than double well as the labor market. In generations past, immigrants read
the number in 1970. The rest of the world's population were foreign language newspapers to keep in touch with events in
their home countries. Today, the Internet gives them immediate
MAPPING LIFE WORLDWIDE access to their countries and kinfolk. In this global framework,

FIGURE 60-2 Labor Migration

(to NORTH
AMERICA)

Income and labor (from SOUTH
migration AMERICA)
(per capita income
in U.S. dollars) AUSTRALIAN.\4t4k

Greater than $10,000 luoisammonammogwowins *•%N44
1111 $3,000—$10,000

Less than $3,000
No data
N‘ Labor migration trend

Source: National Geographic 2005:16.

—Continued
Social Policy and Globalization • 459

—Continued

immigrants are less likely than they were in the past to think of while being a transnational can be exhilarating, it can also
themselves as residents of just one country. Transnationals are isolate a person, even in a city of millions. Others worry that
immigrants who sustain multiple social relationships that link transnationals may become so cosmopolitan that they will lose
their societies of origin with their societies of settlement. touch with their national identities (Calhoun 2003; Evergeti
and Zontini 2006; Pliiss 2005; Portes et al. 2008; Rajan and
Applying Sociology Sharma 2006; Tilly 2007).

As with other issues, sociologists differ in their opinion of Feminist theorists call attention to the way that migration
transnationals, depending on their theoretical perspective. has historically occurred in waves: first men moved to seek
Functionalists see the free flow of immigrants, even when it is better opportunities, while women stayed behind until their
legally restricted, as one way for economies to maximize their husbands could afford to send for them. Women's responsibil-
use of human labor. Given the law of supply and demand, they ities were to care for the household and maintain connections
note, countries with too few workers will inevitably attract to the larger kinship network. In today's world of global social
laborers, while those with too many will become unattractive media, women play a critical role in maintaining communi-
to residents. cations and the flow of information across borders. Physical
proximity is no longer a prerequisite for family maintenance
Functionalists also embrace the assimilationist view of (Herrera 2013).
immigration, which emphasizes how people forsake their
cultural tradition to become a part of their new society. The Conflict theorists charge that globalization and interna-
recognition that many transnationals sustain multiple relation- tional migration have increased the economic gulf between
ships, including homeland connections, amends the assimi- developed and developing nations. Through tourism and the
lationist view, which ignores this aspect of immigrants' daily global reach of the mass media, people in the poorer countries
lives in the their new homes (Waldinger 2015). have become aware of the affluent lifestyle common in devel-
oped nations—and of course, many of them now aspire to it
Interactionists are interested in the day-to-day relation- (C. L. Smith 2011).
ships transnationals have with the people around them, from
those of their country of origin to those of the host country Initiating Policy
and fellow workers from other countries. These scholars are
studying transnationals' involvement in local ethnic organiza- Although connecting to two societies can be an enriching
tions, to see whether their membership facilitates or retards experience, transnationals face continuing adjustment prob-
their integration into the host society. They have discovered lems in their new home countries. As we saw with Dubai,
that members of global social networks provide one another immigrant laborers often face difficult living and working
with mutual support and trust. conditions. Some sending countries, such as Indonesia and
the Philippines, have created national agencies to ensure the
Transnationals also participate in social movements. protection of their workers abroad. Their objective is ambi-
Many transnationals emigrate either to a country with tious, given that funding for the agencies is limited, and dip-
greater political freedom (for example, an Iranian immi- lomatic and legal challenges complicate their task (United
grant to Great Britain) or to a nation with better work Nations Development Programme 2009:102-104).
opportunities (for example, a Filipino worker in Dubai). In
these situations, transnational migrants often monitor social Another unresolved transnational issue is voter eligibility.
movements that interest them via computer. They may Not all nations allow dual citizenship; even those countries
also facilitate the growth of a social movement from a dis- that do may not allow absent nationals to vote. The United
tance, by providing information, money, or both (Aunio and States and Great Britain are rather liberal in this regard, per-
Staggenborg 2011). mitting dual citizenship and allowing émigrés to continue to
vote. Mexico, in contrast, has been reluctant to allow citizens
Another question of interest to interactionists is how who have emigrated to vote. Mexican politicians worry that
transnationals see themselves—how they see their own identi- the large number of Mexicans who live abroad (especially
ties as well as those of their children. In effect, transnationals those in the United States) might vote differently from local
negotiate their identities, depending on which social network voters, causing different outcomes (P. Levitt and Jaworsky
they belong to at the moment. Some sociologists note that 2007; Sellers 2004).

—Continued

460 s Social Change in the Global Community

Finally, the controversial issue of illegal immigration TAKE THE ISSUE WITH YOU
has yet to be settled, perhaps because of culture lag. That is,
both public attitudes and government policies (nonmaterial 1. Suppose you live in an impoverished developing country and have
culture) have not kept pace with, much less adjusted to, the the opportunity to earn a much higher income by immigrating
increasing ease of migration around the globe (material cul- to the United States. Will you do it, even if it means entering the
ture). Though globalization has created a global labor mar- country illegally and working long hours doing menial labor? If so,
ket—one that many countries depend on, legal or illegal—the how will you justify your decision to those who condemn illegal
general public's attitude toward illegal immigrants remains immigration?
hostile, especially in the United States.
2. The U.S. economy depends on the cheap labor that some
Antagonism is by no means limited to transnationals who immigrants provide. Should immigrants receive the same social
are in a nation illegally. A 2015 international survey found services that U.S. citizens receive? What about their children who
that more than 40 percent of the people in the United States, are born in the United States (and therefore are U.S. citizens)?
France, Poland, Greece, Spain, and Italy view immigrants as Explain your reasoning.
a burden to their country and are resistant to the social change
that immigration brings (Krogstad 2015). 3. Globalization has increased international trade and development at
the same time that it has strained nations' social service systems, as
migrant workers flow toward countries offering the most extensive
social protection. On balance, do you think its overall effect has
been beneficial or harmful? What might be done to alleviate the
harmful effects of globalization?

MODULE Recap and Review

Summary Transnationals are immigrants who sustain multiple
social relationships that link their societies of origin with
We are living in a time of sweeping social, political, and their societies of settlement.
economic change—change that occurs not just on a local or
national basis but on a global scale. Thinking Critically

1. Computer technology has made it increasingly easy 1. Which aspect of biotechnology do you find most
for any individual, business, or government agency to promising?
retrieve more and more information about any of us,
thereby infringing on our privacy. 2. Do you sometimes see your future more in the electronic
world than in the people and places around you?
2. Advances in biotechnology have raised difficult ethical
questions about genetic engineering. 3. Overall, is technological innovation harmful or
beneficial to society? Explain your answer.
3. Dubai is a Middle Eastern state that reinvented itself
as an information technology hub, in the process Key Terms
undergoing massive social change.
Transnational
4. Globalization has increased the international migration
of laborers, producing a new kind of immigrant.

Social Policy and Globalization s 461

Mastering This Chapter

taking sociology with you 0 Agencja Fotograficzna Caro/Alamy

1. Choose a social movement that you are interested day. Afterward, analyze the experiment from a
sociological perspective. What functions did you
in and do some research on it. If possible, visit lose while you were without the devices? Did you
with members of the movement in your local gain anything from the experience?
community. Which sociological theory fits this
movement better, relative deprivation or resource 3. Choose a new technology that interests you and
mobilization? Would you describe the movement as
a new social movement? What has been the role of analyze it from a sociological point of view. What
communications in the movement? do you think this technology might contribute to
society? What might be some negative effects of
2. Try turning off all your electronic devices—phone, the technology? Have you noticed any resistance
to it, and if so, on what grounds?
laptop, and so on—for a specific period, say a

key terms False consciousness A term used by Karl Marx to describe an attitude
held by members of a class that does not accurately reflect their
Assembling perspective A theory of collective behavior introduced by objective position.
McPhail and Miller that seeks to examine how and why people move
from different points in space to a common location. Flash mob A group of people organized by social media to assemble
suddenly in a public space, perform some collective activity, and then
Collective behavior In the view of sociologist Neil Smelser, the relatively quickly disperse.
spontaneous and unstructured behavior of a group of people who are
reacting to a common influence in an ambiguous situation. Luddites Rebellious craft workers in 19th-century England who destroyed
new factory machinery as part of their resistance to the Industrial
Computer-mediated communication Communicative interaction through Revolution.
two or more networked devices, such as a computer or cell phone. The
term applies to a variety of text-based or video interactions, including New social movement An organized collective activity that addresses
e-mails, chat rooms, and text messages, some of which may be values and social identities, as well as improvements in the quality of
supported by social media. life.

Craze An exciting mass involvement that lasts for a relatively long period. Nonperiodic assembly A nonrecurring gathering of people that often
results from word-of-mouth information.
Crowd A temporary gathering of people in close proximity who share a
common focus or interest. Panic A fearful arousal or collective flight based on a generalized belief
that may or may not be accurate.
Culture lag A period of maladjustment when the nonmaterial culture is
still struggling to adapt to new material conditions. Periodic assembly A recurring, relatively routine gathering of people,
such as a college class.
Disaster A sudden or disruptive event or set of events that overtaxes a
community's resources, so that outside aid is necessary. Public A dispersed group of people, not necessarily in contact with one
another, who share an interest in an issue.
Emergent-norm perspective A theory of collective behavior proposed by
Turner and Killian that holds that a collective definition of appropriate Public opinion Expressions of attitudes on matters of public policy that
or inappropriate behavior emerges during episodes of collective are communicated to decision makers.
behavior.
Relative deprivation The conscious feeling of a negative discrepancy
Equilibrium model The functionalist view that society tends toward a between legitimate expectations and present actualities.
state of stability or balance.
Resource mobilization The ways in which a social movement utilizes
Evolutionary theory A theory of social change that holds that society is such resources as money, political influence, access to the media, and
moving in a definite direction. personnel.

Fad A temporary pattern of behavior that involves large numbers of people Rumor A piece of information gathered informally that is used to interpret
and is independent of preceding trends. an ambiguous situation.

Fashion A pleasurable mass involvement that features a certain amount of
acceptance by society and has a line of historical continuity.

462 s Social Change in the Global Community

Social change Significant alteration over time in behavior patterns and Transnational An immigrant who sustains multiple social relationships
culture, including norms and values. that link his or her society of origin with the society of settlement.

Social movement An organized collective activity to bring about or resist Value-added model A theory of collective behavior proposed by Neil
fundamental change in an existing group or society. Smelser to explain how broad social conditions are transformed in a
definite pattern into some form of collective behavior.
Technology Cultural information about the ways in which the material
resources of the environment may be used to satisfy human needs and Vested interests Those people or groups who will suffer in the event of
desires. social change, and who have a stake in maintaining the status quo.

self-quiz 7. According to Talcott Parsons's equilibrium model, during which
process do social institutions become more specialized in their
Read each question carefully and then select the best answer. purposes?
1. In sociological terms, which of the following constitute a crowd? a. differentiation
a. spectators at a baseball game b. adaptive upgrading
b. participants at a college pep rally c. inclusion
c. urban rioters d. value generalization
d. all of the above
8. Which of the following statements regarding Karl Marx is
2. The least organized and most individualized form of collective not true?
behavior is represented by a. Marx accepted the evolutionary argument that societies develop
a. rumors. along a particular path.
b. publics. b. Marx believed that history proceeds through a series of stages,
c. fashions. each of which exploits a class of people.
d. panics. c. Marx accepted Parsons's equilibrium model, which states that as
changes occur in one part of society, there must be adjustments in
3. Karl Marx held that leaders of social movements must help workers other parts if stability is to be maintained.
overcome feelings of d. Marx argued that conflict is a normal and desirable aspect of
a. class consciousness. social change.
b. false consciousness.
c. socialist consciousness. 9. Which of the following terms did William F. Ogburn use to refer to
d. surplus value. the period of maladjustment during which the nonmaterial culture is
still struggling to adapt to new material conditions?
4. Organized collective activities that promote autonomy and self- a. economic shift
determination, as well as improvements in the quality of life, are b. political turmoil
referred to as c. social change
a. new social movements. d. culture lag
b. social revolutions.
c. resource mobilizations. 10. Which sociological perspective sees transnationals as a way for
d. crazes. economies to maximize their use of human labor?
a. functionalist
5. The text cites which of the following as a recognized definition of b. conflict
social change? c. interactionist
a. tumultuous, revolutionary alternatives that lead to changes in d. feminist
leadership
b. a significant alteration over time in behavior patterns and culture
c. regular alteration in a consistent social frame of reference
d. subtle alterations in any social system

6. Nineteenth-century theories of social change reflect the pioneering
work in biological evolution done by
a. Albert Einstein.
b. Harriet Martineau.
c. James Audubon.
d. Charles Darwin.

11. are organized collective activities to bring about or resist fundamental change in an existing group or

society.

12.A person suffering from relative deprivation is dissatisfied because he or she feels downtrodden relative to some appropriate

group.

13.Early evolutionary theorists concluded in a(n) fashion that their own behavior and culture were more advanced than those of

earlier civilizations.

14.Talcott Parsons used the term to refer to the increasing complexity of social organization.

15.Social economist Thorstein Veblen coined the term to refer to those people or groups who will suffer in the

event of social change.

Mastering This Chapter s 463

16. The term refers to those who are wary of technological innovations, and who question the incessant expansion of

industrialization, the increasing destruction of the natural and agrarian world, and the "throw-it-away" mentality of contemporary capitalism.

17. In 2001, one month after the terrorist attacks of September 11, Congress passed the Act, which relaxed existing legal checks

on surveillance by law enforcement officers. Federal agencies are now free to gather data electronically, including credit card receipts and banking

records.

18. The is the world's largest computer network.

19. In developing countries, are a less expensive way of furtheimg agriculture than biotechnology.

20. The perspective would stress the danger that the most powerful groups in a society will use technology to violate the privacy of

the less powerful.

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464 • Social Change in the Global Community

a Bilateral descent A kinship system in which both sides of a person's family are
regarded as equally important.
Absolute poverty A minimum level of subsistence that no family should be
expected to live below. Bilingualism The use of two languages in a particular setting, such as the
workplace or schoolroom, treating each language as equally legitimate.
Achieved status A social position that a person attains largely through his or
her own efforts. Birthrate The number of live births per 1,000 population in a given year. Also
known as the crude birthrate.
Activity theory An interactionist theory of aging that suggests that those
elderly people who remain active and socially involved will be best adjusted. Black power A political philosophy, promoted by many younger Blacks in
the 1960s, that supported the creation of Black-controlled political and
Adoption In a legal sense, the transfer of the legal rights, responsibilities, and economic institutions.
privileges of parenthood to a new legal parent or parents.
Bourgeoisie Karl Marx's term for the capitalist class, comprising the owners of
Affirmative action Positive efforts to recruit minority group members or the means of production.
women for jobs, promotions, and educational opportunities.
Brain drain The immigration to the United States and other industrialized
Ageism Prejudice and discrimination based on a person's age. nations of skilled workers, professionals, and technicians who are
desperately needed in their home countries.
Agrarian society The most technologically advanced form of preindustrial
society. Members engage primarily in the production of food, but increase Brass ceiling An invisible barrier that blocks the promotion of a woman in the
their crop yields through technological innovations such as the plow. military because of her official (not necessarily actual) exclusion from combat.

Alienation A condition of estrangement or dissociation from the surrounding Bureaucracy A component of formal organization that uses rules and
society. hierarchical ranking to achieve efficiency.

Amalgamation The process through which a majority group and a minority Bureaucratization The process by which a group, organization, or social
group combine to form a new group. movement becomes increasingly bureaucratic.

Anomie Durkheim's term for the loss of direction felt in a society when social C
control of individual behavior has become ineffective.
Capitalism An economic system in which the means of production are held
Anomie theory of deviance Robert Merton's theory of deviance as an largely in private hands and the main incentive for economic activity is the
adaptation of socially prescribed goals or of the means governing their accumulation of profits.
attainment, or both.
Caste A hereditary rank, usually religiously dictated, that tends to be fixed and
Anti-Semitism Anti-Jewish prejudice. immobile.

Anticipatory socialization Processes of socialization in which a person Causal logic The relationship between a condition or variable and a particular
rehearses for future positions, occupations, and social relationships. consequence, with one leading to the other.

Apartheid A former policy of the South African government, designed to Census An enumeration, or counting, of a population.
maintain the separation of Blacks and other non-Whites from the dominant Charismatic authority Max Weber's term for power made legitimate by a
Whites.
leader's exceptional personal or emotional appeal to his or her followers.
Applied sociology The use of the discipline of sociology with the specific Charter school An experimental school that is developed and managed by
intent of yielding practical applications for human behavior and
organizations. individuals, groups of parents, or educational management organizations.

Argot Specialized language used by members of a group or subculture. Class A group of people who have a similar level of wealth and income.

Ascribed status A social position assigned to a person by society without Class consciousness In Karl Marx's view, a subjective awareness held by
regard for the person's unique talents or characteristics. members of a class regarding their common vested interests and the need for
collective political action to bring about social change.
Assembling perspective A theory of collective behavior introduce by McPhail
and Miller that seeks to examine how and why people move from different Class system A social ranking based primarily on economic position in which
points in space to a common location. achieved characteristics can influence social mobility.

Assimilation The process through which a person forsakes his or her cultural Classical theory An approach to the study of formal organizations that views
tradition to become part of a different culture. workers as being motivated almost entirely by economic rewards.

Asylees Foreigners who have already entered a host country and now seek Climate change An observable alteration of the global atmosphere that affects
protection because of persecution or a well-founded fear of persecution. natural weather patterns over several decades or longer.

Authority Institutionalized power that is recognized by the people over whom Clinical sociology The use of the discipline of sociology with the specific
it is exercised. intent of altering social relationships or restructuring social institutions.

b Closed system A social system in which there is little or no possibility of
individual social mobility.
Basic sociology Sociological inquiry conducted with the objective of gaining a
more profound knowledge of the fundamental aspects of social phenomena. Coalition A temporary or permanent alliance geared toward a common goal.
Also known as pure sociology. Code of ethics The standards of acceptable behavior developed by and for

Big data The rapid collection and analysis of enormous amounts of information members of a profession.
by supercomputers. Cognitive theory of development Jean Piaget's theory that children's thought

progresses through four stages of development.

465

Cohabitation The practice of living together as a male—female couple without Cultural convergence The flow of content across multiple media, and the
marrying. accompanying migration of media audiences.

Collective behavior In the view of sociologist Neil Smelser, the relatively Cultural relativism The viewing of people's behavior from the perspective of
spontaneous and unstructured behavior or a group of people who are their own culture.
recating to a common influence in an ambiguous situation.
Cultural transmission A school of criminology that argues that criminal
Colonialism The maintenance of political, social, economic, and cultural behavior is learned through social interactions.
domination over a people by a foreign power for an extended period.
Cultural universal A common practice or belief found in every culture.
Color-blind racism The use of the principle of race neutrality to defend a
racially unequal status quo. Culture The totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge,
material objects, and behavior.
Communism An economic system under which all property is communally
owned and no social distinctions are made on the basis of people's ability to Culture industry The worldwide media industry that standardizes the goods
produce. and services demanded by consumers.

Community A spatial or political unit of social organization that gives people a Culture lag A period of maladjustment when the nonmaterial culture is still
sense of belonging, based either on shared residence in a particular place or struggling to adapt to new material conditions.
on a common identity
Culture shock The feeling of surprise and disorientation that people
Computer-mediated communication Communicative interaction through experience when they encounter cultural practices that are different from
two or more networked devices, such as a computer or cell phone. The term their own.
applies to a variety of text-based or video interactions, including e-mails, chat
rooms, and text messages, some of which may be supported by social media. Culture war The polarization of society over controversial cultural elements.

Concentric-zone theory A theory of urban growth devised by Ernest Burgess Curanderismo Latino folk medicine, a form of holistic health care and
that sees growth in terms of a series of rings radiating from the central healing.
business district.
Cybercrime Illegal activity primarily conducted through the use of computer
Conflict perspective A sociological approach that assumes that social behavior hardware or software.
is best understood in terms of tension between groups over power or the
allocation of resources, including housing, money, access to services, and d
political representation.
Death rate The number of deaths per 1,000 population in a given year. Also
Conformity Going along with peers—individuals of our own status who have known as the crude death rate.
no special right to direct our behavior.
Degradation ceremony An aspect of the socialization process within some
Conspicuous consumption Purchasing goods not to survive but to flaunt one's total institutions, in which people are subjected to humiliating rituals.
superior wealth and social standing.
Deindustrialization The systematic, widespread withdrawal of investment in
Contact hypothesis An interactionist perspective which states that in basic aspects of productivity, such as factories and plants.
cooperative circumstances, interracial contact between people of equal status
will reduce prejudice. Democracy In a literal sense, government by the people.

Content analysis The systematic coding and objective recording of data, Demographic transition A term used to describe the change from high
guided by some rationale. birthrates and death rates to low birthrates and death rates.

Control group The subjects in an experiment who are not introduced to the Demography The scientific study of population.
independent variable by the researcher.
Denomination A large, organized religion that is not officially linked to the
Control theory A view of conformity and deviance that suggests that our state or government.
connection to members of society leads us to systematically conform to
society's norms. Dependency theory An approach that contends that industrialized nations
continue to exploit developing countries for their own gain.
Control variable A factor that is held constant to test the relative impact of an
independent variable. Dependent variable The variable in a causal relationship that is subject to the
influence of another variable.
Corporate welfare Tax breaks, bailouts, direct payments, and grants that the
government gives to corporations. Deviance Behavior that violates the standards of conduct or expectations of a
group or society.
Correlation A relationship between two variables in which a change in one
coincides with a change in the other. Dictatorship A government in which one person has nearly total power to
make and enforce laws.
Correspondence principle A term used by Bowles and Gintis to refer to the
tendency of schools to promote the values expected of individuals in each Differential association A theory of deviance proposed by Edwin Sutherland
social class and to perpetuate social class divisions from one generation to that holds that violation of rules results from exposure to attitudes favorable
the next. to criminal acts.

Counterculture A subculture that deliberately opposes certain aspects of the Differential justice Differences in the way social control is exercised over
larger culture. different groups.

Craze An exciting mass involvement that lasts for a relatively long period. Diffusion The process by which a cultural item spreads from group to group or
society to society.
Creationism A literal interpretation of the Bible regarding the creation of
humanity and the universe, used to argue that evolution should not be Digital divide The relative lack of access to the latest technologies among low-
presented as established scientific fact. income groups, racial and ethnic minorities, rural residents, and the citizens
of developing countries.
Credentialism An increase in the lowest level of education needed to enter a
field. Disaster A sudden or disruptive event or set of events that overtaxes a
community's resources, so that outside aid is necessary.
Crime A violation of criminal law for which some governmental authority
applies formal penalties. Discovery The process of making known or sharing the existence of an aspect
of reality.
Cross-tabulation A table or matrix that shows the relationship between two or
more variables. Discrimination The denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and
groups because of prejudice or other arbitrary reasons.
Crowd A temporary gathering of people in close proximity who share a
common focus or interest. Disengagement theory A functionalist theory of aging that suggests that
society and the aging individual mutually sever many of their relationships.
Cultural capital Noneconomic goods, such as family background and
education, which are reflected in a knowledge of language and the arts. Dominant ideology A set of cultural beliefs and practices that helps to
maintain powerful social, economic, and political interests.

466 s GLOSSARY

Double consciousness The division of an individual's identity into two or more f
social realities.
Face-work A term used by Erving Goffman to refer to the efforts people make
Downsizing Reductions taken in a company's workforce as part of to maintain the proper image and avoid public embarrassment.
deindustrialization.
Fad A temporary pattern of behavior that involves large numbers of people and
Dramaturgical approach A view of social interaction, popularized by Erving is independent of preceding trends.
Goffman, in which people are seen as theatrical performers.
False consciousness A term used by Karl Marx to describe an attitude
Dysfunction An element or process of a society that may disrupt the social held by members of a class that does not accurately reflect their objective
system or reduce its stability. position.

e Familism (Familismo) Pride in the extended family, expressed through the
maintenance of close ties and strong obligations to kinfolk outside the
Ecclesia A religious organization that claims to include most or all members of immediate family.
a society and is recognized as the national or official religion.
Family A set of people related by blood, marriage or some other agreed-on
Ecological modernization The alignment of environmentally favorable relationship, or adoption, who share the primary responsibility for
practices with economic self-interest through constant adaptation and reproduction and caring for members of society.
restructuring.
Fashion A pleasurable mass involvement that features a certain amount of
Economic system The social institution through which goods and services are acceptance by society and has a line of historical continuity.
produced, distributed, and consumed.
Feminism An ideology that favors equal rights for women.
Education A formal process of learning in which some people consciously
teach, while others adopt the social role of learner. Feminist perspective A sociological approach that views inequity in gender as
central to all behavior and organization.
Egalitarian family An authority pattern in which spouses are regarded as
equals. Feminization of poverty A trend in which women constitute an increasing
proportion of the poor people of both the United States and the world.
Elite model A view of society as being ruled by a small group of individuals
who share a common set of political and economic interests. Fertility The level of reproduction in a society.
Flash mob A group of people organized by social media to assemble suddenly
Emergent-norm perspective A theory of collective behavior proposed
by Turner and Killian that holds that a collective definition of appropriate in a public space, perform some collective activity, and then quickly
or inappropriate behavior emerges during episodes of collective disperse.
behavior.
Flexibility stigma The devaluation of workers who seek or who are presumed
Endogamy The restriction of mate selection to people within the same group. to need flexible work arrangements.

Environmental justice A legal strategy based on claims that racial minorities Folkway A norm governing everyday behavior whose violation raises
are subjected disproportionately to environmental hazards. comparatively little concern.

Environmental refugee A person who has been displaced by rising seas, Force The actual or threatened use of coercion to impose one's will on others.
destructive storms, expanding deserts, water shortages, or high levels of
toxic pollutants. Formal norm A norm that has been written down and that specifies strict
punishments for violators.
Equilibrium model Talcott Parsons's functionalist view that society tends
toward a state of stability or balance. Formal organization A group designed for a special purpose and structured for
maximum efficiency.
Established sect J. Milton Yinger's term for a religious group that is the
outgrowth of a sect, yet remains isolated from society. Formal social control Social control that is carried out by authorized agents,
such as police officers, judges, school administrators, and employers.
Estate system A system of stratification under which peasants were required to
work land leased to them by nobles in exchange for military protection and Functionalist perspective A sociological approach that emphasizes the way in
other services. Also known as feudalism. which the parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability.

Esteem The reputation that a specific person has earned within an Fundamentalism An emphasis on doctrinal conformity and the literal
occupation. interpretation of sacred texts.

Ethnic group A group that is set apart from others primarily because of its g
national origin or distinctive cultural patterns.
Gatekeeping The process by which a relatively small number of people in the
Ethnocentrism The tendency to assume that one's own culture and way of life media industry control what material eventually reaches the audience.
represent the norm or are superior to all others.
Gemeinschaft A term used by Ferdinand Tonnies to describe a close-knit
Ethnography The study of an entire social setting through extended systematic community, often found in rural areas, in which strong personal bonds unite
fieldwork. members.

Euthanasia The act of bringing about the death of a hopelessly ill and suffering Gender identity How people see themselves, as male or female, or something
person in a relatively quick and painless way for reasons of mercy. else.

Evolutionary theory A theory of social change that holds that society is Gender role Expectations regarding the proper behavior, attitudes, and
moving in a definite direction. activities of males and females.

Exogamy The requirement that people select a mate outside certain groups. Generalized other A term used by George Herbert Mead to refer to the
attitudes, viewpoints, and expectations of society as a whole that a child
Experiment An artificially created situation that allows a researcher to takes into account in his or her behavior.
manipulate variables.
Genocide The deliberate, systematic killing of an entire people or nation.
Experimental group The subjects in an experiment who are exposed to an Gentrification The resettlement of low-income city neighborhoods by
independent variable introduced by a researcher.
prosperous families and business firms.
Exploitation theory A Marxist theory that views racial subordination in the
United States as a manifestation of the class system inherent in capitalism. Gerontology The scientific study of the sociological and psychological aspects
of aging and the problems of the aged.
Expressiveness Concern for the maintenance of harmony and the internal
emotional affairs of the family. Gesellschaft A term used by Ferdinand 'ninnies to describe a community, often
urban, that is large and impersonal, with little commitment to the group or
Extended family A family in which relatives—such as grandparents, aunts, or consensus on values.
uncles—live in the same home as parents and their children.

GLOSSARY s 467

Glass ceiling An invisible barrier that blocks the promotion of a qualified Incest taboo The prohibition of sexual relationships between certain culturally
individual in a work environment because of the individual's gender, race, specified relatives.
or ethnicity.
Income Refers to salaries and wages, interest on savings, stock dividends, and
Glass escalator The advantage men experience in occupations dominated by rental income.
women.
Independent variable The variable in a causal relationship that causes or
Global sociology A level of sociological analysis that makes comparisons influences a change in another variable.
between entire nations, using entire societies as units of analysis.
Index crimes The eight types of crime tabulated each year by the FBI in the
Global warming A significant rise in the earth's surface temperatures Uniform Crime Reports: murder, rape, robbery, assault, burglary, theft,
that occurs when industrial gases like carbon dioxide turn the planet's motor vehicle theft, and arson.
atmosphere into a virtual greenhouse.
Industrial city A relatively large city characterized by open competition, an
Globalization The worldwide integration of government policies, cultures, open class system, and elaborate specialization in the manufacturing of
social movements, and financial markets through trade and the exchange of goods.
ideas.
Industrial society A society that depends on mechanization to produce its
Goal displacement Overzealous conformity to official regulations of a goods and services.
bureaucracy.
Infant mortality rate The number of deaths of infants under 1 year old per
Group Any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations 1,000 live births in a given year.
who interact with one another on a regular basis.
Influence The exercise of power through a process of persuasion.
Growth rate The difference between births and deaths, plus the difference Informal economy Transfers of money, goods, or services that are not reported
between immigrants and emigrants, per 1,000 population.
to the government.
h Informal norm A norm that is generally understood but not precisely recorded.
Informal social control Social control that is carried out casually by ordinary
Hate crime A criminal offense committed because of the offender's bias
against a race, religion, ethnic group, national origin, or sexual orientation. people through such means as laughter, smiles, and ridicule.
Also referred to as bias crime. Innovation The process of introducing a new idea or object to a culture through

Hawthorne effect The unintended influence that observers of experiments can discovery or invention.
have on their subjects. Institutional discrimination The denial of opportunities and equal rights to

Health As defined by the World Health Organization, a state of complete individuals and groups that results from the normal operations of a society.
physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of Instrumentality An emphasis on tasks, a focus on more distant goals, and a
disease and infirmity.
concern for the external relationship between one's family and other social
Hidden curriculum Standards of behavior that are deemed proper by society institutions.
and are taught subtly in schools. Intelligent design (ID) The idea that life is so complex that it could only have
been created by intelligent design.
Holistic medicine Therapies in which the health care practitioner considers the Interactionist perspective A sociological approach that generalizes about
person's physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual characteristics. everyday forms of social interaction in order to explain society as a whole.
Intergenerational mobility Changes in the social position of children relative
Homogamy The conscious or unconscious tendency to select a mate with to their parents.
personal characteristics similar to one's own. Interview A face-to-face, phone, or online questioning of a respondent to
obtain desired information.
Homophobia Fear of and prejudice against homosexuality. Intragenerational mobility Changes in social position within a person's adult
Horizontal mobility The movement of an individual from one social position life.
Invention The combination of existing cultural items into a form that did not
to another of the same rank. exist before.
Horticultural society A preindustrial society in which people plant seeds and Iron law of oligarchy A principle of organizational life developed by Robert
Michels, under which even a democratic organization will eventually
crops rather than merely subsist on available foods. develop into a bureaucracy ruled by a few individuals.
Human ecology An area of study that is concerned with the interrelationships
k
between people and their environment.
Human relations approach An approach to the study of formal organizations Kinship The state of being related to others.

that emphasizes the role of people, communication, and participation Labeling theory An approach to deviance that attempts to explain why certain
in a bureaucracy and tends to focus on the informal structure of the people are viewed as deviants while others engaged in the same behavior are
organization. not.
Hunting-and-gathering society A preindustrial society in which people rely
on whatever foods and fibers am readily available in order to survive. Labor union Organized workers who share either the same skill or the same
Hyper-local media Reporting that is highly local and typically Internet-based. employer.
Hyperconsumerism The practice of buying more than we need or want,
and often more than we can afford; a preoccupation of postmodern Laissez-faire A form of capitalism under which people compete freely, with
consumers. minimal government intervention in the economy.
Hypothesis A speculative statement about the relationship between two or
more variables. Language An abstract system of word meanings and symbols for all aspects of
culture; includes gestures and other nonverbal communication.
Ideal type A construct or model for evaluating specific cases.
Impression management A term used by Erving Goffman to refer to Latent function An unconscious or unintended function that may reflect
hidden purposes.
the altering of the presentation of the self in order to create distinctive
appearances and satisfy particular audiences. Law Governmental social control.
In-group Any group or category to which people feel they belong.

468 s GLOSSARY

Liberation theology Use of a church, primarily Roman Catholic, in a political Modernization The far-reaching process through which periphery nations
effort to eliminate poverty, discrimination, and other forms of injustice from move from traditional or less developed institutions to those characteristic of
a secular society. more developed societies.

Life chances Max Weber's term for the opportunities people have to provide Modernization theory A functionalist approach that proposes that
themselves with material goods, positive living conditions, and favorable life modernization and development will gradually improve the lives of people
experiences. in developing nations.

Life course approach A research orientation in which sociologists and other Monarchy A form of government headed by a single member of a royal family,
social scientists look closely at the social factors that influence people usually a king, queen, or some other hereditary ruler.
throughout their lives, from birth to death.
Monogamy A form of marriage in which an individual has only one partner.
Life expectancy The median number of years a person can be expected to live Monopoly Control of a market by a single business firm.
under current mortality conditions. Morbidity rate The rate of disease in a given population.
Mores Norms deemed highly necessary to the welfare of a society.
Looking-glass self A concept used by Charles Horton Cooley that emphasizes Mortality rate The rate of death in a given population.
the self as the product of our social interactions. Multinational corporation A commercial organization that is headquartered in

Luddites Rebellious craft workers in 19th-century England who destroyed new one country but does business throughout the world.
factory machinery as part of their resistance to the Industrial Revolution. Multiple masculinities A variety of male gender roles, including nurturing-

m caring and effeminate-gay roles, that men may play along with their more
pervasive traditional role of dominating women.
Machismo A sense of virility, personal worth, and pride in one's maleness. Multiple-nuclei theory A theory of urban growth developed by Harris and
Macrosociology Sociological investigation that concentrates on large-scale Ullman that views growth as emerging from many centers of development,
each of which reflects a particular urban need or activity.
phenomena or entire civilizations.
n
Manifest function An open, stated, and conscious function.
Narcotizing dysfunction The phenomenon in which the media provide such
Mass media Print and electronic means of communication that carry messages massive amounts of coverage that the audience becomes numb and fails to
to widespread audiences. act on the information, regardless of how compelling the issue.

Master status A status that dominates others and thereby determines a person's Natural science The study of the physical features of nature and the ways in
general position in society. which they interact and change.

Material culture The physical or technological aspects of our daily lives. Naturally occurring retirement community (NORC) An area that has
Matriarchy A society in which women dominate in family decision making. gradually become an informal center for senior citizens.

Matrilineal descent A kinship system in which only the mother's relatives are Neocolonialism Continuing dependence of former colonies on foreign
significant. countries.

Matrix of domination The cumulative impact of oppression because of race New religious movement (NRM) or cult A small, secretive religious group
and ethnicity, gender, and social class, as well as religion, sexual orientation, that represents either a new religion or a major innovation of an existing faith.
disability, age, and citizenship status.
New social movement An organized collective activity that addresses values
McDonaldization The process by which the principles of bureaucratization and social identities, as well as improvements in the quality of life.
have increasingly shaped organizations worldwide.
New urban sociology An approach to urbanization that considers the interplay
Mean A number calculated by adding a series of values and then dividing by of local, national, and worldwide forces and their effect on local space, with
the number of values. special emphasis on the impact of global economic activity.

Mechanical solidarity A collective consciousness that emphasizes group Nonmaterial culture Ways of using material objects, as well as customs,
solidarity, characteristic of societies with minimal division of labor. beliefs, philosophies, governments, and patterns of communication.

Median The midpoint or number that divides a series of values into two groups Nonverbal communication The sending of messages through the use of
of equal numbers of values. gestures, facial expressions, and postures.

Medical model An approach in which medical experts define illness or disease, Norm An established standard of behavior maintained by a society.
determine and control the course of treatment, and even affect patients' Nuclear family A married couple and their unmarried children living together.
views of themselves.
O
Mental illness A disorder of the brain that disrupts a person's thinking, feeling,
and ability to interact with others. Obedience Compliance with higher authorities in a hierarchical structure.
Objective method A technique for measuring social class that assigns
Mesosociology An intermediate level of sociological analysis that focuses on
formal organizations and social movements. individuals to classes on the basis of criteria such as occupation, education,
income, and place of residence.
Microfinancing Lending small sums of money to the poor so they can work Observation A research technique in which an investigator collects information
their way out of poverty. through direct participation, by closely watching a group or community.
Offshoring The transfer of work to foreign contractors.
Microsociology Sociological investigation that stresses the study of small Oligarchy A form of government in which a few individuals rule.
groups, often through experimental means. Open system A social system in which the position of each individual is
influenced by his or her achieved status.
Midlife crisis A stressful period of self-evaluation that begins at about Operational definition An explanation of an abstract concept that is specific
age 40. enough to allow a researcher to assess the concept.
Opinion leader Someone who influences the opinions and decisions of others
Migration The relatively permanent movement of people, with the purpose of through day-to-day personal contact and communication.
changing their place of residence.

Minority group A subordinate group whose members have significantly less
control or power over their own lives than the members of a dominant or
majority group have over theirs.

Mode The single most common value in a series of scores.

Model, or ideal, minority A subordinate group whose members supposedly
have succeeded economically, socially, and educationally despite past
prejudice and discrimination, and without resorting to political and violent
confrontations with Whites.

GLOSSARY s 469

Organic solidarity A collective consciousness that rests on mutual Protestant ethic Max Weber's term for the disciplined work ethic, this-worldly
interdependence, characteristic of societies with a complex division of labor. concerns, and rational orientation to life emphasized by John Calvin and his
followers.
Organized crime The work of a group that regulates relations between
criminal enterprises involved in illegal activities, including prostitution, Public A dispersed group of people, not necessarily in contact with one
gambling, and the smuggling and sale of illegal drugs. another, who share an interest in an issue.

Out-group A group or category to which people feel they do not belong.

p Qualitative research Research that relies on what is seen in field or naturalistic
ettings more than on statistical data.
Panic A fearful arousal or collective flight based on a generalized belief that
may or may not be accurate. Quantitative research Research that collects and reports data primarily in
numerical form.
Patriarchy A society in which men dominate in family decision making.
Quasi-religion A scholarly category that includes organizations that may see
Patrilineal descent A kinship system in which only the father's relatives are themselves as religious but may be seen by others as "sort of religious."
significant.
Queer theory The study of society from the perspective of a broad spectrum of
Peace The absence of war, or more broadly, a proactive effort to develop sexual identities, including heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality.
cooperative relations among nations.
Questionnaire A printed or written form used to obtain information from a
Percentage A portion of 100. respondent.

Personality A person's typical patterns of attitudes, needs, characteristics, and r
behavior.
Racial formation A sociohistorical process in which racial categories are
Peter principle A principle of organizational life, originated by Laurence J. created, inhabited, transformed, and destroyed.
Peter, according to which every employee within a hierarchy tends to rise to
his or her level of incompetence. Racial group A group that is set apart from others because of physical
differences that have taken on social significance.
Pluralism Mutual respect for one another's cultures among the various groups
in a society, which allows minorities to express their cultures without Racial profiling Any arbitrary action initiated by an authority based on race,
experiencing prejudice. ethnicity, or national origin rather than on a person's behavior.

Pluralist model A view of society in which many competing groups within Racism The belief that one race is supreme and all others are innately inferior.
the community have access to government, so that no single group is Random sample A sample for which every member of an entire population has
dominant.
the same chance of being selected.
Political system The social institution that is founded on a recognized set of Rational-legal authority Power made legitimate by law.
procedures for implementing and achieving society's goals. Redlining The pattern of discrimination against people trying to buy homes in

Politics In Harold Lasswell's words, "who gets what, when, and how." minority and racially changing neighborhoods.
Polyandry A form of polygamy in which a woman may have more than one Reference group Any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating

husband at the same time. themselves and their own behavior.
Refugees People living outside their country of citizenship for fear of political
Polygamy A form of marriage in which an individual may have several
husbands or wives simultaneously. or religious persecution.
Relative deprivation The conscious feeling of a negative discrepancy between
Polygyny A form of polygamy in which a man may have more than one wife at
the same time. legitimate expectations and present actualities.
Relative poverty A floating standard of deprivation by which people at the
Population pyramid A special type of bar chart that shows the distribution of a
population by gender and age. bottom of a society, whatever their lifestyles, are judged to be disadvantaged
in comparison with the nation as a whole.
Postindustrial city A city in which global finance and the electronic flow of Reliability The extent to which a measure produces consistent results.
information dominate the economy. Religion According to Emile Durkheim, a unified system of beliefs and
practices relative to sacred things.
Postindustrial society A society whose economic system is engaged primarily Religious belief A statement to which members of a particular religion adhere.
in the processing and control of information. Religious experience The feeling or perception of being in direct contact
with the ultimate reality, such as a divine being, or of being overcome with
Postmodern society A technologically sophisticated society that is preoccupied religious emotion.
with consumer goods and media images. Religious ritual A practice required or expected of members of a faith.
Remittances The monies that immigrants return to their families of origin.
Power The ability to exercise one's will over others. Representative democracy A form of government in which certain individuals
are selected to speak for the people.
Power elite A term used by C. Wright Mills to refer to a small group of Research design A detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically.
military, industrial, and government leaders who control the fate of the Resocialization The process of discarding former behavior patterns and
United States. accepting new ones as part of a transition in one's life.
Resource mobilization The ways in which a social movement utilizes
Precarious work Employment that is poorly paid, and from the worker's such resources as money, political influence, access to the media, and
perspective, insecure and unprotected. personnel.
Rite of passage A ritual marking the symbolic transition from one social
Preindustrial city A city of only a few thousand people that is characterized by position to another.
a relatively closed class system and limited mobility Role conflict The situation that occurs when incompatible expectations arise
from two or more social positions held by the same person.
Prejudice A negative attitude toward an entire category of people, often an
ethnic or racial minority.

Prestige The respect and admiration that an occupation holds in a society.
Primary group A small group characterized by intimate, face-to-face

association and cooperation.
Profane The ordinary and commonplace elements of life, as distinguished from

the sacred.

Professional criminal A person who pursues crime as a day-to-day occupation,
developing skilled techniques and enjoying a certain degree of status among
other criminals.

Proletariat Karl Marx's term for the working class in a capitalist society.

470 s GLOSSARY

Role exit The process of disengagement from a role that is central to one's self- Social control The techniques and strategies for preventing deviant human
identity in order to establish a new role and identity. behavior in any society.

Role strain The difficulty that arises when the same social position imposes Social disorganization theory The theory that crime and deviance are
conflicting demands and expectations. caused by the absence or breakdown of communal relationships and social
institutions.
Role taking The process of mentally assuming the perspective of another and
responding from that imagined viewpoint. Social epidemiology The study of the distribution of disease, impairment, and
general health status across a population.
Rumor A piece of information gathered informally that is used to inter prat an
ambiguous situation. Social inequality A condition in which members of society have differing
amounts of wealth, prestige, or power.
S
Social institution An organized pattern of beliefs and behavior centered on
Sacred Elements beyond everyday life that inspire awe, respect, and even fear. basic social needs.
Sample A selection from a larger population that is statistically representative
Social interaction The ways in which people respond to one another.
of that population.
Social mobility Movement of individuals or groups from one position in a
Sanction A penalty or reward for conduct concerning a social norm. society's stratification system to another.

Sandwich generation The generation of adults who simultaneously try to meet Social movement An organized collective activity to bring about or resist
the competing needs of their parents and their children. fundamental change in an existing group or society.

Sapir-Whorl hypothesis A hypothesis concerning the role of language in Social network A series of social relationships that links a person directly to
shaping our interpretation of reality. It holds that language is culturally others, and through them indirectly to still more people.
determined.
Social role A set of expectations for people who occupy a given social position
Science The body of knowledge obtained by methods based on systematic or status.
observation.
Social science The study of the social features of humans and the ways in
Scientific management approach Another name for the classical theory of which they interact and change.
formal organizations.
Social structure The way in which a society is organized into predictable
Scientific method A systematic, organized series of steps that ensures relationships.
maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem.
Socialism An economic system under which the means of production and
Second shift The double burden—work outside the home followed by child distribution are collectively owned.
care and housework—that many women face and few men share equitably.
Socialization The lifelong process in which people learn the attitudes, values,
Secondary analysis A variety of research techniques that make use of and behaviors appropriate for members of a particular culture.
previously collected and publicly accessible information and data.
Societal-reaction approach Another name for labeling theory.
Secondary group A formal, impersonal group in which there is little social
intimacy or mutual understanding. Society A fairly large number of people who live in the same territory, are
relatively independent of people outside their area, and participate in a
Sect A relatively small religious group that has broken away from some other common culture.
religious organization to renew what it considers the original vision of the
faith. Sociobiology The systematic study of how biology affects human social behavior.

Secularization The process through which religion's influence on other social Sociocultural evolution Long-term social trends resulting from the interplay of
institutions diminishes. continuity, innovation, and selection.

Segregation The physical separation of two groups of people in terms of Socioeconomic status (SES) A measure of social class that is based on income,
residence, workplace, and social events; often imposed on a minority group education, and occupation.
by a dominant group.
Sociological imagination An awareness of the relationship between an
Self According to George Herbert Mead, a distinct identity that sets us apart individual and the wider society, both today and in the past.
from others.
Sociology The scientific study of social behavior and human groups.
Serial monogamy A form of marriage in which a person may have several
spouses in his or her lifetime, but only one spouse at a time. Sovereignty movement The effort by the indigenous people of Hawai'i to win
self-government, as well as the restoration of—or compensation for—their
Sexism The ideology that one sex is superior to the other. ancestral lands.
Sexual identity The self-awareness of being romantically or sexually attracted
Squatter settlement An area occupied by the very poor on the fringe of a city,
to a defined group of people. Also referred to as sexual orientation. in which housing is constructed by the settlers themselves from discarded
Sharing economy Connecting owners of underused assets with others willing material.

to pay to use them. Status A term used by sociologists to refer to any of the full range of socially
defined positions within a large group or society.
Sick role Societal expectations about the attitudes and behavior of a person
viewed as being ill. Status group A term used by Max Weber to refer to people who have the same
prestige or lifestyle, independent of their class positions.
Significant other A term used by George Herbert Mead to refer to an
individual who is most important in the development of the self, such as a Stereotype An unreliable generalization about all members of a group that does
parent, friend, or teacher. not recognize individual differences within the group.

Single-parent family A family in which only one parent is present to care for Stigma A label used to devalue members of certain social groups.
the children.
Stratification A structured ranking of entire groups of people that perpetuates
Slavery A system of enforced servitude in which some people are owned by unequal economic rewards and power in a society.
other people.
Subculture A segment of society that shares a distinctive pattern of customs,
Social capital The collective benefit of social networks, which are built on rules, and traditions that differs from the pattern of the larger society.
reciprocal trust.
Suburb According to the Census Bureau, any territory within a metropolitan
Social change Significant alteration over time in behavior patterns and culture, area that is not included in the central city.
including norms and values.
Survey A study, generally in the form of an interview or questionnaire, that
Social constructionist perspective An approach to deviance that emphasizes provides researchers with information about how people think and act.
the role of culture in the creation of the deviant identity.
Symbol A gesture, object, or word that forms the basis of human
communication.

Symbolic ethnicity An ethnic identity that emphasizes concerns such as ethnic
food or political issues rather than deeper ties to one's ethnic heritage.

GLOSSARY r 471

Teacher-expectancy effect The impact that a teacher's expectations about a Value A collective conception of what is considered good, desirable, and
student's performance may have on the student's actual achievements. proper—or bad, undesirable, and improper—in a culture.

Technology Cultural information about the ways in which the material Value-added model A theory of collective behavior proposed by Neil Smelser
resources of the environment may be used to satisfy human needs and to explain how broad social conditions are transformed in a defmite pattern
desires. into some form of collective behavior.

Terrorism The use or threat of violence against random or symbolic targets in Value neutrality Max Weber's term for objectivity of sociologists in the
pursuit of political aims. interpretation of data.

Theory In sociology, a set of statements that seeks to explain problems, Variable A measurable trait or characteristic that is subject to change under
actions, or behavior. different conditions.

Total fertility rate (TFR) The average number of children born alive to any Verstehen The German word for "understanding" or "insight"; used by Max
woman, assuming that she conforms to current fertility rates. Weber to stress the need for sociologists to take into account the subjective
meanings people attach to their actions.
Total institution A term coined by Erving Goffman to refer to an institution
that regulates all aspects of a person's life under a single authority, such as a Vertical mobility The movement of an individual from one social position to
prison, the military, a mental hospital, or a convent. another of a different rank.

Totalitarianism Virtually complete government control and surveillance over Vested interests Veblen's term for those people or groups who will suffer in the
all aspects of a society's social and political life. event of social change, and who have a stake in maintaining the status quo.

Tracking The practice of placing students in specific curriculum groups on the Victimization survey A questionnaire or interview given to a sample of the
basis of their test scores and other criteria. population to determine whether people have been victims of crime.

Traditional authority Legitimate power conferred by custom and accepted Victimless crime A term used by sociologists to describe the willing exchange
practice. among adults of widely desired but illegal goods and services.

Trained incapacity The tendency of workers in a bureaucracy to become so Visual sociology The use of photographs, film, and video to study society.
specialized that they develop blind spots and fail to notice obvious problems. Vital statistics Records of births, deaths, marriages, and divorces gathered

Transnational An immigrant who sustains multiple social relationships that through a registration system maintained by governmental units.
link his or her society of origin with the society of settlement.
War Conflict between organizations that possess trained combat forces
Transnational crime Crime that occurs across multiple national borders. equipped with deadly weapons.
Transracial adoption The adoption of a non-White child by White parents or a
Wealth An inclusive term encompassing all a person's material assets,
Hispanic child by non-Hispanics. including land, stocks, and other types of property.

Underclass The long-term poor who lack training and skills. White privilege Rights or immunities granted to people as a particular benefit
Urban ecology An area of study that focuses on the interrelationships between or favor simply because they are White.

people and their environment in urban areas. White-collar crime Illegal acts committed by affluent, "respectable"
individuals in the course of business activities.

World systems analysis The global economy as an interdependent system of
economically and politically unequal nations.

V Zero population growth (ZPG) The state of a population in which the number
of births plus immigrants equals the number of deaths plus emigrants.
Validity The degree to which a measure or scale truly reflects the phenomenon
under study.

472 s GLOSSARY

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name index

Note: Page numbers in italics indicate Alvarez, Lizette, 250 Asi, Maryam, 229t Bastiani, Federico, 108
material in illlustrations and their Alvord, Lori Arviso, 406 Aslanian, Sasha, 79 Bastiani, Laurel, 108
captions; page numbers followed by f Alzheimer's Association, 404 Association of Theological Schools, 354 Basulto, Dominic, 134
indicate figures; page numbers followed Ambani, Mukesh, 214 Atchley, Robert, 291 Batalova, Jeanne, 248
by t indicate tables. American Academy of Pediatrics, Atchley, Robert C., 288 Bates, Abigail K., 63f 355
Attwood, Bain, 245 Battin, Margaret P., 300
a 90, 130 Aunio, Anna-Lisa, 460 Baude, William, 306
American Association of Retired Per- Austin, Chammie, 84 Baudrillard, Jean, 111, 130
AARP (American Association of Austin, Karen, 287 BBC, 140
Retired Persons), 297 sons (AARP), 297 Australia Bureau of Statistics, 245 BBC News, 22
American Bar Association, 174 Australian Indigenous Beall, Cynthia M., 285
Abercrombie, Nicholas, 190 American Civil Liberties Union Bearman, Peter S., 104
Aberle, David F., 105 HealthlnfoNet, 245 Beaton, Meredith, 90
Abolition Now, 183 (ACLU), 236, 317, 377, 457 Avramovitz, Ralcefet, 91, 91 Beaubien, Jason, 89
Abraham (Biblical figure), 3555 American Community Survey, 32f 34, Azumi, Koya, 116 Beaulieu, Daniel, 229t
Abreu, M., 71 de Beauvoir, Simone, 276
Abrutyn, Seth A., 352 229t, 233f 245f 249f 305 b Bebchuk, Lucian A., 203
Ackerman, Elliot, 264 American Jewish Committee, 252 Becker, Anne E., 54
ACLU (American Civil Liberties American Lung Association, 422 Bachur, R., 71 Becker, Howard S., 38, 164, 166t, 336,
American Psychiatric Association, 410 Backus, Fred, 239
Union), 236, 317, 377, 457 American Psychological Bacon Lovers' Talk, 139 399, 401t
Acosta, Vivian, 18 Bado-Fralick, Nikki, 349 Beckley, Robert E., 360t
Adams, Charles Joseph, 355t, 356 Association, 270 Bagby, Ihsam, 351 Beddoes, Zanny Milton, 219
Adams, Tyrene L., 130 American Social and Economic Bagilhole, Barbara, 263 Belkin, Douglas, 146
Addams, Jane, 11, 11-12, 19, 21, Bahrampour, Tara, 79 Bell, Daniel, 110-111, 169
Support, 233f Bailey, Tabitha M., 263, 342f Bell, Wendell, 216
43, 267 American Society of Plastic Bainbridge, William Sims, 359, 360 Beller, Emily, 202
Addati, Laura, 323f Baker, Dean, 222 Benford, Robert D., 441
Adedokun, Lola, 401, 401 Surgeons, 160 Baker, Peter, 279 Berdan, Jennifer, 425
Adele, 13It American Sociological Association Baker, Therese L., 44 Berends, Mark, 343, 344
Adler, Freda, 166, 166t Baker, Wayne E., 217 Beretson, Bernard, 143
Adler, Patricia A., 29, 30, 37, 44 (ASA), 4, 5t, 23, 24, 41 Bales, Robert, 266 Berger, Peter, 99, 106
Adler, Peter, 29, 30, 37, 44 Amnesty International, 172, 173 Balk, David E., 293 Berk, Richard A., 435
Adorno, Theodor, 55, 56 Amos, Deborah, 261 Banaji, Mahzarin R., 276 Berry, Halle, 131t
African Women's Development Amos, Pamela, 284 Banchero, Stephanie, 331, 339 Berry, Justin A., 380
Anargyros D., 221 Banerjee, Abhijit Vinayak, 390, 391 Best, Amy, 160
Fund, 219 Anatale, Alex, 138 Banks, Enos, 210 Best, Joel, 159
Agence France-Presse, 136 Andersen, Margaret, 267 Bankston III, Carl I., 344 Best, Shaun, 447
Ahmadu, Peter Ochogu, 407 Anderson, Elijah, 16, 18 Banyan, By, 220 Bever, Lindsey, 300
Ahmed, Karuna Chanana, 219 Anderson, Gretchen, 290 Baran, Stanley J., 132, 136 Bhagat, Chetan, 70
Akaka, Daniel, 371 Anderson, John Ward, 219 Barber, David, 94 Bhandare, Shards, 391
AlarcOn, Arthur L., 174 Anderson, Pamela, 131t Barbiere, Cecile, 136 Bialik, Carol, 91
Alba, Richard D., 247, 252 Anderson, Warwick, 245 Bardi, Anat, 65 Biddlecom, Ann, 322
Albas, Cheryl, 84 Andrews, Lori, 147 Bari, Rashidul, 391 Bidgood, Jess, 231
Albas, Daniel, 84 Angier, Natalie, 262 Barker, Alex, 255 Bidwell, Charles E., 337
Albrecht, Gary L., 102 Angwin, Julia, 146 Barker, Kristin K., 397 Bielby, Denise D., 136
Albright, Len, 234 Aniston, Jennifer, 1311 Barnard, Sharon N., 443 Bietsch, Kristin, 138, 210, 289f 399f
Alderman, Liz, 22 Ansell, Amy E., 232 Barnes, Patricia, 407f
Aldrich, Howard E., 435 Anthony, Denise L., 400 Barnes, Taylor, 385 413, 416, 417
Alexander, Karl L., 344 Anthony, Susan B., 276 Barnett, Tracie A., 104 Billitteri, Thomas J., 194
Alford, Cassidy, 372 Anti-Defamation League, 252 Barone, C. P., 71 bin Laden, Osama, 117
Ali, Muhammad, 131t Arab American Institute, 249f Barra, Mary, 201 Bird, Chloe E., 404
Ali, Syed, 454 Arad, Michael, 60 Barrino, Fantasia, 317 Birnbaum, Jeffrey H., 298
Allen, Bern P., 155 Aragon, Melissa C., 63f 355 Barron, Milton, 285 Bishaw, Aleyayehu, 197
Allen, Greg, 320 Arana, Renelinda, 460 Bartlett, Thomas, 47, 64, 321 Bitler, Marianne, 222
Allen, Jodie, 64 Arbit, Naomi, 425 Barusch, Amanda S., 288 Black, Donald, 61, 157
Allen, Samantha, 166 Archer, Patrick, 186 Bastaits, Kim, 309 Black, Lindsey, 407f
Allport, Gordon W., 238, 239 Argetsinger, Amy, 64 Blackstone, Amy, 322
Almeling, Rene, 136 Aristotle, 6 Blair, "Banana" George, 284
Alvaredo, Facundo, 212 Armed Campuses, 168
Amer, J. Michael, 217
Armour, Stephanie, 405
ASA (American Sociological Associa-

tion), 4, 51, 23, 24, 41
Ashe, Arthur, 101

503

Blais, Allison, 60 Bures, Frank, 458 Chase-Dunn, Christopher, 212, Cooper, K., 44
Blake, Laura Palucki, 425 Burgard, Sarah, 202 213, 216 Cooper, Thia, 352
Blank, Rebecca M., 186, 197 Burger, Andrew, 36 Copeland, Craig, 298
Blau, Peter M., 201 Burger, Jerry M., 155 Chen, Liyan, 384 Cortesi, Sandra, 90
Blauner, Robert, 238 Burger King, 139 Cheng, Shu-Ju Ada, 44 Corer, Lewis A., 9, 190
Bloom, Orlando, 131t Burke, Allison, 199 Cherlin, Andrew J., 24, 305, 317, 318, Coser, Rose Laub, 405
Blow, Charles M., 166 Burkitt, Laurie, 415 Costello, Cynthia, 190
Blumberg, Stephen J., 36 Burns, Melinda, 197 319, 321 Cote, James E., 86
Blumer, Herbert, 99, 439, 441 Busch, Susan H., 275 Chesney-Lind, Meda, 166, 166t, 172 Couch, Carl J., 369, 435
Bobo, Lawrence D., 36 Bush, George W., 300, 321, 380 Cheung, A., 71 Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs
Bogart, Humphrey, 131 Buss, David M., 37, 37t Child Care Aware, 94
Boje, David M., 111 Butler, Daniel Allen, 198 Child Welfare Information, 315 (AMA), 299
Bond, Patrick, 426 Butler, Robert, 296 China Labor Watch, 389 Counts, David, 293
Bonikowski, Bart, 233 Butts, Marcus M., 275 Chliova, Myrto, 390 Counts, Dorothy Ayers, 293
Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo, 230, 232 Byrd-Bredbenner, Carol, 262 Choi, Sujin, 143 Coverdill, James E., 175
Bono, 131t Choueiti, Marc, 47f Cowell, Simon, 136
Borowiec, Steven, 331 C Chrisafis, Angelique, 273 Cox, Gerry R., 293
Boston Area Research Initiative, 45f Christakis, Nicholas A., 104 Cox, Oliver C., 238
Bottomore, Tom, 449 Cai, Tianji, 57 Christiansen, John B., 443 Cox, Rachel S., 342
Bourdieu, Pierre, 12, 58, 138 Calhoun, Craig, 460 Chu, Henry, 68 Crabtree, Steve, 353
Bouvier, Leon F., 416 Cali, Billie E., 312 Chung, Esther K., 156 CREDO, 344
Bowles, Samuel, 89, 331, 334, 338 Calvin, John, 352 Clark, Burton, 341 Crenshaw, Edward M., 136
Bowman, Thomas, 264 Campbell, Catherine, 312 Clark, E. Gurney, 397 Crenshaw, Kimberle, 267
Boyd-Franklin, Nancy, 314 Campbell, Frances, 93 Clark, Kim, 343 Cressey, Donald R., 163, 409
Bradford, Calvin P., 105 Campo-Flores, Arian, 188 Clarke, Adele E., 457 Crockett, Zachary, 438
Bradley, David, 244 Camponeschi, Chaiara, 108 Clarke, Lee, 438 Crosnoe, Robert, 340
Bradsher, Keith, 389 Caplan, Ronald L., 398 Clarke, Tainya, 407f Cross, Simon, 263
Brady, Erik, 335 Caplow, Theodore, 381 Clayton, Mark, 374 Croteau, David, 143, 144
Brannigan, Augustine, 111 Carbon Trust, 424 Oeek, Elizabeth N., 314 Crouse, Kelly, 198
Branson, Richard, 369 Carden, Maren Lockwood, 308 Clemmitt, Marcia, 362 Crowe, Jerry, 16
Bray, Karen, 267 Carey, Anne R., 131 Clifford, Stephanie, 286 Cruise, Tom, 131t
Brazier, Chris, 68 Carey, Mariah, 230 Clinard, Marshall B., 163 Cuff, E. C., 190
Brehm, Hollie Nyseth, 419, 420, 421 Carle, Jill, 422 Clinton, Bill, 379 Culhane, Jennifer F., 156
Brennan Center, 236, 377 Carlton-Ford, Steve, 381 Cloward, Richard A., 222 Cumming, Elaine, 286
Brewer, Benjamin D., 213 Carmin, Jo Ann, 426 Coates, Ta-Nehisi, 243 Currie, Elliot, 172
Brewer, Kristen, 425 Carpenter, Linda Jean, 18 Coccaro, Emil F., 409 Cushing-Daniels, Brenda, 93
Brewer, Robert D., 156 Carr, Nicholas, 145 Cockerham, William C., 401
Brewis, Alexandra, 158 Carroll, Joanna, 7 Coffman, Katherine B., 44 d
Brinckmann, Jan, 390 Carroll, Joseph, 73 Coffman, Lucas C., 44
Brodie, Mollyann, 6 Carson, Andre, 378 Cohen, A. K., 105 Dade, Corey, 236
Brooks, Clem, 439 Carson, Johnny, 438 Cohen, Morris, 389 Dahl, Robert, A., 380
Brooks, David, 65 Carstensen, Laura L., 287 Cohen, Patricia, 60 Dahrendorf, Ralf, 15, 190, 449
Brown, David, 36 Carter, Rebecca S., 90t Cohen, Philip, 315 Daigle, Katy, 421
Brown, David K., 333 Carty, Victoria, 431, 432 Cohen, Thomas H., 158 Daitz, Ben, 293
Brown, Keith, 22 Caruso, Eugene M., 276 Cohn, D' Vera, 253 Daley, Suzanne, 223
Brown, Michael, 434 Case, Matthew IL, 425 Cohn, Nate, 377 Dalla, Rochelle L., 314
Brown, Patricia Leigh, 320 Cassirer, Naomi, 323f Colby, Sandra L., 133, 229, 230f 295f Danziger, Sandra K., 222
Brown, Robert McAfee, 352 Castells, Manuel, 133, 138, 144, Cole, Nicki Lisa, 22 Darlin, Damon, 454
Brulle, Robert J., 424, 425, 426 Coleman, James William, 169, 409 Darlington, JoAnne DeRoven, 130
Brunsma, David L., 437 424, 445 Coleman, Jill M., 312 Darwin, Charles, 8, 56, 447
Brunson, Blake, 315 Castro, Fidel, 251 Colen, Cynthia, 7 Dashefsky, Arnold, 2291
Bryant, Chalandra M., 322 Cauchon, Dennis, 222 Collins, Daryl, 208, 390 Davenport, Coral, 423
Bryman, Alan, 111 Cayne, James C., 156 Collins, James, 331 David, Gary, 249
Buckee, Caroline 0., 145 CBS News, 155 Collins, Patricia Hill, 15, 267 Davidson, Paul, 389
Buckingham, David, 131 Center for Community Initiatives, 19 Collins, Randall, 189, 190, 352, Davies, Christie, 87
Buddha (Gautama Siddhartha), 355t, 356 Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, Davies, Harry, 143
Buerhaus, Peter I., 275 452, 453 Davis, A. K.., 105
Bullard, Robert D., 199, 420 191, 221 Collins, Rebecca L., 263 Davis, Alyssa, 202
Burawoy, Michael, 19 Centers for Disease Control and Preven- Colucci, Jim, 136 Davis, Darren W., 37
Bureau of Consular Affairs, 316 Commission on Civil Rights, 235 Davis, Dennis K., 132
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 91, 94, 121, tion, 156, 319f 403, 404 Commoner, Barry, 419, 424 Davis, Gerald F., 121, 379
Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Comte, Auguste, 8, 9, 447 Davis, Kingsley, 79, 189, 190, 334
221, 244, 274f 275, 2751, 276, 291, Conley, Dalton, 46 Davis, Martha F., 278
297, 297f 310, 354, 388 Services, 405f Connell, R. W., 265 Davis, Rebecca, 89
Bureau of the Census, 5, 32f 93, 182f Chalfant, H. Paul, 360t Conrad, Peter, 397, 398, 400 Day, S., 44
196f 2294 230f 245f 250, 295, Chambliss, William, 164, 166t Conti, Gabriella, 93 Dean, John P., 331-332
296f 297, 304, 305f 311, 313f Chan, Priscilla, 324, 324 Cooky, Cheryl, 40, 335 Dean, Paul, 67
314f 317, 318, 319f 321, 322, 337, Charles, Susan T., 287 Cooley, Charles Horton, 11, 17t, 82, DeAngelo, Linda, 425
376, 414r, 415, 416, 416f 448f 449f Charness, Gary, 287
Charrad, Mounira M., 273 83-84, 85t, 113, 169
Chase, Randall, 361 Coomber, Ross, 38
Coontz, Stephanie, 263

504 s NAME INDEX