JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL REALITIES (JERA) Volume 4 Issue 1 July/September 2017

Published by
Department of Vocational Education,

University of Uyo, Nigeria

JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONA L REALITIES
(JERA)

Vol. 4, Issue 1, July/Sept, 2017

Uyo, Nigeria 2017

Editorial Board Members of Journal of Educational Realities

Chief Editorial Officer
Professor Vincent E. Onweh
Michael Okpara University of Agriculture

Umudike, Abia State

Prof. Ignatius Uduk University of Uyo, Nigeria
Prof. E. B. Usoro University of Uyo, Nigeria
Prof. A. O. Ekong University of Uyo, Nigeria
Dr. D. P. Okon University of Uyo, Nigeria
Prof Ayodeji Badejo Lagos State University
Dr. Eno G. Ukpong Akwa Ibom State University.

Dr. Edet O. Uko Michael Okpara University of Agriculture
Dr. Ekele Garba Umudike, Abia State
Dr. Anthony A. Offiong
Asso. Prof. P. C. Okwelle University of Agriculture, Makurdi, Benue State-
Nigeria

University of Uyo, Nigeria

Rivers State University of Science and Technology

Dr. Uwakwe Okereke Igbokwe Abia State University, Uturu
Prof. K.R.E. Okoye Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka

Dr. S. O. Nsa University of Uyo Nigeria
Barrister Solomon Ekokoi Faculty of Law, University of Uyo

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JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL REALITIES-JERA

(PRINT: 2536-666, ONLINE: 2536-6653)

About this Journal

Journal of Educational Realities aims to publish high quality papers in all areas of
‘Education and Social Science’. The journal also encourages the submission of useful
reports of research results. This is a peer reviewed, subscription based International
journal. This journal has 3 issues per volume and publishes 4 volumes per year.

Journal Indexing and Abstracting

Google scholar
www.academia.com

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3. Preparation of Manuscript: JERA adheres to a rigorous double-blind reviewing policy
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All submissions to the journal are to be sent to the editor through:
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Author(s) can also use the online platform for submission of manuscripts-
http//: www. benchmarkjournals.com

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PAPER TEMPLATE

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not adhere to these guidelines.

1. The submission has not been previously published nor is it under consideration by
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email address.
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New Roman. It must include abstract, keywords, background, research problem,
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The articles published in Benchmark Journals are subject to copyright. All rights are reserved
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JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL REALITIES-JERA

ISSN: PRINT: 2536-6661, ONLINE:2536-6653
Volume 4, Issue 1, July/Sept, 2017

TABLE OF CONTENTS

S/N TITLE AUTHOR(S) PAGE
O NO
1-9
1 Assessment of Physics Material Resources in Stem and the Level Dr. Utibe-Abasi S. Stephen
10-19
of Acquisition of Entrepreneurial Skills Among Senior
20-30
Secondary Students in Akwa Ibom North East Senatorial District

2 Assessment of Parental and Community Involvement in Dr. (Mrs) Hanna Onyi

Secondary Education Curriculum Delivery: A Panacea for YUSUF Ph.D,

Sustainable Development ALASOLUYI, Oluwaseyi

in Nigeria Emmanuel &

Dr Bawa Mairiga Ribah

3 Curriculum Leadership and Teacher Education for Sustainable Baba BABO

National Development Ja’afar IBRAHIM

4 Practice of Malaria Prevention Strategies among Mothers of Hauwa Banetnat ILIYA

under Five in Ogun State, Nigeria NOFIU Oluwatobi Daniel

AKOREDE, Seun Nurudeen

DODO Rahinatu 31-37

AYUBA Samndi Christiana

&

MUSA Hannatu Paul

5 Skills Training Need of TVET Lecturers in Scaffolding Ekanem, Mary Nsikak,

Technique for Teaching Vocational Subjects in College of Agba, Paul Ikongshul, 38-48

Education Afaha Nsit Eminue, Uduonyi Okon

6 Entrepreneurial Competencies Required by Technical College Robert, Alexis M.

Products for Successful Entering into Fabrication and Welding 49-61
62-69
Enterprisfor Sustainable Development In Akwa Ibom State 70-78

7 Vocational Education and Acquisition of Skills for Self – Ekaette Emenike Iroegbu

Reliance.

8 Pre-service Teachers’ Personality and the teaching in Secondary Dr. Victor A. Torubeli &

Schools in Yenagoa, Bayelsa State, Nigeria Dr. Apuega R. Arikawei

9 Influence of Organizational Culture on the Performance of Rev. (Sis) Stella Mathew

Medium Sized Companies Operating in Akwa Ibom State, Usen (Ph.D) & 79-86

Nigeria Commy P.Goddymkpa

10 Evaluation of Educational Input, Process Variables and Learning Fehintola, J. O. Ph.D 87-97
98-105
Outcome as Determinants of Quality Education in Nigeria

11 Economy Development in Nigeria: The Imperatives of Pubilc- Thomas, Bariere &

Private-Collaboration Udukeke, O. F.

12 Concrete Pond Management Skills Required by out-of-School Fidela E. Udoh Ph.D &

Youths for Sustainable Fish Farming in Akwa Ibom State Anthony A. Offiong Ph.D 106-114

13 Effect of Inquiry-Based Instruction on Students’ Achievement
and Retention in Biology in Hadejia Education Zone, Jigawa Abubakar Abdullahi Dogo 115-124

State

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A Publication of the Department of Vocational Education, University of Uyo, Nigeria

Assessment of Physics Material Resources in Stem and the Level of Acquisition
of Entrepreneurial Skills among Senior Secondary Students in Akwa Ibom North

East Senatorial District

Dr. Utibe-Abasi S. Stephen
Department of Science Education

University of Uyo, Uyo
Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria

Abstract
The study investigated effective application of STEM education through assessment of
physics material resources and the level of acquisition of entrepreneurial skills. A survey
design was adopted for the study. Random sampling technique was used in drawing 250 SS3
physics students from 4 urban and 3 rural public secondary schools in Uyo Senatorial
District of Akwa Ibom State. Four research questions were raised and two null hypotheses
were formulated to guide the investigation. Two instruments, Physics Entrepreneurial Skills
Acquisition Test (PESAT) with reliability coefficient of 0.72 and Physics Material Resources
Assessment Checklist (PMRAC) with reliability coefficient of 0.81 were used in generating
the data for the study. The reliability coefficients were determined using Pearson Product
Moment Correlation Technique (PPMC). Mean and percentage were used in answering
research questions while t-test was used in testing null hypotheses at significant level of 1.05.
The findings revealed that physics students have low level of acquisition of entrepreneurial
skills. There is no gender or location influence in the level of acquisition of entrepreneurial
skills among physics students. The study also revealed that resource materials for teaching
and learning of entrepreneurial skills were either rarely or non-available in secondary
schools. Based on the findings, it was recommended that adequate resources should be
provided by the State Ministry of Education for effective acquisition of entrepreneurial skills
on STEM education.

Keywords: STEM Education, assessment, physics, material resources, acquisition and

entrepreneurial skills.

Introduction
Globally, science and technology is recognised as a powerful tool for national

development. It is in realisation of this that Nigeria had to adjust her education system and
diversified her secondary school curriculum to integrate academic knowledge with technical
and vocational skills aimed at empowering the graduates from secondary education system
with relevant knowledge and skills (Njoku, 2008).

The Federal Government of Nigeria in the National Policy on Education stressed the
need for functional education and school programmes to be relevant, practical and
comprehensive (FRN, 2004). [The present system of education in Nigeria is expected to

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equip the students on graduation with skills capable of making them entrepreneurs rather
than job seekers. The acquisition of entrepreneurial skills by members of the society is a
means of increasing the production power and employment in any nation]. This is because
education is a vital instrument for national development. According to Eze (2009), education
is the key that unlocks the economic potentials of people; it empowers and equips individuals
in the society to participate in and benefit from their national economy. Education facilitates
economic development and provides the basis for social transformation.

According to Enaiyeju (2010), STEM means Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics. The burden of evidence from the qualitative study reported here on STEM
attributions, that is, what students perceived as the causes of their performance in STEM
shows that students attribute underachievement or poor academic achievement in STEM to
the ways STEM courses are taught. This measure of inadequacy on the part of STEM
teachers calls for intervention methodologies especially in the area of teacher preparation.
According to him, two of such interventions are contextualisation of STEM education and
adoption of authentic formative assessment approaches. Many concepts in STEM are abstract
by nature thereby making their learning relatively difficult when compared with some other
non-STEM concepts, although the resourcefulness and effectiveness of the teacher is
paramount in conquering the so-called “difficult barriers”.

In the objective of the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004), it is stated that
Science Education should emphasise the teaching and learning of science processes and
principles. Science Education should be seen as a vital instrument for human capital
development. Today’s workforce requires people who could think and have acquired the
necessary content knowledge and skills in science and technology in order to provide solution
to personal, social and economic problems (Ikwuanusi, 2011). It has become clear that the
greatest challenge among others that will probably face Nigeria will be that of survival in the
midst of numerous challenges in an intensive competitive world, which is completely
dominated by the greatest might of science and technology (Oladipe, 2010).
Physics is the science that systematically studies various forms of energy and matter
(Stephen, 2015). It is also an international enterprise, which plays a key role in the future
progress of mankind (Sunday, 2012). According to the Nigerian Educational Research and
Development Council (NERDC, 2009), physics is crucial for effective living in modern age
of science and technology. Given its applications in industries, and in many other professions,
the minimum standard embodied in physics education is designed to build confidence in
students and enhance their abilities to adapt to the changing situations in scientific and
technologically oriented society.

Entrepreneurial skills are competencies that will enable an individual seek and run an

enterprise successfully (Alkamu and Langkuk, 2017). They maintain that entrepreneurial
skills are also the skills that are acquired through training that emphasise the acquisition and

development of appropriate knowledge and skills that enable an individual to maximize the

resources around him within the limits of his capability. According to Eniayeju (2010),
entrepreneurial skills are occupational survival skills. These (observational, classification,

computational, measurement, interpreting, communications and manipulative) skills are what

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are called process skills in Science, Technology and Mathematics (STM). The process skills
are the path or ways and strategies followed by scientists in order to arrive at the product of
science. These process skills include observing, classifying, predicting, measuring, counting,
recording, calculating, manipulating, experimenting, hypothesizing and generalisation among
others. The use of these process skills over a period of time will lead to an accumulation of
STM knowledge in form of laws, principles and theories, of which when put together
constitute the product of science (Eze, 2009).

Statement of the Problem

Research studies (Alkamu and Langkuk, 2012) indicated that in-spite of the priority which
the National Policy on Education has conferred on STEM Education, the teaching and
learning of STEM at both Secondary Schools and Technical Colleges is threatened by poor
academic performance and lack of interest in the subject, especially Physics. According to
them, the poor academic performance and lack of interest on the part of learners are attributed
to poor teaching strategies and lack of resources, both material and personnel. The study
therefore focuses on more prudent ways that could be fashioned for available material
resources and for improving teaching strategies to engender students’ interest and give room
for the acquisition of entrepreneurial skills.

Purpose of the Study

Assessment of Physics Material Resources in STEM an the level of acquisition of
Entrepreneurial skills among secondary school students in Akwa Ibom North East Senatorial
District. Specifically, the study sought to:

1. Determine the availability of material resources for entrepreneurial skills acquisition in
physics.

2. Determine the level to which physics students have acquired the entrepreneurial skills.
3. Determine the influence of gender on the level of acquisition of entrepreneurial skills in

physics.
4. Determine the influence of location on the level of acquisition of entrepreneurial skills in

physics.

Research Questions
The following research questions were raised to guide the study;

1. What are the levels of acquisition of entrepreneurial skills by physics students?
2. How available are the material resources for the acquisition of entrepreneurial skills in

physics?
3. What is the influence of gender (male and female) on the level of acquisition of

entrepreneurial skills as measured by Physics Entrepreneurial Skills Acquisition Test
(PESAT)?

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4. What is the influence of location (urban and rural) on the level of acquisition of
entrepreneurial skills as measured by Physics Entrepreneurial Skills Acquisition Test
(PESAT)?

Null Hypotheses
1. There is no significant influence of gender on the level of acquisition of entrepreneurial

skills as measured by PESAT.
2. There is no significant influence of location on the level of acquisition of entrepreneurial

skills as measured by PESAT.

Research Design
Survey design was adopted for the study. The population comprised all the 86 Senior

Secondary Schools in both urban and rural areas of Uyo Senatorial District of Akwa Ibom
State. This gave the population size of about 1520 Senior Secondary Three (SS3) physics
students as at March, 2017. Criterion sampling technique was used in selecting 62
coeducational Senior Secondary Schools out of the 86 existing secondary schools. The
criteria used were
1. The school must be coeducational; and
2. It must have a functional Physics Laboratory.
3. It must have two or three professional physics teachers.
Sixty-two (62) Senior Secondary Schools from both urban and rural areas of Uyo Senatorial
District of Akwa Ibom State met the criteria. Random sampling technique was then used to
select 10% of the 62 Senior Secondary Schools to form the sample for the study. In all seven
(7) coeducational Senior Secondary Schools (4 from urban and 3 from rural) were selected to
form the sample. This gave the sample size of 250 SS3 physics students. Two instruments
were used: the Physics Entrepreneurial Skill Acquisition Test (PESAT) and Physics Material
Resources Assessment Checklist (PMRAC). The instruments were given face validation and
their reliability coefficients were determined using Pearson Product Moment Correlation
technique. Results obtained were 0.72 for PESAT and 0.81 for PMRAC. PESAT was a 20
item multiple test items that measured the respondents’ level (Very Low, Low, Moderate,
High and Very High) of skill acquisition in physics. Each item was scored 5 marks and for a
respondent or school to be said to have acquired an acceptable level of entrepreneurial skills
in physics, such a respondent or school must have scored up to the weighted mean of 50%
and above. Below this was regarded as acquiring low entrepreneurial skills through physics.

PMRAC was a 20 item structured questionnaire. It provided the information on the
minimum basic resource materials that an average physics laboratory should have for
students’ acquisition of entrepreneurial skills. The scoring of the items was on 4 point scale;
Highly Available, Available, Rarely Available and Not Available. Highly Available was
scored 4 points, Available was scored 3 points, Rarely Available was scored 2 points and Not
Available was scored 1 point. The instrument had a weighted mean of 2.5. Hence any item
with 2.5 and above indicated a positive response while any item from below 2.5 indicated a
negative response. This weighted mean was converted to percentage, that is, 50% and above
indicated positive response while any item from below 50% was regarded as negative

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response. Mean was used in answering research questions while t-test was used in testing the
null hypotheses.

Analysis and Presentation of Results

Research Question 1: What are the levels (Very Low, Low, Moderate, High and Very High)
of acquisition of entrepreneurial skills by physics students?
Table 1: Entrepreneurial Skills Acquisition Score of Physics Students

Entrepreneurial Skills No. of physics students Mean score in percentage

Observational 45 41.22
Classification 47 37.18
Computational 38 38.21
Measurement 32 42.18
Interpreting 29 26.27
Communications 30 28.82
Manipulative 29 25.28
Average 34.17

The result in Table 1 shows that students average mean score is 34.17%. This shows a low
performance when compared with the weighted mean score, 50% in Physics Entrepreneurial
Skills Acquisition Test (PESAT).

Research Question 2: How available are the material resources for the acquiring of
entrepreneurial skills in physics?

Table 2: Availability of Material Resources for the Acquisition of Entrepreneurial Skills

through Physics

S/no. Resources available Frequency Percentage Decision

in schools

1 Potentiometer 1.26 12.6 Rarely available
2 Meter bridge 3.10 77.5 Available
3 Galvanometer 2.14 21.4 Rarely available
2.82 70.5 Rarely available
4 Stop watch 2.96 74.0 Available
5 Stop catch 2.20 22.0 Available
6 Rheostat 2.05 20.5 Rarely available
7 Computer and its

peripheral for physics
research

8 Well ventilated 2.12 21.2 Rarely available
laboratory

9 Constant electricity for 1.86 18.6 Rarely available
practical

10 Measuring cylinder 1.74 17.4 Rarely available

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11 Essential amenities 1.20 12.0 Rarely available

like pipe borne water

12 Well-equipped library 1.96 19.6 Rarely available

13 Internet facility 1.08 10.8 Rarely available

14 Smart board 0.24 2.4 Not available

15 Power point design 0.21 2.1 Not available
and usage

16 Widget software 0.18 1.8 Not available
training for writing
symbols

17 Electronic books 1.10 11.0 Rarely available
3.35 83.6 Available
18 Pendulum with
accessories

19 Reagents for practical 1.29 12.9 Rarely available

20 Weight box 2.25 22.5 Not available

From Table 2, items 2, 4, 5 and 18 have the percentage score ranging between 70.5 and 83.6
which is above the weighted mean of 50% for available resource questionnaire and this

shows that the resources are available in schools for acquisition of entrepreneurial skills by

physics students. Items 1, 3, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 17 and 19 have their percentage score
between 10.8 and 22.5 which is not up to 50% and above the weighted percentage score for

available resource questionnaire and this shows the resources are rarely available in schools

for acquisition of entrepreneurial skills in physics. Finally, items 14, 15 and 16 show their
percentage scores ranging from 1.80 to 2.40 which are below the weighted percentage score
of 50% for available resource questionnaire, and this indicates that these resources are not

available in schools for physics students to acquire entrepreneurial skills.

Research Question 3: What is the influence of gender on the acquisition of entrepreneurial
skills as measured by Physics Entrepreneurial Skills Acquisition Test (PESAT)?

Table 3: Mean Score of Acquisition of Entrepreneurial Skills based on gender

Gender No. of students Mean score in percentage
Male 160 37.19
Female 90 31.15
Total 250

The mean scores of both male and female physics students on entrepreneurial skills test from
Table 3 stand at 37.19% and 31.15% respectively. Even though male physics students scored
higher than their female counterparts, both scores were below the weighted mean score of
50%. Their levels of acquisition of entrepreneurial skills are said to be low and hence showed
no difference in the entrepreneurial skill acquisition in physics.

Research Question 4: What is the influence of location on the acquisition of entrepreneurial
skills as measured by Physics Entrepreneurial Skills Acquisition Test (PESAT)?

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Table 4: Mean Score of Acquisition of Entrepreneurial Skills based on Location

School location No. of students Mean score in percentage
Urban 170 36.18
Rural 80 32.16
Total 250

The result analysis from Table 4 showed the mean score of urban physics students to be
36.18% while that of their rural counterparts stood at 32.16% in entrepreneurial skill
acquisition test. Although 36.18% is higher than 32.16% but when compared with the
weighted mean score of 50%, both scores were below the weighted mean score upon which
decision was based. Hence, urban and rural physics students showed no difference in
entrepreneurial skills acquisition through physics.

Testing of Null Hypotheses

Null Hypothesis 1: There is no significant influence of gender on the level of acquisition of
entrepreneurial skills as measured by PESAT.

Table 5: t-test Analysis of the Difference in Acquisition of Entrepreneurial Skills in
Physics Based on Gender

Source of N Mean SD df t-cal t-crit Decision

variation at p< .05

Male 160 37.17 1.83

vs 248 0.72 1.96 NS

Female 90 31.15 1.74

NS = Not significant at p < .05

Table 5 shows that t-cal (0.72) to be less than the t-crit (1.96), hence hypothesis 1 is retained.
This means there is no significant difference in entrepreneurial skills acquisition in physics
based on gender.

Null Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference in the level of acquisition of
entrepreneurial skills between urban and rural physics students as measured by PESAT.

Table 6: t-test Analysis of the Difference in Acquisition of Entrepreneurial Skills of

Physics Students Based on School Location

Source of N Mean SD df t-cal t-crit Decision at

variation p < .05

Urban 170 36.18

vs 1.76 248 0.70 1.96 NS

Rural 80 32.16

NS = Not significant at p < .05

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The result from Table 6 shows that the calculated-t (0.70) is less than critical-t (1.96), hence
hypothesis 2 is retained. This implies there is no significant difference in the acquisition of
entrepreneurial skills based on school location as measured by PESAT.

Discussion of Findings
The results obtained from the investigation showed that Senior Secondary physics students
have low level of acquisition of entrepreneurial skills. The investigation further showed that
gender and school location have no influence on the level of acquisition of entrepreneurial

skills among physics students. These results are caused by inadequate or in some cases non
availability of material resources for teaching and learning of entrepreneurial skills. This
scarcity or non-availability of material resources for teaching and learning of physics is a
hindrance towards practical exposure for skills acquisition which is necessary for completing
the process of learning. The findings of this study are in line with the submissions of
Ikwuanusi (2011) and Nnoli (2011).

Conclusion
The conclusion from this study is that although there is reasonable provision of
entrepreneurial skills in the secondary school Physics curriculum there are no corresponding
infrastructural and resource materials for acquisition of entrepreneurial skills by physics
students in secondary schools. This can be seen on the level of acquisition of entrepreneurial
skills by Physics students.

Recommendations

From the findings of this study, it is recommended that:

1. Provision of sufficient resource materials by the agency in charge of the development
and implementation of Secondary School curriculum for teaching and learning of
Physics will provide enabling environment for acquisition of entrepreneurial skills by
students.

2. Students should be encouraged to have interest in Physics Education through
enlightenment programme on career prospect and opportunities in Physics Education.
This will give a mind-set to students to see self-employment as a better option.

References

Alkamu, M. and Langkuk, S. (2012). Developing Entrepreneurial skills through science
technology and mathematics education in secondary school students as a process of
salvaging global economic crisis. 51st Annual Conference of STAN Proceedings, 58-
60.

Enaiyeju, P. (2010). Where is the STEM? Reflections on the missing context in science, 8
technology, engineering and mathematics instruction. 51st Annual Conference of
STAN Proceedings, 3-15.

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A Publication of the Department of Vocational Education, University of Uyo, Nigeria

Eze, J. E. (2009). Developing Entrepreneurial Skills in Chemistry Education for Self
Reliance. 50th Annual Conference of STAN Proceedings, 339-344.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education. Yaba, Lagos: NERDC
press.

Ikwuanusi, E. N. (2011). Teachers’ Role in Improvisation and Effective Instruction of JSS
Based Science Curriculum for Students’ Acquisition of Self-Reliance Skills, 52nd
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Njoku, Z. C. (2008). Fostering the Application of Science Education Research Findings in
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Nigeria Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) (2009). Senior Secondary
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Nnoli, J. N. (2011). Chemistry pivot for students’ empowerment and realisation of vision
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School of Science, Nwafor Orizu College of Education, Nsugbe.

Nnoli, J. N. (2015). Effective Application of STEM Education through Assessment of

Chemistry Material Resources and the Level of Acquisition of Entrepreneurial Skills.
56th Annual Conference of Science Teachers’ Association of Nigeria, Abuja, 202-209.

Oladipe, O. (2010). Research and Adaptation as Index of Academic Excellence in Technical

Training, Managing Resources, Effective Technology, Managerial Training in Pure
and Applied Science, Proceedings at 1st National Seminar, NBTE.

Stephen, U. S. (2015). Problems of Improvising Instructional Materials for the Teaching and
Learning of Physics in Akwa Ibom State Secondary Schools, Nigeria. British Journal
of Education, UK, 3(3), 27-33.

Sunday, A. A. (2012). Understanding and Acquisition of Entrepreneurial Skills: A
Pedagogical Reorientation for Classroom Teacher in Science Education. Journal of
Science Education. 6 (3) 38-49

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Assessment of Parental and Community Involvement in Secondary
Education Curriculum Delivery: A Panacea for Sustainable Development

in Nigeria

1Dr. (Mrs) Hanna Onyi YUSUF Ph.D,
2ALASOLUYI, Oluwaseyi Emmanuel

&
3Dr Bawa Mairiga Ribah

1&2 Department of Educational Foundations and Curriculum

Faculty of Education Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
3Department of Science & Social Science Education,
Ahmadu Bello University,Zaria

Abstract
This study assessed parental and community involvement in secondary education curriculum
delivery as a panacea for sustainable development in Nigeria. The study was aimed at
assessing the following objectives: to assess the extent of parental involvement in secondary
education curriculum delivery for sustainable development in Nigeria; and to ascertain the
extent of community involvement in secondary education curriculum delivery for sustainable
development in Nigeria. The study adopted descriptive survey research design. The target
population of this study comprised 357 principals and 7,997 teachers in senior secondary
schools in Kaduna State. A sample size of 36 principals, 400 teachers and 36 PTA members,
totalling 472 respondents was used in the study. This sample size was arrived at using cluster
sampling technique. A “close ended” questionnaire tagged “Parent-Community Involvement
Questionnaire” was used for data collection. The questionnaire was pilot tested and a
reliability index of 0.78 was obtained using Cronbach Alpha Technique. The data collected
wee analysed using frequency counts, mean and standard deviation at descriptive level, while
Chi-square (2) for contingency table and Kruskal-Wallis was used to test the formulated
hypotheses at 0.05 alpha level of significance. Findings from the study revealed that there is
a significant difference in the opinions of parents with regards to the extent of their
involvement in secondary education curriculum delivery for sustainable development in
Nigeria. Also, a statistically significant difference exists in the opinions of respondents with
regards to the extent of community involvement in secondary education curriculum delivery
for sustainable development in Nigeria. Recommendations were made among others that the
school head should sensitise parents on the need to recognize their rights and opportunities
to be involve in school curriculum delivery. Likewise, Schools should offer training for
parents and community stakeholders on effective communications and partnering skills.

Keywords: Parent and Community Involvement, Curriculum delivery, Sustainable Development

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Introduction

Education takes place not only in schools but also within families, communities, and

society. The goal of any nation that attempts to involve parents and community in education

is to improve the educational delivery so that more children learn better and are well prepared

for the changing world. There are various reasons to support the idea that parental and

community involvement in curriculum delivery contributes to achieving the sustainable

development goal. Parents and community involvement in curriculum delivery correlates

with higher academic performance and school improvement. When schools, parents, families,

and communities work together to support learning, students tend to earn higher grades,

attend school more regularly, stay in school longer, enroll in higher level programmes and

attain higher educational aspirations (Belfield & Levin, 2007).

The place of curriculum in education makes it obvious that concerted efforts be made

at all times to implement a curriculum that meets the needs of the society. A curriculum is a
“plan or programme of all experiences which the learner encounters under the direction of a
school” (Tanner & Tanner cited in Yusuf, 2012). It is all the programmes, activities, events

and experiences that take place in the school, including the interactions, materials and

environment through which children learn (Yusuf, 2012). Curriculum delivery requires an

integrated system that considers both human and physical resources. Apparently, curriculum

delivery takes place most efficiently and effectively when school, parents and community

collaborate.

In the past, parental involvement in curriculum delivery was characterized by

volunteers, mostly mothers, assisting in the classroom, chaperoning students, and fundraising

(Dennis, 2008). Today, the old model has been replaced with a much more inclusive

approach: school-parent-community partnerships now include mothers and fathers,

stepparents, grandparents, foster parents, other relatives and caregivers, business leaders and
community groups–all participating in goal-oriented activities, at all educational levels,

linked to school success and sustainable development. To promote student growth and

achieve sustainable development in Nigeria, well thought out parent and community

involvement in education is a panacea needed. In addition to the vital role that parents and
family members play in a child’s education, the broader community too has a responsibility
to assure high-quality education for all students. This support the popular proverb that “it
takes a village to raise a child” therefore, the whole community has an essential role to play

in the growth and development of its young people.

In fact, studies (Dennis, 2008; Nelson, 2007) have shown that community

involvement in curriculum delivery is considered one of the characteristics common to high-

performing schools. The community according to Mitsue (1999, p.9) contributes to education

delivery through proper advocating enrolment and education benefits; boosting morale of
school staff; raising money for schools; ensuring students’ regular attendance and

completion; constructing, repairing, and improving school facilities; contributing in labour,

materials, land, and funds; recruiting and supporting teachers; making decisions about school

locations and schedules; monitoring and following up on teacher attendance and

performance; forming village education committees to manage schools; actively attending
school meetings to learn about children’s learning progress and classroom behaviour;

providing skill instruction and local culture information; helping children with studying;

advocating and promoting girls’ education; providing security for teachers by preparing

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adequate housing for them; scheduling school calendars; handling the budget to operate

schools; identifying factors contributing to educational problems (low enrolment, high
repetition and dropout); and preparing children’s readiness for schooling by providing them

with adequate nutrition and stimuli for their cognitive development.

Hence, parents and community involvement in curriculum delivery requires
addressing students’ social service needs, as well as their academic ones, and this

involvement is essential to sustainable development. In the light of this background, this

study was carried out to determine the extent of parental and community involvement in

secondary education curriculum delivery for sustainable development in Nigeria.

Review of Related Literature
The term “involvement” can be interpreted in various ways, depending on the context.

Shaeffer cited in Mitsue (1999) clarifies different degrees or levels of involvement to include:

involvement through the mere use of a service (such as enrolling children in school or using a

primary health care facility); involvement through the contribution (or extraction) of money,
materials, and labour; involvement through ‘attendance’ (such as, parents’ meetings at

school); involvement through consultation on a particular issue; involvement in the delivery

of a service, often as a partner with other actors; involvement as implementers of delegated
powers; and involvement “in real decision making at every stage,” including identification of

problems, the study of feasibility, planning, implementation, and evaluation.

Parental involvement therefore entails seeing parents as active collaborators in their
own children’s learning and development and ensuring that they are well informed about
their children’s school lives and clear about the ways in which they can work with the school

(Williams & Ullman, 2002). Gonzalez-Mena (2011) defined parental involvement as a

combination of commitment and active participation on the part of the parent with the school

and child. Anyikwa and Obidike (2012) described parental involvement as the participation
and support of parents in school and at the home, which directly and positively impacts on

the educational performance of their children.

The importance of parental involvement was highlighted by Morrison (2007) who
notes that parents’ involvement in children’s learning positively affects the children’s

performance at school. Besides, when schools and parents work in partnership, students

realize that people who take care of them in both environments are investing and coordinating

time and resources to help them succeed. Parents and community involvement in curriculum
delivery at the school level can occur in various ways. Nelson (2007) identifies some

promising factors of parent and community involvement in curriculum delivery at the school

level. Among the promises are the involvement of communities in school construction and
positive influence on teacher attendance. However, it is argued that parents can support the

quality of education and learning outcomes through their role as instructional partners. A

small body of evidence shows that interventions that encourage parents to support their
children’s learning are more valuable (Nag, Chiat, Torgerson & Snowling, 2014).

Parental involvement may also positively affect teachers, as research (Kindiki, 2009)
shows that people who have close contact with schools – such as parents who assist in
classrooms– often have much more positive attitudes towards teachers than individuals with

little direct contact. Although this research unequivocally affirms the positive and long-
lasting effects of parental and community involvement on students’ learning, this fact is often

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overlooked in national discussions. There is need to ensure that all learners acquire the
knowledge and skills needed through education for sustainable development, sustainable
lifestyles, gender equality, culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and
appreciation of cultural diversity. It is against this background that this study is undertaken to
assess the extent of parental and community involvement in secondary education curriculum
delivery for sustainable development in Nigeria.

Objectives of the Study
This study sought to achieve the following objectives:

1. to assess the extent of male and female parents’ involvement in secondary education

curriculum delivery for sustainable development in Nigeria; and

2. to ascertain the extent of community involvement in secondary education curriculum

delivery for sustainable development in Nigeria.

Research Questions
The following research questions were formulated to facilitate the achievement of the
stated objectives:

1. What is the extent of male and female parents’ involvement in secondary education
curriculum delivery for sustainable development in Nigeria?

2. What is the extent of community involvement in secondary education curriculum

delivery for sustainable development in Nigeria?

Null Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were formulated for the study.
1. There is no significant difference in the opinions of male and female parents with
regard to the extent of their involvement in secondary education curriculum delivery
for sustainable development in Nigeria.
2. There is no significant difference in the opinions of respondents with regard to the
extent of community involvement in secondary education curriculum delivery for
sustainable development in Nigeria.

Methodology
This study adopted descriptive survey research design. Descriptive research is

concerned with how ‘what is’ or ‘what exists’ is related to some preceding event that has
influenced or affected a present condition or event (Best cited in Cohen, Manion & Morrison,
2007). The target population of this study comprised three hundred and fifty-seven (357)
principals and seven thousand nine hundred and ninety seven (7,997) teachers in senior
secondary schools in Kaduna State. A sample size of thirty six (36) principals, four hundred
(400) teachers and thirty six (36) male and female PTA members, totalling four hundred and
seventy two (472) respondents were used in the study. This sample size was arrived at using
cluster sampling technique.

The instrument used for data collection was a “close ended” questionnaire tagged
“Parent-Community Involvement Questionnaire”. The questionnaire was divided into two
sections. Section ‘A’ sought for the demographic information of the respondents, while
section ‘B’ contains 15 items structured in line with the research questions and hypotheses.

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All the 15 items were structured using the modified 4-point Likert rating scale of strongly
agree, agree, strongly disagree, and disagree. Three experts in the rank of senior lecturer in
the Department of Educational Foundations and Curriculum from Ahmadu Bello University,
Zaria validated the instrument. The reliability level of the instrument was found to be 0.78
using Cronbach Alpha Technique. The researcher with the help of three research assistants
administered the questionnaire to the respondents. The questionnaire administered was
sorted, tabulated and coded before taken for analysis. In answering the research questions,
mean and standard deviations were used while Chi-square (2) for contingency table and
Kruskal-Wallis was used to test the formulated hypotheses at 0.5 alpha level of significance.

Results
This section presents the result of each of the research questions and hypotheses

tested. The research questions were answered using mean and standard deviation while chi-
square was used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance.

Research Question 1: What is the extent of male and female parents’ involvement in
secondary education curriculum delivery for sustainable development in Nigeria?

This question was responded to using response mean and standard deviation. The
summary of this analysis is presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Extent of male and female parents’ involvement in secondary education curriculum SD
delivery for sustainable development in Nigeria 0.84
1.10
S/N Item Statement SA A D SD Mean
0.24
1. Parents are provided space for comment in their 7 14 13 2 2.58 0.64
children’s daily school activities planners. 0.40

2. Some parents volunteer as experts or mentors 4 8 11 13 2.52
from outside the school to work alongside
teachers during lessons.

3. Parents are involved in decisions on student 12 3 14 7 2.75
placement, course and textbook selections.

4. Parents always ensure that students do their take- 19 8 5 4 2.81
home assignments.

5. Parents provide teaching and learning materials 14 13 2 7 2.65
such as maps, textbooks, computers, television
sets, radios, and so forth.

Response Mean = 2.67, Standard Deviation = 0.650

Table 1 revealed that the response mean of 2.67 is higher than the benchmark mean of
2.5. Also, the total response mean is more than 2/5 of the standard deviation of 0.650. This

result indicates that the response of the parents in respect of the extent of male and female
parents’ involvement in secondary education curriculum delivery for sustainable

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development in Nigeria varies but it is tilted towards a positive direction. The implication of
this result is that male and female parents’ involvement in secondary education curriculum

delivery is to a great extent essential for sustainable development in Nigeria.

Research Question 2: What is the extent of community involvement in secondary education

curriculum delivery for sustainable development in Nigeria?

This question was responded to using response mean and the standard deviation. The

summary of this analysis is presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Extent of community involvement in secondary education curriculum delivery for
sustainable development in Nigeria

S/N Item Statement SA A D SD Mean SD
154 121 142 3.32 .94
1. Communities are powerful resources to be utilized not 55
90 39 80 3.10 .99
only in contributing to the improvement of educational 58 126 103 3.00 1.13
delivery but also in becoming the core agent of education .54
delivery.
1.05
2. Involving communities in curriculum delivery helps in 263 .87
.88
linking the culture of the pupils’ home with the culture of
the school.

3. Communities’ involvement helps achieve curriculum and 185

learning materials that reflect children’s everyday lives in
society.

4. The involvement of community can help identify and 274 80 42 76 3.32

address factors that contribute to educational problems,

such as low participation and poor academic performance.

5. Community involvement in curriculum delivery include, 167 89 127 89 3.52

providing support to supplement and reinforce government

action.

6. Community involvement in curriculum delivery can help 230 51 159 32 2.90

school understand why girls do not attend schools.

7. Community involvement enables community life, such as 210 63 97 102 3.00

festivals, customs, musical instruments, and local business

activities, to be reflected in the curriculum.

8. Communities contribute in curriculum delivery by sending 111 149 88 124 3.42 1.12

respected community members, such as religious leaders

or tribe heads, to the classrooms and talk about community

history, traditions, customs, and culture, which have been

historically celebrated in the community.

9. Involving communities in school activities also helps to 222 120 11 119 3.65 .77
22 121 3.30 .68
identify possible teachers in the community, especially
local female teachers which greatly help girls’ education. 15

10. Communities’ involvement helps develop a series of basic 236 93

learning needs, skills, attitudes, values, and knowledge that

enable the children to continue learning and applying what

they learn in their communities.

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Mean = 3.25, Standard Deviation = 0.90
Table 2 revealed that the response mean of 3.25 is higher than the benchmark mean of

2.5. Also, the total response mean is more than 2/5 of the standard deviation of 0.90. This is
an indication that the response of the respondents in respect to the extent of community
involvement in secondary education curriculum delivery for sustainable development in
Nigeria is tilted towards a positive direction. The implication of this result is that community
involvement in secondary education curriculum delivery is to a great extent indispensable for
sustainable development in Nigeria.

Null Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference in the opinions of male and female

parents with regard to the extent of their involvement in secondary education curriculum

delivery for sustainable development in Nigeria.

Data gathered from the questionnaire administered was analysed using non parametric

statistics of chi-square. Table 3 present the summary of the analysis.

Table 3: Summary of Chi-square (2) statistics on the extent of male and female
parents’ involvement in secondary education curriculum delivery for

sustainable development in Nigeria

N 2Cal. df  P-value 2Crit. Decision

36 45.75 12 0.05 0.003 21.02 Rejected

Result of the non-parametric statistics in Table 3 revealed that 2 obtained (45.75) is
higher than 2critical (21.02) and P < 0.05. This means that there is a significant difference in
the opinions of male and female parents with regard to the extent of their involvement in
secondary education curriculum delivery for sustainable development in Nigeria. Therefore,
the null hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference in the opinions of male
and female parents with regard to the extent of their involvement in secondary education
curriculum delivery for sustainable development in Nigeria was rejected. The implication of
this result is that sustainable development can be achieved through parental involvement in
secondary education curriculum delivery.

Null Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference in the opinions of respondents with
regards to the extent of community involvement in secondary education curriculum delivery
for sustainable development in Nigeria.

Data gathered from the questionnaire administered was analysed using Kruskal-
Wallis non parametric statistics. Table 4 present the summary of the analysis.

Table 4: Summary of Kruskal-Wallis test on the extent of community involvement
Variable
in secondary education curriculum delivery for sustainable development

in Nigeria

Group N Mean Chi-square df P- Decision

Rank (2) value

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Extent of community Principals 36 27.41

involvement in Teachers 400 66.37 28.86 2 0.006 Rejected

secondary education PTA 36 31.06

curriculum delivery for

sustainable Total 472

development in Nigeria.

Table 4 revealed the Kruskal-Wallis statistics calculated to determine whether there is

statistically significant difference on the opinions of principals, teachers and PTA members

with regards to the extent of community involvement in secondary education curriculum

delivery for sustainable development in Nigeria. The table shows the group (2 = 28.86, p =

0.009 at 2 degrees of freedom), this result depicted that a statistically significant difference

exist in the opinions of respondents with regards to the extent of community involvement in

secondary education curriculum delivery for sustainable development in Nigeria.

Table 5: Cross-tabulation for the Kruskal-Wallis test

Respondents Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Total

Agree Disagree 10 36
(27.8%) (100%)
Principals Count (%) 6 12 8
40 400
within group (16.7%) (33.3%) (22.2%) (10%) (100%)

Teachers Count % 184 57 119 5 36
(13.9%) (100%)
within group (46%) (14.3%) (29.7%)
55 472
PTA Members Count % 11 7 13 (11.6%) (100%)

within group (30.6%) (19.4%) (36.1%)

Total 201 76 140

(42.6%) (16.1%) (29.7%)

Table 5 on the cross-tabulation of Kruskal-Wallis test revealed that teachers were the
most positive about the variable ‘The extent of community involvement in secondary
education curriculum delivery for sustainable development in Nigeria’. The table shows that
teachers have the highest percentage on the ‘strongly agree’ option, indicating that they are

significantly different in their opinion compared to the principals and PTA members.

Discussion of Findings
The result of the non-parametric statistics on Table 3 revealed that there is a

significant difference in the opinions of male and female parents with regard to the extent of
their involvement in secondary education curriculum delivery for sustainable development in
Nigeria. Therefore, the null hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference in
the opinions of male and female parents with regard to the extent of their involvement in
secondary education curriculum delivery for sustainable development in Nigeria was
rejected. The implication of this result is that parental involvement in curriculum delivery is
to a great extent, because male and female parents’ involvement can support the quality of
education and learning outcomes through their role as instructional partners. This finding is
supported by the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (2009) as it states that for
effective learning, parents should participate in curriculum implementation in schools by
encouraging visits to places of interest, like, zoos, museums, local craft centres, shopping,

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market places, enrolling the child in extra lessons, discussion of school courses, and other
students’ class work with teachers. This finding also concurred with the assertion of Dennis

(2008) that parental involvement in education correlates with higher academic performance

and school improvement. In contrast, this study contradicts the finding of Eyiuche (2014)

which indicated that parents are involved in schools curriculum implementation only to a

little extent.

The Kruskal-Wallis statistics calculated in Table 4 revealed that a statistically

significant difference exist in the opinions of respondents with regards to the extent of

community involvement in secondary education curriculum delivery for sustainable

development in Nigeria. This result was further subjected to cross-tabulation which revealed
that teachers were the most positive about the variable ‘The extent of community

involvement in secondary education curriculum delivery for sustainable development in
Nigeria’. The cross-tabulation result shows that teachers are significantly different in their

opinions compared to the principals and PTA members. The implication of this finding is

that, community involvement in school activities helps to identify possible teachers in the
community, especially local female teachers which greatly influenced girls’ education. This

finding agrees with Mitsue (1999) that, community contributes to education delivery through
proper advocacy visits, enrolment; fund raising activities for schools; ensuring students’

regular attendance and completion; constructing, repairing, and improving school facilities;

contributing in labour, materials, land and funds.

Conclusion
Education of a child needs multidimensional efforts. Parents and communities all

have their importance in this process. It is an admitted fact that parental and community
involvement help develop a series of basic learning needs, skills, attitudes, values, and
knowledge that enable the children to continue learning and applying what they have learnt in
their communities through the knowledge gained from school. Although some communities
have historically been involved in their children’s education, it has not been fully recognized
that communities themselves have resources to contribute to education, and provide local
knowledge for their children. Involving parents and communities in curriculum delivery can
reveal to them factors that contribute to lower enrolment and attendance, and poor academic
performance in their schools. Likewise, parents are usually concerned about their children’s
education, and often are willing to provide assistance that can improve the educational

delivery.

Recommendations
In view of the findings from this study, the following recommendations were made

that:
1. School heads should sensitise parents on the need to recognize their rights and
opportunities to be involved in school curriculum delivery.
2. Schools should offer training for parents and community stakeholders on effective
communications and partnering skills.
3. There should be infusion of parent and community involvement in education into
teacher preparation programmes in all teacher training institutions, colleges and
universities.

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References

Anyikwa, N., & Obidike, N. (2012). Mothers’ constructions of their roles in the literacy education of their
children. Africa Development, 36(3), 57-67.

Belfield, C. R., & Levin, H.M. (2007). The Price We Pay: Economic and Social Consequences of
Inadequate Education. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.

Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education (6th Edition). London:
Routledge-Taylor & Francis.

Dennis, V. R. (2008). Parent, Family, Community Involvement in Education. NW, Washington, D.C.:
NEA policy brief.

Eyiuche, I. O. (2014). Parental Involvement in Curriculum Implementation as Perceived by Nigeria
Secondary School Principals. Journal of Education and Learning, 3 (1), 40-51.

Gonzalez-Mena, J. (2011). Foundations of early childhood education: Teaching children in a diverse
setting. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Henderson, A. T., & Mapp, K. L. (2002). A New Wave of Evidence: The Impact of School, Family, and
Community Connections on Student Achievement. Austin, TX: National Center for Family &
Community Connections with schools, Southwest Educational Development Laboratory.

Kindiki, J. (2009). Effectiveness of boards of governors in curriculum implementation in secondary
schools in Kenya. Educational Research and Reviews, 4(5), 260- 266.

Mitsue, U. (1999). Community Participation in Education: What do we know? HDNED: The World Bank.

Morrison, G. S. (2007). Early childhood education today. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson
Merrill Prentice Hall.

Nag, S., Chiat, S., Torgerson, C., & Snowling, M. J. (2014). Literacy, foundation learning and assessment
in Developing Countries. Final Report, Education Rigorous Literature Review. Department for
International Development.

Nelson, H. D. (2007). Empowering Communities for Improved Educational Outcomes: Some Evaluation
Findings from the World Bank. Prospects, 37 (1), 81-93. Retrieved from
http://www.springerlink.com/content/l81h1249r725m356/?MUD=MP

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), (2011). Building a high-quality
teaching profession: Lessons from around theworld. Retrieved from
http://www.oecd.org/edu/school/programmeforinternationalstudentassessmentpisa/htm

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), (2009). Chapter 4: School and community child friendly
schools. Retrieved November 18, 2013, from http://www.unicef.org/devpro/
files/CF5Manual_ch04_052009.pdf

Williams, B., Williams, J., & Ullman, A. (2002). Parental Involvement in Education. London: Queen’s
Printer.

Yusuf, H. O. (2012). Fundamentals of curriculum and Instruction. Kaduna: Joyce graphic printers &
Publishers.

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Curriculum Leadership and Teacher Education for Sustainable National
Development

Baba BABO
Department of Education,

Yobe State University
Damaturu

Email: [email protected]
&

Ja’afar IBRAHIM
Department of Curriculum, F.C.E. Zaria

08032887966

Abstract
The paper titled curriculum leadership and teacher education for sustainable national
development discusses the conceptual analysis which covers the concept of education,
concept of curriculum, concept of teacher, concept of teacher education, concept of
leadership, concept of curriculum leadership, objectives of teacher education, concept of
national development concept of curriculum leadership and teacher education programme,
curriculum leadership and teacher education for sustainable national development,
challenges of teacher education programme in producing curriculum leader among which is
the existence of gap between the curriculum taught to teacher trainees and the reality that
exists in schools. Such realties include dilapidated school buildings, lack of instructional
materials including textbooks and writing materials for the students, sometimes overcrowded
classes, and so forth. It was recommended among others that there is need to provide
adequate incentives to attract and retain capable teachers in teacher education programme.
The paper is written with the view to benefit the bodies, policy makers and facilitators of
teacher education institutions. It will also benefit curriculum designers, planners and
developers. The paper is important to teacher trainee and the serving teachers by exploring
what is conferred on teachers as curriculum leaders for sustainable national development,
what is obtainable and prospect to the situation on ground.

Key words: Curriculum, Leadership, Teacher Education, Sustainable National Development

Introduction

Professionals in other disciplines are ignorant of how the task of the teachers should
be, thereby limiting the roles of teacher to classroom teaching. In a real sense the task attach
to classroom teacher is beyond classroom teaching, part of it is to perform a role as
curriculum leader in curriculum development process as he is the key participant in
curriculum implementation which is in turn yield in achieving sustainable national
development. In this regard there is the need for the teacher education institutions to properly
train the pre-service and the in-service teachers on the issues related to curriculum
development process. Considering the aforementioned statement, there is a great link

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between the curriculum leadership and the teacher education, this is because unless the
teachers are well trained through teacher education they cannot fully discharge their duties as
curriculum leaders and contribute to national development. These points justified the need for
the paper to discuss the issue of curriculum leadership and teacher education for sustainable
national development in order to express what is expected from teacher education programme
for the production of effective teachers that could discharge the role of curriculum leaders for
national sustainability and development.

Conceptual Framework

It is ideal in a review paper like this to analyse the key concepts of the paper in order to guide
and simplify the understanding of the readers. It is on the basis of this, the paper discusses the
concepts education, curriculum, teacher, teacher education, leadership and curriculum
leadership in a very simple language to aid the total understanding of the readers.

Concept of Education

Education is seen as the pivot of any meaningful development, be it social, economic,
technological and political (Ezekwesili, 2006). It is the process of providing information to an
inexperienced person to help him/her develop physically, mentally, socially, emotionally,
politically and economically (Offorma 2009). It is also seen as the process through which
individuals are made functional members of their society (Ocho, 2005). Babatunde (2002)
asserted that education is concerned with the process of physical and mental culture whereby
a man’s personality is developed to fullest. According to Chidebelu (2009), education is a
process of cognitive, affective and psychomotor development of an individual with a view to
molding the individual for contribution to the development of the community and promotion
of cultural heritage. This means that if one is educated, he tends to develop himself and
become productive in the society, thereby promoting his cultural heritage. In view of the
above, one can say that education is a process of imparting valuable knowledge, skills and
attitude to shape human behaviuor.

Concept of Curriculum

Curriculum is defined as the lessons and academic contents taught in a school or in a
specific course or program (Sleeter, 2001). It is considered to be the complete atmosphere to
transform peoples’ life (Obanya, 2016). It is concerned with all activities in the school which
lead to the development of the learner ranging from cognitive, affective and psychomotor
domains (Tyack, 2007). Curriculum is defined by Indiana Department of Education (2010),
as the planned interaction of pupils with instructional content, materials, resources and
processes for evaluating the attainment of educational objectives. Coles cited in Yusuf
(2012), sees a curriculum as a policy statement about a piece of education as a way to
indicate the way in which policy is to be realized through a programmes of action. Denga
cited in Yusuf (2012), viewed curriculum as a planned and unplanned experience which is
exposed to learners within and outside the school environment for their collective growth. To
this end, curriculum can be seen as all the learning activities planned and unplanned, guided

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and executed by school with the total aim of transforming the societal members and achieve
its goals and objectives.

Concept of Teacher

A lot of definitions of a teacher have been given by different people especially to suit
their discourse. However a teacher is one whose duty is to teach or facilitate the learning
process. Teacher guide and nurture their pupils or students until a desirable outcome takes
place. They impart knowledge and shape the mind of students. Professional teacher is the one
possessing knowledge and methods that could bring about change and he/she must possess
the willingness and ability to change human behaviour (Agwu, 2015). Bubb (2010), also sees
teacher as a person having knowledge, skills and special training in teaching, explaining and
educating. He is a channel through which behavioural changes are facilitated in the cognitive,
psychomotor and affective domains. To the presenters a teacher is a person professionally
trained to equip the learner with relevant and meaningful cognitive, affective and
psychomotor skills for him (the learner) to compete with the present and future challenges.

Concepts of Teacher Education

Teacher education refers to professional education of teachers towards attainment of
attitudes, skills and knowledge considered desirable so as to make them efficient and
effective in their work in accordance with the need of the society at any point in time
(Oyenike, 2015). It includes training occurring before commencement of service (pre-service)
and training during service (in-service or on-the-job). As a matter of fact, teacher education
should constitute a conspicuous element in the totality of organized education both formal
and non-formal sub-systems (Abidoye & Fatoki, 2014). Teacher education is an integral
component of educational system. It is connected with society and is conditioned by culture
and character of a nation. It is the view of this paper that teacher education is an educational
programme responsible to develop the cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills of pre-
service and in-service teachers through the use of teacher training institutions for them (pre-
service and in-service teachers) to be able to deliver what is expected from them.

Objectives of Teacher Education

With more commitment from the government, and pursuant to implementation of Ashby
report, the country witnessed a substantial improvement in training and focus on
professionalism. According to National Policy on Education (2004), the goals of teacher
education in Nigeria are to;

1. produce highly motivated, conscientious and efficient classroom teachers for all levels
of our educational system;

2. encourage further the spirit of enquiry and creativity in teachers;

3. help teachers to fit into social life of the community and the society at large and
enhance their commitment to national goals;

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4. provide teachers with the intellectual and professional background adequate for their
assignment and make them adaptable to changing situations; and

5. enhance teachers’ commitment to the teaching profession.

Training of teachers takes place in specialized training schools, where focus is on teacher
training programme alone, and faculty of education in Nigerian universities.

Concept of Leadership

A leadership is an act of being taking responsibility for changing what is into what
ought to be. Good leadership not only figures out what needs to be done to resolve some
concern, but also how methods to go about resolving such concern (Duke, 2004). He went
further to say that for instance we say we want to be leaders in the struggle for inclusion we
must have a clear people who want to give leadership must be guided by two realities: first a
believable, doable vision and to a commitment to their own development (willingness to take
time to study).

Concept of Curriculum Leadership

Curriculum leadership can be either transactional or transformational leadership
(Henderson & Hawthorne 2000). Leithwood (1992) suggests transactional curriculum
leadership "...is based on an exchange of services...that the leader controls the curriculum..."
while transformational curriculum leadership"...provides the incentive for people to attempt
improvements in their practices regarding curriculum." Transformational curriculum leaders
are seen to promote a collaborative culture, foster teacher development and promote group
problem solving. It is this form of leadership that Leithwood (1992) suggests may help
teachers to make changes to instructional behavior in something that is related to leadership
in curriculum. It is Henderson and Hawthorne's (2000) description of transformative
curriculum leadership however, that best encapsulates the main elements of leadership that
other writers have commented on. Henderson at al (2000), further suggested that
transformative curriculum leadership has a core commitment to developing and enacting
educational programmes and instructional interactions in the best interests of students;
conveys the idea of continuous growth through inquiry; and is grounded in self and social
examination. Transformative curriculum leaders"...work to include multiple perspectives
encourages creative problem solving, and... nurture critical thinking" (Henderson &
Hawthorne, 2000,).

A concept of curricular leadership is also discussed by Fidler (2001) as instructional
leadership which, as he points out, is the title given to curricular leadership in the US. Fidler
(2001) describes curricular leadership as a concept which implies "...that the head teacher has
an impact on the professional work of the school, including the teaching and learning which
goes on in the classrooms.” Fidler (2001) went ahead to presents two points of view from
which instructional leadership can be considered, one which takes a functional approach and
one which takes a process approach. The functional approach involves leaders in defining the
school mission, managing curriculum and instruction, supervising teaching, monitoring

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student progress and promoting an instructional climate. The process approach looks at ways
this might be accomplished. It is the process approach however, that Fidler considers
important as he suggests leadership comes from the way the tasks in the functional approach
are achieved rather than achievement of the individual tasks themselves.

While the authors cited have different perspectives on the issue of curriculum
leadership, the paper presents the concept of curriculum leadership as process upon which a
teacher or head teacher assign responsibility to lead a team organized to improve or alter the
existing curriculum in order to meet with the present and future challenges.

Concept of National Development

National development according to Jhingan (2004), is a discontinuous and spontaneous
change in the stationary state which forever alters and displaces the equilibrium state
previously existing. This implies that national development is both more output and changes
in the technical and institutional arrangement by which it is produced and distributed.
Friedmann cited in Winifred (2010), sees national development as an innovative process
leading to the structural transformation of the social system. It is taken to mean growth plus
qualitative changes in economic wants, goods, incentives, institutions, productivity and
knowledge. Also Seers cited in Winifred (2010), succinctly argued along the same line when
he states that the questions to ask about country’s development are:

i. what has been happening to poverty?
ii. what has been happening to unemployment?
iii. what has been happening to inequality?

If all of these three questions declined from high levels, then beyond doubt this has been a
period of development. If one or two of these central problems have been growing worse, it
would be strange to call the result development even if per capital income doubled. It should
be noted however that Goulet cited in Winifred (2010), has identified three basic core values
of national development as: sustenance, self esteem, and freedom.

a. Sustenance: all people have certain basic life sustaining needs which include food,
shelter, health and protection. When there is a short supply of any one of these a
condition of absolute underdevelopment exists.

b. Self esteem: this is a sense of worth and self-respect of not being used as a tool by
others for their own end. With the proliferation of the modernizing values of
developed nations, many societies in developing countries that have had a profound
sense of their own worth have suffered from contact with the economically and
technologically advanced societies. National development is therefore a legitimized
goal and an indispensable way of gaining esteem.

c. Freedom: freedom in this context is a sense of emancipation from alienating material
conditions of life and from social servitude to other people, nature, ignorance, misery,
institutions and dogmatic belief. It involves an expanded range of choices for societies
and their members together with a minimization of external constraints.

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Curriculum Leadership and Teacher Education Programme

It is not only those in formal leadership positions that provide curriculum leadership,
teachers do too, for their colleagues and their students. For example, Wiggins (2004) believes
teachers should become instructional leaders to"...expand their own knowledge base and ...
come to a better understanding of their own conceptualization of teaching." And that this
leadership should not always come from a source outside of the teacher. Supporting and
leading colleagues in a specific curriculum area is one way that teachers can demonstrate
their curriculum leadership (Hargreaves, 2002). And that the role of teachers in curriculum
leadership is crucial to its success (McGee, 1997). However, for teachers to be properly
prepared to take up a curriculum leadership role, then professional development programme
should be organized in such a way that will increases the knowledge and skills of teachers so
they may become more effective at meeting the needs of all students (Fullan, 1995). Some of
the ways Fullan proposes that this can happen to include teachers: taking some responsibility
for developing collaborative cultures and changing the norms and practices of the school;
leading the way in being continuous learners and being driven by the moral purpose of
making a difference to the lives of all students, "...moral purpose...must be an integral part of
the conceptualization of teacher leadership" (Fullan, 1995). While much of the discussion
here has been about teachers as individual curriculum leaders Fiord and Poster, (1993) poised
that curriculum teams can also provide leadership in curriculum development and
implementation in schools

Although the role of the leader is not easily defined, there are however certain
characteristics which people in leadership positions have that influence the practices and
activities of others. In this article, a curriculum leadership is that practice and activities within
an educational setting who will in turn make those in position to be considered as curriculum
leaders. However, the characteristics these people display in their different roles as
curriculum leaders have a sense of purpose and a clearly defined mission or direction that is
set by the group rather than the individual. The curriculum leadership involves people as
much as possible in the change process and promote continual monitoring and review of
programmes and practices. Curriculum leaders model this by continually reflecting on their
own teaching and assessment practices and encouraging others to do the same.

Curriculum leaders also use effective interpersonal skills and establish climates that
build consensus, empower others and promote open and clear communication patterns.
Curriculum leaders motivate colleagues to attain goals and encourage discussion,
collaboration, shared decision-making and problem solving and are also concerned with
curriculum implementation. Curriculum leaders help teachers to better understand the
philosophies and intent of curriculum document, and provide assistance in implementing
curriculum and resource materials, and model appropriate behaviours and practices in
curriculum delivery. As a part of this, curriculum leaders are also concerned with informing
colleagues of professional opportunities and disseminating professional and curriculum
material. These characteristics are by no means definitive. In the light of the stated features,
for a teacher as curriculum leader to function well and carry out the expected roles, there is
the need for teacher education institutions to make sure that they train the pre-service and in-

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service teachers to acquire appropriate skills and knowledge that would enhance successful
delivering of assigned task.

Curriculum Leadership and Teacher Education for Sustainable National Development

The fact that teacher education is regarded as a programme responsible to develop cognitive,
affective and psychomotor skills of pre-service and in-service teachers through the use of
teacher training institutions for them (pre-service and in-service teachers) to be able to deliver
what is expected from them, to effectively contribute in achieving sustainable development.
Part of it, is to produce responsible and punctual curriculum leaders. Curriculum leaders
however, are the ones’ to promote a collaborative culture, foster teacher development and
promote group problem solving. They have core commitment to develop and enact
educational programmes and instructional interactions in the best interests of students;
conveys the idea of continuous growth through inquiry; and is grounded in self and social
examination. Considering the relevance of teacher education programme in producing
effective curriculum leaders in collaboration with the roles expected from curriculum leaders,
a sustainable national development will surely be achieved

Challenges of Teacher Education Programme in Producing Curriculum Leader for
Sustainable National Development

Education Sector Support Programme in Nigeria (ESSPIN) Input Visit Report, (2010) give a
rundown of the following as key issues bedeviling the effort of teacher education programme
to produce quality teachers that will give out what the society expected from them:

1. the teacher training curriculum in the country does not fully acknowledge the new age
environment in schools and classrooms in terms of constructivist learning, learner-
centred instructions and integrating technology into the processes of teaching and
learning. There is not a sufficiently strong link between the schools’ curriculum and
the teacher education curriculum;

2. there is gap between the curriculum taught to teacher trainees and the reality that
exists in schools. Such realties include dilapidated school buildings, lack of
instructional materials including textbooks and writing materials for the students,
sometimes overcrowded classes, etc. These sometimes overwhelm newly qualified
teachers especially when they are required to play multifarious roles to deal with these
issues. Essentially, teacher preparation programmes are deemed excessively academic
and remote from the real challenges confronting classrooms;

3. the emphasis on content delivery, examination and certification over real learning is
also a serious threat to quality. The current system of teaching and evaluation does not
allow creativity, innovation and research, which are important tools for lifelong
learning. Also, education is construed as an academic exercise that is divorced from
the daily-life world of learners and obtaining education qualifications at any level
relies heavily, and primarily, on corruptive practices;

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4. there is also the quantity and quality of input for teacher training programmes. Most
youths in Nigeria are not motivated to teach, and often opt for teaching as a last resort,
that is, after failing to secure admission into lucrative courses- law, medicine,
banking, etc. Since the admission quota for these courses is generally high, and for
teacher education low, there is the perception that individuals who opt for teaching are
not ‘academically sound;

5. learning materials are not consistently available (students depend on their own notes
copied from the blackboard) and thus written materials do not play a coherent and
pervasive role in the provision of a strong cognitive and structure-giving basis for the
development of the required professional knowledge, skills and attitudes of an
effective teacher;

6. poor preparation and poor recruitment of lecturers, results in a lack of professional
development opportunities for lecturers in the training institutions; and

7. the teaching force in Nigeria is heterogeneous, particularly with respect to educational
attainment and professional training. Teachers range from those with post-graduate
qualifications to secondary school leavers with minimal levels of pre-service training.
In most private basic schools, teachers with certificate level pre-service training are
predominant. Consequently, as an occupational group, teachers do not have the
equivalent level of education and training or the cohesiveness known of well
established professions.

It is however commented by this paper that until when the right things are done in teacher
education institutions, then the products will be able to carry out their responsibilities as
classroom teachers and as curriculum leaders.

Conclusion

The paper in this respect concluded that, the role of a classroom teacher does not limit to the
teaching of young people rather is embrace the role of being curriculum leader while
developing new curriculum or altering the existing one to meet the present and future societal
challenges for sustainable national development. It was also concluded that teacher education
programme has significant relevance in producing skilful and potential teachers as curriculum
leaders and implementers through the pre-service and in-service training that successfully aid
in achieving sustainable national development.

Recommendations

In view of the challenges identified earlier, the paper recommended as follows:

1. there is need for the government, education board and school management to create
room for adequate incentives to attract and retain capable teachers in teacher
education programme;

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2. there should be a rigorous admission and graduation requirements and apply them
consistently, this should be done by the management of teacher education institutions
and the appropriate bodies governing the conduct of teacher education programmes;

3. teacher education institutions should be well equipped by government, non-
governmental organizations, Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFund), donours,
philanthropies and the community upon which the institution belongs both in human
and material resources;

4. there should be a structured, effective and supportive supervision of teaching practice
by the lecturers of teacher education institutions;

5. the official of the Federal and State Ministry of Education in conjunction with the
Teacher Registration Council of Nigeria (TRCN) should given induction as well as
certification and license to teacher education graduate;

6. production of sufficiently trained teacher educators capable of imparting and
modelling desired knowledge, skills and attitudes should be made;

7. there is the need to motivate teachers and provide opportunities for their continuing
professional development, retention, advancement and improvement in their chosen
career; and

8. teachers need to constantly upgrade their skills in order to remain competent and
relevant.

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Practice of Malaria Prevention Strategies among Mothers of under Five
in Ogun State, Nigeria

Hauwa Banetnat ILIYA
Home Economics Department
Federal College of Education, Zaria

[email protected]
08051140394

*NOFIU Oluwatobi Daniel
Department of Physical and Health Education

Faculty of Education
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria

[email protected],
+2347066053547

AKOREDE, Seun Nurudeen
Department of Health Promotion and Environmental Health Education

Faculty of Education
University of Ilorin, Nigeria.

+2348130576223

DODO Rahinatu
School of Nursing
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria

08035956897

AYUBA Samndi Christiana
Department of Physical and Health Education

Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria
08069591600

&

MUSA Hannatu Paul
Department of Physical and Health Education

Faculty of Education
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria

08035956897

* Corresponding author: 07066053547, [email protected]

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Abstract
The study assessed the practice of malaria prevention strategies among mothers of under five
in Ogun state, Nigeria. This study employed ex-post facto research design in assessing the
practice of malaria prevention strategies among mothers of under-five in Ogun State,
Nigeria. The population of this study comprised of 641,445 mothers of under-five in Ogun
State, Nigeria. A multi-stage sampling approach was used to select the respondents using a
stratified random sampling approach, simple random sampling technique and convenient
sampling techniques. The instrument used for data collection was a structured questionnaire.
Two hundred and sixteen (216) copies of questionnaire were validated and used for the
analyses. Data collected were analyzed using simple percentage, frequency count, one
sample t-test analysis at 0.05 alpha level. The study revealed that mothers of under-five do
not significantly practice malaria prevention strategies. Based on the findings, it was
concluded that mothers of under-five in Ogun State do not practice all the malaria prevention
strategies and practice of mothers of under-five towards malaria prevention strategies are
not good. It was recommended that there is need for a well packaged malaria health
education intervention which could address and promote a constant practice of malaria
preventive strategies among mothers of under-five children by government and non-
governmental organization through mass media, seminars/ workshop and community health
related programs.
.
Keywords: Practice, Malaria Prevention Strategies

Introduction

Malaria is a major cause of child mortality in Nigeria with approximately 100 million
episodes in children under-five years of age every year (Federal Ministry of Health (FMOH),
2008). Mortality rate among children under-five years is 143 per 1,000 live births in the
country (World Health Organisation, 2012) and deaths among this category of children often
occur within two days of developing symptoms of malaria (Diallo et al.,, 2001; Federal
Ministry of Health, 2008). Malaria increases susceptibility to other infections and retard
growth and development in children. It is associated with considerable economic burden
including direct loss to government productive. Malaria killed Nigerian children every 30
seconds, hence, pregnant women and their unborn children are also vulnerable to malaria
which serves as major cause of maternal anemia and prenatal death (Davidson, 2000).

Practice is an action or behaviour that individual engages in and is normally induced
by attitude either consciously or unconsciously. It can also be referred to as behaviours,
specifically referring to a behaviour that a person engages in (Williams, 2005). The terms,
practice and behaviours, are used synonymously in this study. Behaviour is mostly learned
and this learned action is a reaction to social or physical environmental stimulus and is goal-
oriented. It is an overt manifestation of inner feelings and thoughts which form attitude and is
therefore an indirect mechanism of expressing attitude (Williams, 2005). The type of
behaviour an individual will engage in can be predicted from the type of attitude formed for
instance, effective and timely case management contributes to reducing mortality to less than
1%. However, for this to happen, enabling before such as time, self-esteem and availability

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and accessibility of needed technical power needs to be present (Williams, 2005). These

make it possible for an individual to convert an attitude into behaviour.

Practice of prevention of malaria has been globally accepted as a significant aspect of

malaria control but majority of mothers of under-five often do not learn the tenets of

prevention (Faladeet al 2006, Obristet al 2010). Faladeet al (2006) found out in their study

that many of the mothers do not even believe malaria can be prevented because of series of

myths and misconceptions they associate with fever in children, that practice of preventive

measures like screening of windows and doors with nets, spraying the house with insecticides

aerosol, application of insecticide repellant cream, wearing of long sleeved clothes and

destruction of mosquito breeding sites are not common.

Despite the urgent need for the eradication of malaria, practice of its preventive

measures remains a major challenge in Nigeria especially with respect to the three prong

preventives measures recommended by RBM for under five children. These measures as

earlier stated include the use of ITN, uptake of IPT and Prompt treatment and early diagnosis.

World Health Organization (2005) revealed that although many health facilities in many

endemic countries including Nigeria have begun the implementation of IPT and prompt case

management, only 5% under five children receive good preventive regimen with the situation

being more severe among under five children residing within local settings. Research report

(Sheeran, and Abraham, 1996) on some countries in African revealed that under five children

who make use of preventive regimens in line with the prescribed standards of WHO are only

about twenty percent. Tyagi, Roy, and Malhotra (2005) reported that the failure to establish

practice of community members regarding malaria was responsible for the inability of

intervention programmes to achieve sustainable control. It has also been observed that

community participation which is paramount in the control of malaria depends, among others,
basically on the people’s preventive practices

In most parts of Nigeria, malaria is a preventable and curable disease that is highly

endemic, where the vast majority of cases occur in children under the age of five, due to this,

mother of under-five children need to be more empower concerning MKAP. Malaria

prevention strategies have been implemented in the recent past and intensified as an effort to

attain the World Health Assembly, Roll Back Malaria, and Millennium Development

universal targets with the aim of reducing and interrupting disease transmission in Nigeria.

Ogun state is one of malaria endemic area in Nigeria, in which malaria prevention strategies

such as the use of Insecticide Treated bed Nets (ITNs), Indoor Residual Spraying of

insecticide (IRS), use of repellent, use of door net, use of window net, electric mosquito

zapper and health education on knowledge, attitudes and practices for the high risk

population especially the under-five children have been implemented by the government and

non-governmental organization. Despite of all these efforts, the overall prevalence of malaria

infection remains high among the under-five children. This reveal that mothers of under-five

children still lack the practice of malaria prevention strategies in Ogun State. The questions

are what are the practice of mothers of under five children towards malaria prevention

strategies? Did they practices all the strategies used in preventing malaria in Ogun State?

Thus it is very essential that operational research need to be conducted to fill this gaps

(Akorede, Nofiu, & Kperogi, 2017). Therefore, this study was carried out to assess the

practices of malaria prevention strategies among mothers of under-five in Ogun State,

Nigeria.

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Purpose of the Study
1. The purpose of this study is to assess practice of malaria prevention strategies among
mothers of under-five children in Ogun State, Nigeria.

Research Question
1. Do mothers of under-five children practice malaria prevention strategies in Ogun
State?

Null Hypothesis
1. Mothers of under-five children in Ogun state do not significantly practice of malaria
prevention strategies.

Methodology
The research design used for this study was Ex-post facto research design. The

population of this study comprises of mothers of under-five in Ogun State, Nigeria. With the
use of multi-stage sampling that involved a stratified random sampling technique, simple
random sampling technique and purposive sampling techniques, a sample size of two
hundred and sixteen (216) mothers of under-five was selected out of population of six
hundred and forty one thousand, four hundred and forty five (641,445) mothers of under five
in Ogun State. The first stage involved the use of stratified random sampling technique where
the general hospitals in Ogun State was stratified into three (3) senatorial districts which are
Ogun West, Ogun Central and Ogun East. The second stage involved the use of simple
random sampling technique to select one general hospital from each senatorial district by
writing all the general hospital in each senatorial district on a roll piece of paper, place in a
container, shuffled it, and the selection was made. The third stage involved the use of
purposive sample techniques to select the respondents (mothers of under-five) attending each
of the general hospitals at the pediatric units.

The instrument used for data collection was a structured questionnaire. Two hundred
and sixteen (216) validated copies of the instrument were used for data collection. Collected
data was analyzed using simple percentage, frequency count, descriptive statistics, one
sample t-test analysis and Pearson product Moment Correlation Co-efficient at 0.05 alpha
level. The first stage involved the use of stratified random sampling technique where the
general hospitals in Ogun State were stratified into the three (3) senatorial districts which are
Ogun West, Ogun Central and Ogun East. The second stage involved the use of simple
random sampling technique to select one general hospital from each senatorial district by
writing the names of all the general hospital in each senatorial district on a piece of paper, roll
and placed in a container, shuffled, and the selection was made. The third stage involved the
use of purposive sample techniques to select the respondents (mothers of under-five)
attending each general hospital at the padiatric unit. The instrument that was used in
conducting this research is a primary source of data collection which is the structured
questionnaire. In order to establish the validity of the instrument, the questionnaire was vetted
by three (3) experts in the Department of Physical and Health Education, Faculty of
Education, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria for comments, observations, correction and
suggestions. After incorporating all the suggestions made by the experts, final questionnaire

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were sorted and coded on excel sheet. With the use of Statistical Package for Social Science
(SPSS) version 17, hypotheses one and two were analyzed with one sample t-test while
hypothesis three was analyzed using Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient.

Results
Research Question 1: What are the practices adopted by mothers of under five children
towards malaria prevention strategies in Ogun State?

Table 1: Mean scores of the Practice adopted by mothers of under five Children
towards Malaria Prevention Strategies

Items Mean Std. Dev.

I wear protective cloths (long pants and long sleeve shirt) prevent 2.21 .90
mosquito bites

I use window nets to prevent mosquitoes 2.53 .96

I cut bushes around the house to prevent mosquitoes breeding

I dispose empty containers harboring water to avoid breading of 2.00 .80
mosquitoes 3.01 1.18

I use door net to prevent the entrance of mosquitoes to my room

I use insecticide-treated mosquito net to prevent mosquito bites 3.12 1.32

I use Indoor residual spraying of insecticide to prevent mosquitoes 2.23 0.53

I use insect repellent to prevent mosquitoes from biting my child 1.31 .41

I use electric mosquito zapper to kill mosquitoes from biting my child 2.75 1.01

I use mosquito coil to prevent mosquitoes from entering my room 1.95 .61

Aggregate Mean 2.40

Table 1 above shows the mean score of the responses on the practices adopted by mothers
of under five children towards malaria prevention strategies. The aggregate mean score of the
items is 2.40 which was found to be greater than the fixed mean score of 2.5. This implies
that the practices adopted by mothers of under five children towards malaria prevention
strategies were not good and they do have knowledge of prevention of malaria but to put the
knowledge to use was not done by the respondents.

Null Hypothesis 1: Mothers of under-five do not significantly practice malaria prevention
strategies in Ogun State.

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Table 2: One sample t-test analysis on practice of malaria prevention strategies among
mothers of under five children in Ogun State

Variable Mean Std Df t-value P value
Aggregate mean 2.402 0.8011 215 1.564 0.021
Constant Mean 2.50 0.000

Observation of table 2 shows that the observed t-value of 1.564 at 215 degree of
freedom (df) and a significance of .021 (p< 0.05). With this observation, there is enough
evidence to accept the null hypothesis which states that mothers of under-five children in
Ogun state do not significantly practice of malaria prevention strategies.

Discussion of Findings
It was discovered that mothers of under-five in Ogun State do not significantly

practice malaria prevention strategies. The practices adopted by mothers o under-five towards
malaria prevention strategies were not adequate and they do have knowledge of prevention of
malaria but to put the knowledge to use was not done by the respondents which is in
accordance to Falade, Ogundiran & Bolaji (2006), in their study stated that in Ondo State,
many of the mothers do not even believe malaria can be prevented because of series of myths
and misconceptions they associate with fever in children, that practice of preventive measure
like screening of windows and doors with nets, spraying the house with insecticides aerosol,
application of insecticide repellant cream, wearing of long sleeved clothes and destruction of
mosquito breeding sites are not common.

Conclusion
Based on the findings, the following conclusion were drawn;

1. Mothers of under-five in Ogun State do not practice all the malaria prevention
strategies.

Recommendations
On the basis of the conclusion drawn, the following recommendations were made;

1. There is need for a well packaged malaria health education intervention which could
address and promote a constant practice of malaria preventive strategies among
mothers of under-five children by government and non-governmental organization
through mass media, seminars/ workshop and community health related programs.

References
Adeyemo, M.O., Oluwatosin, O.A., Amodu, O.K. & Taofeeq, Y.O. (2014). Home

Management and Prevention of Malaria among under-five: Experiences of Mothers in a
Nigerian Local Government Area. African Journal Biomed. 17(2). 83 – 91.

Afolabi, B.M. (2016). Knowledge, attitude and practice of malaria in an isolated community
of the Atlantic Coast of Lagos. Malaria and Infectious Diseases in Africa. 4: 6 – 13.

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Akorede, S.N., Nofiu, O.D. & Kperogi, I.I. (2017). Assessment of Knowledge of Malaria
Prevention Strategies among Mothers of Under-Five in Ogun State, Nigeria. International
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Ashikeni, M.A., Envuladu, E.A. & Zoakah, A.I. (2013). Perception and practice of malaria
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(3).

Falade, C.O., Ogundiran, M.O. & Bolaji, M.O. (2006). The influence of cultural perception
of causation, complication and severity of childhood malaria on determinants and
treatment preventive pathways. International Quarterly of Community Health Education,
a Journal of Policy and Applied Research. 24 (4): 347 – 363.

Federal Ministry of Health (2013). Federal Republic of Nigeria: Training manual for
management of malaria in Nigeria, Abuja: Federal Ministry of Health, National Malaria
and Vector Control Division.

Obi, R.K., Nwanebu, F.C., Okangaba, C.C. & Nwanebu, C.K. (2012). Malaria Prevalence in
children under-five years and pregnant women attending selected hospitals in Ihitte
Uboma LGA, Imo State, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Prarsitology, 33 (1): 73 – 76.

World Health Organization (2013). World Malaria Report. Geneva: World Health
Organization.

Tyagi, M.H., Roy, B. & Malhotra, C. (2005). Historical review of malarial control in
southern Africa with emphasis on the use of indoor residual house-spraying. Trop. Med.
Int. Health., 9: 846-856.

Sheeran, P. & Abraham, A. (1996). The Health Belief Model. In M. Conner and P. Norman (ed):
Predicting Health Behaviours: Research and Practice with Social Cognition Models.
Buckingham. Open University Press. 23-61.

Davidson, B. (2000). The Impact of Refugees on the Health Status and Health Services of Host
Communities. Comparing Bad with Worse? Disaster 9:256-269.

Diallo, A.B., De Serres, G., Beavogui, A.H., Lapointe. C. &Viens, P. (2001). Home care of malaria-
infected children of less than 5 years of age in a rural area of the Republic of Guinea. Bulletin of
the World Health Organisation 79: 28-32.

Federal Ministry of Health (2008). Federal Republic of Nigeria: Training manual for management of
malaria in Nigeria. Abuja: Federal Ministry of Health, National Malaria and Vector Control
Division.

Williams, T. (2005). Influence of knowledge, altitude and practice on food Hygiene. Unpulished
M.Sc. thesis. Tshwane University of Technology Kenya. Kenya.

World Health Organization (2005). What is Malaria Fact Sheet Geneva: WHO. Available on:

www.mosquito.who.int/cmc_upload/0/000/015/372/RBMInfosheet_1.htm

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Skills Training Need of TVET Lecturers in Scaffolding Technique for
Teaching Vocational Subjects in College of Education Afaha Nsit

Ekanem, Mary Nsikak, Agba, Paul Ikongshul, Eminue, Uduonyi Okon

Department of Vocational Education
University of Uyo, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria

[email protected]

Abstract
The study identified skills training need of TVET lecturers in scaffolding teaching for teaching
vocational subjects in college of education Afaha Nsit in Akwa Ibom State. The population of the
study consisted of ninety six (96) TVET lecturers in the study area. This study employed survey
research design with three (3) research questions and hypotheses formulated to guide the study. The
instrument used to collect data was “Skills Training Need in Scaffolding Teaching for Teaching
Vocational Subjects Questionnaire (STNSTTVSQ)” and validated by three experts in Department of
Vocational Education, University of Uyo, Akwa Ibom State. Reliability was established using
Cronbach’s Alpha and reliability coefficient obtained was 0.78. Mean and standard deviation were
used to answer the research questions while t-test was used to test the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of
significance. The findings revealed that brainstorming approach, inquiry teaching approach and
active learning approach are needed skills by TVET lecturers in scaffolding teaching for teaching of
vocational subjects. Based on the findings, the researchers recommended among others that TVET
lecturers should be properly trained on how to apply brainstorming, inquiry approach and active
learning approach skills in scaffolding students in learning to avoid problem of spoon feeding and
half baked skills graduate that cannot fit-into labour market.

Key words: Skills Training, Scaffolding Technique, Teaching, Vocational Subjects

Introduction

The entire educational system is designed to achieve some specific objectives often
derived from the national policy of education. The objectives of vocational education need to
be articulated in the teaching process to bring desired behavioural changes of the learners. In
vocational education, the process is usually planned to achieve positive changes or
modification in skills, attitudes, knowledge, competence, which may result from series of
encounter with some experiences from lecturers. Uwaifo (2011) observed that for teaching to
be successful, it must be deliberate, methodical, planning, resourceful, activity based, related
to the learners experiences and life. He further explained that the lecturers as the prime mover
of the process must have sound knowledge of the subject matter with various skills to impart
and motivate learners to learn and apply in real life situation.

Nwokolo (2010) stated that, one aspect of education which is of vital importance to
the entire educational system and national development is vocational education also known as
Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET). Perhaps, Okon, Eminue and Leema

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(2016) averred that technical vocational education and training is a functional type of
education that emphasizes skill acquisition and manpower development. Hence, the task of
technical vocational subjects is the transmission of ideas, skills, knowledge and value of work
and what individual can do with his or her life. In recognizing the values of technical
vocational education and training as a vehicle to produce the skilled human capital through
the various vocational subjects, the key to excellence in technical vocational subjects is the
quality, effectiveness and relevance skills of lecturers teaching the subjects. In agreement
with this, Audu (2010) maintained that vocational subjects are better taught by full
participation or involvement of students as it will promote their development of problem
solving skills and functional knowledge and manipulation skills. One of the fundamental
achievements of technical vocational education and training is to enable students use that
knowledge and skills in problem solving.

Consequently, TVET lecturers must know very well the skills being taught and to
device a means in the lesson to pass much of the work skills to the learners as possible. The
persistent poor representation of students or graduates today has given rise to an assumption
that most of the lecturers probably do not make use of some stipulated contemporary teaching
strategies in scaffolding teaching that will make students cope with the challenges of learning
vocational courses or subjects for skill acquisition. In consonance with Odoh (2013)
experience and researchers have shown that TVET lecturers still adopt or operate on
conventional instructional teaching approach that are mainly lecturers self centered and not
logically sequenced to fit the ability of the learners and what the society needs, as lecturers
could not provide lecture led participation to engage in reciprocal teaching of vocational
subjects. This could be because the TVET lecturers do not acquire skills in scaffolding
teaching, which constitute a gap that training is needed to fill. This implies, there is need to
train TVET lecturers to acquire skills in scaffolding teaching for effective teaching and
learning of technical vocational subjects.

Green (2011) asserted that “skill” is widely regarded as a focus for analytical research
and as a core object for policy interventions in the modern global high-technology era. A
substantive body of evidence shows that different skill levels have large economic effects for
individuals, employers, regions and whole national economies. Yet there is no consensus
among social scientists about the meaning of the concept of skill. Unlike constructs in the
natural sciences, skill is one of those social science words in common parlance with many
meanings, numerous synonyms such as “ability”, “competence”, “knack”, “aptitude” and
“talent”, and varied imprecise translations in other languages. Williams (2007) explained
skills to be organized sequence of action, competences and proficiencies executed in carrying
out a given displayed in flexible but systematic pattern. Okorie (2000) saw skill as a well
established habit of doing something and involves the acquisition of performance capability.
Skill in the context of this study involves those knowledge, competences which a lecturer
acquire through training and can gainfully utilized in the teaching of vocational subjects for
the purpose of achieving stated objectives.

Training is defined by Amechi (2016) as involving an expert working with learners to

transfer to them certain areas of skills that is lacking to enable them improve on their current

jobs. Teaching which is used in the training process is a way of communicating ideas,

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knowledge, skills, attitudes, culture, belief, concept, values with the aim of effecting a
positive change in the learner. Grace and Yohanna (2004) maintained that teaching includes
both strategies, tactics and activity designed by a person more experienced, knowledgeable
and more matured with respect to learning experience to further the education of another.
Vocational subjects like agriculture, business, computer, technical drawing, home economic
etc are better taught with skills that incorporate scaffolding teaching. Farinde and Ajayi
(2005) define need as what is and what ought not to be. Adekoya (2010) posits that need
shows there is lack of something which if present, will better the welfare of an individual or
group of individual whose situation is at stake. This implies that need constitutes a gap to be
filled. Training bridges the gap between the known and the unknown, what is and what ought
not to be, hence impacting TVET lecturers with basic skills required in scaffolding teaching
for effective teaching and learning.

Moreover, skill training needs of TVET lecturers will ensure that they have the
requisite knowledge and skills in using scaffolding teaching approach for teaching vocational
subjects in order to promote and develop manipulative skills of learners to fit-in the world of
work. According to Audu (2010), skills training need given to individual in any formal
organization is very important. In this vein, training of TVET lecturers will help them to be
equipped with the capacity to organize, plan or set goals and execute to achieve the desired
result. Also to ensure high degree of competence and sense of responsibility, therefore it
become necessary to keep them up-to-date with new techniques and skills in scaffolding for
teaching vocational subjects, hence the future of vocational education depends on the quality
of lecturers and the students produced which are expected to be productive in the society. To
achieved the desired goal of producing quality and productive graduates, the TVET lecturers
require skills in scaffolding teaching.

Meanwhile, scaffolding teaching approach is a teaching process designed to promote
a deeper level of learning. It is the provision of sufficient support by lecturers to promote
learning concepts and skills in students during the introduction of new lesson. Adieze (2010)
recorded that scaffolding techniques is considered as a very good, solid teaching technique
for vocational students for learning to take place and during instruction, scaffolds is gradually
taken away so that students will perform a task independently. Scaffolding involves the
lecturer controlling the learning task to be able to solve a problem which would not have been
possible without assistance. Monica, Ablerto, Elena and Elisa (2010) explained that
scaffolding teaching involves a wide variety of approaches such as assisting the learners in
acquiring skills, revise the previous work and ask relevant questions that will link what is to
be learnt with what is already known, breakdown complex tasks into manageable bits and
reduce the number of steps in the learning task to manageable number. Scaffolding teaching
approach for teaching vocational subjects are brainstorming skill, inquiry skill, active-
learning approach skill, learner-facilitated skill, and learner-centered and learning process,
among others.

Brainstorming is a comprehensive skill applied by TVET lecturers which lays
emphasis on what students should learn and how they learn. Ogwo and Oranu (2006) opined
that brainstorming is a teaching strategy in which the lecturers conceive self as flexible,

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permissive, interested in stimulation discussion and seeing others grow. It has a contribution
to make in a way that each group member serves as a tutor to one another thereby promoting
greater flexibility, permissiveness and acquisition of skills in the mastery area of vocational
subjects. Furthermore, the shared responsibilities and interactions are likely to generate better
inter-group relations which individual learner brings out his/her ideas which are subjected to
criticism by the group members and the lecturer do the moderation and summary. Another
type of scaffolding teaching approach is inquiry teaching.

Inquiry teaching skill is another skill training needed by TVET lecturers for effective
execution of vocational skill in learners. Wan-Azlinda (2010) said that inquiry approach
when utilize is to give the learners opportunity to carry out the search and discovery of facts,
knowledge and scientific ideas in vocational areas or discipline. Inquiry entails practicing of
attitudinal skills when carrying out vocational task. Inquiring teaching skill is the strategy
requiring the arrangement of subject-matter structure so that the learner is able to go beyond
the evidence presented to acquire new insights. This makes students to participate in the
process that makes the establishment of knowledge and skill possible. Instead of presenting
the learners with conclusions, the learning situation is structured so that they learn how to
work with data, equipment to make inference and ask questions that will enhance their
development process skills. Active learning approach is another teaching method in
scaffolding.

Active learning approach skill is in response for the need for lecturers teaching
methods to move away from the traditional “chalk and talk” and “minds-on” approaches to
“hands on and learning by doing approaches”. According to Udosen (2004) it has been
acknowledged widely that for students to do well in vocational studies and science and to
develop practical skills which will be useful to them in their later lives, they must be actively
involved in the process of learning. As TVET lecturers commence the use of active learning
approach, it will promote and support learning by providing an opportunity for the use of
educational materials and ideas for proper skill acquisition of the learners. It encourages the
acquisition of manipulation skills because of learners involvement, and also leading to
creativity and flexibility. Active learning approach skill to be successful, a number of
teaching techniques such as discussion, questioning, practical work etc are involve to arouse
students interest in systematic processing of learning. Active learning approach skill has
shown significant advantage over conventional instruction in regard to knowledge of process
skills.

Statement of the Problem

Over the time, vocational education lecturers have been using several contemporary

methodologies in teaching vocational subjects but do not seem to have much impart to

improve learners psychomotor domain in the field of study to meet the need of the society.

This could be as a result of TVET lecturers occasionally applying conventional strategies
which are lecturer’s self-centered, not professionally skillful, insufficient and inadequate

knowledge of their subject matter. Also most of the graduate of vocational education cannot

fit into the world of work today due to lack of skills as a result of not been prepared

adequately by their lecturers. It therefore means at this critical time that TVET is the bedrock

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of national development, there is need to train TVET lecturers for skills acquisition to ensure
effective and proper use of teaching strategies incorporating with scaffolding teaching for
greater productivity of students.

Objective of the Study
This study therefore focused on the skills training need of TVET lecturers in

scaffolding teaching for teaching vocational subjects in college of education Afaha Nsit,
Akwa Ibom State. Specifically the study sought to:

1. Determine the skills training need of TVET lecturers on brainstorming approach in
scaffolding teaching for teaching vocational subjects in college of education Afaha
Nsit.

2. Determine the skills training need of TVET lecturers on inquiry teaching method in
scaffolding teaching for teaching vocational subjects in college of education Afaha
Nsit.

3. Determine the skills training need of TVET lecturers on active learning approach in
scaffolding teaching for teaching vocational subjects in college of education Afaha
Nsit..

Research Questions

1. What are the skills training need on brainstorming approach in scaffolding teaching
for teaching vocational subjects.

2. What are the skills training need on inquiry teaching method in scaffolding teaching
for teaching vocational subjects.

3. What are the skills training need on active learning approach in scaffolding teaching
for teaching vocational subjects.

Null Hypotheses

1. There is no significant difference between the mean responses of male and female
TVET lecturers in skills training need on brainstorming approach in scaffolding
teaching for teaching vocational subjects.

2. There is no significant difference between the mean responses of male and female
TVET lecturers in skills training need on inquiry teaching method in scaffolding
teaching for teaching vocational subjects.

3. There is no significant difference between the mean responses of male and female
TVET lecturers in skills training need on active learning approach in scaffolding
teaching for teaching vocational subjects.

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Methodology

A survey research design was used for the study and it was carried out in state college
of education Afaha Nsit of Akwa Ibom State. The population of the study comprises all the
TVET lecturers in school of vocational education which was estimated to be one hundred and
thirty (130). The purposive sampling technique was used to select four departments in school
of vocational education which include Agriculture, Business, Home Economic and Technical.
A total of ninety six (96) TVET lecturers made up the sample size, this was shared as (27
from agriculture, 31 from business, 20 from Home economic and 18 from technical). The
four departments were chosen because it form the major area for the study. This sample size
is made of 56 male and 40 female TVET lecturers.

A 15 item researcher’s made instrument entitled “Skills Training Need in Scaffolding
Teaching for Teaching Vocational Subjects Questionnaire (STNSTTVSQ)” was used to
collect data from TVET lecturers. A four (4) point rating scale of very highly needed (VHN),
highly needed (HN), moderately needed (MN) and lowly needed (LN) with numerical value
of 4, 3, 2 and 1 respectively. The instrument was given to three research experts from the
Department of Vocational Education, University of Uyo, Akwa Ibom State for face validation
and tested for reliability using Cronbach’s Alpha statistics to obtained reliability coefficient
of 0.78. The researcher administered the instrument with two research assistants and the
completed ones were retrieved immediately for data analysis. Mean and standard deviation
were used to answer research question, while t-test was used to test the null hypotheses at
0.05 level of significance. Base on the four point rating scale, any item above 2.50 based on
the real limit is regarded as needed while any item with 2.50 below is not needed. In order to
test the null hypotheses, calculated t-value was compared with t-critical. When the calculated
t-value is greater or equal to the t-critical the null hypotheses (Ho) is rejected. On the other
hand, when the calculated t-value is less than the t-critical, the null hypotheses is accepted.

Data Analysis and Results

Research Question 1

Table 1: Mean responses of the respondents on the skills training need of TVET

lecturers in brainstorming approach in scaffolding teaching of vocational

subjects

S/N Skills training need on brainstorming teaching X SD Remark

approach

1 Skill to stimulate discussion 2.98 0.59 MN

2 Skill to apply grouping approach to solicit students

inputs 2.94 0.58 MN

3 Skill to introduce problem that is relevant to the

interest of students for skill mastery 2.92 0.58 MN

4 Ability to make students share responsibilities and

interact 2.67 0.53 LN

5 Abilities to analyze and respond satisfactory to

student criticism 3.07 0.61 HN

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