JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL REALITIES (JERA) Volume 4 Issue 1 July/September 2017

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pISSN 2536-6661, eISSN 2536-6653 Vol.4, No.1, July/Sept, 2017
A Publication of the Department of Vocational Education, University of Uyo, Nigeria

Summary Regression ANOVA

Sum of Df Mean Square F P Remark
Squares 45.65 < 0.05 Sig
8805.96
Regression 52835.76 6 192.89

Residual 98760.76 512

Total 151596.52 518

Table2 showed that the prediction of all the six independent variables to the dependent
variable. That is, quality of secondary school education correlated positively with the six
predictor variables. The Table also shows a coefficient of multiple correlations (R) of 0.739
and a multiple adjusted R square of 0.546. This means that 54.6% of the variance in the
quality of secondary school education is accounted for by all the six predictor variables, when
taken together. The joint contribution of the independent variables to the dependent variables
was significant (F = 45.65; df = 6; 512: p < 0.05) and that other variables not included in this
model may have accounted for the remaining variance.

Research Question 3: What is the relative effect of each of the independent variables on
quality of secondary school education among employers of labour in South-west, Nigeria?

Table 3: Relative contribution of the independent variables to the dependent variable
(Test of significance of the Regression coefficients).

Unstandardized Standardize
Coefficients d
coefficients

B Std.Error Beta T P Rem
ark

Constant 21.679 3.050 7.107 0.000 Sig

School friendly 0.445 0.439 0.031 5.696 0.035 Sig
0.074 0.072 7.692 0.018 Sig
environment

Curriculum 0.544

Teachers Quality 0.531 0.071 0.274 12.767 0.000 Sig

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Evaluation of learners 0.405 0.078 0.212 3.924 0.000 Sig

Learners discipline 0.107 0.064 0.189 1.987 0.050 Sig

Learners support 0.176 0.075 0.035 2.369 0.003 Sig

Table 3 reveals the relative contribution of the six independent variables to the dependent
variable, expressed as beta weights. The positive value of the effects of the six independent
variables is actually determined by positive reinforcement of these six variables. Using the
standardized regression coefficient to determine the relative contributions of the independent
variables to the explanation of the dependent variable curriculum made the most significant relative
contribution to the prediction of quality of secondary school education (B=0.544, t=7.692, p<0.05);
followed by teachers quality (B=0.531, t=12.767, p<0.05); school friendly environment (B=0.445,
t=5.696, p<0.05), followed by teachers evaluation procedures (B=0.405, t=3.924, p<0.05),
followed by learners support (B= 0.176, t=2.369, p<0.05), and finally followed by learners
discipline ( B = 0.107, t =1.987, p<0.05) in that order among the employers of labour in south west,
Nigeria.

Discussion of the Findings

Research question one was on relationship between independent variables and
dependent variable. The results shown in Table 1 revealed that there was significant
correlation between independent variables and dependent variable. There was significantly
positive correlation between quality of secondary school education and the independent
variables. The finding of the study supported Glatthorn & Jailall (2000) they found
significant positive relationship between curriculum and quality of secondary school
education. In related vein, Redding (2000) also found significant correlation between quality
of secondary school education and quality of teachers. Carron & Chau, (2006) corroborating
with the above findings demonstrated that a significant relationship exited between school
friendly environment and quality of secondary school education.

The result in relation to research question 2 shows that, the joint contribution of the
independent variables predict quality of secondary school education among employers of
labour in South West. The finding of the study supported Glatthorn & Jailall (2000) they
found significant positive relationship between curriculum and quality of secondary school
education. This means that input factors of the curriculum and process variables are most
important than any other factors in predicting the quality of secondary school education of the
participants.

The result in relation to research question 3 shows that, the relative contribution of
each of these independent variables on quality of secondary school education among the
secondary school students in the study, the curriculum made the most significant relative
contribution to the prediction of quality of secondary school education followed by teachers
quality; school friendly environment, followed by teachers evaluation procedures and then,
learners support and finally followed by learners support in that order. This shows that

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curriculum as a factor appear as the most potent contributor to quality of secondary school
education. This means that input factors of the curriculum and process variables are most
important than any other factors in predicting the quality of secondary school education of the
participants. This finding corroborate Willms 2000) and Fuller (2009) who discovered that,
curriculum, teachers quality, school friendly environment, learners support, learners
discipline and evaluation of learners factors have significant impact on quality of secondary
school education. Also, this finding is in line with the finding of Craig, Kraft & du Plessis
(2008) who found that curriculum as a factor is more significant in predicting quality of
secondary school education in Nigeria.

Conclusion

Considering the findings of this study, it was concluded that there was significant
relationship between the independent variables and the dependent variable. The finding of the
study shows that there was joint effect of the independent variables on the dependent
variable. This suggests that independent variables are critical variables that determine quality
of secondary school education. The independent variables relatively contributed to the
variation of quality of secondary school education. The significant relationship between the
independent variables and the dependent variable implies that these variables enrich the
tendency of stakeholders to improve quality of secondary school education. Curriculum has
shown to have the most potent significant effect on the quality of secondary school education.

Recommendations: Based on the findings of this study the following recommendations were
made that:

1. Parents should stay together with their children to ensure that their welfare is properly
catered for and should try to support the children in promoting quality education.

2. Government should provide free and compulsory education to children without social
family support and help the less privileged parents with financial support by
empowering them.

3. In addition government should provide basic learning infrastructures to enhance
quality education.

4. Public enlightenment on issues of parental skills, family planning, family values and
child discipline could be done regularly, as this would make for an intact family and
enhance quality education since it will go a long way to allow children to be attentive
in the classroom while learning.

5. Teachers should be told to adopt pedagogy that will promote understanding of
curriculum content and that learners should be evaluated from time to time.

References

Carron, G. & Chau, T.N.2006. The quality of primary schools in different development
contexts. Paris: UNESCO.

Colby, J. (2000). Learning outcomes in international context. Paper presented at the Annual
Meeting of the Comparative and International Education Society, San Antonio, Texas.

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Craig, H., Kraft, R., & Plessis, J. 2008. Teacher development: Making an impact.
Washington, D.C.: Academy for Educational Development, ABEL Clearinghouse for
Basic Education.

Darling-Hammond, L.1997. Doing what matters most: Investing in quality teaching.
Kurtztown, Pennsylvania: National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future.

Federal Republic of Nigeria. 2004. National Policy on Education. 4th Edition. Yaba, Lagos:
NERDC Press.

Fuller, B. 2009. How to raise children’s literacy? The influence of family, teacher, and
classroom in Northeast Brazil. Comparative Education Review, 43(1), 1-35.

Glatthorn, A.,& Jailall, J. 2000. Curriculum for the new millennium. In Brandt, R. (ed.),
Education in a new era: ASCD Yearbook 2000. Alexandria, Virginia: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Levinger, B. (2002). Promoting child quality: Issues, trends, and strategies. Paper prepared
for the Social Sector Policy Analysis Project, U.S. Agency for International
Development, Bureau of Research and Development, Office of Education.

Mullens, A., Murnance, K & Willett, V. (2006). Inservice training of primary teachers
through interactive video technology: An Indian experience. International Review of
Education, 44 (1), 87:101.

Miske, S., Dowd, A.(2008). Teaching and learning in Mangochi classrooms: Combining
quantitative and qualitative information to study twelve primary schools in Malawi.
Evaluation study conducted for the United States Agency for International 28
Development by Creative Associates International, Washington, D.C.

Pennycuick, D. 1993. School effectiveness in developing countries: A summary of the
research evidence. Serial no. 1. London: Department for International Development
Education Division.

Redding, S. 2000. Parents and learning. Educational Practices Series - 2. Brussels:
International Academy of Education (IAE). Online at http://www.ibe.unesco.org.

UNICEF 2000. Curriculum report card. Working Paper Series, Education Section,
Programme Division. New York, NY: Author.

Williams, J., & Leherr, K. 2008. Children’s health and nutrition as educational issues: A
case study of the Ghana Partnership for Child Development’s intervention research in
the Volta region of Ghana. Technical Paper No. 91, December, 2008. Washington,
D.C.: USAID.

Willms, J. D. 2000. Standards of care: Investments to improve children’s educational
outcomes in Latin America. Paper presented at the “Year 2000 Conference of Early
Childhood Development” sponsored by the World Bank, Washington, D.C., April,

2000.

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Economy Development in Nigeria: The Imperatives of Pubilc-Private-
Collaboration

Thomas, Bariere
Department of Business Education
Faculty of Technical and Science Education

Rivers State University
[email protected]

&
Udukeke, O. F.
Department of Vocational Education
Faculty of Education,
Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka,
Anambra State, Nigeria
[email protected]

Abstract
This paper looks at Public-Private-Collaboration (PPC) and economic development.
Largely, due to chronic fiscal stress since the recent economic recession, there have been
calls for alternative ways of financing real infrastructure and industries to enhance economic
development. PPC was seen as myriad of structure that facilitates the participation of the
private sector in the provision of public infrastructure and services. Similarly, economic
development was described in this article as set of actions geared towards improving the
well-being of people. The paper posited that PPC if implemented adequately could help
ensure economic development through generation of employment, improvement in indigenous
technology and technology transfer, improving the standard of living, reduction of inflation
and increase in government revenue. It was recommended among other things that
government at all levels (Federal, State and Local) should put necessary policies and
framework in place that will facilitate effective implementation of public-private
collaboration projects that will enhance economic development.

Keywords: Public-private-collaboration and economic development.

Introduction

Energy, road, water, shelter, telecommunication among other infrastructures are
essential to the economy development of any nation. When they are well-planned, adequately
funded, managed and maintained, infrastructures play a crucial role in developing an
economy by creating employment opportunities, conserving foreign exchange, raising
standard of living, generating revenues to the government and improving indigenous
technology. They also facilitate commerce by extending a nation’s global reach. In a similar
view, Botlhale (2016) posited that the role of infrastructure projects is significant in economic

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development due to their contributions to national competitiveness and social welfare in both
developed and developing countries.

Despite the well-documented link between high-calibre infrastructure and economy
development, government operating on razor-thin budgets especially in countries
experiencing rapid population growth and urbanization like Nigeria, may not be equipped
financially to make the necessary investment in critical infrastructures to make life better for
the citizenry. Traditionally, infrastructure projects are developed by government using public
budgets (Shediac, Abouchaka, Hammami & Najjar, 2008). However, with the declining
levels of public resources, geometric population increase in Nigeria and the current economic
recession, it becomes a taunting task for government to fulfill social and economy need of the
nation. In response, government should resort to collaborating with the private sector in the
areas of finance, technology, expertise, development and management of public-sector
infrastructure projects.

Public-Private Collaboration (PPC) can become a catalyst for economy development.
Schediac, Abouchakra, Hammami and Najjen (2008) asserted that interest in PPCs is
growing, notably due to the growth in the demand for infrastructure and limited public
government capacity to meet current and future needs. The underlying principle behind PPCs
is that although the government sector may need to be responsible for the delivery of a
particular service, it does not have to be responsible for actual provision of the service or for
undertaking the investment themselves. In this way, all actors of public-private-collaboration
can have their ‘hands on deck’ in doing what they know how to do best. PPC mechanism
serves for promoting the engagement of private sectors in the process of developing
infrastructure projects. It can take many forms from simple commercialization to full
privatization. In recent times, observations by the researchers seem to show that the PPC is
gaining more recognition in Nigeria. It is against this background that this paper considered
economy development in Nigeria: the imperatives of pubilc-private-collaboration.

Concept of Private-Public Collaboration

The literature on public-private collaboration is relatively new, but the concept itself
is not new. It has been in use in countries such as France, Britain and United States, since
17th century (Darrin, 2005). The definitions of PPC vary from country to country but are
very similar. PPC is an arrangement in which the private sector supplies infrastructure assets
and services traditionally provided by governments (Michael, 2008). It can be seen as a
contractual agreement between a public agency (Federal, State or Local) and a private sector
entity. The private sector entity include individuals, companies, foreign investors, non-
governmental organisations. Through this agreement, the skills, knowledge and assets of each
sector (public and private) are shared in delivering a service or facility for the use of the
public. In addition to the sharing of resources, each party shares in the risk and reward
potential in the delivery of the service and/or facility. This is synonymous with Public-
Private-Partnership (PPP).

Public-Private Collaboration (PPC) can generally said to include:

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 long term contract agreements/relationship
 a private funding component
 provision of services or infrastructure through the private sector
 significant transfer of risk to the private sector such as investment, design,

construction, or operational risks
 complex contractual responsibilities and deliverables that vary over the contract

period as the project move in its phases as from finance to construction and operation.
 the return of infrastructure/service to the control of the state at the end of the term of

contract term or;
 the provision of services by the private sector on behalf of the state following the

fulfillment of design and build responsibilities (International Institute for Sustainable

Development, 2011).

Public-Private Collaboration (PPC) helps the government to meet financing gap by

stimulating private sector investment and finance for infrastructure. It provides a means of

improving efficiency and service delivery to users and gain access to new expertise and

technology, reducing annual costs of infrastructure to government, and freeing up the fiscal

space. Shen, Tam, Gan, Ye and Zhao (2016) posited that PPC helps overcome inadequate

infrastructure that constraint economic growth, particularly in developing countries.

Potential Benefits of Public-Private Collaboration

Public-private collaborations have many benefits. Some of the benefits of PPC
initiatives according to Colverson (2011) and Colverson (2012), in Dantala (2014) are:

 Value for money: Utilizing private sector skills and technology to deliver projects in a

more efficient manner, resulting in either lower costs or a superior product for same

investment.
 Optimization of design and operation: Using output based specification allows room

for and promotes innovative solutions from the private sector in the design, operation

and maintenance aspects of the project, with the intension of improving effectiveness

while reducing costs over the whole life cycle of the projects.
 Quicker delivery of project: Private sector capacity and flexibility are seen to be

superior to the public sector, and PPCs therefore make projects to be finished more

quickly and on schedule than those attributed to public sector. With PPC, the

bureaucratic tendencies are reduce thereby making projects to be completed on time.
 Risk transfer: Project risks (e.g. finance, timeframe, planning permits and community

consultations) are transferred to the party best equipped to deal with them both in

terms of expertise and cost, to the stability and benefit of the project.
 Increased investment: In public infrastructure, governments are able to implement

projects more frequently and on a large scale because the private sector finance

element reduces its need to raise or budget additional funds, as it is the case of

standard procurement.
 Increased budget/financing certainty: The transfer of responsibility (and risk) to the

private sector for some of the project elements shield governments from unforeseen

financial liability following cost overruns, delays, or operational difficulties that

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 would otherwise impact upon the budget bottom line. Project finances are secured for
the length of the contract and not subject to cyclical political budget adjustments,
allowing for greater investment planning and deficiencies throughout the management
operation, and maintenance phases of the project.

 Improved service delivery: PPC allows both sectors to operate within their sphere of
expertise, the government in policy and governance, the private sector in the technical
aspect of design, construction, operation and management payments are linked to
performance targets or requirements provide an incentive to performance that is too
often absent in public provision of services.

 Access to additional capital/off balance sheet financing: Because all or large
percentage of finance in PPC is provided by the private sector, the government is not
responsible for raising funds from within its own coffers or adjusting budgets to allow
for large infrastructural spending. This is particularly advantageous during times of
physical crises where the government is already short of funds or where the
government may have a poor credit rating and is not able to raise the necessary
finance.

 Political advantage: There is political leverage to be gained from PPC agreements in
terms of public perception and financial management credentials, as projects are
delivered on time with less impact on the budget and provide superior quality
infrastructure or services.

 Private sector growth and stability: PPCs provide the private sector with access to
reduced risk, secure long-term investment opportunities that are underwritten by
government contracts. Such agreements ensure private capital inflows, provide
investment opportunities and stimulate local industry and job markets.

The Concept of Economy Development

Economic development is the primary objective of the majority of the world’s

nations, especially developing countries including Nigeria. Economic development is the

process by which a nation improves the economic, political, and social well-being of its
people. Similarly, the Institute of Economic Development (2004) defined economic

development as a set of policies and actions designed to improve the performance of a

spatially defined economy for the benefit of all residents. It is the creation of jobs, wealth,

and the improvement of the quality of life. Economic development refers to economic growth
accompanied by changes in output distribution and economic structure. These changes may

include an improvement in the material well-being of the poorer half of the population.

Jhingan (2011) opined that economic development is economic growth leading to an

improvement in the economic welfare of the poorest segment of the population, a decrease in
agriculture’s share of output, an increase in the educational level of the labour force, and

indigenous technological change. An economy can grow but it may not develop because

poverty, unemployment and inequalities may continue to persist due to the absence of
technological and structural changes. It involves the re-organization and re-orientation of the

economic and social system. Economic development can also been described as a process

that influences growth and restructuring of an economy to enhance the economic well-being

of a country. In the broadest sense, economic development encompasses three major areas:

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 Policies that government undertakes to meet broad economic objective including

inflation control, high employment and sustainable growth.
 Policies and programmes to provide services including building highways, managing

parks and providing medical access to the disadvantaged.
 Policies and programmes explicitly directed at improving the business climate

through specific effort; business finance, marketing, neighbourhood development,

business retention and expansion, technology transfer, real estate development and

others.

Public-Private Collaboration and Economic Development

The adoption of public-private collaboration can contribute immensely to economic
development in the following specific ways:

(1) PPC and Increase Employment Opportunities

Public-private collaboration will help to exploit latent investment opportunities in the areas of
agriculture, manufacturing, energy, telecommunication, mining, commerce, tourism among
others. Phuyah (2017) asserted that public private collaboration has aided employment in the
Indian railway. In a recessed economy such as Nigeria’s, where both government
establishment and private businesses are retrenching or downsizing workforce daily, the
business ventures and projects established by PPC efforts will contribute in no small way in
tackling the problem of unemployment, which has now assumed national embarrassment
proportions in Nigeria. Apart from the retrenched workers who are thrown into the labour
market, the armies of graduates who are churned out of the higher institutions here in Nigeria
and in diaspora can be gainfully engaged in executing, managing and maintenance of PPC
projects, which will help to reduce unemployment rate.

(2) PPC and Improved Standard of Living

Akpanobong and Charles (2015) posited that public-private collaboration increases
investment in public infrastructures. Through collaborative efforts from government, wealthy
individuals, companies, non-governmental organizations, international donors and
organizations, improved social infrastructures such as pipe borne water, low cost housing
units, energy, healthcare facilities and education assistance can be made available for
enjoyment of the general public. For example, PPC has brought considerable social amenities
to Lagos State such as flyovers, railway, good road networks, bridges and the likes.
Collaboration has also brought enormous investment from international organizations such as
World Health Organization, World Bank, United Nations Education and Scientific
Organization (UNESCO), African Development Bank among others. Collaborative efforts
from these organisations have been used in the provision of social amenities and in fighting
illiteracy, pandemics such as HIV/AIDS, Ebola virus, Lassa fever and malaria for the purpose
of improving the general well-being of people.

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(3) PPC and Development of Indigenous Technology

When public-private collaboration are effectively and consistently deployed,
indigenous technology and technology transfer can be enhanced. Government and private
investors can collaborate with schools and research institutions for the use of their research
findings. From such findings, people’s knowledge will be enhance in the know-how involved
in the use of local minerals products, chemicals, materials, techniques and processes for the
production of goods or rendering of services which were previous not known.

(4) PPC and Facilitation of Technology Transfer

More so, since various countries are endowed differently, it can right be said that the
level of technology available to different countries varies to a greater degree. Akpan (2004)
asserted that Japan and China are more endowed than Nigeria in terms of technology. But
with collaborative effort between China and Nigeria, Nigeria can transfer and adopt some
level technology and production procedures from China. With concerted efforts, more can be
achieved for the purpose of industrializing and urbanizing the country.

(5) PPC and Reduction in Inflation

Public-private collaboration helps in stabilizing prices by ensuring the availability of
goods and services in the locality. Phuyah (2017) stated that public-private collaboration has
been use to stabilize price in the Indian railway. When goods and services are provided
locally through collaborative efforts, costs that are related to importation could be avoided
thereby making the goods and services affordable for the masses. For example, price of
Premium Motor Spirit (PMS) in Nigeria can be reduced if the government can collaborate
with private investors to build refineries so that the product can be produced locally.

(5) PPC and Increase in Government Revenue

Government often collects tax, excise duties and fees for the registration of
businesses. When a collaborative effort brings to birth an industry whose product in
consumed locally or exported, more revenue will accrue to government in the form of tax.
Such money collected will be used for the construction of roads, railways, flyovers, bridges
etc that will benefit the public.

Conclusion

Public-private collaboration is a contractual arrangement in which the private sector
assists in delivering a public facility or service by providing funding or operating leadership.
It helps in stimulating economic development through the provision of job opportunities,
improving standard of living, development of indigenous technology and facilitation of
technology transfer, reduction in inflation and increasing government revenue.

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Recommendations

Based on the literature and the discourse so far, the following recommendations are
made:

1 Government at all levels (Federal State and Local) should put necessary policies in
place that will facilitate effective implementation and regulatory framework in public-
private collaboration projects that will enhance economic development.

2 Public-Private Collaboration (PPC) should be adopted with utmost sincerity and
commitment by all collaborators (government and private). This will ensure that
essential services are delivered to the public as planned.

3 The National Orientation Agency (NOA) should carry out sensitization and awareness
campaign on the need for private individuals, companies and non-governmental
organisations to collaborate with government in its effort to provide infrastructure
facilities that will improve economy development.

4 In the execution of PPC projects, risk should only be transferred to the party who has
the capacity to manage it to avoid project abandonment.

5 Officials from the Ministry with direct responsibility should ensure effective
monitoring, supervision and reporting on the progress or otherwise of PPC projects to
appropriate authority regularly. This will ensure that projects are implemented
according to specification.

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http://www.strategyand.pwc.com/media/ uploads/public-private-partnership.pdf.

Retrieved on 17th May, 2017.

Shen, L., Tom, V. W. Y., Gan, L., Ye, K. and Zhao, R. (2016). Improving Sustainability
Performance for Public-private Partnership. Available at http://www.mdpi.com>pdf.
Retrieved on May, 11 2017

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Concrete Pond Management Skills Required by out-of-School Youths for
Sustainable Fish Farming in Akwa Ibom State

Fidela E. Udoh Ph.D & Anthony A. Offiong Ph.D
Department of Vocational Education, University of Uyo

email:
[email protected]

Abstract
The study was designed to determine concrete pond management skills required by out-of-
school youths for sustainable pond fish farming in Akwa Ibom State. Two research questions
and two null hypotheses guided the study. The population of the study comprised of 360
respondents made up of two hundred and forty (240) agricultural extension agents and one
hundred and twenty (120) fisheries lecturers in three (3) tertiary institutions in Akwa Ibom
State. Simple random sampling technique was used to obtain fifty percent (50%) of the
population sample of 180 respondents. Data was collected from respondents using face
validated structured questionnaire. The result of the analysis revealed that out-of-school
youths required skills in pond construction and maintenance management skills. It was
recommended among others that out-of-school youths be trained on the identified concrete
pond management skills for sustainable fish farming in Akwa Ibom State.

Keywords: Concrete Pond, Skills, out-of-School Youths, Management, Fish Farming.

Introduction

Pond fish farming is the technology of controlled raising and growing of fish in

enclosed bodies of water known as pond. A pond facility can be constructed and demarcated
using net within natural water bodies of spring, stream, rivers and lake at low water depth

areas. A pond facility can also be successfully constructed on land. On the land, a variety of

raw materials are available for construction of fish pond. These include, earth, plastics,
concrete, bamboo, timber, tarpaulin, among others. However, farmers’ choice of material in

pond construction is usually influenced by factors such as, location, the available raw
material, the purpose of farming, the scale of production, the financial power and the farmer’s

level of management skill acquired. In line with this, some of the pond facilities currently
used for fish farming includes: earthen pond, plastic tank, wooden trough, cages, concrete

pond, Gee-Pee tanks and netting for pond demarcations in natural water bodies, Omitoyin

(2007) observed that, a pond facility constructed with the mixture of cement, sand and gravel

in the ratio of 1:2:4 using fresh water as solution is known as concrete pond. A concrete pond
can be constructed by erecting blocks, use of flat slaps or casting the mixture. The best form

of constructing concrete pond is circular or rectangular shapes. However, irrespective of any

design and form, the ultimate goal is to construct a durable solid enclosure capable of
retaining and holding a large volume of water for a period of time for culturing fish.

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Today according to Udoh (2012) the culturing of fish in concrete pond facility is now
common among farmers, especially in the urban and semi-urban areas due to unavailability of
sufficient land because of industrialization and housing. In addition, the farmers’ choice of
concrete pond facility when compared to other facilities is as a result of the outstanding
benefits farmers enjoy. Concrete pond does not require much land space. It can be
constructed on any soil type, structure and topography, when skillfully designed and
constructed to accommodate any topographical structure. It can be constructed within the
living quarters. It is durable when constructed following recommended specifications. In
addition to the construction benefits, culturing of fish in concrete pond permit high stocking
density. It gives room to close observation and monitoring of fish activities. It makes
provision for enhancing fish growth through feed supplementations. It reduces fish poaching.
Concrete pond facility also creates employment opportunity to individual engaging in pond
construction. The culturing of fish in concrete pond, gives employment opportunities of
hatching fish egg for pond stocking as well as re-stocking of natural water bodies. It increases
fish production and consumption towards promoting increase protein intake of man,
especially in the developing countries like Nigeria, in which the protein intake is below the
require 75g per person per day (Omitoyin, 2007).

The enticing benefits of culturing fish in concrete pond facility has motivated and
encouraged the people of Akwa Ibom State into concrete pond fish farming. Coupled with the
fact that Akwa Ibom is a maritime state with three major hydrographic features (Cross River,
Qua Iboe River and Imo River), the aquatic environment support fish farming. The fresh,
marine and brackish water ecosystem also provides a good number of culturable fish species
(Essen, 2005). In Akwa Ibom State, according to Udoh (2012) concrete pond fish farming is
found among the youths, civil servants, retirees, families, organizations, schools and even
farmers. A greater number of the self-motivated individuals and youths who operate in
concrete pond facility have little or no knowledge and skill practices required for sustainable
concrete pond fish farming. It is the concern of this paper, therefore, to identify the concrete
pond management skills required by out-of-school youths for sustainable fish farming and
employment opportunities in Akwa Ibom State.

Out-of-school youths are school drop-outs or school leavers at all levels of education
who for one reason or the other could not proceed for further studies. According to
O’Higgens (1997), among the vast majority of unemployed people in Nigeria are out-of-
school youths. This fraction of the population of any Nation needs to be trained to be
gainfully engaged in productive vocational activities like fish farming, otherwise they may
constitute a nuisance to other members of the society through involvement in anti-social
activities like cultism, militancy, insurgency, fraud and armed robbery. In line with this
observation, Ojo and Gagbenro (2008) affirmed that in Nigeria some tiers of government are
empowering youths to go into fish farming for employment and income generation.
Therefore in order to encourage sustainable fish farming among the youths in Akwa Ibom
State, the acquisition of skills in pond management becomes imperative.

Management according to Ebong (2000) consist of interlocking functions of creating,

organizing, planning, controlling and directing organizational resources in order to achieve

set objectives. A fish famer, in this case is a manager that organizes, plans, directs and control

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all the resources, knowledge and skill practices involved in sustainable fish farming. Udoh
(2012) observed that the measurement of sustainability in concrete pond fish farming is in the
acquisition of management skills and practices required such as site selection skills,
construction management skills, pond preparation and pond maintenance skills.

Skill according to Udoh (2012) is the ability to learn, understand, interpret and apply
wisdom to be manifested. Osinem (2008) also observed that skill is the practical proficiency
displayed in the performance of a task. Ekong and Udoh (2014) equally opined that skill is an
acquired knowledge translated into practical activity. Skill acquisition, according to Usoro
(2016), is an ability to work productively. In the same line of thought Udoh (2012) opined
that skill acquisition is the ability of an individual to demonstrate the habit of thinking, acting
and performing within a particular task domain in such a way that the process becomes
natural to the individual through practice. Hence, deducting from the understanding of skill
and skill acquisition for productivity in a given task, it therefore implies that if out-of-school
youths should acquire the prerequisite practical skill requirement in operating concrete pond
facility, there is likely to be proficiency, expertise achievement, productivity and above all
sustainability in fish farming for national development.

Statement of the Problem
In Akwa Ibom State, it is observed that out-of-school youths farming in concrete pond

are faced with problems of pond cracking, pond leakage, poor inlet-and outlet water drainage
system and at the worst end, pond collapse. This is because they lack the basic management
skills in concrete pond management. This usually results at untimely folding up and
unsustainable fish farming for self-reliance. The paper, therefore, seek to identify concrete
pond management skills required by out-of-school youths for sustainable fish farming.

Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to identify concrete pond management skills required by out-of-
school youths for sustainable fish farming in Akwa Ibom State. Specifically the study sought
to:
1. Determine concrete pond construction management skills required by out-of-school

youths for sustainable fish farming in Akwa Ibom State.
2. Determine concrete pond maintenance management skills required by out-of-school

youths for sustainable fish farming in Akwa Ibom State.

Research Questions
The study answers the following research questions;

1. What are the concrete pond construction management skills required by out of school
youths for sustainable fish farming in Akwa Ibom State.

2. What are the concrete pond maintenance management skills required by out-of-school
youths for sustainable fish farming in Akwa Ibom State.

Null Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were formulated and tested at .05 level of significance.

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Ho1: There is no significant difference in the mean rating of agricultural extension agents
and fisheries lectures on concrete pond construction management skills required by
out-of-school youths for sustainable fish farming in Akwa Ibom State.

Ho2: There is no significant difference in the mean rating of agricultural extension agents
and fisheries lecturers on concrete pond maintenance management skills required by
out-of-school youths for sustainable fish farming in Akwa Ibom State.

Methodology

Survey design was used to identify skills required by out-of-school youths for

sustainable fish in concrete pond facility. The population of the study which consisted of 380

respondents, comprised of two hundred and forty (240) agricultural extension agents and one

hundred and twenty (120) fisheries lecturers, in University of Uyo, College of Education,

Afaha Nsit, and Akwa Ibom State University, Ikot Akpaden, all in Akwa Ibom State. A fifty

percent (50%) sample each of the 240 agriculture extension agents and the one hundred and

twenty(120) fisheries lecturers were randomly selected giving a total of 180 respondents.

Data were collected through the use of researchers made questionnaire which
contained 16 items and titled “Concrete Pond Management Skills Required by out-of-school
youths for Sustainable Fish Farming Questionnaire” (CPMSROYQ). Face validation was

done by fisheries lecturers in Fisheries Department, University of Uyo and Vocational

Education Department (Agricultural Education) University of Uyo. The questionnaire had a

4-point rating scale of Very Greatly Required (VGR), Greatly Required (GR), Required (R)

and Not Required (NR) with assigned scores of 4, 3, 2 and 1 respectively. Data were analysed

using mean, standard deviation and t-test using the Statistical Package for Social Science

(SPSS). For answering research questions, the benchmark required was 2.50. A mean of 2.50

and above were considered as required while below 2.50 were considered not required. The

null hypotheses were rejected for items whose level of significance were less than or equal to
.05. (i.e. P ≤ .05). If otherwise they were upheld.

The real limits of assigned values of rating for decision on the level of out-of-school

youths concrete pond construction and maintenance management skills required are shown

below:

Rating Options Assigned Values Real Limit Decision

Very greatly required 4 3.50-4.00 VGR

Greatly required 3 2.50-3.49 GR

Required 2 1.50-2.49 R

Not Required 1 0.5-1.49 NR

Results

Research Question 1: What are the concrete pond construction management skills required
by out of school youths for sustainable fish farming in Akwa Ibom State.
Results of research question 1 are presented in

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Table 1: Concrete pond construction management skills required by out-of-school
youths for sustainable fish farming in Akwa Ibom State. n = 180

S/N Concrete Pond Construction Management Skills SD Remark

1 Clearing and stumping of proposed site of all plants and 3.50 .72 VGR

vegetations.

2 Employing of skilled professional in concrete pond 3.78 .41 VGR

construction.

3 Using the recommended mixture of cement, sand and 3.85 .35 VGR

gravel in the ratio of 1:2:4 respectively

4 Construction of at least 2-4 pond facilities at 3.65 .47 VGR

commencement to ease fish sorting

5 Construction of ponds using a common embankment 3.68 .46 VGR

6 Casting of pond floor using concrete mixture 3.12 1.05 GR

7 Plastering of pond walls both in and out using one inch 3.04 1.01 GR

thickness

8 Building of pond inner corners in circular forms 3.34 .63 GR

9 Reinforcement of pond wall by building of buttress 3.30 .89 GR

outside the pond

10 Installing of pond-water inlet channels at the upper part of 3.67 .46 VGR

pond and outlet channel at the bottom.

GRAND TOTAL 3.49 VGR

Source: Field study, 2017.

Results in Table 1 shows that all the items enumerated had grand mean of 3.49 and mean
ratings of above 2.50. This reveals that out-of-school youths required the management skills
for concrete pond construction.

Research Question 2: What are the concrete pond maintenance management skills required
by out-of-school youths for sustainable fish farming in Akwa Ibom State.
Results of research question 2 are presented on Table 2.

Table 2: Concrete pond maintenance management skills required by out-of-school

youths for sustainable fish farming in Akwa Ibom State. n = 180

S/N Concrete Pond Maintenance Management Skills SD Remark

1 Cleaning and washing of pond at the completion of every 3.54 .50 VGR

production cycle VGR

2 Filling pond with water at all times to prevent direct heat of 3.73 .44 VGR
GR
sun that causes cracking
GR
3 Covering / shading of pond during dry seasons 3.72 .45 VGR

4 Not using sharp object to wash and scrub pond bottom and 3.10 1.04 VGR

inner walls

5 Avoiding using heavy object on pond 3.42 1.02

6 Prompt repairs of pond cracking, leakage, collapse and all 3.64 .70

forms of damages

Grand Total 3.52

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Result in Table 2 shows that all the items had grand mean of 3.52 and mean rating of above
2.50. This shows that out-of-school youths required all the identified pond maintenance
management skills for sustainable fish farming in Akwa Ibom State.

Ho1: There is no significant difference in the mean rating of agricultural extension agents
and fisheries lectures on concrete pond construction management skills required by
out-of-school youths for sustainable fish farming in Akwa Ibom State.

Results of research hypothesis 1 are presented on Table 3.

Table 3: t-test analysis for concrete pond construction management skills required by

out-of-school youths for sustainable fish farming in Akwa Ibom State.

( = Ext. Agents 2 = Fisheries Lecturers) n1 = 60; n2 = 120

S/N Management Skills Required by 1 SD1 2 SD2 Df t-cal P Remark
Out-of-School Youths in the

Construction of Concrete Pond

1 Clearing and stumping of proposed 3.46 .73 3.51 .72 178 -.308 .759 NS

site of all plants and vegetations.

2 Employing of skilled professionals 3.80 .40 3.78 .41 178 .181 .857 NS

in concrete pond construction.

3 Using the recommended mixture of 3.80 .40 3.88 .32 178 -1.055 .294 NS

cement, sand and gravel in the

ratio of 1:2:4 respectively

4 Construction of at least 2-4 pond 3.66 .47 3.65 .48 178 .155 .877 NS

facilities at commencement to ease

fish sorting

5 Construction of ponds using a 3.73 44 3.66 47 178 .638 .525 NS

common embankment

6 Casting of pond floor using 3.26 1.01 3.05 1.08 178 .915 .363 NS

concrete mixture

7 Plastering of pond wall, both in 3.06 1.01 3.03 1.02 178 .146 .884 NS

and out using 2.5cm thickness

8 Building of pond inner corners in 3.33 .60 3.35 .65 178 -.116 .908 NS

circular forms

9 Reinforcement of pond wall by 3.26 78 3.31 .94 178 -.249 .804 NS

building of buttress outside the

pond

10 Installing of pond-water inlet 3.66 .47 3.68 .46 178 -.158 .875 NS

channels at the upper part of pond

and outlet channel at the bottom.

TOTAL 3.50 3.49 178 -.184 .854 NS

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Data in Table 3 indicates that all the items in concrete pond construction management skills
required by out-of-school youths had p-values greater than .05. Therefore, the null hypothesis
(Ho1) that there is no significant difference in the mean rating of extension workers and
fisheries lecturers on concrete pond construction management skills required by out-of-school
youths was accepted. This implies that all the skills studied are needed by out-of-school
youths for sustainable fish farming in Akwa Ibom State.

Ho2: There is no significant difference in the mean rating of agricultural extension agents
and fisheries lecturers on concrete pond maintenance skills required by out-of-school
youths for sustainable fish farming in Akwa Ibom State.

Results of research hypothesis 2 are presented on Table 4.

Table 4: t-test analysis for concrete pond maintenance management skills required by
out-of-school youths for sustainable fish farming in Akwa Ibom State.

( = Ext. Agents 2 = Fisheries Lecturers) n1 = 60; n2 = 120

S/N Management Skills Required by 1 SD1 2 SD2 df t-cal P Remark

Out-of-School Youths in the

Management of Concrete Pond

1 Cleaning and washing of pond at the 3.60 .49 3.51 .50 178 .742 .460 NS

completion of every production cycle

2 Filling pond with water at all times to 3.73 .44 3.73 .44 178 000 1.000 NS

prevent direct heat of sun that causes

cracking

3 Covering / shading of pond during dry 3.73 .44 3.71 .45 178 .165 .870 NS

seasons

4 Not using sharp object to wash and 3.06 1.0 3.11 1.04 178 - .833 NS

scrub pond bottom and inner walls 8 .212

5 Avoiding using heavy object on pond 3.40 1.0 3.43 1.03 178 - .886 NS

3 .144

6 Prompt repairs of pond cracking, 3.66 .71 3.63 .71 178 .209 .835 NS

leakage, collapse and all forms of

damages

TOTAL 3.53 3.52 178 082 .935 NS

Source: Field study, 2017.
Data in Table 4 indicates that all the items on pond maintenance management skills

had p-values greater than .05. Therefore, the null hypothesis (Ho2) that there is no
significance difference in the mean rating of agricultural extension agents and fisheries

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lecturers on pond maintenance management skills required by out-of-school youths was
accepted. This implies that the skills on concrete pond maintenance management are
therefore critical for sustainable farming in Akwa Ibom State by out-of-school youths in an
effort to keep them productively engaged.
Discussion of Findings

The findings on out-of-school youths management skills required for the construction
of concrete pond for sustainable farming in Akwa Ibom State shows that all the skills were
needed by the out-of-school youths. The analysis of the result in Table 1 indicated that all the
identified skills were required by out-of-school youths. The t-analysis in Table 3 indicated
that there was significant difference in the mean response of agriculture extension agents and
fisheries lecturers on management skills required by out-of-school youths in the construction
of concrete pond for sustainable fish farming. The finding of the study is in line with the
findings of Omitoyin (2007) which viewed that concrete pond should be constructed by
experienced and skilled professionals and not by quacks. Accordingly, Udoh (2012) observed
that two to four (2 – 4) pond facilities should be constructed at the start to facilitate fish
sorting, using common embankment to fortify strength. The author further maintained that
pond bottom should be concretized, the inner corners should be built in circular forms to give
fish smooth water environment and the pond walls plastered at least 2.5cm thickness while
buttress should be built outside the pond walls to fortify the pond. The installation of water
inlet and outlet channels to facilitate proper drainage management, are the management skills
required by out-of-school youths for sustainable fish farming in concrete pond facility. The
fact remain that if out-of-school youths are trained to acquire the basic skills in pond
construction, the incidence of pond leakage, cracking, poor water drianage and collapse
would be prevented in concrete pond fish farming.

The results in Table 2 showed that all the maintenance management skills are required
by out-of-school youths. The t-test analysis on Table 4 also indicated that there is significant
difference in the mean responses of agricultural extension agents and fisheries lecturers on
maintenance management skills required by out-of-school youths. The finding of the study is
in line with the finding of Okaeme (2011) which opined that out-of-school youths required
acquisition of pond maintenance skills of impounding a clean water to cover the bottom and
inner walls of pond at all times with or without fish, not hitting pond with heavy object, not
using sharp object to scrub pond bottom and walls, cleaning and washing of pond after a
production cycle, shading of pond during dry season and prompt response to repairs of pond
crack, leakage and collapse are the maintenance management skills required by farmers for
sustainable fish farming in concrete pond facility. This implies that out-of-school youths
acquisition of the maintenance skill, would help to overcome problems associated with poor
pond maintenance resulting in cracking, leakage, collapse and unsustainable fish farming in
Akwa Ibom State.

Conclusion
From the findings of the study, it could be concluded that out-of-school youths going

into fish farming require the identified management skills in pond construction and
maintenance being the benchmarks for productive and sustainable fish farming in concrete
pond.

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Recommendations
From the study, the following recommendations were made:

1. Akwa Ibom Agricultural Development Programme through the agricultural extension
agents should train out-of-school youths on identified pond construction and
maintenance management skills for sustainable fish farming in Akwa Ibom State.

2. Fisheries lecturer’s through fish farmers association should organize a training
workshop for out-of-school youths on identified pond construction and maintenance
skills for sustainable fish farming in Akwa Ibom State.

3. Out-of-school youths should always identify themselves with renowned registered
fish farms to learn the required skills and management practices to establish and
remain in concrete pond fish farming sustainably in Akwa Ibom State.

References

Ebong, V. O. (2000).: The Agribusiness Management in a Developing Economy : Nigeria
Perspective. Uyo, Dorand Publishers.

Ekong, A. O. and Udoh, F. E. (2014). Fish Pond Water Management Practices and Students’
Acquisition of Skills in Homestead Fish Farming. Journal of Education, University of
Uyo, Uyo 7(1), 77-88.

Essen, A. A. (2005). The Basic of Successful Fish Farming in Coastal and Semi-Coastal
Zones of Nigeria. Uyo: Impact Ventures.

O’Higgens, N. (1997). The challenge of youth unemployment. Geneva. ILO publishers.

Ojo, S. O. & Gagbenro, O. A. (2008). Empowering Youths to Fight Unemployment and
Poverty through Effective Fish Farming Strategy in Nigeria. https//ir library
oregonstate edu. handle. Retrieved June 14, 2017.

Okaeme, A. N. (2011). Homestead Fish Pond and the Environment in Nigeria. New Bussa,
Niger State: National Institute for Freshwater Fisheries Research (NIFFR).
www.aguaticommons.org/idprint/3731/ AccessedMay7,2011.

Omitoyin, B. O. (2007). Introduction to Fish Farming in Nigeria. Mushin, Lagos: Royal Bird
Venture.

Osinem, E. C. (2008). Managing Agricultural Education and Training, Resource, Principles
and Methods. Enugu: Belony International Publishers.

Udoh, F. E. (2012). Effect of Pond Culture Practices on Students’ Acquisition of Skills in
Homestead Fish Culture in Akwa Ibom State. An Unpublished Ph.D Thesis Submitted
to the Department of Vocational Education, Faculty of Education, University of Uyo.

Usoro, E. B. (2016). Business Education Skills Acquisition and Development for Posterity:
The 49th Inaugural Lecture Delivered at the University of Uyo, Uyo on June 30, 2016.

University of Uyo Press Ltd.

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Effect of Inquiry-Based Instruction on Students’ Achievement and
Retention in Biology in Hadejia Education Zone, Jigawa State

Abubakar Abdullahi Dogo
National Open University Of Nigeria, Dutse Study Centre

Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

This study evaluated the effect of inquiry-based instruction on students’ achievement and
retention in Biology in Hadejia Education Zone, Jigawa State, Nigeria. The study was quasi-
experimental, pretest-posttest control group design. The sample was drawn from intact
classes from four single educational schools. A total of 184 male and female students were
used in the study. The sample were got using purposive and simple random sampling
techniques. The instrument for the study was designed by the researchers and tagged Biology
Achievement Test (BAT). This was validated by experts and Kuder- Richardson 20 formulae
was used to estimate the reliability which yielded a coefficient of 0.82 alpha. Mean and
standard deviation was used to answer the all the research questions while ANCOVA was
used to test the four hypotheses at 0.05 significant level. Results showed that students taught
biology via IBI instructional approach significantly gained higher mean achievement scores
and retention scores than their counterparts in the control group (p=0.00 for both cases).
The study also found that male and female students’ achievement (p=0.35) and retention
(p=0.20) did not significantly differed. Based on these, the study recommended that teachers
of biology should adopt this approach in teaching their students for better achievement and
dissipate boredom from their classrooms.

Keyword: Inquiry-Based Instructional Approach, Achievement, Retention, Gender

Introduction
Education is an instrument used in developing citizens who in turn contribute to

national development. The educational development of any country is therefore given
paramount attention in order to secure the future of the nation. One area of education that has
remained outstanding in national development is science. Science has been instrumental in
shaping and improving the destiny of humanity (Ezeudu, Ofoegbu, & Anyaegbunnam, 2013).
Science gives explanations to things and raises human beings above animals (Abubakar,
2015). Science in secondary schools is taught through the separate science subjects as
Chemistry, Physics and Biology. The importance of these science subjects, particularly
Biology cannot be overemphasis.

Biology as the science of life is offered in all Senior Secondary Schools in Nigeria

and attracts the patronage of both Science oriented and Arts based students (Nwosu, 2006).

Urevbu (1990) points out that the teaching of Biology is important because it equips the

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students to comprehend the world around them and equip them with the necessary skills to
build a progressive society. Similarly, Nwosu (2006) observed that Biology provides a
platform for teaching students to develop the ability to apply science concepts and principles
in solving everyday life problems. Recent advancement recorded in Biology related fields
such as Biochemistry, Physiology, Ecology, Genetics and Molecular Biology made the
subject a central focus in most human activities including solving problems like food scarcity,
pollution, population, radiation, disease, health, hygiene, family life, management and
conservation of natural resources. It is therefore expected that students’ achievement in
Biology should be impressive to indicate that the goals of teaching Biology are attained.
Nevertheless, students’ performance in the subject remains a worrisome issue.

Abubakar (2015) reported that the rate at which students in public schools in Jigawa
State are getting poor results in Biology despite the huge amount of money the government
was said to have expended on education is causing concern. Commenting on students’
achievement in Biology, Okafor and Okeke (2006) observed that students’ performance in
the subject is generally poor in Senior Secondary School Certificate (SSCE). This problem of
poor performances in sciences is generally attributed to the fact that despite the much
acclaimed modern teaching approaches abound, the traditional teaching approaches are still
prevailing in most schools (Imoko & Jimin, 2016). The traditional approaches are therefore
failing to make students to understand and retain knowledge to write external examinations
that are not immediate. Similarly, Omajuwa (2011) attributes the students’ poor performances
to poor teaching techniques used by teachers in the Senior Secondary Schools.

The reported constant poor performance in SSCE Biology has attracted a lot of
concern from science educators. Thus, researchers in science education in Nigeria has
continued to seek better ways of teaching Biology in order to maximize meaningful learning
(Esiobu, 2000). One strategy that has recorded success among researchers report is Inquiry-
Based Instructional (IBI). Inquiry-based instruction is used here as a broad umbrella term to
describe approaches to learning that are driven by a process of inquiry.

The instructional approach is a research-based strategy that actively involves students
in the exploration of the content, issues, and questions surrounding a curricular area or
concept. Activities in an inquiry-based classroom are designed to make students work
individually or in group to solve problems involving both in-class work and fieldwork. The
approach is highly student-focused with the teacher’s role limited to facilitation. The teacher
acts as a facilitator with the extent of involvement varying and depending on the level of the
students understanding of the inquiry process. Opera and Oguzor (2011) averred that the
teachers’ role in inquiry-based class is that of establishing the task and supporting the
process, while students pursue their own lines of inquiry, draw on their existing knowledge
and identify the consequent learning needs. The approach stimulates students to follow up
interesting lines of inquiry and supports them in concentrating their efforts where they need
to undertake further work (Khan & O’Rourke, 2012). Gormally, Brickman, Hallar and
Armstrong (2009) submitted that inquiry-based learning is capable of improving students’
science literacy skills abilities and self-confidence. It is with this background in mind that the

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researcher set up this work to investigate the effect of inquiry-based instructional strategy on
students’ achievement and retention in Biology.

Research Questions
Four research questions were raised and answered in this study.
1. What is the mean performance scores of students taught Biology using inquiry-based

instruction and those who were taught using a traditional approach?
2. What are the mean retention scores of students taught Biology using inquiry-based

instruction and those who were taught using a traditional approach?
3. What are the mean performance scores of male and female students exposed to inquiry-

based instruction?
4. What are the mean retention scores of male and female students exposed to inquiry-based

instruction?
Null Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were tested in the study at 0.05 significant level.
1. There is no significant difference in the mean performance scores of students taught

Biology using inquiry-based instruction and those who were taught via traditional
approach.
2. There is no significant difference in the mean retention scores of students taught Biology
using inquiry-based instruction and those who were taught using traditional approach.
3. There is no significant difference in the mean performance scores of male and female
students taught biology using inquiry-based instruction.
4. There is no significant difference in the mean retention scores of male and female
students taught biology using inquiry-based instruction.

Methodology
The study was conducted using a quasi-experimental, pre test-post test control group

design. The choice of this design over others was due to the fact that the researcher used
students’ intact classes due to the inability to randomize students into the experimental and
controlled conditions. The area of study was Hadejia Education Zone, Jigawa State which
comprise of 3 Local Government Areas. The population of the study consisted of 2050 Senior
Secondary 2 (SS2) students from the study area. The sample consisted of 184 students drawn
from 4 intact classes through purposive and simple random sampling techniques. One school
was randomly selected from each of the Local Government while the last was randomly
picked among the three Local Government Areas. Out of the four schools selected, two were
randomly assigned to the experimental conditions and were taught using inquiry-based
instruction while the other two were taught using their teachers preferred methods.

An instrument designed by the researcher and named Biology Achievement Test was
used to collect to measure students’ achievement and retention. The instrument was a 40-item

multi-choice test with options A-D. The reliability of the instrument was computed using

Kuder-Richardson 20 (K-R20) and found to be 0.82. The test was given to the students as a

pre-test to ascertain the entry knowledge of students and reshuffled to be used as post-test and
retention test. A teacher’s guide on the implementation of inquiry-based instruction was

designed by the researcher for the experimental group while the control group teachers taught

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with their prepared lesson notes. Teachers from both groups were given four weeks to teach
topics specified by the researcher after the pre-test. The post-test was immediately
administered after the teaching while the retention test was given to the students after four
months. Means and Standard Deviations were used to answer the 4 research questions while
the 4 hypotheses were tested using Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) at 0.05 level of
significance.

Research Question 1
What are the mean performance scores of students taught Biology using inquiry-based
instruction and those who were taught using a traditional approach?

Table 1: Mean performance scores and standard deviations of students in experimental
and control groups

Group N Pre Test Scores Post Test Scores Mean Gain
xδ xδ

Experimental 105 10.13 4.29 25.83 5.92 15.70

Control 79 9.65 3.96 18.54 6.29 8.89

Mean Difference 0.48 7.29 6.81

Table 1 presents mean performance scores and standard deviations of students in
experimental and control groups. The mean performance score of students in the
experimental group at pre-test was 10.13±4.29 while that of control group was 9.65±3.96.
The table reveals the means at post-test as 25.83±5.92 for experimental group and 18.54±6.29
for control group. The difference between the pre-test means was shown as 0.48 while that of
post-test was revealed as 7.29. The mean gained by the experimental and control groups were
15.70 and 8.89 respectively. The difference in the mean gains between the groups was 6.81.
This suggests that students in the experimental group gained more mean performance score
than those in the control group.

Research Question 2
What are the mean retention scores of students taught Biology using inquiry-based instruction
and those who were taught using a traditional approach?

Table 2: Mean retention scores and standard deviations of students in experimental and
control groups

Group N Pre Test Scores Retention Test Scores Mean Gain

xδ x δ

Experimental 105 10.13 4.29 22.77 5.36 12.64

Control 79 9.65 3.96 15.39 5.65 5.74

Mean Difference 0.48 7.38 6.90

Table 2 presents mean retention scores and standard deviations of students in experimental
and control groups. The mean retention score of students in the experimental group was

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shown as 22.77±5.36 while that of control group was 15.39±5.65. The difference between the
retention means was shown as 7.38. The mean retention gained by the experimental and
control groups were 12.64 and 5.74 respectively. The difference in the mean gains was 6.90
which suggest that students in the experimental group retained knowledge more than those in
the control group.

Research Question 3

What are the mean performance scores of male and female students exposed to inquiry-based
instruction?

Table 3: Mean performance scores and standard deviations of male and female students

in experimental group

Gender N Pre Test Scores Post Test Scores Mean Gain
xδ xδ

Male Students 62 10.35 4.67 26.37 5.67 16.02

Female Students 43 9.81 3.72 25.05 6.25 15.24

Mean Difference 0.54 1.32 0.78

Table 3 presents mean performance scores and standard deviations of students in
experimental group according to gender. The mean performance score of male students at
pre-test was 10.35±4.67 and that of female students was 9.81±3.72. Result from Table 3
reveals the means at post-test for male and female students as 26.37±5.67 and 25.05±6.25
respectively. The differences between the means at pre-test and post-test were revealed as
0.54 and 1.32. The mean gained by male students was 16.02 while female students gained
15.24. The difference in the mean gains was 0.78 which suggests the difference between
gender performance was small.

Research Question 4

What are the mean retention scores of male and female students exposed to inquiry-based
instruction?

Table 4: Mean retention scores and standard deviations of male and female students in
experimental group

Gender N Pre Test Scores Post Test Scores Mean Gain
xδ xδ

Male Students 62 10.35 4.29 23.40 5.31 13.05

Female Students 43 9.81 3.96 21.86 5.37 12.21

Mean Difference 0.54 1.54 0.84

Table 4 presents mean retention scores and standard deviations of students in experimental

group according to gender. The mean retention score of male was shown as 23.40±5.31 while

female students retained 21.86±5.37. The difference between the retention means gains were

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shown as 13.05 for male and 12.21 for female. The difference in the mean gains was 0.84.
This indicates that the difference between gender mean retention gains was small.

Null Hypothesis 1
There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students taught Biology
using inquiry-based instruction and those who were taught via traditional approach.

Table 5: One-way ANCOVA report on the effect of inquiry-based instruction on
students’ achievement in biology

Source Type III Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Corrected Model 5106.75 2 2553.37 114.97 0.00

Intercept 4604.59 1 4604.9 207.33 0.00

pretest 2714.69 1 2714.69 122.23 0.00

group 2096.40 1 2096.40 94.39 0.00

Error 4019.81 181 22.21

Total 103949.00 184

Corrected Total 9126.56 183

Table 5 presents one-way ANCOVA report on the effect of Inquiry-Based Instruction (IBL)
on students’ performance in biology. The table reveals that F(1,181) = 94.39 and p = 0.00. With
p<0.05, (p is the significant value and 0.05 the level of significance for the study), the study
find the test statistic significant. The null hypothesis which states that there is no significant
difference in the mean performance scores of students taught biology using IBI and those
who were not taught using a traditional approach was rejected. This indicates that, the
students taught with IBI attained higher mean score at post-test compared to their
counterparts in the control group.

Null Hypothesis 2
There is no significant difference in the mean retention scores of students taught Biology
using inquiry-based instruction and those who were taught using traditional approach.

Table 6: One-way ANCOVA report on the effect of inquiry-based instruction on
students’ retention in biology

Source Type III Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Corrected Model 4300.32 2 2150.16 107.10 0.00

Intercept 3608.10 1 3608.10 179.72 0.00

pretest 1845.63 1 1845.63 91.93 0.00

group 2204.75 1 2204.75 109.82 0.00

Error 3633.72 181 20.08

Total 78643.00 184

Corrected Total 7934.04 183

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Table 6 presents one-way ANCOVA report on the effect of inquiry-based instruction on
students’ retention in biology. The table reveals that F(1,181) = 109.82 and p = 0.00. Since
p<0.05, the study find the test statistic significant. The null hypothesis which states that there
is no significant difference in the mean retention scores of students taught biology using IBI
and those who were not taught using a traditional approach was rejected. This indicates that,
the students taught with IBI obtained higher mean score at retention-test compared to their
counterparts in the control group.

Null Hypothesis 3
There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of male and female
students taught biology using inquiry-based instruction.

Table 7: One-way ANCOVA report on the effect of inquiry-based instruction on
students’ achievement in biology according to gender

Source Type III Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Corrected Model 927.96 2 463.98 17.41 0.00

Intercept 5634.80 1 5634.80 211.39 0.00

pretest 883.42 1 883.42 33.14 0.00

gender 23.15 1 23.15 0.87 0.35

Error 2718.96 102 26.66

Total 73694.00 105

Corrected Total 3646.91 104

Table 7 presents one-way ANCOVA report on the effect of IBL on students’ achievement in
biology according to gender. The table reveals that F(1,102) = 0.87 and p = 0.35. With p>0.05,
the study find the test statistic not to be significant. The null hypothesis which states that
there is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of male and female students
taught biology using IBI was not rejected. This indicates that, IBI is not gender sensitive in
terms of students’ achievement.

Null Hypothesis 4

There is no significant difference in the mean retention scores of male and female students
taught biology using inquiry-based instruction.

Table 8: One-way ANCOVA report on the effect of inquiry-based instruction on
students’ retention in biology according to gender

Source Type III Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Corrected Model 700.65 2 350.32 15.59 0.00

Intercept 4472.09 1 4472.09 199.03 0.00

pretest 640.22 1 640.22 28.49 0.00

gender 38.24 1 38.24 1.70 0.20

Error 2291.87 102 22.47

Total 57439.00 105

Corrected Total 2992.51 104

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Table 8 presents one-way ANCOVA report on the effect of inquiry based instruction on
students’ retention in biology according to gender. The table reveals that F(1,102) = 1.70 and p
= 0.20. With p>0.05, the study find the test statistic not to be significant. The null hypothesis

which states that there is no significant difference in the mean retention scores of male and

female students taught biology using IBI was not rejected. The conclusion was that, with IBI,

the retention ability of male and female students did not significantly differed achievement.

Discussion of the Findings
This study investigated the effect of inquiry-based instructional strategy on students’

retention in biology in Hadejia Education Zone. Results from analysis in Tables 1 and 5
indicates that students taught biology using IBI significantly obtained higher mean
achievement scores in BAT compared to those who were not taught using a traditional
approach. The study also found in Table 2 and 6 that students taught biology using IBI
significantly obtained higher mean retention score in the retention test compared to those who
were not taught using a traditional approach. This finding was attributed to the fact that
students who were taught biology using IBI were more involved in the learning process
which enhanced their understanding and made learning more permanent.

This finding is in conformity with the funding of Imoko and Jimin (2016) which
stated that IBI was instrumental to students, achievement in geometric constructions. This
study is also in agreement with the findings of Gormally, Brickman, Hallar and Armstrong
(2009) that inquiry-based learning significantly improved students’ science literacy skills
abilities and self-confidence compared to students taught using traditional method.

This finding is also in consonance with the findings of Akkus, Gunel, and Hand
(2007) that inquiry method has significant effect on students’ learning outcomes when
compared to other traditional methods. The result was consistent with the finding of
Remziye, Yeter, Sevgul, Zehra and Meral (2011) who found in a study on effects of Inquiry-
based Science teaching on elementary school students’ science process skills and science
attitude that inquiry-based teaching significantly enhances students’ science process skills
and attitude. The study also found in Table 3, 4, 7 and 8 that the mean achievement scores
and mean retention scores of male and female students taught biology using IBI did not
significantly differ. This was an indication that IBI was no gender sensitive. This finding is in
agreement with the findings of Agboghoroma and Oyovwi (2015) which stated that there was
no significant difference between the performance of male and female students when exposed
to difficult topics in biology. The findings of this study is in agreement with those of
Akpokorie (2000) and Omajuwa (2011) who submitted that sex have no influence on students
achievement in biology when taught IBI methods.

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Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study the following recommendations are made:
1. Since it has been observed that those taught biology using IBI instructional approach

performed better than their control group counterparts, it is recommended that teachers of
biology should adopt this approach in teaching their students for better achievement and
dissipate boredom from their classrooms. The students would be kept very busy since
they enjoy activities.
2. With the performances of male and female students not seen to be significantly different,
biology teachers should feel free to use IBI instructional approach in teaching but male
and female students.

Conclusion

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of inquiry-based instructional
approach on students’ achievement and retention in biology. The results indicated that IBI
instructional approach could have a positive effect on students’ achievement and retention in

biology. This research has demonstrated that with proper instructional activities, IBI
instructional approach might be a valuable tool not only to enhancing students’ immediate

achievement in biology, but also their retention in the long run.

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