International Journal of Educational Benchmark (IJEB) - Vol. 8, Issue 3, final print

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Department of Vocational Education,
University of Uyo, Nigeria

International Journal of Educational
Benchmark (IJEB)

Vol. 8, Issue 3, July/September 2017

Impact Factor .861

Uyo, Nigeria 2017

Editorial Board Members of International Journal of Educational
Benchmark

Chief Editorial Officer
Professor G. A. Akpan
University of Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria

Prof. Sri Milfayetty State University of Medan North
Sumatera, Indonesia

Prof. Ignatius Uduk University of Uyo, Nigeria

Prof. E. B. Usoro University of Uyo, Nigeria

Dr. K. Nachimuthu Assistant Professor, Periyar University, Salem,
Tamil Nadu, India.

Dr. Sonny D. Abia Miramar, Florida. USA

Dr. Bonface Ngari Ireri Africa Nazarene University, Kenya

Prof. B.A. Ladani Federal University, Dutsin-ma, Nigeria

Prof. A. O. Ekong University of Uyo, Nigeria
Dr. T. C. Ogbuanya University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Prof Ayodeji Badejo Lagos State University Ojo.

Dr. E. U. Joseph University of Uyo, Nigeria

Prof. E. C. Osinem University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Dr. E. E. Asuquo University of Uyo, Nigeria

Prof. V. E. Onweh Michael Okpara University of Agriculture,
Umudike, Nigeria

Prof. Samuel I. Akinseinde Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria

Dr. Uduak A. Okon University of Uyo, Nigeria

Prof E. J. Udoh University of Uyo, Nigeria

Asso. Prof. P. C. Okwelle Rivers State University of Science and
Technology

Dr. Uduak Enang University of Uyo, Nigeria

Dr. Uwakwe Okereke IgbokweAbia State University, Uturu, E-mail:

ii

[email protected]

Prof. V.C. Chibuike Enugu State University of Technology
Prof. K.R.E. Okoye Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka
Prof. Chris Chukuwrah University of Calabar, Nigeria
Dr. Paulinus Etim University of Uyo, Nigeria
Dr. P. S. William University of Uyo, Nigeria

iii

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International Journal of Educational Benchmark

About the Journal

The “International Journal of Educational Benchmark” (IJEB), is a multidisciplinary, double-
blind, peer reviewed, open access journal, publishing original academic articles that deal with
issues of international relevance in educational theory, methodology and practice. The
journal has a distinguished editorial board with extensive academic records, helping to ensure
that high academic quality benchmarks and scientific standards are maintained. IJEB
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and quantitative concerns. Importance and preference will be given to those articles that
address and contribute to important disciplinary and interdisciplinary queries, clarifications,
problem statements and controversies. The journal publishes original research articles on a
wide range of topics of contemporary relevance in the broad fields of Arts, Education and
Humanities.

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International Journal of Educational Benchmark

ISSN: ONLINE: 2489-0170, PRINT: 2489-4162
Volume 8, Issue 3, July/September 2017

TABLE OF CONTENTS

S/no List of Contributors Authors Pages
1 Influence of Cloud Computing Variables on Umana, Sarah Archibong &Dr. 1-12
2 Telecommunications Ecosystem in Akwa Ibom State Ezekiel O. Akpan 13-23
3 Effect of Inquiry-Based Teaching Technique on Engr Amaechi, O. J., Obed. O. 24-33
Students’ Performance in Refrigeration for Sustainable O., Orlu I., & Thomas, C. G
4 Development in Technical Colleges in Rivers State. 34-42
5 Impact of Concept-Mapping Strategies on Retention and Nuru, A. R; Bichi, S. S; 43-53
Performance in Biology among Concrete and Formal Olorukooba, S. B. & Olajide, J.
6 Operational Secondary School Students in Zaria, O. 54-64
Nigeria
7 Thinking Maps as Benchmarking Tools for Basic Larai Adamu & Bernadette 65-74
Science and Technology Instruction: Implication for Ebele Ozoji, (Ph.D)
8 Sustainable National Development 75-83
9 Determinants of Organization of Intramural Sports OLUBOBOLA, Victoria 84-93
10 Activities in Public Secondary Schools in Kabba-Bunu Favour; ELOJI, Stella 94-102
11 Local Government Area, Kogi State Azuanuka ; AMUPITAN, Shogo 103-110
12 Edward, & OLAOYE, Ayobami 111-120
13 Industrial Attachment and Technical College Student Kazeem 121-128
14 Skills Acquisition for Sustainable Development in Akwa Emmanuel B. Joseph, 129-139
Ibom State, Nigeria. Joshua Henry Gangkwi,
Aniekan Elijah Asukwo, &
Information and Communication Technology Mirian W. Nwibani
Awareness and Extent of Use among Pre-service AWUJOOLA-OLARINOYE,
Teachers of Physical and Health Education for Optimum Funke Abosede,
Instructional Delivery SANI, Mohammed Usman &
Psychological Factors and Safety Orientation among OMIOLA, Matthew Adetayo
Furniture Making Students in Technical Colleges in Ini Asuquo Utuk & Emmanuel
Akwa Ibom State Okon Essien, Ph.D
Perceptions of Stakeholders on the Provision and
Maintenance of Infrastructural Facilities for Teaching in PEMIDA, Rebecca (Ph.D) &
Public Secondary Schools in Kaduna Metropolis YAKUBU, Iliya
Attitude of Federal University Lecturers toward the
Relevance of Teaching Qualifications and their Collins A. Ekpiwre
Pedagogical Competencies in Northwest Nigeria
Jane Ngozi Ekwueme
Historical Development of National Policy on
Education at Secondary School Level in Nigeria Eno Nathaniel Udoh

Child Labour and Academic Performance of Pre- Ofonime M. Akpan, Justina E.
Primary School Pupils in Social Studies in Uyo Local Inyang & Nkoyo S. Samuel
Government Area of Akwa Ibom State. Alexis M. Robert
Entrepreneurship Education in a Recessive Economy: A
Case of the Nigerian Economy
Awareness of Benefits Associated with Self-Regulated
Learning and Habitual Participation among Students
Studying Engineering Courses: The Case of Akwa Ibom
State Polytechnic, Ikot Osurua

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Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

Influence of Cloud Computing Variables on Telecommunications
Ecosystem in Akwa Ibom State

Umana, Sarah Archibong & Dr. Ezekiel O. Akpan

Department of Vocational Education,
Faculty of Education, University of Uyo, Uyo

[email protected]
08132216544

Abstract
This study sought to determine the influence of cloud computing variables on
telecommunications ecosystem in Akwa Ibom State. Two specific objectives, two research
questions and two null hypotheses were postulated to guide the study. The descriptive survey
design was adopted for the study. The population for the study comprised 2580 network
technicians, network engineers and computer analysts in the study area. Sample size was 258
respondents, cluster and sample random technique were used. A-14 structured items
questionnaire designed by the researcher was used for data collection for this study. The
questionnaire was face-validated by three validates in the Faculty of Education, University
of Uyo, Uyo. Cronbach’s Alpha technique was used in determining the reliability of the
instrument and a correlation coefficient of 0.86 was obtained. Mean with standard deviation
were used in answering the research questions, while Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was
used in testing the null hypotheses at .05 level of significance. The findings revealed that
there is no significant difference between the mean responses of technicians, network
administrators and computer analysts on the influence cloud computing variable on the
functional telecommunications ecosystem in the study area. It was concluded that cloud
computing services have influence on the functionality of telecommunication ecosystems in
Akwa Ibom State as it is utilization has increased the functionality in the telecommunication
industry. That cloud computing services have improved the quality of telecommunication
services in the study area. It is recommended among others that telecommunication
industries should outsource their services to cloud computing providers to help reduce costs
of their platform and security for easy maintenance, routine update and for easy services
required by their clients.

Key words: Cloud Computing, Cloud Platform and Telecommunication Ecosystem Cloud
Security Services.

Introduction

Cloud computing services have advantages in Information Technology (IT)
networking system for service providers over current enterprise. With a cloud computing
service, service providers can go into the value chain by redefining roles to expand beyond
connectivity and provide web-based delivery services. Cloud computing is a standardized
information technology capability, such as platform, security, infrastructure and software
delivered via internet technologies in a pay-per-use and self-service way. It includes work

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performance and business operation that enable convenient, on-demand network access to a
shared pool of configurable computing resources. Sultan (2011) opined that cloud computing
is an off-premise system in which users outsource their data needs to a third party provider.
The provider does everything performing all updates and maintenance to managing security.
However, users entrust their data for someone else to look after. Cloud computing enable
providers and consumers of products and services to interact much more easily, because they
are freed from the drudgery of providing the necessary information technology support. This
encourages the creation and growth of ecosystems in which companies co-operate effectively
to meet the needs of the society.

The benefits of cloud computing extend not just to telecommunications ecosystem
businesses but to business as a whole. National Institute of Standard Technology (2001)
postulated that cloud computing is a relatively new business model in the computing world.
Accordingly, cloud computing is a model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand
network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers,
storage, applications and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal
management effort or service provider interaction (NSIT, 2001). Cloud computing offers the
promise of lowering infrastructure spending by allowing resources to be shared and used
more efficiently; lowering telecommunication providers costs and permitting additional pay-
as-you-go computing services to their customers. This form of sharing computer resources
across all business units and optimizing of resources according to Authur (2009) is appealing
to telecommunication ecosystem level executives and their customers.

According to Repschläeger and Zarnekow (2011) cloud computing comprises five
services, namely: Platform as a Service (PaaS), Security as a Service (SaaS), Infrastructure as
a Service (IaaS), Storage as a Service (SaaS) and Software as a Service (SaaS). Before now,
Telecommunication Company’s use of telecoms platform was traditional. It was ineffective
in the sense that background noise was paramount, but with the introduction of cloud
platform as reported by Benton (2010) the platform noise is reduced and effectively enhance
images and animation created for telecommunication ecosystem that deploy cloud computing
platform. Furthermore, Low, Chen, and Wu (2011) opined that the use of cloud platform has
effectively helped telecommunication firms to increase speech services and the firms’ use of
online platform has cut down cost of routine maintenance.

Mahsa, Rohani and Razak (2015) stated that security as a service is a business in
which large service providers integrate their security services into corporate infrastructure on
a subscription basis. In this context, security is delivered as a service from cloud without
requiring on-premise hardware. Lovelock (2000) opined that the advantages of cloud security
compared to traditional method of telecommunications show that in-house administration,
log management, software update, forensic readiness and greater security expertise is
available for telecommunication organizations.

Telecommunication as a system is the transmission of signs, signals, messages,
writings, images and sounds or intelligence of any nature by wire, radio, Global System for
Mobile Communication (GSM), optical or other electromagnetic systems.
Telecommunication occurs when there is exchange of information between communication
participants with the use of technology. Such transmission paths are often divided into
communication channels which afford the advantages of multiplexing.

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In an ecosystem where convergence is the norm, no single market player, product, or
service can achieve success in isolation. According to Paul (2013), healthy competition is an
ingredient of a robust economy. Even as telecommunication companies compete for a bigger
segment to protect their core businesses, telecommunication market players need to
contribute their fair share across the supply chain within the telecommunications ecosystem.
However, healthy competition cause pressures, increase demand for services on
telecommunication service providers to consider alternative delivery modes for their
customers. Service providers regard their networks as a strategic asset capable of driving
incremental revenue and increased profitability. Moreover, the challenges telecommunication
ecosystem providers are facing are on how they could extract maximum functionality and
value from their assets.

Telecommunication companies were not able to use their platform for training of staff
using e-conference, graphic animation, security services that aid control of various services
such as forensic and encryption. Services such as large storage, upgrading and routine
maintenance were lacking in the telecommunication companies causing losses to telecoms
files, customers’ data and damages to infrastructure of telecoms ecosystem Keith (2010).
Additionally, software rendered by telecommunications to third party seems not in adequate
existence, also telecommunication firms seems not able to outsource various cloud
computing services on pay-per-use and on-demand capability to their customers, thereby
rendering their customers in stress when they have important calls.

Network providers like MTN, Etisalat and Airtel among others find it difficult to
carryout various services required by their customers due to low storage space, platform and
infrastructure incapability to utilized required customers’ services, out dated software
applications, software utility ineffective in fighting viruses has hindered telecoms industries.
Lack of security services (such as: forensic and the alike.), long distance of infrastructure
that causes failure delivery, statement such as caller not available are likely traditional
telecoms industries statement, routine maintenance and lack of graphic animation and social
services all hindered telecoms ecosystem. The question arising from this study is, to what
extent does cloud computing factors influence the functionality of telecommunications
ecosystem in Akwa Ibom State? The problem of this study is not known. Based on this gap in
knowledge, the researcher realized that there is need for a study to be conducted to
investigate the influence of cloud computing variables on the functionality of
telecommunications ecosystem in Akwa Ibom State.

Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of the study is to determine the influence of cloud computing

variables on the functionality of telecommunications ecosystem in Akwa Ibom State.
Specifically, the study sought to:

1. Determine the extent to which cloud platform as a service influence the
functionality of telecommunications ecosystem

2. Determine the extent to which cloud security as a service influence the
functionality of telecommunications ecosystem in Akwa Ibom State.

Significant of the Study
Significantly, this study would benefit the following: communication firms,

governments, third party, researchers and lecturers. The findings of the study would help the

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telecommunication firms to improve on their platform services as the firms deploy platform
services from cloud computing. The study would further enhance telecoms understanding of
different services provided by cloud computing for their uses. It would help
telecommunications firm be away of how cloud computing infrastructure influences there
ecosystem, thereby ensuring the use of service level agreement. Furthermore, the findings of
the study would expose to the federal and state government the effectiveness of cloud
computing encryption services on the security purpose during and after elections as double
voting could be detected. To the third party, (users) the findings of the study would help the
third party avail themselves of the availability of cloud infrastructures thereby giving them
access to on-demand cloud computing services. Furthermore, the findings of the study on
software would aid the third party to make choice on cloud computing communication mode
hereby availing themselves on lower cost of calls and messages from communication outlet.

Finally, the findings of the study would add to the knowledge of future researchers of
cloud computing, and lecturers that would be privileged to teach cloud computing, it would
also add knowledge to all telecommunication firms that have interest in innovating into cloud
computing businesses and services and would help end users to gain in-depth knowledge on
how cloud computing techniques reduce cost of their pay-per-service charge, carry out utility
services on their devices.

Research Questions
The following research questions were formulated to guide the study:
1. To what extent does cloud platform as a service influence the functionality of
telecommunications ecosystem in Akwa Ibom State?
2. To what extent does cloud security as a service influence the functionality of
telecommunications ecosystem in Akwa Ibom State?

Null Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.
H01: There is no significant difference in the mean responses of technicians, network

administrators and computer analysts on the extent of the influence of cloud platform as
a service on the functionality of telecommunications ecosystem in Akwa Ibom State.
H02 There is no significant influence in the mean responses of technicians, network
administrators and computer analysts on the extent of the influence of cloud security as
a service on the functionality of telecommunications ecosystem in Akwa Ibom State.

Methodology
A descriptive survey design was adopted for this study. The design was considered

appropriate since the use of cloud services and performance of telecommunication are
already going on in the cloud computing enterprises in Akwa Ibom State. Ojo (2001) stated
that descriptive survey design is the technique for obtaining data from respondents through
observation and questionnaire including interview. The researcher could not manipulate the
dependent and independent variables but could only collect data from internet driven
investors selected for the study. The researcher only surveyed the opinion of people to
generate primary data on the past events while undertaking documentary survey to retrieve
secondary data on documented situation of cloud computing as it occurred in the natural
setting. The population of this study comprised 2580 respondents, spread into three groups,
680 technicians, 600 network administrators and 720 computer analysts from MTN, Etisalat

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and Airtel in Akwa Ibom State. (Akwa Ibom State Ministry of Commerce and Industry,
2016). The rationale for using MTN, Etisalat and Airtel was that they are the only cloud
computing based providers.

Moreover, the respondents (technicians, network administrators and analysts) are at
supervisorial levels in the communication industry and can take decisions for the
organization. The sample for the study consisted of 258 respondents, made up of 106
technicians, 80 analysts and 72 network administrators of telecommunications industry. The
respondents are staff of MTN, Airtel and Etisalet. This is 10% of the study population. This
is because Nwana (1981) stated that no fixed number and no fixed percentage is ideal, rather
it is the circumstances of the study situation that determines what number or what percentage
of the population should be studied. The telecommunication companies were cluster into
MTN, Etisalat and Airtel while the sample size was drawn through simple random sampling
using balloting technique.

The researcher-developed structured questionnaire tagged, “Influence of Cloud
Computing Variables on the Functionality of Telecommunications Ecosystem Questionnaire
(ICCVFTEQ)” was used for data collection. The instrument was designed according to the
independent and dependent variables of the study. The researcher developed the
questionnaire through ideas adopted from literature review, personal experience and
observation. The ICCVFTEQ has 34-items question on a four-point rating scale of Very High
Extent (VHE) = 4, High Extent (HE) = 3, Low Extent (LE) = 2 and Very Low Extent (VLE)
= 1.

Face-validation was carried out by three experts. One expert from technical unit of
the Department of Vocational Education, University of Uyo, Uyo. While two experts were
from the Computer Education Unit of the same Department. These experts were provided
with the questionnaire, the objectives, research questions and null hypotheses of the study.
They were requested to read through the instrument, vet the items for clarity, relevance and
suitability. The corrections and comments of the experts were incorporated into the final
copy of the instrument.

The instrument was administered on 30 technicians, network administrators and
computer analysists who were not part of the final study. Scores collected were analysed
using Cronbach’s Alpha Reliability Coefficient Statistics. The choice of Cronbach Alpha
Reliability Coefficient estimate for the study was based on the fact that the instrument has a
polychotomous scale consisting of 4-points which collected continuous data. This yielded a
reliability coefficient of 0.86. Based on this, the instrument was considered reliable for the
study.

The researcher with the help of three research assistants administered the
questionnaire on the respondents. The researcher briefed the three assistants on how to
administer and retrieve the instrument. Respondents were given enough time to complete the
questionnaire. Out of 258 copies that were administered, 249 were retrieved giving a 96%
rate of return. The completed copies of the instrument were therefore used for data analysis.
Mean and standard deviation were used to answer research questions while Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA) was used to test the null hypotheses.

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Answering of Research Questions

Research Question 1: To what extent does cloud platform services influence
telecommunications ecosystem in Akwa Ibom State?

Table 1: Mean responses of respondents on the extent to which cloud platform service

influences the functionality of telecommunications ecosystem in Akwa Ibom

State

S/No Items n = 248
̅ SD Decision

1. Staff training 3.37 .63 HE

2. Outsourcing of image generation services 3.48 .56 HE

3. Speech services 3.31 .46 HE

4. Cloud-based platform increase utilization 3.63 .48 VHE

5. Online platform services cuts down routine maintenance 3.34 .49 HE

6. Outsourcing social media services 3.38 .83 HE

Cluster mean 3.42

VHE – Very High Extent, HE – High Extent

The result presented on Table 1 shows that cloud platform as a service has a cluster
mean of 3.42. This reveals that platform as a service has a high extent of influence on the
functionality of telecommunications ecosystem in Akwa Ibom State. Additionally, item on
cloud based platform increases utilization has the highest mean of (̅ = 3.63). This indicates
that this item has a very high extent of influence on the telecommunication industries in

Akwa Ibom State. On the other hand, other items included had their means between
(3.37, 3.48, 3.31, 3.24 and 3.38) indicating high extent of influence on the functionality of
telecommunication ecosystem in Akwa Ibom State. Moreover, standard deviation ranges of
.63 - .83 shows that the respondents were not very different in their responses.

Research Question 2: To what extent does cloud security influence telecommunications
ecosystem in Akwa Ibom State?

Table 2: Mean responses of respondents on the extent to which cloud Security

influences the functionality of telecommunications ecosystem in Akwa

Ibom State

n = 248

S/No Items ̅ SD Decision

1. Cloud approaches to service security increase trust of 2.90 .64 HE
ownership

2. Cloud service providers help to prevent unauthorized 3.46 .49 HE
access to user data

3. Critical infrastructure protecting efforts enhance 3.45 .49 HE
resistant to cloud computing environment

4. Data encryption protects user data against unauthorized 3.52 .50 VHE
access

5. User’s authentication help prevent hackers 3.37 .48 HE

6. Cloud security services help prevent virus infection 3.52 .65 VHE

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7. Use of captcha base security prevent non-human 3.09 .66 HE
.69 HE
8. Intrusion detection system helped monitor the security 3.40

layer

Cluster mean 3.33

VHE – Very High Extent, HE – High Extent

The result presented on Table 2 shows that cloud security as a service has a cluster
mean of 33.3. This reveals that cloud security as a service has a high influence on
telecommunications ecosystem in Akwa Ibom State. Furthermore, item on data encryption
protects, user data against unauthorized access and cloud security services help prevent virus
infection and data encryption have the highest mean of (̅ = 3.52). This indicates that these
items have a very high influence on telecommunication industries in Akwa Ibom State. On
the other hand, other items included had their means between (2.90, 3.46, 3.45, 3.37, 3.09
and 3.40) indicating high extent of influence. Moreover, standard deviation ranges of .64 -
.69 shows that the respondents were not very diverse in their responses.

Testing of Null Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were tested in the study.

Null Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference in the mean responses of technicians,
network administrators and computer analysts on the influence of cloud platform as a service
on the functionality of telecommunications ecosystem in Akwa Ibom State.

Table 3: One-way analysis of variance of the difference in the mean responses of
technicians, network administrators and computer analysts on the extent to which
cloud platform influences the functionality of telecommunications ecosystem in
Akwa Ibom State. n = 248

Items Sum of Mean P-value Dec.
Squares Square .129 NS
Staff training offered Between Groups Df
through cloud platforms With groups 1.617 .808
enhances staff productivity 96.126 2 .391
Total 246
Outsourcing of image Between Groups
generation services 97.743 248 1.349 .013 S
Within Groups 2.698 2
Speech services enhances Total
telecoms services Between Groups 75.471 246 .307 .066 NS
78.169 248 .581
1.162 2

Within Groups 52.027 246 .211
Total 53.189 248
Cloud-based platform Between Groups 3.803 2 1.901 .670 NS
increase utilization .220
Within Groups 54.205 246

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Total 58.008 248
4.432 2
Online platform services Between Groups 2.216 .720 NS
cuts down routine
maintenance

Within Groups 55.624 246 .226
60.056 248 3.141
Total 6.282 2 .669

Outsourcing social media Between Groups .010 S
services

Within Groups 164.473 246
170.755 248
Total

Source: Field Work 2016

Table 3 gives the summary of Variance Analysis of the mean responses of
technicians, network administrators and computer analysts on the influence of cloud
platform as a service on the functionality of telecommunication ecosystem in Akwa Ibom
State. The result presented in Table 6 shows that out of six (6) items in cloud platform, two
items were significant with p< .013 and .010 @ df of 248), the remaining four (4) items
were not significant with p> .129, .066, .670, and .720 @ 248). Since the numbers of items
with high p-values were higher than the 0.05 alpha level there is no statistically significant
difference in the mean of the respondents, hence, the null hypotheses which stated that there
is no significant difference in the mean responses of technicians, network administrators and
computer analysts on the extent to which cloud platform influence the functionality of
telecommunication ecosystem in Akwa Ibom State is retained. From the null hypothesis
tested it is deduced that cloud platform as a service has influence on the telecommunication
ecosystem functionality in Akwa Ibom State as perceived by the respondents.

Null Hypothesis 2
There is no significant difference in the mean responses of technicians, network

administrators and computer analysts on the influence of cloud security as a service on the
functionality of influence telecommunications ecosystem in Akwa Ibom State.
Table 4: One-way analysis of variance of the difference in the mean responses of technicians,

network administrators and computer analysts on the extent to which cloud
security influences the functionality of telecommunications ecosystem in Akwa
Ibom State

n = 248

Items Variable Sum of Df Mean Sig. Decision
Groups Squares Square

Cloud approaches to Between 4.162 2 2.081 .670 NS

service security increase Groups

trust of ownership Within 97.123 246 .395

Groups

Total 101.285 248

Cloud service providers Between .427 2 .213 .427 NS
Groups 61.381 246 .250
help to prevent
Within
unauthorized access to Groups
user’s data, hence causing

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sensitive data to remain Total 61.807 248 .466 .154 NS
private .247 .596 NS
Between .933 2 .119 NS
Critical infrastructure Groups 60.786 246 .131 .001 S
protecting efforts enhance Within 61.719 248 .251
resistant to cloud Groups 2
computing environment Total .261 246 .495
61.867 248 .231
Data encryption protects Between 62.129 2
user’s data against Groups 246 2.787
.989 248 .409
unauthorized access in Within 56.754 2
Groups 57.743 246
telecoms ecosystem 5.573 248
Total 100.555
106.129
The use of user’s Between
authentication help prevent Groups
hackers in communication
ecosystem Within
Groups
Cloud security services
help prevent virus Total
infection during movement
of files from personnel Between
computer Groups

Within
Groups

Total

The use of captcha base Between 1.311 2 .656 .225 NS
security prevent non- Groups 107.564 246 .437
human from assisting the 108.876 248
telecom ecosystem Within
Groups

Total

Intrusion detection system Between 17.157 2 8.578 .126 NS
102.482 246 .417
helped monitor the Groups 119.639 248

security layer in cloud- Within
based services offered in Groups
Telco
Total

Source: Field Work 2016

Table 4 gives the summary of Variance Analysis of the mean responses of
technicians, network administrators and computer analysts on the influence of cloud security
as a service on the functionality of telecommunications ecosystem in Akwa Ibom State. The
result presented in Table 7 shows that out of eighty (8) items in cloud security, one item was
significant with p< .001 @ df of 248), the remaining seven items were not significant with
p> .670, .427, .154, .596, .119, .225 and .126 @ 248). Since the numbers of items with high
p-values were higher than the 0.05 alpha level there is no statistically significant difference
in the mean of the respondents, hence, the null hypotheses which stated that there is no
significant difference in the mean responses of technicians, network administrators and

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computer analysts on the extent to which cloud security influence telecommunication
ecosystem in Akwa Ibom State is retained. From the null hypothesis tested it is deduced that
cloud security as a service has influence on the telecommunication ecosystem in Akwa
Ibom State as perceived by the respondents.

Discussion of Findings
The findings of this research work are discussed based on the specific purpose of the

study.
Cloud Platform as a Service on the Functionality of Telecommunication Ecosystem

The result for research question one reveals that the items on cloud platform had
means above 2.50. The extent to which staff training offered through cloud platform
enhances staff productivity, outsourcing of image generation services improve design
animation, speech services enhanced telecommunication services and other relevant data had
high influence on telecommunication ecosystem in Akwa Ibom State. The researcher
observed that cloud platform enhance quality services delivery to telecommunication firms,
by assuring speedy market growth, increase productivity, low communication cost and on-
demand service delivery. This finding is in line with the finding in Marston (2011) who
found that lack of cloud platform computing variables is a setback in the telecommunication
industries. Therefore, telecommunication industries need to pay more than usual attention to
the installation of cloud platform computing services that could aid in telecommunications
industry fast growth and market expansion. It therefore follows that for effective
telecommunication firms to take place in Akwa Ibom State, the firms must adopt suitable
platform services from qualify cloud computing providers that have the knowledge of their
services and requirement to help maintain cloud customers and increase their markets.

The result for hypothesis one showed that there is no significant influence of cloud
platform services on telecommunication ecosystem in Akwa Ibom State. The finding is
similar to the finding of Authur (2009) who found that there is high influence of adoption of
information communication technology in businesses mostly in communication firms. It
follows that for platform of telecommunications firm to be well connected, there must be
adoption of cloud computing services for qualitative facilities and outsourcing of cloud
platform services. To reaffirm the statements, the researcher observed that the use of cloud
platform has not only provided qualitative facilities to telecommunication industries, but that
very view industries make use of cloud computing services. Study shows that Glo being a
communication industry has not yet join cloud computing to outsource their various services.

Cloud Security as a Service on the Functionality of Telecommunication Ecosystem
The findings for research question 2 revealed that all the items on cloud security had

influence telecommunication industries. Worthy of note is the high influence for items on
cloud approaches increase trust of ownership, cloud service prevent unauthorized access to
user data, protection of critical infrastructure, user data encryption, prevent hackers, prevent
virus and prevention of non-human by the use of captcha. This showed that the inability of
telecommunication industry to adopt cloud security providers whose skills and competences
is required to improve telecommunication industry will hindered the telecoms ecosystem.
This finding is similar to the findings of Wei-Wen (2010) who found that adoption of new
innovation positively improves and increase firms standard and create customers loyalty.
Therefore, telecommunications firm need to adopt the best providers for their required
services. This will also go a long way to help improve firms’ targeted goals and increase the

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market. The researcher observes that security is vital to animate and inanimate things, thus,
few telecommunication firms have to outsource their database to cloud computing industries.
Cloud security services provide low cost and sometimes free quality security services to
telecommunication organisation in the study area of trust of ownership, prevention of
unauthorized access to user data, the use of firewall protective device, virus and firewall
resistant devices.

Conclusion
The conclusion was drawn based on the findings of the study on influence of cloud

computing variables on telecommunication variables in Akwa Ibom State is on the basis of
the findings, it can be inferred that cloud computing variables have high influence on the
operation of telecommunication industries in the study area. Evidence from the findings
revealed that all the items have high influence on the study area. This indicated that cloud
computing variables increasingly influencing the operation of telecommunication in the
recent times in the study area.

Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study the researcher recommends that:

1. Telecommunication industries should train their staff on cloud computing platform
services in the operation of their business. This would help in the avoidance of
traditional platform which slow business ecosystem in Akwa Ibom State.

2. Owners of telecommunications industry should be conversant with services of cloud
computing industries and the providers of such services. When outsource services to
cloud computing firms this will expand their market and increase productivity, with
this customers loyalty will be maintained.

3. Telecommunication industries should create proper on-demand routine services to
their clients’ at twenty-four hours every day, this can be possible if owners of
telecommunication firms deploy cloud computing services from the right providers.

References

Authur, W. (2009). Communication by Wire and Wireless: The Wonders of Telegraph and
Telephone. The world's work: A history of our Time.

Benton, D. (2010). How cloud computing will influence banking strategies in the future.
Retrieved 15th September, 2016, from www.accenture.com/banking.

Forrester, M. (2009), Tech radar for infrastructure and operations professionals: Journal of Cloud
Computing and Generation Computer Systems, 3(5): 599-616.

Keith H. (2010). Telecom provider’s profit as cloud providers. A publication of team quest
corporation. Retrieved from www. TeamQuest.com on 12th September 2016.

Lovelock, C.H., (2000). Services marketing. Prentice hall: Europe.

Mahsa, B., Rohani, A. B., and Razak, C. H. (2015). An integrated theoretical framework for
cloud computing adoption by universities technology transfer offices (TTOS). Journal
of Theoretical and Applied Information Technology. 79(3): 112-115.

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eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

Marston, S. (2010). Cloud computing-the business perspective. Decision Support System, 51(1):
176-189.

Nwana, O. C. (1981). Introductory to educational Research. Ibadan: Heinemann educational
books Ltd., 59.

NIST (2001). Definition of cloud computing, http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/SNS/cloud-
computing/cloud-def-v15.doc, Retrieved 22-8-2016

Paul, E. (2013).The Evolving Telecommunications Ecosystem – Digital convergence at work.
Retrieved from http://www. Infiniumcom.com/the evolving telecommunications
ecosystemdigitalconvergenceatwork/

Repschläeger, J. and Zarnekow, R. (2011). Survey from the Technical University Berlin within
the Information Technology Operations Day. Prentice hall: Europe.

Sultan N. A. (2011). Reaching for the cloud: How SMEs can manage, International Journal of
Information Management, 31(21): 272–278.

Wei, W. (2010). Exploring decision factors affecting an organization’s SaaS adoption: A case
study. International Journal of Information Management, (1): 1-8.

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Effect of Inquiry-Based Teaching Technique on Students’ Performance in
Refrigeration for Sustainable Development in Technical Colleges in Rivers State.

Engr. Amaechi, O. J., Obed, O. O., Orlu, I. &

Thomas, C. G.

Faculty of Vocational and Technical Education.
Ignatius Ajuru University of Education,
Port-Harcourt, Rivers State.

Faculty of Science and Technical Education,
River State University of Science and
Technology, Portharcourt, Nigeria.

[email protected] [email protected]
[email protected] and [email protected]
08034831161, 07035090656, 08038887695 and 08066811166
Abstract
The study investigated the effect of inquiry-based teaching technique on students’
performance in refrigeration for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers
State. Two research question and hypotheses guided the study. Quasi-experimental design,
specifically, the non-randomized control group design involving two intact classes were
used. The population was 60 National Technical Certificate (NTC) mechanical craft
practice students of two technical colleges in Rivers State. Refrigeration Performance Test
(RPT) instrument were developed, validated and used for data collection. Reliability of the
instrument was 0.74. Mean and standard deviation were used to analyze data collected in
respect to the research questions while ANCOVA was used to test the null hypotheses.
Findings of the study revealed that inquiry-based teaching technique has significant effect on
student’s performance in Refrigeration repairs. This is evident in the mean performance of
students taught with the inquiry-based teaching technique in Refrigeration repairs x = 35.28.
While students taught with conventional teaching technique had a mean performance of x =
25.54. It is recommended that state and federal ministries of education including
professional bodies should organize workshops, seminars and conferences to train and
encourage teachers on the use of this innovative technique among others.

Keywords: Inquiry-Based, Teaching Technique, Student’s Performance, Refrigeration, and
Technical Colleges.

Introduction

Technical and Vocational education is the foundation of nation’s wealth and
development. It is a type of education that is meant to produce skilled and technical
manpower necessary to restore, revitalize, energize, operate and sustain the national economy
and substantially reduce unemployment. According to Federal Government of Nigeria
(2004), Technical and Vocational Education is a form of education involving, in addition to
general education, the study of technologies and related sciences and the acquisition of

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practical skills, attitudes, understanding and knowledge relating to occupations in various
sectors of economic and social life. This specialized education offered in technical
institutions is saddled with training of middle level manpower, including Technical Colleges.

Technical Colleges in Nigeria are established to produce craftsmen at the craft level
and master craftsmen at the advance craft level (Federal Ministry of Education, 2004). The
courses offered at the technical colleges leads to the award of National Technical Certificate
(NTC) and Advance National Technical Certificate (ANTC). The curriculum programmes of
technical colleges according to Federal Government of Nigeria (2004) are grouped into
related trades. These include; the Computer trades, Electrical/Electronic trades, Building
trades, Wood trades, and Mechanical trades. Mechanical trade is a general name used in
describing trades that have direct bearing with metal welding/forming and servicing/repairs
of machines or machine related equipment and appliances. The trades in this group include
agricultural implement and equipment, Mechanics work, Auto-electrical work, Auto-
mechanics works, Auto-body building, Auto parts merchandising, Metal Technology,
Mechanical Engineering craft practice, Welding and Fabrication engineering craft practice,
Foundry craft practice, Instruments mechanics work and Refrigeration Mechanics Works.

Refrigeration mechanic works is one of the units that constitute the field of technical
education. The general Objective include: To produce skilled craftsmen with good
knowledge of the working principles of refrigeration system, the techniques and safety
practices involved in its maintenance.

However, the skills in refrigeration involve the application of scientific knowledge
and practical skills. The goal of refrigeration mechanic work according to National Board for
Technical Education NBTE (2000) is to Understand the working Principles of a Cold Store
and be able to apply them in (i) interpreting the design layout of a cold store; and (ii)
installing and commissioning of cold store to given specifications and (iii) Maintain a cold
store in good working condition. In extension, the objectives of installation and insulation of
pipes and ducts is (i) to Interpret installation drawings of pipes and ducts for refrigeration (ii)
select appropriate tools and equipment (iii) identify various types of insulating materials and
explain the purpose of insulation to pipes and ducts in refrigeration system (iv) State the
properties of good insulating materials (v) Select and describe tools and equipment used for
pipe and duct installation and list necessary materials from specifications thereafter carry out
simple installation from same specifications (NBTE 2000).

These goals, can however be achieved only when refrigeration mechanic work is
appropriately taught to learners. This can be possible by making teaching learning process to
be student-centered as against being teachers-centered and by also viewing students as
problem solvers rather than direction followers. Salami (2004) observed that many teaching
methods do not use students to their full capacity, and for this reason, teachers should use
appropriate teaching method that is student-centered as against teacher-centered.

Inquiry-based teaching technique is one of the methods that involve active learner
participation in learning process. According to Agboola and Oloyede (2007), it creates
situations in which students take the role of a scientist. This is because ; students take the
initiative to observe and question phenomena, pose explanation of what they see, device and
conduct test to support or contradict their theories, analyze data, draw conclusion from
experimental data, design and build models or any combination of these. Erick and Reed
(2002) asserted that inquiry teaching method is a project-oriented pedagogy strategy based on
constructivist and social constructivist theories of learning. It is a method that elicits critical

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thinking skills. It is also a mental process that engages in cognitive process to understand
conflicting factors in a situation (Moon, 2001; Davis, 2003).

This mental engagement results in a persons’ actively constructing knowledge about a
situation in-order to develop a strategy to proceed within that situation. Inquiry-based
teaching technique can be regarded as teacher designed situations whereby pupils are caused
to employ procedures used by research scientist to recognize problems, ask questions and
apply investigative procedures, which might be in form of laboratory or practical activities.
This is with a view to providing consistent description, predictions, and explanations which
are compatible with shared experience of the physical world and which are capable of
eliciting critical thinking in students. According to Moore (2000) critical thinking requires a
lot of thinking that is more of evaluation and synthesis than analysis or application. Thus
inquiry helps students to develop higher order thinking skills by prompting students to relate
new knowledge to their previous knowledge: to think in both abstract and concrete terms
(Hmole and Ferrari, 2008). In inquiry based method, students learn not only concepts and
principles but self-direction, responsibility and social communication.

Therefore, to maximize the utilization of inquiry-based teaching, important key
elements or tools need to be adopted in inquiry class. One of such elements is the concept
presentation. The concept explanation or principles underlying a given problem to be solved
by teachers is to enable and prompt students reflection based on newly presented information
(Moon, 2001) . Another inquiry tool is the wait time usage. This is waiting a few seconds
after putting questions to students, thereby giving them time to think before answering the
question. The effective usage of wait time by teachers promotes critical thinking in students.
The bringing of real life experience by teachers to classroom learning activities also provides
real situation and contextualize knowledge about new information the students are learning.
Furthermore, collaborative learning which is another inquiry tool in which students explore
their understanding and misunderstanding together helps them to think about what they
already know, what they need to know and how they would defend and present their own
ideas in reaction to an instructional situation (William, 2004). All this skills are necessary
tools that will assist the teachers in the teaching of the skills required of modern metalwork.

However, teachers play vital roles in adapting the inquiry process to the knowledge
and ability level of their students. Warner and Myers (2006), pointed out that when using
inquiry-based learning, teachers are responsible in starting the process, promoting students
diagnoses, transitioning between small groups and classroom discussions, intervening to
clear misconceptions or develop students understanding of content materials, modeling
scientific procedures and attitude and utilizing students experiences to create new contents.
Based on the objectives of the lesson and the abilities of the students, teachers must decide
how much guidance they will provide. Regardless of the amount of assistance that teachers
provide, the fundamental goal of inquiry is student’s engagement during the learning process.
The degree of the students’ engagement or involvement during classes also depends on the
inquiry teaching technique adopted. The inquiry teaching method has been found to be the
most suitable for the teaching of science oriented courses by different scholars than the
traditional teaching methods (Erick and Reed, 2002: Avarado and Herr, 2003: Glenda,
Hebrank, Ybara and Kenk, 2005).

The chief examiners’ report (NABTEB, 2008) show that students’ performance in
refrigeration mechanic works in technical colleges have been dwindling in recent time and
the situation calls for immediate attention in the technical colleges. In the last decade,
technical colleges have recorded high failure rate of over 60% in National Business and

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Technical Examination Board (NABTEB). From record (NABTEB, 2008) the chief
examiners reports that the refrigeration students who sat for the examination performed very
poorly.

Furthermore, NABTEB examination conducted on refrigeration mechanic works in
May/June, 2004, recorded 30% failure in questions on sheet metal practice, 60% failure in
forging and 65% failure in foundry (NABTEB, 2008). The National Business and Technical
Education Board (NABTEB 2008) grade distribution from 2007-2008 May/June result
revealed failure rate of 46% for the students who sat for the examination in refrigeration
mechanic work. The result also revealed unsatisfactory performance of the students in
questions bordering on heat treatment and soldering with failure rate of 42.5 and 45.5%
respectively. This is an indication of overall performance of candidates achieving below
average during the examinations. It has been observed by NABTEB (2008) that the
persistence poor performance emanate mainly from the inappropriate teaching methods
adopted by the technical teachers. (Osagie 1997, Onuoha 1997) also stated that the poor
performance of students in practical skills is traceable to the lack of inquiry-based teaching
technique. Ideally, refrigeration mechanic work technology should be taught using the same
equipment the practitioners are using in the field that is because teaching metalwork
technology involve the study of industrial technology. Refrigeration mechanic works
therefore requires industrial facilities which include machinery or simulated industrial
settings known as workshop.

However, what is prevailing now in Rivers State is that the refrigeration mechanic
workshop is not standardized, forcing the teacher to use the conventional teaching aids such
as drawing, pictures, explanations. The conventional teaching aids cannot be used by the
teacher to teach manipulative skills effectively. Ogwo and Oranu (2006) emphasize that
unless the teachers stimulates student’s interest in learning, student’s achievement will be
minimal. Hence it is essential that technical college teachers use teaching methods which
ensures student’s active involvement in learning to stimulate interest and improve
performance.

Performance could be perceived as a method of expressing students’ scholastic
standing. It could be grades for subjects, or trade courses as symbolized by a score or mark in
an achievement test, expressed in numerical scale (Lavin, 2009). According to Collins,
Kenway, and Mcleod (2000), performance is quantified by measure of the students’
academic standing in relation to those of other students of their age. Atherson (2003)
contended that student’s performance is dependent upon several factors among which are
instructional methods, learning environment and the learner. Achievement in academics can
be in cognitive or psychomotor domain. The cognitive domain according to Okoro (2006)
involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. These include the recall or
recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns and concepts that serve in the development
of intellectual abilities and skills.

Thus learning in this domain could be in form of identification of metals or recall the
safety rules to be observed in the workshop to more intellectual skills such as determining
and selecting the best or the combination of appropriate techniques in metalwork project.
Teachers with good teaching methods challenge students to work at higher intellectual level.
On the other hand, psychomotor domain is concerned with the development of muscular
skills coordination. Objectives from this domain emphasize motor skills, manipulation of
materials or subjects or an act which requires neuromuscular coordination (Knoll, 2004).
This could be a performance task as simple as using a screwdriver to fasten a screw or as

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using series of tools and instruments in overhauling a machine. In other to sustain gains in
cognitive and psychomotor achievement, teaching method must be capable of bridging the
achievement gap between gender.

Statement of the Problem
There is a general concern over the low performance of technical college graduates,

most especially those of refrigeration mechanic works who cannot cope with the world of
work. The goal of refrigeration in technical colleges in Nigeria according to NBTE (2008) is
to produce skilled craftsmen with good knowledge of the working principles of refrigeration
and the techniques and safety practices involved in refrigeration maintenance. Technical
college graduates have prospects of either being employed in the industries or set-up their
own refrigeration workshops and become self-employed. Better still, technical college
graduates should have the opportunity of furthering their education in higher institutions.

Contrary to achieving the above goal, majority of students have been completing the
programme with very poor academic performance and inadequate skills which is not capable
of earning them a living. This decline in students performance has been associated to a
number of factors, among which is the strategy employed in impacting knowledge to the
learners (Akinyele , 2000). The National Business and Technical Examination Board
(NABTEB) (2008) observed that the poor performance of the students in National Technical
Certificate (NTC) examinations in recent years is partly due to the teaching methods
employed by the teachers.

This unsatisfactory situation could lead to breakdown in the economy, industrial,
technological and educational growth of a nation since the main goal of technical education
is to achieve self-reliance. The foregoing therefore underscores the need to explore other
teaching approaches that would enhance and facilitate understanding and acquisition of
knowledge of what is been taught in refrigeration mechanic works and possibly encourage
higher enrolment of students in the trade. Therefore, the problem of this study is : how can
inquiry-based teaching technique affects the performance of refrigeration mechanic works
students as compared to those students taught using conventional teaching technique.
Purpose of the Study

The general purpose of the study is to determine the effect of inquiry-based teaching
technique on the performance of refrigeration mechanic works students in Rivers State
technical colleges. Specifically, the study will compare the effect of:

1. Inquiry-based teaching technique on student’s performance in installation of pipes
and ducts for refrigeration system.

2. Inquiry-based teaching technique on student’s performance in cold store installation
and maintenance.

Research Questions

The following research questions were formulated to guide the study:

1. what are the effect of inquiry-based teaching technique on student’s performance in
installation of pipes and ducts for refrigeration system?

2. What are the effect of inquiry-based teaching technique on student’s performance in
cold store installation and maintenance?

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Null Hypotheses
Two hypotheses were formulated for the study and were tested at 0.05% level of
significance:

1. There is no significant difference in the effect of inquiry-based teaching technique on
student’s performance in installation of pipes and ducts for refrigeration system.

2. There is no significant difference in the effect of inquiry-based teaching technique on
student’s performance in cold store installation and maintenance.

Materials and methods
This study adopted quasi-experimental design. Specifically, the pre-test, post-test,

non-equivalent control group design was adopted for the study. According to Gall, Gall and
Borg (2007) quasi-experimental design can be used when it is not possible for the researcher
to randomly sample the subject and assign them to treatment groups without disrupting the
academic programmes of the schools involved in the study. Gall et al (2007) stated further
that in a non-equivalent control group design, it is possible to have all groups receive
treatments. This design was considered suitable for the study because intact classes (non-
randomized groups) were assigned to the two different techniques of teaching. This is in
order to determine the effect of the Inquiry technique on students’ performance in
refrigeration mechanic works. The experimental design of the study is symbolically
represented as follows: E = Experimental group, C = Control group, O1 = Pre-test, O2

=Post-test, − Treatment and ≠ No Treatment. The study was carried out in Rivers
State. Rivers State is one of the States in South-South Geopolitical Zone. It has boundaries
with Abia, Akwa-Ibom, Delta and Imo States. The State has 23 local government areas with
eight ethnic groups. The state has more technical and oil servicing industries that can use of
these technical graduates. The technical colleges in the state have more refrigeration students
and teachers who can form the population to be used in the research. The population for the
study comprised 60 National Technical Certificate (NTC) II refrigeration mechanic works
students in the two technical colleges in Rivers State selected for the study (Records Unit,
Rivers State Post Primary School Board, 2014). The choice of National Technical Certificate
(NTC) II students is based on the selected topics for the study which falls within National
Technical Certificate (NTC) II refrigeration curriculum.

Sample and Sampling Technique
The study adopted purposive sampling technique. This is because out of the four

functional technical colleges in the state only two of them offer refrigeration mechanic works
with laboratory and therefore was used for the study. The technical colleges are government
technical college Port-harcourt and government technical college Ahoada. The sample size
for the study was all the 60 year II refrigeration students in the two technical colleges
offering refrigeration. These comprised 46 males and 14 females’ students hence the entire
population of the study was used it is of manageable size.

Instrument for Data Collection
One instrument was developed for this study. The refrigeration Performance Test

(RPT) which has two parts according to the topics was used for data collection. Each part of
the instrument has two sections, section A elicits personal information from the students and
session B carries the 40 items questions from the topic. The development entails constructed
test items on the following specific refrigeration topics which was covered in the study:

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installation of pipes and ducts for refrigeration system and cold store installation and
maintenance. The relative weights of emphasis on the test items are installation of pipes 25%
and cold store installation and maintenance 25%. The table of specification was developed
based on the topics outlined.

Validation of the Instrument
An initial pool of 40 items was drawn up based on the table of specifications or test

blue print and sent to three experts for face-validation. The experts comprised two
refrigeration lecturers of industrial technical education department. Ignatius Ajuru University
of Education, Rivers State and a lecturer of industrial technical section of vocational teacher
education department, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The experts were requested to
ascertain the suitability of the test items for the study. The experts focused on adequacy of
content, logical sequence and suitability of the technical term used. The items was corrected
based on the validates’ criticisms and suggestion before testing. The reliability co-efficient of
Refrigeration Performance Test was determined using Kuder Richardson formula 20 (KR-
20). The students’ scores were computed which yielded a reliability index of 0.74. Data was
collected through the use of pre-test post-test for each topic in each week. The test was
administered to the students by the refrigeration teachers in both groups. The data for the two
research questions of this study was analyzed using mean and standard deviation. The
hypotheses were tested at 0.05% level of significance using analysis of covariance
(ANCOVA). The statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) was used for all data analysis
in this study.

Decision Rule
With the calculated f-ratio being greater than the table or critical f-ratio, the null

hypotheses were rejected. The value of calculated f-ratio being less than the table f-ratio
value, the null hypotheses was accepted. The value of f-ratio at 0.05% level of significance
and above was accepted while the value of f-ratio less than 0.05% level of significance was
rejected.

Results

Research Questions 1: what are the effect of inquiry-based teaching technique on student’s
performance in installation of pipes and ducts for refrigeration system?

Table 1: Mean and Standard Deviation Scores of Students Taught with Inquiry-based
Teaching Technique and Students Taught Using the Conventional Teaching
Technique in installation of pipes and ducts for refrigeration system.

Group School N Pre-test Post-test Mean-Gain

x SD x SD

Experimental GTC Ahoada 30 16.14 2.63 35.10 2.67 18.96
30 15.79 2.28 25.79 2.28 10
Control GTC PH

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Table 1 shows the pre-test and post-test mean score of students’ performance in
installation of pipes and ducts for refrigeration system for both treatment and control groups.
Result shows that the students in the treatment group had a pre-test mean score of 16.14 with
a standard deviation of 2.63 and a post-test mean score of 35.10 with a SD of 2.67. The
difference between the pre-test and post-test mean for the experiment group was 18.96, while
the control group had a pre-test mean score 15.79 with a standard deviation of 2.28 and a
post-test mean score of 25.79 and SD of 2.28. This shows that the mean score for the
treatment group is higher than the control group, indicating that those taught with the
inquiry-based teaching technique performed better.

Research Question 2: What are the effect of inquiry-based teaching technique on student’s
performance in cold store installation and maintenance?

Table 2: Mean and Standard Deviation Scores of Students Taught with Inquiry-based
Teaching Technique and Students Taught Using the Conventional Technique in
cold store installation and maintenance

Group School N Pre-test Post-test Mean-Gain

x SD x SD

Experimental GTC Ahoada 30 14.14 2.73 35.28 2.89 21.14
Control GTC PH 30 15.54 2.26 25.54 2.46 10

Table 2 shows the pre-test and post-test mean score of students’ performance in cold
store installation and maintenance for both treatment and control groups. Result shows that
the students in the treatment group had a pre-test mean score of 14.14 with a standard
deviation of 2.73 and a post-test mean score of 35.28 with a SD of 2.89. The difference
between the pre-test and post-test mean for the experiment group was 21.14, while the
control group had a pre-test mean score 15.54 with a standard deviation of 2.26 and a post-
test mean score of 25.54 and SD of 2.46. This shows that the mean score for the treatment
group is higher than the control group, indicating that those taught with the inquiry-based
teaching technique performed better.

Null Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference in the effect of inquiry-based teaching
technique on student’s performance in installation of pipes and ducts for refrigeration system.

Table 3: The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) of Difference Between Students Taught with
Inquiry-based Teaching Technique and those Taught with Conventional Teaching
Technique in installation of pipes and ducts for refrigeration system.

Source Type III Sum Df Mean F Sig.
of Squares Square
Corrected Model 2 115.924 .000
Intercept 1183.871a 1 591.936 124.763 .000
PRE-TEST_C 637.069 1 637.069 .001
GROUP 62.431 1 12.226 .000
Error 49 62.431 211.127
Total 1078.067 60 1078.067
Corrected Total 250.206 51
5.106
50788.000
1434.077

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Significance at α ≤ 0.05
The analysis of covariance of students performance scores presented in Table 3 showed that

f-calculated for teaching methods in the two groups is 211.127 at 0.000 significant level. It
therefore implies that the null hypothesis is rejected. Thus, there is a significant difference in the
mean scores of students taught with inquiry-based teaching technique and conventional teaching
technique respectively.

Null Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference in the effect of inquiry-based teaching
technique on student’s performance in cold store installation and maintenance.

Table 4: The ANCOVA of Difference Between Students Taught with Inquiry-based Teaching

Technique and those Taught with Conventional Teaching Technique in cold store

installation and maintenance.

Source Type III Sum Df Mean Square F Sig.

Corrected Model of Squares 2 661.385 120.072 .000
Intercept 1322.769a 1 765.257 138.929 .000

765.257

PRE-TEST_D 95.769 1 95.769 17.386 .000
GROUP 1322.710 1 1322.710 240.133 .000

Error 269.904 49 5.508

Total 50885.000 60

Corrected Total 1592.673 51

Significance at α ≤ 0.05

The analysis of covariance of students performance scores presented in Table 4 showed

that f-calculated for teaching methods in the two groups is 240.133 at 0.000 significant level. It

therefore implies that the null hypothesis is rejected. Thus, there is a significant difference in the

mean scores of students taught with inquiry-based teaching technique and conventional teaching

technique respectively.

Discussion of the Findings
The study revealed that Inquiry-based teaching technique would improve students’

performance in installation of pipes and ducts for refrigeration system. This is in agreement
with the conclusions of Ogwo and Oranu, (2006), and Repp and McCarthy (1986), that when
there are many operational steps, then a guide is necessary to successfully carry out the
operation.

The study further revealed that inquiry-based teaching technique would improve
students’ performance in cold store installation and maintenance.This finding seems to
confirm Baird (1972) position that providing the student with concise, explicit, and definite
explanation and direction as to the best way to perform or approach learning activities
enhances performance; and these are important aspects of the inquiry-based teaching
technique. Furthermore, Miller and Rose (1975), Ogwo and Oranu (2006) believed that
instruction organized in a series of progressive steps serves to carry on the individual learner
or group of learners, starting at the beginner level , through a systematic, orderly process of
learning; under this condition, learners usually appreciates the opportunity to advance and
respond well to learning activities.

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Conclusion
Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions are drawn. An inquiry-

based teaching technique for teaching performance skills in refrigeration mechanic works has
been developed and its efficacy based on syllabus for technical colleges was tested. The
mean performance of the students taught with the inquiry-based teaching technique is better
than those taught with conventional teaching technique. This performance is consistent in all
of the two refrigeration mechanic works and this cannot be said to have occurred by chance,
but rather due to the effectiveness of the inquiry-based teaching technique. Therefore, the
inquiry-based teaching technique for teaching refrigeration mechanic works skills has yielded
better performance.

Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made:

1. Standardization and harmonization of programmes being part of the responsibilities
of National Board for Technical Education (NBTE), this board should consider
introducing inquiry-based teaching technique as a standardized guide for the
implementation of a uniform instructional strategy in metal-work technology in
technical colleges.

2. Refrigeration teachers should always adopt the components of constructivism. This
will enable them as to cater for diverse learning styles of students in their classrooms
and hence, improve their academic achievement and development of practical skills.

3. Students should always be allowed to participate actively in class by interacting freely
with the teacher and their colleagues as this will improve their academic ability and
performance in their trade subject.

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Impact of Concept-Mapping Strategies on Retention and Performance in
Biology among Concrete and Formal Operational Secondary School
Students in Zaria, Nigeria

*Nuru, A. R; **Bichi, S.S; Olorukooba, S. B. & Olajide, J. O.

*Biology Department,
Federal College of Education,

P. M. B. 1041, Zaria.
[email protected]

08033450985
**Department of Science Education,

Faculty of Education,
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.
Abstract
This study investigated Impact of Concept-mapping Strategies on Retention and Performance
among Concrete and Formal Secondary School Students in Zaria, Nigeria. The study
employed a 3×2×3 factorial quasi-experimental design without control group. A sample of
one hundred and sixty-two Senior Secondary Two students from intact classes in three co-
educational schools were randomly drawn from the population of five thousand, nine
hundred and fifty-six students. Circulatory system was taught for a period of six weeks. The
three experimental groups were taught using Concept Identifying, Proposition Identifying
and Student Generated Concept-mapping strategies respectively. The instruments used for
data collection were Group Assessment of Logical Thinking Test (GALT) and Circulatory
System Performance Test (CSPT). Instruments were accordingly validated by experts. GALT
and CSPT had reliability coefficient of 0.82 and 0.75 respectively. Two null hypotheses were
tested at P≤0.05 using Analysis of Co-Variance, Analysis of Variance and Least Significant
Difference statistics. Result showed that: Proposition Identifying Concept-mapping Group
had more impact on performance and retention ability level of concrete and formal
operational students than CIMG and SGMG. Students at the formal operational level also
performed better and had higher retention ability than concrete reasoners. Based on these
findings, it was concluded that Proposition Identifying Concept-mapping strategy should be
adopted by Biology teachers in secondary schools.

Keywords: Concept-mapping Strategies, Biology, Retention, Performance, Concrete,
Formal, Secondary School Students.

Introduction

Science teaching in Nigerian Secondary Schools has been criticized because of the
poor performance of students in Science subjects. Over the years, Science Educators and
Researchers in Science Education have intensified their efforts to seek for a clearer
understanding of the issues involved in declining performances of students in science.
Okebukola (2015) observed that research efforts have proposed various suggestions and
recommendations for improving the quality of Science teaching and learning in Nigerian
classrooms. However, despite these various suggestions for improvement, the quality of

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science teaching and students’ achievement in Science at secondary level continues to
decline. One of the factors identified to be responsible for persistent poor performance in
Science by students in Nigeria is the use of inappropriate instructional teaching/learning
strategies (Shaibu, 2014). Inappropriate teaching strategies as observed by Ogbeba (2009)
could result in poor state of learning and students achievement in Science.

Secondary Education in Nigeria is comprehensive and has a core curriculum designed
to broaden pupils’ knowledge and outlook. Its broad aim as stated in the national objectives
is preparation of student for useful living within the society and for higher Education.
Biology being one of the core subjects and is compulsory for all Science students in Senior
Secondary Schools in Nigeria (FRN, 2013). It was established that student’s poor
performance in Biology is due to the difficult nature of some concepts ( Adloan, 2012; Ajaja,
2013; Sakiyo & Waziri, 2015) and the difficulty of the teachers to use effective teaching
strategies (Okoye & Okechukwu, 2010; Okebukola, 2015). Thus, presentation of instruction
in a manner that encourages organizing, storing and retrieving information will increase
learning in the students. Hence the search for effective teaching/learning strategies suitable
for the present day continues to be a worthwhile research focus in the field of Science
Education.

Piagetian cognitive development stages includes sensori-motor, pre-operational,
concrete and formal (Lahti, 2012). Mcleod (2015) adds that at concrete operational stage (7-
11 years) learners are called concrete because they apply to objects in their thinking rather
than to abstract concepts while formal operational stage of development (from 11 years and
above) marks the beginning of the most complex type of cognitive functioning. At this
period, formal operational learners have set the stage for the development of logical thought
and abstract reasoning. As concrete and formal operational learners study together, there is
the need to compare their performance.

The ineffectiveness of didactic teaching method has been explained by constructive
research studies which have shown that people learn and construct knowledge by connecting
new experiences to what they already know. Consequently, there is advocacy for the
incorporation of the proven innovative active learning strategies in Science, Technology and
Mathematics classrooms (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2014). An
innovative teaching – learning strategy that can be used for effective teaching of Biological
concepts and leads to meaningful learning is Concept-mapping. Concept maps are diagrams
that consist of concepts or ideas linked by labelled lines to show relationships between and
among those concepts while Concept-mapping is a graphical representation of the
hierarchical relationship among concepts and propositions (Novak, 2013). Subsequently,
meaningful learning is improved by Concept-mapping as the learners engage in graphical
representation of concepts in a hierarchical arranged structure (Ricon, 2010). Novak and his
associates developed Concept-mapping from Ausubel’s theories in the 1970s as a strategy to
support meaningful learning for students in the classroom. Novak (2013) states that
meaningful learning involves the assimilation of new concepts and propositions into existing
cognitive structures.

Concept map development consists of three important elements namely: concepts,
propositions and its hierarchical structure. By controlling and manipulating these variables in
concept-mapping, it is hypothesized that different levels of cognitive processes will be

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affected and therefore instigate different levels of information processing. Four types of
Concept mapping strategies have been identified i.e. Student Generated, Teacher Generated,
Concept Identifying and Proposition Identifying mapping strategies. Teacher Generated
concept maps are created entirely by the teacher and given to the students as a study tool
(Lim, Lee, & Gabrowski, 2009) while Student Generated concept maps are created entirely
by the students (Wang & Dwyer, 2006). Concept Identifying and Proposition Identifying
maps are partially completed concept maps that students complete by finding the correct
concepts to place in the nodes or linking words (Wang & Dwyer, 2006). Use of expert
generated concept maps which provide an accurate understanding of knowledge and reduce
learners’ cognitive load was adopted in this study. The Concept Identifying and Proposition
Identifying maps in this study are fill-in-the-maps in which nodes or linking words were
intentionally omitted from an expert/teacher generated map. The expert map is used as a kind
of scaffold that helps learners reduce cognitive overload and avoid surface processing of
information. The principle of scaffolding instruction and completion strategy Van
Merrienboer (1990) were used to modify the way concept mapping was used in fill-in-maps
strategies.

Kenneth (2013) concluded that concept-mapping is not only an effective tool in
enhancing student learning but also serves as a valuable diagnostic tool for instructors to
explore students understanding and retention of concepts. Teaching concept maps increases
students understanding and retention, rather than producing individuals who remember little
but have developed only a good skill of memorizing (Novak, 2013). Some studies (Wang &
Dwyer, 2006; Lim et. al., 2009; Dosanjh, 2011) have revealed that not all variations of the
Concept-mapping learning strategies are equally effective and there is also inconsistency
with the results demonstrating which variations of the concept-mapping strategies are the
most effective. This highlights the need for additional researches on the concept-mapping
strategies most effective in improving students’ performance in Science within the Nigerian
context.

Objectives of the study

The objectives of the study are to:

1. determine the impact of the three Concept-mapping strategies (Concept Identifying,
Proposition Identifying and Student Generated) on Performance in Biology among
Concrete and Formal operational Senior Secondary School students.

2. determine the impact of the three Concept-mapping strategies on retention ability in
Biology among Concrete and Formal operational Senior Secondary School students.

Null hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were postulated to guide this study at P≤ 0.05:

H01: There is no significant difference in the performance mean scores between Concrete
and Formal operational students when taught Biology using Concept Identifying,
Proposition Identifying and Student Generated Concept-mapping strategies.

H02: There is no significant difference in the retention ability of Concrete and Formal
operational students taught Biology using Concept Identifying, Proposition
Identifying and Student Generated Concept-mapping Strategies.

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Methodology

The design for this study was a three-by-two-by-three factorial quasi-experimental
study. A 3x2x3 factorial here means that there are three strategies (Concept Identifying,
Proposition Identifying and Student Generated Concept-mapping strategies) used at two
reasoning ability levels (concrete & formal) on three experimental groups among the
students.

The population of the study involved all SS II Biology students (5956) of public
senior secondary schools in Zaria metropolis as at 2016 and their average age range is 17
years. Three schools randomly selected by balloting were: G.S.S T/Jukun, G.S.S. Dakace and
G.S.S. Muchia. Because of the nature of the experiment, three intact classes were randomly
selected from the three schools to serve as experimental groups. Student Generated Mapping
Group (SGMG-50 students), Concept Identifying Mapping Group (CIMG-51 students) and
Proposition Identifying Mapping Group (PIMG-61students) were taken as sample for the
study (in line with central limit theorem).

The instruments for this study were validated by one experienced Biology teacher and
four other Science Education experts with Ph.D from Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Test -
retest reliability method was used to determine the reliability of Circulatory System
Performance Test (CSPT). Pearson Product Moment Correlation was used to calculate the
reliability coefficient value of 0.75.

This study began with the administration of CSPT as pretest. Each of the three intact
classes was then randomly assigned to one of the three concept-mapping groups representing
each level of the independent variable: Concept Identifying, Proposition Identifying and
Student Generated. Group Assessment of Logical Thinking (GALT) test (adapted from
Roadrangka, Yeany & Padilla, 1982) was administered to classify the students as either
concrete or formal operational learners based on their score on the instrument. Scores
between 1-5 are concrete learners while 6-12 are formal learners in this study. All
participants received one week (one-hour, twenty minutes each day) of their respective
Concept Identifying, Proposition Identifying or Student Generated concept-mapping training
by the researcher. Actual period of study was eight weeks. The researcher taught the
circulatory system topic and students constructed their respective concept maps for six weeks
in all sampled schools. Feedback was always given to students at the end of every class. Data
was collected by administering a reshuffled CSPT as post-test and finally, two weeks after
post-test, the CSPT Post-posttest was administered to all subjects to determine their retention
ability on the circulatory system topic. Frequency, simple percentages, means and standard
deviation was used to analyze the pre, post, post-post and GALT tests. ANCOVA, ANOVA
and LSD was used to test the null hypotheses using SPSS version 20.

Results

Mean scores of pretest and posttest of concrete and formal operational students in
SGMG, CIMG and PIMG is presented in figure 1.

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Fig. 1: Performance Mean Scores between Concrete and Formal Operational Students in the
Three Groups before and after the Experiment

60

50

40

Mean performance 30

20

10

0 Formal Concrete Formal
Concrete

Pre-test Post-test

SGMG CIMG PIMG

Figure 1 reveals the performance mean scores between concrete and formal
operational students in the three groups before and after the experiment. For the general
performances at the Post-test, students in the Proposition Identifying Mapping Group (PIMG)
had the highest mean scores and were followed by those in the Concept Identifying Mapping
Group (CIMG) and those in Student Generated Mapping Group (SGMG) having the least. At
the concrete operational level students in PIMG had the highest mean score of 47.22±9.937,
38.64±13.077 for CIMG and 39.40±10.284 for SGMG respectively. At the Formal
operational level also the PIMG had the highest score of 53.57±8.522, then CIMG
47.50±38.891 and SGMG with 45.00±0.000. On the general observation, students in the
(PIMG) tended to have performed better than the other two groups.

To test hypothesis one, students’ performance in the post-tests were sorted out
according to reasoning ability and concept-mapping strategies and subjected to Analysis of
Covariance. The post-tests were used as the dependent variable while their pretests were used
as the covariate factor.

Summary of the analysis is shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Summary of Covariance Analysis of Post-test Mean Scores of Concrete and Formal

Operational Students Exposed to the Three Concept-mapping Strategies

Source Sum of Squares DF Mean Square F Sig.

Pre-test 880.053 1 880.053 6.988 .009

Concept mapping strategies(EG) 494.916 2 247.458 1.965 .144

Ability stages 27.369 1 27.369 .217 .642

EG * Ability 1.079 2 .540 .004 .996

Error 19520.474 155 125.939

Corrected Total 23712.346 161

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The results in Table 1 revealed that the performances of the students did not differ
significantly by their reasoning ability stages and the three concept-mapping strategies
applied in the experiment. This is indicated in the covariance model by an observed F-value
of 1.965 and 0.217 obtained at 2, 155 and 1, 155 degree of freedom respectively in the test.
The observed probability levels of significance for the factors are 0.144 and 0.642 for the
Concept-mapping strategies and the reasoning ability stages of the students was not
significant (P > 0.05). The interaction of the Concept-mapping strategies and the reasoning
ability stages of the students was also not significant (P > 0.05). By these observations, the
null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the performance mean scores
between concrete and formal operational students when taught using the three concept-
mapping strategies is therefore retained. This means that observed variability in the score of
the concrete and formal operational stages of the students in the three groups was not
statistically significant. In other words, the Concept-mapping strategies did not differ
significantly in their impact on the students’ performances.

Means of Post-posttest scores of Concrete and Formal Operational Students in SGMG,
CIMG and PIMG is presented in figure 2.

Fig. 2: Mean Retention Scores of Concrete and Formal Operational Students in the
Three Groups

Mean retention 80

60 CIMG PIMG
Concrete Formal
40

20

0
SGMG

Figure 2 presents the mean post-posttest scores of concrete and formal operational
students in the three groups. The scores for the concrete operational students were higher in
the PIMG with 63.43±8.623, 54.69±10.788 for CIMG and 50.10±8.66 for SGMG. The trend
in retention ability was the same with the formal operational students 71.43±13.452,
65.00±28.284 and 60.00±0.000 for PIMG, CIMG and SGMG respectively. The mean
differences in retention scores between Concrete and Formal students is 8.00 for PIMG,
10.31 for CIMG and 9.90 for SGMG. These results imply that the PIMG concept-mapping
strategy had more impact on the students’ retention than the CIMG and SGMG respectively.
Also, the three concept-mapping strategies have more impact on the retention ability of
formal operational students than on the concrete operational students.

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To test hypothesis two, the mean post-posttest scores of the concrete and formal
operational students exposed to the three concept-mapping strategies were subjected to two-
way analysis of variance. Results is shown in Table 2

Table 2: Summary of Two-way Analysis of Variance on Mean Post-posttest Scores of

Concrete and Formal Operational Students taught using the three Concept-Mapping

Strategies

Source Sum of Squares DF Mean Square F Sig.

Concept mapping strategies (EG) 729.105 2 364.552 3.799 .025

Ability stages 467.683 1 467.683 4.873 .029

EG * Ability 9.417 2 4.709 .049 .952

Error 14971.730 156 95.973

Corrected Total 21432.253 161

Results in Table 2 revealed that the students exposed to the three different concept-
mapping strategies differed significantly in their post-posttest scores as well as in their
reasoning ability stages. These are indicated by the observed F-value of 3.799 for the
different concept-mapping strategies and 4.873 for the reasoning ability stages obtained at 2,
156 and 1, 156 degree of freedom respectively in the Table. The probability level of
significance observed for the tests are 0.025 and 0.029 (P < 0.05). By these observations, the
null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the retention ability of concrete and
formal operational students in Biology when taught using Concept Identifying, Proposition
Identifying and Student Generated Strategies is therefore rejected. A post hoc test was
conducted on the mean post-posttest scores to determine the strategy that had more
significant impact on the retention level of the students using the Least Significant Difference
(LSD) procedure. The result is summarized in Table 3.

Table 3: Post-hoc Test on Mean Post-Posttest Scores of Concrete and Formal Students taught

Biology using the Concept-mapping Strategies.

(I) EG (J) EG Mean Std. Sig. 95% Confidence Interval for

Difference (I- Error Difference

J) Lower Upper Bound

Bound

SGMG CIMG -4.794 6.080 .432 -16.804 7.216
PIMG -12.377* 5.324 .021 -22.894 -1.861

CIMG SGMG 4.794 6.080 .432 -7.216 16.804
PIMG PIMG -7.583 4.046 .063 -15.575 .408
SGMG 12.377* 5.324 .021
CIMG 4.046 .063 1.861 22.894
7.583 -.408 15.575

*. The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.

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The results in Table 3 showed that the Proposition Identifying Mapping Strategy
(PIMS) had more impact on the students’ retention ability than those exposed to the Students
Generated Mapping (SGMS) and Concept Identifying Mapping (CIMS) respectively.

Discussion of the Findings
In the result of the Analysis of Covariance performed for the comparison in Table 1,

there was more improvement in performance among students in the formal operational stage
than were observed in the concrete operational stage. But the observed variability was not
found to be statistically significant. This cut cross the two reasoning ability stages (concrete
and formal) and between groups exposed to the three concept mapping strategies. The null
hypothesis one was therefore retained. The implication of this result is that the strategies did
not differ significantly in their impact on performance. The finding here is consistent with
studies by Bunting, Coll and Campbell (2006), Wang and Dwyer (2006), Lim et al., (2009)
and Dosanjh (2011) who respectively indicated that concept mapping was an effective
strategy for improving student’s performance in Sciences.

Null Hypothesis Two tested for significant difference in the retention ability of
concrete and formal operational students in Biology when taught using the three Concept-
mapping strategies in the selected Senior Secondary Schools. The result of the ANOVA
revealed that the students differed significantly in their retention levels by their reasoning
ability levels (concrete and formal operational) and by the different concept mapping
strategies used in the experiment. The null hypothesis was therefore rejected. The finding
agrees with Ajaja (2013), Kenneth (2013) and Arokoyu and Obunwo (2014) that Concept-
mapping instructional strategy enhances and encourages students retention in Biology more
than the traditional lecture method. From the post hoc test conducted to establish the group
that was significantly different from the other in the retention level, it was found that
retention level was significantly higher among the formal operational stage students than was
obtained among concrete operational stage students. The post hoc test also revealed that
students exposed to the PIMG had the highest retention and thus the highest impact of the
strategy followed by those exposed to the Concept Identifying Mapping (CIMG) while
students exposed to the Students Generated Mapping (SGMG) had the least retention level
and thus the least impact.

Conclusion
This research concludes that the use of Proposition Identifying Concept-mapping

strategy may be effective in enhancing performance and improve the retention ability of
concrete and formal operational Senior Secondary schools students in Biology. It clearly
revealed that formal operational stage students performed better than those in Concrete
operational stage in the CSPT. Appropriate academic modification in teaching methodologies
should be done by secondary school Biology teachers and administrators to facilitate
maximum cognitive development of reasoning ability within students in senior secondary
schools.

Recommendations
The following recommendations were made on the basis of the outcomes of this study:

1. Proposition Identifying Concept-mapping strategy should be adopted by secondary
school Biology teachers since it improved performance of both concrete and formal

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learners. It also facilitated the integration of concrete concepts into an abstract
framework thereby enhancing retention of both type of students.
2. This study was carried out in Zaria Educational Zone of Kaduna state. It is
recommended that the scope be widened to include more educational zones within the
state or nation.

References
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School Biology. Retrieved on 20-12-2015 from http://etd.isu.edu.

Ajaja, O. P. (2013): Which Way do we go in the Teaching of Biology? Concept mapping,
cooperative learning or learning cycle? International Journal of Science, Technology
Education Research, 4(2), 18 – 29. www.academicjournals.org/IJSTER

American Association for the Advancement in Sciences (2014): Annual Report. Retrieved
21-12-15 from www.aaas.org

Arokoyu, A. A. & Obunwo, J. C. (2014): Concept- Mapping: An Instructional Strategy For
Retention of Organic Chemistry Concepts. International Journal of Scientific Research
and Innovative Technology, 1(3), 50- 57

Buntting, C; Coll, R. K. & Campbell, A. (2006): Student Views of Concept Mapping Use in
Introductory Tertiary Biology Classes. International Journal of Science and
Mathematics Education, 4, 641-668.

Dosanjh, N. K. (2011): The Effects of Three Concept Mapping Strategies on 7th Grade
Students Science Achievements at an Urban Middle School. University of San
Francisco, Proquest, UMI Dissertations Publishing.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013): National Policy on Education (6th Edition) Lagos:
NERDC Press.

Kenneth, C. A. (2013): Effects of Concept Mapping Instructional Strategy on Students
Retention in Biology. African Education Indices, 5 (1): 1-8.

Lahti, R. D (2012): Does Attainment of Piaget’s Formal operational Level of Cognitive
Development Predicts Students Understanding of Scientific Model. University of
Montana Proquest, UMI Dissertations publishing.

Lim, K; Lee, H. & Grabowski, B. (2009): Does Concept-Mapping Strategy Work for
Everyone? The Levels of Generatively and Learners' Self-Regulated Learning Skills.
British Journal of Educational Technology, 40 (4), 606-618.

Mcleod, S. A. (2015): Jean Piaget. Retrieved 19-12-2015 from
www.simplypschology.org/piaget

Novak, J.D. (2013): Empowering Learners and Educators. Journal for Educators, Teachers
and Trainers, 4 (1), 14-24.

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Ogbeba, J. A. (2009): Effect of Prior Knowledge of Instructional Objectives on Senior
Secondary School Students’ Motivation and Achievement in Biology. Unpublished
Ph.D. thesis, Faculty of Education, Benue State University, Makurdi.

Okebukola, P. (2015): A Review of the Education Sector in Nigeria and Recommendations
for Sector Wide Reforms. A keynote address at a Colloquim on Education in Nigeria,
organized by the Government Secondary School Owerri old boys association on 29-10-
15. Retrieved 30-10-15 thenationonline.ng.net

Okoye, N.S. & Okechukwu, R.N. (2010): The Effect of Concept Mapping and Problem
Solving Teaching Strategies on Achievement in Biology among Nigerian Secondary
Schools Students. Education, 131 (2), 288-294.

Ricon, T. (2010): Using Concept Maps in Cognitive Treatment for Children with
Developmental Coordination Disorder. Health, 2(7), 685-691.

Roadrangka, V. Yeany, R. H. & Padilla, M. J. (1982): The Construction and Validation of
GALT. A Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Association for
Research in Science Teaching, Dallas, Texas.

Sakiyo, J. & Waziri, K. (2015): Concept Mapping Strategy: An Effective Tool for Improving
Students’ Academic Achievement in Biology. Journal of Education in Science,
Environment and Health, 1 (1) 56-62.

Shaibu, A. (2014): Navigating the Maze of Students’ Underachievement in Science: Does
Science Education Research Provide a Road Map? Inaugural lecture at Ahmadu Bello
University, Zaria. A.B.U Press Limited, Zaria.

Shamsudin, N; Abdullahi, N. & Yaamat, N. (2013): Strategies of Teaching Science Using
Inquiry Based Science Education (IBSE) by Novice Chemistry Teachers. Procedia –
Social and Behavioural Sciences 90,583-592

Van-Merrienboer, J.G. (1990): Strategies for programming instruction in high school:
Program Completion vs. Program Generation. Journal of Educational Computing
Research, 6, 265-287.

Wang, C. X. & Dwyer, F. M. (2006): Instructional Effects of Three Concept Mapping
Strategies in Facilitating Student Achievement. International Journal of Instructional
Media, 33, 135-151.

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Thinking Maps as Benchmarking Tools for Basic Science and Technology
Instruction: Implication for Sustainable National Development

Larai Adamu
&

Bernadette Ebele Ozoji, (Ph.D)

Department of Science and Technology Education
University of Jos

[email protected]
[email protected]

08034530244

Abstract
This study investigated the use of thinking maps in teaching basic science and technology
concepts in junior secondary schools in Kanam, Plateau State, Nigeria and its implication
for sustainable national development. One hundred and twenty junior secondary two school
students constituted the sample (with 60 students in the experimental and control groups
from one urban school and one rural school). The sample was selected from a population of
1,210 students distributed among 24 public junior secondary schools in Kanam local
government area, Plateau State. Two research questions and two null hypotheses guided the
study. The pre-test, post-test non-equivalent control group design was employed. A Basic
Science and Technology Achievement Test developed by the researcher was used to collect
data from the students.The research questions were answered using mean and standard
deviation while the hypotheses were tested using t-test statistics at 0.05 level of significance.
Results of the study revealed that there was a significant difference between the basic science
achievement post-test mean scores of students exposed to thinking maps and those not
exposed to the maps. Furthermore, a significant difference was found between Basic
Science and Technology Achievement post-test mean scores of students in urban and rural
schools taught with thinking maps. The implication of the findings was that, teachers should
use appropriate teaching strategies and tools such as thinking maps to enhance students’
engagement, critical thinking and problem-solving skills which are vital for improving
achievement in Basic Science and technology as well as sustainable national development.

Keywords: Thinking Maps, Benchmarking Tools, Basic Science and Technology,
Instruction, Sustainable National Development

Introduction

The world today is predominantly shaped by overwhelming impact of science and
technology so much that every aspect of human behaviour has been modified due to its
influence. Nations of the world today therefore, cherish science and technology due to its
impact on national development. It is as a result of the significant role of science and
technology to sustainable national development that it forms an integral part of the
curriculum in school programmes (Umeoduagu, 2000). For instance, the Nigerian
government came up with a policy that 60% of the students seeking admission into the

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nation’s universities, polytechnics and colleges of education should be admitted for science-
oriented courses, while 40% of the students should be considered for arts and social science
courses. The National Policy on Education (Federal Ministry of Education [FME], 2013)
states that the goals of science education in Nigeria should be to produce scientists for
national development; and to service studies in technology and the course of technological
development. In further pursuance of these goals the federal government, emphasized what
other things the government should put in place to boost the teaching and learning of
science, such as, establishing more universities of technology and special science schools at
the secondary school level, the implementation of the ‘Step B’ project review of science
curricular materials and texts through the instrumentality of the Nigerian Educational
Development and Research Council (NERDC) and the Science Teachers’ Association of
Nigeria, respectively.

Despite the efforts of the government to reposition the teaching and learning of
science, evidence from available literate shows that students achieve poorly in science
subjects at all levels of education. The West African Examinations Council (WAEC, 2011)
reports revealed that more than 40.00% of the students who wrote the examinations passed at
below credit level in science subjects. The scenario is not different from the situation at the
basic level of education. For instance, the Junior Secondary Certificate Examinations (JSCE)
results in Kanam Local Government Area conducted by the Plateau State Ministry of
Education showed that 71.00% of the students who sat for the Junior Secondary School
Certificate Basic Science JSCE between 2011-2013 scored below credit level. This is not a
good omen for a nation that is aspiring for sustainable national development.

Many researchers and scholars have blamed this sordid situation on the teaching
method and competence of teachers (Ozoji, 2010; James, 2015). Experience as a basic
science teacher shows that most science teachers in secondary schools in Kanam Local
Government Area do not expose students to activity-oriented and problem-solving strategies
of learning science, such as the use of thinking maps. This is because the teachers themselves
are ignorant of the application and benefits of these effective teaching/learning methods on
students’ achievement in Basic science and technology. This study therefore investigated the
effects of thinking maps on students’ achievement and attitudes towards Basic science in
Kanam Local Government Area of Plateau State.

Literature is replete with evidences of ineffective teaching and use of stereotyped
and poor teaching methods in science classrooms as being critical in poor achievement of
students in the sciences (Ozoji, 2010; Usman, 2015). Such methods are ineffective, not
learner-centered and stifle meaningful learning and understanding of science and technology
concepts and principles. There is therefore, the need for more activity-based innovative and
learner-centered methods of teaching for effective science delivery. Such methods include;
questioning-answering method, problem solving method and thinking mapping strategy.

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Thinking maps are a useful tool for helping younger students with the process of
building conceptual understanding of content and promoting achievement. By using thinking
maps instead of traditional methods of teaching, students are able to visualize links between
non-linear ideas, which in turn provides for creativity and meaningful learning. The use of
colour is often used to differentiate ideas contained within the thinking map, which enhances
the utility and meaningfulness of the maps to learners who construct them (Mona & Khalick,
2008). Thinking maps are essentially the visual representation of students’ thought, as such,
they allow for a greater retention of information by students. One of the most important
aspects of thinking maps is the ability of students to display critical thinking skills in the
course of completing their maps. In this study on the improvement of critical thinking skills,
Savich (2009) noted that the foci on critical and independent thinking were effective ways for
teachers to maximize the engagement of students in his class (Savich, 2009). Savich
concluded that this inquiry method of teaching allowed even the least confident students in
his class to feel connected to the material, which in turn allowed them to see the bigger
picture of history (Savich, 2009). In the same manner, thinking maps allow students to feel
more connected to the material, as it forces them to map out their thought processes on paper,
which leads to an increase in connections between content and experience.

One of the proponents of the mind mapping, Hyerle (2000) maintained that
brainstorming, organizers, and process maps were integral to building conceptual links in
students’ understanding and recollection. When these three qualities are applied to thinking
mapping, they allow students to visualize their own thought process, in addition to making
the construction of knowledge personal to them. However, thinking maps were unique in the
sense that they force students to construct new knowledge about a topic while simultaneously
recalling what they already knew. The use of thinking maps have been proved to increase the
retention ability of learners when target information is visualized (Mona & Khalick, 2008).
Moreover, Adegoke (2015) posits that if students are offered control over their map
constructions, the maps have a positive impact on their achievement in sciences because they
embody metacognitive models with certain structures. However, the use of thinking maps has
its limitations, such as, the difficulty encountered in constructing maps by some students.
Nevertheless, the advantages of thinking mapping instructional strategy outweigh its
disadvantages. It is against the fore-going background that this study investigated the use of
thinking maps as benchmarking tools for effective basic science instruction and the
implications for sustainable national development.

Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to determine the effects of thinking maps on students’

achievement in Basic Science and technology in Kanam Local Government Area of Plateau
State. The specific objectives of the study were as follows, to:
1. Find out the Basic science and technology achievement pre-test and post-test mean

scores of JSS 2 students in experimental and control groups.

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2. Determine the difference between the Basic Science and technology achievement
post-test mean scores of students in the experimental group in urban and rural
schools.

Research Questions
The following research questions were answered:

1. What are the basic science and technology achievement pre-test and post-test mean
scores of students in the experimental group exposed to thinking maps and those in
the control group not exposed?

2. What are the basic science achievement post-test mean scores of JSS students
exposed to the use of thinking maps in urban and rural schools?

Null Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance:
1. There is no significant difference between the post-test Basic Science
Achievement Test mean scores of JSS 2 students in the experimental and control
groups.
2. There is no significant difference between the post-test Basic science and
technology Achievement mean scores of JSS 2 students exposed to thinking maps
in rural and urban schools.

Methodology
The study employed the pre-test-post-test non-equivalent control group design. There are two
groups in this design which are not composed on the basis of randomization but with intact
groups (Awotunde, Ugodulunwa & Ozoji, 1997). The population for this study was made up
of 1,210 JSS 2 students in 18 public junior secondary schools in Kanam Local Government
Area of Plateau State. The sample for this study consisted of 120 students in two junior
secondary schools in Kanam Local Government Area, with one school situated in a rural area
while the other was situated in an urban area. In each school two arms of JSS 2 students were
used, one arm as the experimental group and the other as the control group.

The study employed the non-randomized pre-test-post-test non-equivalent control
group design. The instrument used for data collection was a Basic Science Achievement
Test (BSAT) developed by the researcher. The BSAT was a structured multiple choice
instrument. It comprised thirty multiple choice items. The questions covered the topics
taught, namely, cellular respiration, living and non-living components of the environment,
forms of energy and the importance of energy. Section A consisted of personal data of the
students and Section B contained multiple choice items, true or false, and fill in the blanks.
The Basic Science Achievement Test was constructed by the researcher using the National
Curriculum for Basic Science and Basic science textbook. To ensure that relevant questions
were set based on the cognitive objectives advanced by Bloom (1956), a table of
specifications was used to set questions at the levels of recall, compression and evaluation.

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The items were drawn based on three out of the six cognitive levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy of
Educational objectives, namely, knowledge, comprehension and application levels. The
content validity of the BSAT was determined by subjecting it to the scrutiny of two experts
in Science education and an expert in test and measurement, all in the Faculty of Education,
University of Jos, Nigeria, for comprehensiveness and relevance of the items in line with the
table of specifications constructed by the researcher. The reliability index was calculated as
0.93 using the Cronbach alpha method.

Procedure for Data Collection
Training of Research Assistants

Four research assistants who were Basic Science teachers in the schools used in the
study were coordinated for the purpose of this research. The teachers had either an N.C.E or
B.Sc. (Ed.) in basic science and with 3 to 5 year experience in junior secondary schools.
However, only two teachers were used for the experimental groups and they were given a
three-day training and orientation on the use of thinking Maps in teaching basic science
concepts used in the study while the other two teachers that were used for the control group
were not given any training on the use of thinking maps.

Administration of Pre-test
A pre-test was administered on the sample before the commencement of the teaching of the
experimental and control groups.

Administration of Treatment to the Experimental Group:
The experimental group was taught the concept of photosynthesis, cellular respiration

and forms of energy by trained research assistants in the schools used for the study, using
thinking maps. The lesson notes prepared by the researcher were used for the teaching
exercise. The circle thinking map was used for teaching photosynthesis, the multi-flow
thinking map for teaching cellular respiration and the tree thinking map was used for
teaching forms of energy. The treatment lasted for six weeks during which the students
constructed the maps for on the said topics.

Teaching of the Control Group
The research assistants taught the control groups by teaching them with the

conventional lecture method. The lesson notes already prepared by the researcher were used
by the teachers to teach. The teaching lasted for a period of six weeks covering the topics:
photosynthesis, cellular respiration and forms of energy from JSS 2 Basic science course
textbook two.
Administration of Post-tests

The BSAT post-test was administered after the completion of the teaching exercise
to both groups.

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Method of Data Analysis
Descriptive and inferential statistics were employed in analyzing the data for the

study. Means and standard deviations were used to answer the research questions while the t-
test statistic was used to test the hypotheses at 0. 05 level of significance.
Results

Research Question One: What are post-test achievement mean scores of the experimental
and control groups in Basic Science Achievement Test (BSAT)?

Table 1: Basic Science Achievement Test (BSAT) Post-test Mean Scores of Experimental
and Control Group

Group No. Pre-test Mean Post-test Mean Mean Gain
Experimental 60 41.27 67.18 23.88
Control 60 39.00 43.30

Table 1 shows that the BSAT post-test mean scores of the experimental and control groups
were 67.18 and 43.30, respectively. This result shows a mean gain of 23.88 which indicates
that thinking mapping strategy of instruction led to an improvement in students’ achievement
post-test mean score in Basic Science Achievement Test.

Research Question Two: What are the post-test achievement mean scores of JSS 2 students
exposed to the use of thinking maps in Urban and Rural Schools?

Table 2: Basic Science Achievement Post-test Mean Scores of JSS Two Students exposed to
the use of Thinking Maps in Urban and Rural Schools

Location No. of Students Mean SD Mean Gain
Urban 30 67.87 7.42 11.37
Rural 30 56.50 8.44

Table 2 shows that the BSAT post-test mean scores of the JSS 2 students exposed to the use
of thinking map were 67.87 and 56.50 respectively. This result indicates that school location
did influence students’ achievement when exposed to thinking maps strategy of instruction in
Basic Science.

Null Hypothesis One: There is no significant difference between the post-test Basic Science
Achievement Test mean scores of JSS 2 students in the experimental and control groups

Table 3: Summary of t - Test on Post-test Basic Science Achievement Test (BSAT) Mean
Scores of Experimental and Control Groups.

Groups N ̅ SD df t. cal t. crit.
Experimental
Control 60 67.18 7.91 118 15.10 1.66
60 43.30 9.36

P < 0.05

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Data on Table 3 show that the calculated value of t (15.10) is greater than the critical value t
(1.66) at df 118 and 0.05 level of significance. The null hypothesis was therefore rejected.
The conclusion is that there was a significant difference between the Post-test Basic Science
achievements mean scores of students exposed (experimental group) to thinking mapping
strategy and students not exposed to thinking maps strategies (control group).

Null Hypothesis Two: There is no significant difference between the post-test Basic Science
Achievement Test (BSAT) mean scores of JSS 2 students in the experimental exposed to
thinking mapping strategy in urban and rural schools.

Table 4: Summary of t-test on Post-test Basic Science Achievement Test (BSATT) Mean
Scores of JSS 2 Students in the Urban and Rural Schools Exposed Thinking Map
Strategy.

Location N ̅ SD Df t. cal t. crit.

Urban 30 67.87 7.42 5.54 1.66
Rural 30 56.50 8.44 58

P < 0.05

Data on Table 4 show that the calculated value of t (5.54) is greater than the tabulated value
of t (1.66) at 0.05 level of significance. The hypothesis was therefore rejected. It was
concluded that there was a significant difference between the post-test Basic Science
Achievement Test (BSATT) mean scores of JSS 2 students in the experimental group
exposed to thinking mapping strategy in urban and rural schools.

Discussion of the Findings

The results of the study showed that thinking mapping strategy as a means of
instruction led to an improvement in students’ achievement in basic science and technology.
School location was also shown to affect students’ achievement when thinking maps were

used to teach. Table 1 shows that the BSATT post-test mean scores of the experimental and

control groups were 67.18 and 43.30, respectively. This result indicates that thinking
mapping strategy led to the improvement in students’ achievement scores in Basic Science

and technology Achievement Test. This finding is in agreement with the finding of Asan
(2007) which showed that concept mapping had a noticeable impact on students’

achievement in science classes.

Table 2 shows that the BSATT post-test mean scores of the JSS 2 students exposed to

the use of thinking maps in urban and rural areas were 67.87 and 56.50, respectively. This
result indicates that school location had a positive influence on students’ achievement when

exposed to thinking mapping strategy in Basic Science and technology. This finding is at

variance with those of Igwebuike (2013) Agbaje and Awodun (2014) who discovered that
school location did not influence students’ achievement in science. Again, the finding

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showed that the use of thinking maps as a teaching/learning package had a differential impact
on concept formation among students in urban and rural schools.

The data in Table 3 show that the calculated value of t (15.10) is greater than the
critical value of t (1.66) at 118 degree of freedom and 0.05 level of significance. The null
hypothesis was therefore rejected. The conclusion is that there was a significant difference
between the post-test Basic science achievements mean scores of students exposed to
thinking maps strategy and students not exposed to the strategy.

The data on Table 4 show that the calculated value of t (5.54) is greater than the
critical value t (1.66) at 58 degree of freedom and 0.05 level of significance. The null
hypothesis was therefore rejected. The conclusion is that there was a significant difference
between the Basic Science and technology achievement mean scores of JSS 2 students in
urban and rural schools exposed to thinking map strategies.

Implications of the Findings for Sustainable Development
The findings of this study have far reaching implications for sustainable national

development because science and technology education is critical and contributes
significantly and directly to sustainable development. This is because it lays the foundation
for new approaches and technologies for tackling global challenges for the future of any
nation. This may be why the United Nations Science Advisory Board (SAB, 2014)
recommended the international community to integrate science into the post-2015
development agenda including Sustainable Development Goals.

Students should as a matter of urgency be taught science and technology concepts and
principles with activity-oriented, learner-centered, hands-on and minds-on strategies, such as
the use of thinking maps for in-depth understanding and meaningful learning of science and
technology concepts and principles, as well as good achievement outcomes. The findings of
the study showed that engaging students in the use of thinking maps in basic science and
technology classrooms has the capacity to expand their critical thinking skills and
science/technology processes. Critical thinking skills brought about by science and
technology education is fundamental in training the mind, understanding the world, creating
change, making choices and taking decisions that affect nations, as well as, solving every day
problems that stare human beings in the face, such, as hunger and poverty, climate change,
terrorism and war, etc.

To make the most of the transforming power of science and technology education, it
has to commence at the basic level both in urban and rural areas with innovative and
effective strategies, such as, thinking mapping strategy as benchmarking tools. It is
disheartening that the national curriculum for basic science and technology emphasizes the
use of activity-based approaches in teaching the subject but what basic science and
technology teachers do from experience in the name of teaching is the reverse. This calls not
only for the training and retraining of teachers in innovative teaching techniques but for a

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change of attitudes by science and technology teachers from the manner in which teaching is
done presently, particularly, at the basic level of education and in rural areas in the country.

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