International Journal of Educational Benchmark (IJEB) - Vol. 8, Issue 3, final print

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

UNESCO (1985). Accommodating and space for secondary general schools: Modules I, III,
and IV. Paris.

UNESCO (1996). Education Act. Retrieved from www.unesco.org

UNESCO (2006).Guide book for planning education in emergencies and reconstruction.
Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning.

UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund) (1998). A manual on school sanitation and
hygiene. Water, Environment and Sanitation Technical Guidelines Series No. 5. New
York. Available at http://www.irc.nl

World Bank (2005). Toolkit in hygiene, Sanitation and water in school. www.sparc.org.nz

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 93

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

Attitude of Federal University Lecturers toward the Relevance of Teaching
Qualifications and their Pedagogical Competencies in Northwest
Nigeria

Collins A. Ekpiwre

Department of Educational Foundations,
Federal College of Education, Kano

[email protected], 08035681907

Abstract
This survey study was conducted against the backdrop of the directive given by the Teachers
Registration Council of Nigeria to all teachers at all levels of the country’s education system
to possess teaching qualifications. Thus, the study compared the attitude of federal university
lecturers in Northwest Nigeria that have teaching qualifications and their counterparts that
do not have, regarding the relevance of teaching qualifications to their pedagogical
competencies. The population of the study was made up of five thousand three hundred and
seventy-four (5,374) academic staff of the Federal Universities in Northwest Nigeria during
the 2014/2015 academic session. A sample of 537 lecturers - representing 10% of the target
population - was randomly drawn from three of these universities for the study. A
questionnaire titled “University Lecturers’ Teaching and Pedagogical Competencies Attitude
Scale” (ULTaPCAS) was used to collect data. Face validity of the instrument was
established through the scrutiny of three experts in various fields of education from
University of Jos. The Cronbach’s Alpha measure of reliability was used to generate the
internal consistency reliability coefficient value of 0.74 for the items in the ULTaPCAS. The
collected data was analyzed through descriptive statistics of frequency distribution,
percentage counts and inferential statistics of t-test at 0.05 level of significance. The result
indicated that there was a significant difference in the mean scores of qualified and
unqualified university lecturers’ attitude towards the relevance of teaching qualifications and
their pedagogical competencies. Based on this result, the study recommended that further
studies that investigate the nature of relationship that exists between the acquisition of
teaching qualifications and university lecturers’ pedagogical competencies/practices should
be conducted.

Keywords: Attitude, University lecturers, Teaching qualifications, Pedagogical

competencies

Introduction
Traditionally, the most respected feature of the university lecturer is his/her expertise

in an area of specialization. In recent years, however, there have been discussions about the
need to improve university lecturers’ pedagogical thinking and skills as well. Also, it has
been argued that all teacher training/development programmes have the underlying, if not
explicit goal of improving the quality of teaching practice and learning (Eggins &
Macdonald, 2003). As a result, training of university lecturers has recently become a

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 94

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

widespread development in many countries (Postareff, Lindblom-Yla¨nne&Nevgi, 2007).
Many countries such as United Kingdom, Norway, Sri Lanka and Finland have made
decisions about the necessity for the pedagogical training of university lecturers who are not
educational trained (Gibbs & Coffey, 2004; Postareff, Lindblom-Yla¨nne & Nevgi, 2007). In
the United Kingdom, public policy (and funding) has encouraged strategic approaches to the
pedagogical training of university lecturers by institutions (Gibbs, Habeshaw & Yorke,
2000). Similar moves occurred much earlier in some other developed economies, most
notably the United States, in part driven by student protests about “irrelevant courses and
uninspired teaching” (Gaff & Simpson, 1994, p. 168).

Within the United Kingdom, there has been rising activity in promoting and
delivering teaching development strategies for university lecturers especially since 2003.
Gibbs (as cited in Parsons, Hill, Holland & Willis, 2012) estimates that this area of work,
which involved only around 30 active academics, mostly part-time, in the United Kingdom in
the 1970s, now involves thousands of academic development personnel and substantial
institutional investments. Others (D’Andrea & Gosling, 2005; Stes, Min-Leliveld, Gijbels,
and Van Petegem, 2010) have also noted that this development is one of the more remarkable
Higher Education phenomena of the last decade. What has emerged in the United Kingdom
from this sharply expanded activity has been characterized as very diverse. In the United
Kingdom, it is clear that programmes vary from an expanding range of usually part-time and
certificated programmes (McArthur, Earl & Edwards, 2004), typically of one year’s duration,
to include continuing education that takes place usually through short-term, block or
intensive workshop programmes (Rust, 1998). But in recent years, there has been a
developing trend towards providing a framework of common standards and qualifications for
the different institutional approaches. The qualification pathway for new academic staff,
although non-mandatory, is becoming more a feature of institutional strategies (Parsons, Hill,
Holland & Willis, 2012).

Postareff, Lindblom-Yla¨nne and Nevgi (2007) explained that in Finland, many
Universities arrange pedagogical training for their academic staff, but training is not
compulsory. They cited the example of University of Helsinki’s strategy (Strategic Plan for
the Years 2004-2006) which highlighted that every new lecturer (both those with educational
background and those without) should have the possibility to participate in an introductory
seminar on teaching in order to improve their pedagogical thinking and skills. But the
training is voluntary. An essential aim of the teacher training at the University of Helsinki is
to enhance a shift from a teacher-centred approach towards a more student-centred approach
to teaching.

In Nigeria, the policy statements of both the Teachers’ Registration Council of
Nigeria (TRCN) (TRCN, 2005a, 2005b) and the NPE (FRN, 2013) support this practice
whereby university lecturers are made to undergo formal teacher training. The directive by
the TRCN (TRCN, 2005a, 2005b) to all persons who perform jobs that rightly and legally
constitute teaching at all levels of the country’s education system to possess teaching
qualifications is undoubtedly underscored by the expectation that complying would enhance
teachers’ pedagogical competencies.

For effective compliance with the above, the National Universities Commission
(NUC) since 2004 issued a clear directive to all Vice-Chancellors of Universities making it
mandatory for all their academic staff, irrespective of their areas of specialization, to register
with the Council after undergoing the legally prescribed teacher preparation programmes
(TRCN, 2005a, 2005b). Meanwhile, some Nigerian Universities in the past recognized this

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 95

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

aspect and thus directed their lecturers to pursue programme that would make them become
trained lecturers (Elayelagha, Amamieyenimighan and Clinton, 2010).

However, most university lecturers appear to be negatively inclined towards this
policy statement (Ololube, 2006). This was categorically expressed in the action of the
Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU) when it publicly kicked against those
universities that directed their academic staff to acquire teaching qualifications (Elayelagha,
Amamieyenimighan and Clinton, 2010). This inclination seems to be in line with the view of
some scholars (Ballou and Podursky, 2000; Paige, 2002) who vehemently argued against the
relevance of teaching qualifications and teaching certification systems, claiming that
available research does not support specific rigorous teacher preparation and certification
standards.

It is obvious that the directives by both the NPE (FRN, 2013) and the TRCN (TRCN,
2005a) that only qualified teachers should be licensed to teach at all levels of the education
system would be justifiable only by its level of applicability and relevance to university
lecturers’ teaching roles. Undoubtedly, all pedagogical development courses aim to improve
teachers’ expertise in some aspects of teaching or to change teachers’ conceptions of
teaching and learning to support improvement of their teaching and interactions with
students. But all changes ultimately depend on the teacher’s willingness to change (Postareff
and Nevgi, 2015). Therefore, the negative attitude being displayed by most university
lecturers towards both the Policy’s and Council’s guidelines directing all persons engaged in
teaching to become qualified and registered teachers - as was categorically expressed in the
action of ASUU when it publicly kicked against those universities that directed their
academic staff who do not have teaching qualifications to do so (Elayelagha,
Amamieyenimighan & Clinton, 2010) - cannot be divorced from their reasoning that
compliance to these guidelines could add little or nothing to their teaching competencies and
abilities to direct their students towards stated educational goals. It should be noted that this
kind of attitude is common to all teachers who are unwilling to embrace change because of
their perception that: (a) they are doing well, or at least they are doing the best they could and
(b) embracing change will only make little or no difference to the lives of their students –
that is, no matter what they say or do, factors outside their control, such as large class size,
classroom characteristics, student personal characteristics and or their home backgrounds
would always make them unable to get the materials across to their students (Anderson,
2004).

Furthermore, most university lecturers commit themselves strongly to research on
their own discipline and consider that their expertness is based on being a researcher of the
subject. Teaching is sometimes seen as less important in academic careers than research, thus
no need to develop expertness and scholarship in it (Knight, 2002). Moreover, being an
expert in one field may prevent developing expertise in other fields, especially for those who
cling to their expertness in one field and do not accept that they may be novices in another
field (Akkerman & Bakker, 2011). Besides, Critchley and Casey in Lueddeke (2003)
surmised that people in their ‘mid-careers’ shun change either consciously or unconsciously
and they usually have a fear of making commitment. This ‘intermediate phase’ of expertise
was also acknowledged by Postareff, Lindblom-Yla¨nne and Nevgi (2007) in their analysis
of the effectiveness of pedagogical development courses on teachers’ approaches to teaching
and self-efficacy beliefs.

But the assertion by Martinez-Pons (2003) that qualified primary and secondary
school teachers are in some respect more readily equipped than unqualified university

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 96

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

lecturers to perform as classroom teachers, perhaps gives credence to the need for university
lecturers to receive training in pedagogical skills in addition to the ones they received in their
areas of specialization. Besides, the acquisition of teaching certification is what distinguishes
trained university lecturers from those who are not. Martinez-Pons vividly described this
difference when he noted that except for those in education programmes, university lecturers
are normally trained only in their areas of specialization (i.e., pharmacy, sociology,
chemistry) and receive little or no formal preparation in pedagogy. Therefore, it could be
assumed from this assertion that qualified university lecturers (whether in technology, in
education, in economics or in engineering) are better equipped with teaching skills than those
not qualified. Perhaps, this assertion underscored Nwosu’s (1996) reiteration of the findings
of a previous study he conducted that indicated that qualified university lecturers understood
their students’ peculiarities and academic problems and indeed, taught their students better
than those not qualified.

Statement of the Problem
The TRCN through the NUC since 2004 issued a clear directive to all Universities

making it mandatory for all their unqualified academic staff, irrespective of their areas of
specialization, to undergo the legally prescribed teacher preparation programmes in order for
them to become professionally qualified teachers (TRCN, 2005a, 2005b). However, most
university lecturers appear to have a negative attitude towards the idea of acquiring teaching
qualifications because they think doing so would not add any value to their pedagogical
practices/competencies (Ololube, 2006). It is against this backdrop that this research sought
to investigate further on the attitude of university lecturers towards the relevance of teaching
qualifications to their pedagogical competencies.

Objective of the Study
The aim of this study was to examine the attitude of Federal University lecturers in

Northwest Nigeria towards the relevance of teaching qualifications to their pedagogical
competencies.

Research Question
In pursuance of the objective of this study, one research question was asked: What is

the attitude of Federal University lecturers in Northwest Nigeria towards the relevance of
teaching qualifications to their pedagogical competencies?

Null Hypothesis
The study sought to test the following null hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance:

There is no significant difference between the mean scores of qualified and unqualified
Federal University lecturers’ attitude towards the relevance of teaching qualifications to their
pedagogical competencies.

Methodology
The descriptive survey design was adopted for this study since data from a sample of

university lecturers was investigated to elicit their attitude. The target population for this
study comprised all the five thousand three hundred and seventy-four (5,374) academic staff
engaged in the seven Federal Universities in Northwest Nigeria as at the 2014/2015 academic
session. The data obtained from these universities showed that 1,938, 1,075, 910, 389, 373,
355, 331 of the target population represent the total staff strength of lecturers in Ahmadu

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 97

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

Bello University, Zaria, Bayero University, Kano, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto,
Federal University Dutsinma, Federal University Dutse, Federal University Birnin Kebbi and
Federal University Gusau, respectively. The proportionate stratified random sampling
technique was used to select a sample of 537 participants - representing 10% of the target
population from the three 1st and 2nd generation Federal Universities in Northwest Nigeria.

A questionnaire titled “University Lecturers’ Teaching and Pedagogical
Competencies Attitude Scale” (ULTaPCAS) was used to collect data. The ULTaPCAS was
divided into two sections. Section ‘A’ contained information indicating the name of the
university and the academic qualifications of respondents. Section ‘B’ contained 10
structured statements related to the respondents’ attitude regarding the importance of
teaching qualifications in enhancing their pedagogical competencies. Respondents were
required to respond to each of the statements by indicating their strength of agreement or
disagreement with it. A four-point rating format of ‘Highly Agreed’ (HA), ‘Agreed’ (A),
‘Disagreed’ (D) and ‘Highly Disagreed’ (HD) - weighted 4, 3, 2 and 1, respectively - was
adopted in scoring the items in the ULTaPCAS. The summated scores were categorized into
two namely, positive and negative responses. Respondents whose summated scores were
within the score range of 21 – 40 were considered as having positive attitude regarding the
importance of teaching qualifications in enhancing their pedagogical competencies. While
respondents whose summated scores were within the score range of 1 – 20 were interpreted
as having negative attitude.

The content validity of the ULTaPCAS was established by subjecting it to the
scrutiny of experts in the fields of Sociology of Education, Educational Psychology,
Educational Evaluation and Measurement and Reading from the University of Jos. The
instrument was first administered to 8 qualified and 46 unqualified lecturers from the
University of Jos. The resultant scores were then correlated through the Cronbach’s alpha
coefficient method to generate its internal consistency reliability value of 0.74. Theresearcher
personally administered the instrument to the respondents in their offices. However, only 278
(51.77%) out of the 537 originally distributed questionnaires were used for the study.
Descriptive statistics of frequency distribution, percentage counts and table was used to
answer the research question. While inferential statistic of t-test using the Statistical Package
for Social Sciences (SPSS 23.0) Window Version was employed to test and analyze the
hypothesis.

Results
Research Question: What is the attitude of university lecturers in Northwest Nigeria
towards the relevance of teaching qualifications and their pedagogical competencies?

To answer this question, the descriptive statistic of frequency counts, percentage
distribution and table were used to analyze the data collected from the responses by the
respondents to the ten statements in the ULTaPCAS that portrayed their attitude towards the
relevance of teaching qualifications to their pedagogical competencies as shown in Table 1
below:

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 98

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

Table 1: Summary of Descriptive Statistics for University Lecturers’ Attitude Towards

Teaching Qualifications

Attitude Score Range Qualified Lecturers Unqualified Lecturers

(N=65) (N=213)

Frequency % Frequency %

Positive 21 - 40 63 96.92 92 43.19

Negative 0 - 20 02 3.08 121 56.81

Total 65 100.00 213 100.00

Source: Field Work, 2015

The analysis in Table 1 shows that 63 (96.92%) and 02 (3.08%) qualified lecturers
had positive and negative attitudes towards the relevance of teaching qualifications to their
pedagogical competencies, respectively. The analysis in Table 1 also shows that 92 (43.19%)
and 121 (56.81%) unqualified lecturers had positive and negative attitudes towards the
relevance of teaching qualifications to their pedagogical competencies, respectively. This
result indicates that a majority of the qualified respondents portrayed a positive attitude while
a majority of the unqualified respondents portrayed a negative attitude towards the relevance
of teaching qualifications to their pedagogical competencies.

Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the mean scores of qualified and
unqualified university lecturers’ attitude towards the relevance of teaching qualifications to
their pedagogical competencies.

To test this hypothesis, the mean scores of the responses by the respondents to the ten
statements in the ULTaPCAS that portrayed their attitude towards the relevance of teaching
qualifications to their pedagogical competencies were subjected to the t-test statistical
analysis as shown in Table 2 below:

Table 2 : Summary of the t-test Analysis for Null Hypothesis

Variable Group N Mean Std. Df t-cal p-value Decision

Deviation

Qualified 65 37.77 3.427

Lecturers

Attitude 276 42.532 0.000 Ho

Rejected

Unqualified 213 20.14 2.757

Lecturers

Significant p<0.05

The result in Table 2 shows that the calculated t-value is 42.532 with df=276 and the

p-value is 0.000 at 0.05 level of significance. Since the p-value is less than the 0.05 level of

significance, the decision was to reject the null hypothesis. This means there was a
significant difference in the mean scores of qualified and unqualified university lecturers’

attitude towards the relevance of teaching qualifications to their pedagogical competencies.

Discussion of Findings
The objective of this study was to find out the attitude of university lecturers in

Northwest Nigeria toward the relevance of teaching qualifications to their pedagogical
competencies. It was found as shown in Table 2 that qualified and unqualified university
lecturers significantly differed in their attitude towards the relevance of teaching

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 99

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

qualifications in enhancing their teaching skills. The responses given by the respondents
show that most of the qualified lecturers were favourably inclined to the idea of university
lecturers acquiring teaching qualifications. They strongly claimed that teaching qualifications
enhanced their competencies in the areas of classroom interpersonal communication,
classroom management, classroom lesson presentation, classroom questioning and classroom
motivation. This line of reasoning supports the views of many scholars who strongly contend
that subject matter knowledge is necessary but not sufficient in developing teacher
competence and effectiveness. Alexander & Fuller, (2005) and Shulman, (1987) argued
rather that teachers must also have pedagogical knowledge and skills in order to teach
students well.

On the other hand, the opinions of a majority of the unqualified lecturers indicate that
they were not favourably predisposed to university lecturers acquiring teaching
qualifications. They held the notion that such qualifications would not enhance their
competencies in the areas of classroom interpersonal communication, classroom
management, classroom lesson presentation, classroom questioning and classroom
motivation. This line of reasoning accords well with the views of some scholars (Ballou &
Podursky, 2000; Paige, 2002) who argued that teachers must not undergo specific rigorous
teacher preparation and certification standards in order to teach students well.

The opinions given by those of them that were not in possession of teaching
qualifications seems to be the expression of the attitude held generally by university lecturers
regarding the issue of teaching qualification acquisition particularly, since this result
corroborates Ololube’s (2006) findings and also accords well with the earlier action of the
Academic Staff Union of Universities when it publicly kicked against those universities that
directed their academic staff who do not have teaching qualifications to do so (Elayelagha,
Amamieyenimighan and Clinton, 2010).

Conclusion
On the basis of the findings of this study and the discussions that followed, it is

apparent that the contrasting attitudes portrayed by university lecturers towards the relevance
of teaching qualifications to their pedagogical practices/competencies were underscored by
their teaching qualification status. But it should be noted that the negative attitude expressed
by those of them that were not in possession of teaching qualifications is not tenable. This is
because if we consider other professions such as medicine and law, the possession of a
degree and even a doctorate degree does not automatically qualify the holder to practice
them. The individual cannot practice the profession until he or she has passed a qualifying
examination and received a license and this requirement is well accepted by doctors and
lawyers, respectively (Afe, 1995; Ryan, 2009). Since this is the norm in medicine and law,
why should it not be incorporated into the teaching profession as well, especially at the
university level? Thus, the policy statements of both the TRCN (TRCN, 2005a, 2005b) and
the NPE (FRN, 2013) that requires university lecturers to undergo formal teacher training are
quite justifiable.

Recommendations:
Following the major findings of this study, it recommended that:

1. The TRCN should embark upon conducting studies that investigate the benefits of
professional formal teacher training to university lecturers’ pedagogical
competencies/practices and the results of these studies should be made available to
them (i.e. university lecturers) as this would enable them to objectively express their

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 100

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

feelings and to make decisions about the relevance or otherwise of teaching
qualifications to their pedagogical functions.
2. The TRCN in collaboration with the NUC should from time to time organize
workshops and conferences that would provide university lecturers with vital
information regarding the benefits of professional formal teacher training to their
pedagogical functions and practices.
3. A positive attitude of University Lecturers towards the idea of becoming professional
teachers can be developed when a special salary scale and other financial incentives
are packaged for all those who are already certificated by the TRCN as professional
teachers.

References
Akkerman, S. F., & Bakker, A. (2011).Boundary crossing and boundary objects. Review of

Educational Research, 81(2), 132-169.

Anderson, L. W. (2004). Increasing teacher effectiveness (2nded.). Paris: United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization - International Institute for
Educational Planning. Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/iiep

Ballou, D., & Podgursky, M. (2000). Reforming teacher preparation and licensing:
Continuing the debate. Teachers College Record, 102(1), 5-7.

D’Andrea V. M., & Gosling, D. (2005) Improving teaching and learning in higher
education: a whole institution approach. London: McGraw Hill.

Eggins, H., & Macdonald, R. (Eds.) (2003).The scholarship of academic development. Open
Buckingham: University Press.

Elayelagha, M. C., Amamieyenimighan, C., & Clinton, A. E. (2010).Teachers’ Registration
Council Decree No. 31 of 1993 and the professionalization of teaching in
Nigeria.International Journal of Research in Education, 7(1), 99–113.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013).National policy on education (6th ed.). Lagos: Nigerian
Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC).

Gaff, J.G., & Simpson, R.D. (1994) Faculty development in the United States. Innovative
Higher Education, 18 (3), 167-176.

Gibbs, G., & Coffey, M. (2004). The impact of training of university teachers on
their teaching skills, their approach to teaching and the approach to learning
of their students. Active Learning in Higher Education, 5(87), 87-100.

Gibbs, G., Habeshaw, T., &Yorke, M. (2000).Institutional learning and teaching strategies
in English higher education.Higher Education.40 (3), 351-372.

Knight, P. T. (2002). Being a teacher in higher education. Buckingham: The Society for
Research into Higher Education and Open University Press.

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 101

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

Lueddeke, G. R. (2003). Professionizing teaching practice in higher education: A study of
disciplinary variations and teaching scholarship.Studies in Higher Education, 28, 213-
228.

Martinez-Pons, M. (2003).The continuum guide to successful teaching in higher education.
London: Continuum.

McArthur, J., Earl, S., & Edwards, V. (2004, July). Impact of courses for university teachers.
Paper presented to the Australian Association for Research in Higher Education,
Melbourne, Australia.

Nwosu, D. (1996). Education for excellence and national development through production of
development oriented teachers. In P. N. Lassa, C. M. Anikweze & A. A. Maiyanga
(Eds.) Teacher education: An imperative for national development (pp. 293-321).
Kaduna: National Commission for Colleges of Education.

Ololube, N. P. (2006). A study of academic and professional qualifications on teachers’ job
effectiveness in Nigerian secondary schools.Ph.D thesis, University of Helsinki,
Helsinki (Faculty of Behavioural Sciences, Department of Applied Sciences of
Education Research Report 275).

Paige, R. (2002). Meeting the qualified teachers challenge: The secretary’s annual report on
teacher quality. United States Department of Education, Office of Post-Secondary
Education, Executive Summary. Retrieved October 8, 2009 from
http://www.title2.org/ADATitle//Report2002.pdf

Parsons, D., Hill, I., Holland, J., & Willis, (2012).Impact of teaching development
programmes in higher education.Heslington, York: The Higher Education Academy.

Passos, A. (2009). A comparative analysis of teacher competence and its effect on pupil
performance in upper primary schools in Mozambique and other SACME
countries.Unpublished Ph.D thesis, University of Pretoria, Pretoria.

Postareff, L., Lindblom-Ylänne, S., &Nevgi, A. (2007). The effect of pedagogical training
on teaching in higher education.Teaching and Teacher Education.23(5), 557-571.

Postareff, L., &Nevgi, A. (2015).Development of paths of university teachers during a
pedagogical development course.Educar, 51 (1), 37-52. Retrieved from
http://dxdoi.org/10.5565/rev/educar.647

Rust, C. (1998).The impact of educational development workshops on teachers’ practice. The
International Journal for Academic Development.3 (1), 72-80.

Stes, A., Coertjens, L.,& Van Petegeme, P. (2010). Instructional development for teachers in
higher education: impact on teaching approach. Higher Education, 60(2), 187-204.

TRCN (2005a).Teachers Handbook. Abuja: Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria.

TRCN (2005b).Teachers Code of Conduct. Abuja: Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria.

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 102

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

Historical Development of National Policy on Education at Secondary
School Level in Nigeria

Jane Ngozi Ekwueme

General Studies Education Department
Federal College of Education, Kano

[email protected]
08036374898

Abstract
Secondary education is critical to the education of a child, being a bridge between the
primary and tertiary education. In this paper, the historical development of secondary
education in the southern and northern Nigeria, were critically evaluated, it further
examined the national policy on education, the secondary section. The paper then traced the
historical development of modern secondary education in Nigeria. The challenges militating
against the achievement of the objectives of secondary education in Nigeria were examined
among them were inadequate funding, inadequate and decay of infrastructural facilities:
Negative attitude of teachers etc. To tackle these challenges, recommendations were made
that adequate funding of education particularly the secondary education and effective
administration of secondary schools. To this, the secondary schools administrators should be
more alive to their responsibilities. Finally conclusion was drawn.

Key words: Secondary, Education, Nigeria, National policy, challenges and way forward

Introduction
The importance of secondary education in educational system cannot be

overemphasized. Apart from serving as the link between primary and tertiary education, it
provides opportunity for a child to acquire additional knowledge skills and traits beyond the
primary level. A major factor that necessitated the acquisition of secondary education in
Nigeria, is that the education being provided at the primary level is proving to be
insignificant for a child to acquire permanent literacy, communicative, and numeracy skills
expected from him/her at the end of the training (Chinelo, 2011).

Nevertheless, in preparing the National Policy on Education, the issue of secondary
education was considered. This is because the secondary education tends to bridge the gap
between the primary and tertiary education. To this, secondary education helps to prepare the
young adult for purposeful organization of oneself for achieving maximally ones potential to
be able to withstand the complexities of living in the environment. And also, provides some
specialized skills needed in different specific operations within the society.

One of the major aim of the secondary education which is properly written in blue
print in the National Policy of Education (2004) is the provision of educational opportunities
for the steady increase of primary school pupils, who would want to equip themselves for
adequate living in the society. However, it is as a result of these specific skills that has made
secondary education to receive greater attention than primary education. Moreover,
secondary education engages individuals in self appraisal, with regards to their cognitive and
social capabilities which will enable them to solve some basic problems.

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 103

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

Secondary education in Nigeria is aimed at promoting a progressive and united
Nigeria. It is expected to function as a preparation for life and for higher education.
Secondly, education in Nigeria is one of the levels of education for the achievement of the
philosophy and objectives of Nigerian education as highlighted in the National Policy in
Education (NPE, 2004). The objectives include:

- a free and democratic society;
- a just and egalitarian society
- a united, strong and self reliant nation;
- a great and dynamic economy and
- a land of bright and full opportunity for all citizens.

To achieve these objectives, the policy stated that the quality of instruction at all
levels has to be oriented towards inculcating the values among others; respect for the dignity
of labour, and shared responsibility of the common good of the society. And so, because of
the importance of education in the realization of the above five important objectives of
education, the government asked for the cooperation of all other agencies concern with
education. Thus, the policy is believed will foster the much needed unity in Nigeria.

The Historical Development of Secondary Education in Southern and Northern Nigeria
Secondary Schools in Southern Nigeria

With specific reference to Secondary Schools in Southern Nigeria, the ever - growing
proportion of children of school age that stormed available primary schools created an
impression and great eagerness in the missionaries and the colonial government that there
were suitable pupils for secondary education. The primary schools, therefore, developed
upper standard is often with over ambitious programmes. In Lagos, the first Grammar
schools was opened by the CMS in 1859. The United Prebyseterian Church at Calabar built
in 1895 what today would be described as a multi-lateral institution, including a catechists
seminary, teacher training college, grammar school and technical college "all-in-one" which
later became Hope Waddell Institute. In 1896, On River Protectorate gave it an annual grant.
In 1900, the new Protectorate of Southern Nigeria continued this assistance. Attempts were
made in 1898 by the colonial government to take over from the missions ail their secondary
education establishments, leaving them only with primary education This attempt was
resisted and in the end rejected, making the development of secondary education, a tripartite
effort by colonial government and private organizations or individuals in the southern part.

Northern Nigeria
In northern Nigeria, the region was divided on the basis of religion: the

predominantly Muslim area and the non-Muslim area. In the predominately Muslim area, the
Muslims the Muslims felt, and very strongly too, that western education was the key to
white's man's power or else they had become Christians and accepted the school as an
activity of the Church. With this belief, western education was vigorously resisted.
Secondary education development here was essentially by the colonial government and the
emirs' support was vigorously sought by the colonial government. Hanns Vischer's
Nassarawa School was therefore, for the various sons of the emirs and mallams. The
provincial schools for Kano, Sokoto and Kastina alike were later established and by the end
of 1915 there were provincial schools in all the twelve northern provinces with an average
attendance of 733 pupils. With this measure, restricted expansion of school under careful
supervision was pursued.

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 104

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

In the Christian dominated area, Missionaries participated actively in the
establishment and administration of secondary and primary schools. In 1916 there were 58
mission schools with an average of 933 pupils in attendance.

The Colonial Policy of Secondary Education in Nigeria
If secondary education is properly planned, executed and encouraged, it could be used

to develop innate genius in the youth and enhance their capacity to stand by themselves. Thus
secondary education could be used as investment that could yield rich productive dividends
in a very near, future which could have far reaching effects on national development.
Paradoxically, access to secondary schools in Nigeria over any other kinds of education
created a pool from which the firms recruited staff largely and paid them better than other
groups. To push pen behind an office desk became the dream of an "educated" Nigerian on
completion of secondary school and anything else became - derogatory and below "human"
dignity. No serious attempt was made by the colonial masters to train Nigerian1 in higher
skills. The attitude on a wider base was an educational policy that kept the nation under -
developed. The whole truth is that secondary school education from the onset till today,
appeals colonial dependent.

One wonders, therefore, why secondary educational policy was not used by the
colonial masters to develop the youths according to the individuals' endowed capacity to
guarantee a useful life that is enjoyable to the recipients. Such recipients would then attain a
high standard of conduct and honour that is trusted by their fellows, that youths when they
become elders would be able and willing to take their rightful position in the affairs of the
nation. Secondary education would have prepared an individual with courage and sound
mind not too easily deflected by emotion of the moment.

Influence of Commissions and Educational Laws on Secondary Education
The early, schools functioned with scarcely any involvement by the colonial

government and as such there were no reasonable attempts to co-ordinate education system
organized by the various missions. In this regard, there was no novelty as such in educational
practice, all missions owned common allegiance to Christianity and they operated curriculum
centered on English, Religion, and Arithmetic commonly called 3Rs. This system however
changed in early 1880s particularly by the Education Ordinance of 1882 when colonial
government assumed a measure of control of mission education. Significant improvement
was made when the Ordinance No. 3 of 1887 was enacted to consolidate and amend the laws
relating to the promotion of education in the colony of Lagos.

Concerning secondary education, in 1879 there were three secondary schools namely
the CMS Grammar school, built in 1859. Wesleyan Boys High School built in 1976 and St.
Gregory's School 1879. The trend of the secondary school from 1897 to 1992 was a gradual
increase in enrolment from 172 to 206. With the amalgamation of Southern and Northern
Protectorates. Lord Lugard proposed three types of secondary education with the aim of
adapting the needs of education of the children in both protectorates to the man-power needs.
The schools are the provincial schools, the rural and the non-government schools. The
provinces, and located three to four kilometers away from the residential areas under a
British Headmaster (Adeyinka, 1980). The Resident and the paramount chiefs in the areas
where these schools were located were to assist in the supervision of the schools. The
entrants were between 12-14 years of age.

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 105

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

The rural schools were meant for rural children who ultimately would remain in rural
environments. The rural school policy was not accepted particularly by people in the
Southern provinces and a grammar school "policy was not accepted particularly by people in
the Southern provinces and a grammar school policy was favored initially in the main urban
areas and later it spread to the hinterland.

Secondary Education after the Phelps-Stokes Commission Report
Between 1919 and 1940 there was substantial growth in secondary education which

was most influenced by the Phelps-Stokes Commission Report on Education in Africa. The
commission was set up on the initiative of the American Baptist Foreign Missionary Society
between. 1920-1926 to make a study of the needs and resources of West. South and
Equatorial Africa with special reference to the quality of education provided. Of importance
to note is that between 1919-1940, the economic slump and depression of the late 1930s and
early 1940s had considerable effects on educational development generally because there
was no funds for teacher' salary, supply of equipment and maintenance of infrastructures in
schools, and were hard hit. Little development was therefore, recorded in secondary
education during the period between the 1920s and early 1940s.

Secondary Educate under Macpherson’s Constitution of 1951
Before 1951 Richards 1948 Constitution had divided Nigeria into three region [i.e.

Northern, Eastern, and western regions] The macpherson’s of 1951 further provided that
each region should have a legislative arm with veto power to enact legislation effective
within the boundaries of the region on range of subjects of which education was one. This
provision brought about a division of the Education Department into three parallel
departments, one in each region under Regional Director. In southern Nigeria (i.e. western
and eastern regions) secondary education was of five years Duration and secondary school
certification examination was take in class V In Northern Nigeria, there was six-year
secondary education (Forms I-VI) and the secondary curriculum was guided by the
requirement for the school certificate examination (Cambridge or Oxford Local) Technical
education was still at this time at its infancy stage.

Since education became a regional subject, a region could initiate, plan and execute-
her educational programme. As such each region was to determine her education pace. In the
Western region during the period o; the Hon. S. O. Awokoya as the Regional Minister of
education, Universal primary education programme was proclaimed and this influenced the
expansion of secondary education By 1959 there were 420 modern schools 138 grammar
schools and 97 teacher training colleges in the region.

The same educational expansion programme was announced in the Eastern region,
but the scheme was vehemently opposed by the Roman Catholic Mission that had about 60
percent of the schools on ground in the area. However, before the programme was finally
abandoned, it had influenced to some extent, the rate of growth in secondary education in the
region.

In the Northern region, the pace of western education was very slow due to cultural
and religious factors. Its expansion 'was therefore, tied to the availability of qualified teachers
and the extent of the need for western certificate personnel Education was free in most
government and native authority schools. Even in voluntary agency schools scholarships
were given by native authority to those unable to pay their fees. By 1958 there were 31

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 106

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

secondary schools and 36 teachers' colleges, spread across the length and breadth of the
Northern region.

Lagos particularly the island Ebute Meta and Yaba were excised from Western region
in 1954 and educational development in the in area became the responsibility of both the
Federal Ministry of Education and Lagos City Council. Free universal primary education was
introduced and it was successful. Secondary schools enrolment increased from 3,904 in 1956
in 4,804 in 1959.

Post-Independence Development: 1960 – 1970
The decade 1960-1970 witnessed a rapid expansion in secondary education in Nigeria

due to the influence of the Ashby Commission Report in 1960 called “Investment in
education” During this period, 70 out of every 1,000 primary school pupils proceeded to
secondary school in the South while 25 out of 1,000 proceeded to secondary school in
Northern Nigeria Emphasis was laid on the quality of the teacher at the secondary level as
well as quality of intake from the primary level. Whatever progress was achieved this period,
the military takeover of government in January 1966 which eventually culminated into civil
war had untold negative impact on the development of education in the nation. After the war
and the military having disenfranchised the middle class elite by terminating the democratic
government in Nigeria, education became a tropical issue in the national discourse and this
lead to the national policy on education (Ikojan, 1981). Meanwhile, the regions had been
divided into states in 1966 and like in the era, of regionalism, secondary education was on the
residual list The implication of this is that each state enacted her educational laws according
to her secondary educational demands.

However, as a means of fostering national unity, the federal Government of Nigeria
established unity secondary schools called Federal Government Colleges, one in each state in
which youths all over the nation vigorously competed for admission through a nationally
administered common entrance examination.

The Historical Development of Modern Secondary Education in Nigeria
The history of modern education in Nigeria could be traced to the efforts of private

organization especially the Christian mission. Although Fafunwa (1981) affirms that “the
missionaries without exception used the school as a means of conversion”. There is no doubt
that the schools established during these periods served as a springboard for the emergence of
nationalized government schools in Nigeria. The issue of government’s neglect of
educational sector is not a new phenomenon. As Fafunwa (1981) postulates that “up to 1882,
the colonial government in Nigeria paid little or no attention to the educational needs of the
people, and the field was left entirely to the mission. This period can therefore be justifiably
termed the era of exclusive Christian Missionary education in southern Nigeria”. During this
period, the Church Missionary Society (CMS), the Western Methodist Missionary Society,
the Roma Catholic Mission, the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland, the Qua Iboe
Mission, firmly established themselves with each having a school for teaching their devotees.
In addition to the teaching of their religious doctrines however, Fafunwa (1981) confirms that
subjects like carpentry, bricklaying, ginnery and agriculture were taught especially at
missionary schools located in places like Abeokuta, Onitsha, Lokoja and Calabar. By the end
of 1912, there were already ninety-one mission schools in southern Nigeria.

Secondary education level has experienced a tremendous development over the past
five decades in terms of number and enrolments. The grammar and comprehensive high

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 107

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

schools gave way to the 6-year junior and secondary school system all over the country. The
boost in enrolment has necessitated the establishment of new schools in both rural and urban
areas. School size has grown beyond elastic limit to the extent that some schools have more
than 2000 students and more than 100 teachers. The school attendance shift system of
morning and afternoon has given way to large compounds schools with several buildings.
Inadequate provision of appropriate instructional materials continues to militate against
quality teaching. Currently the 6-3-3-4 education system has also been reviewed in such a
way that junior secondary segment is now part of the UBE scheme. Consequently in public
schools, there are schools without classrooms, classroom without chairs and tables, science
schools without laboratories, and laboratories without chemicals, schools without libraries
and libraries with books older than the parents of the readers. In such a situation, can children
acquire appropriate skills? In public schools, teachers are largely neglected, despised,
degraded, belittled, looked upon with pity and contempt and often denied their salaries. This
treatment causes frequent strike actions by teachers. The utmost neglect of public schools
leads to the proliferation of private secondary schools (Ajayi, 2002).

The clarion call on individuals to help finance education has led to the proliferation of
private secondary schools in Nigeria. Arguments abound as to whether these private
secondary schools contribute to the development of secondary education in Nigeria and by
extension to national development. Some analysts agreed that these private secondary
schools are too expensive for majority of Nigerians to afford. That the main motive behind
their establishment is profit motives. Others say that these schools are established to fill the
gap created by the dilapidating nature of public schools.

National Policy on Education: Secondary Education Section
In an attempt to use education for the benefit of all citizens in Nigeria, in terms of its

relevance to the needs of the individual and the desired society, the Federal Government of
Nigeria in 1973 summoned a seminar of distinguished educational experts under the
chairmanship of Chief S. O. Adebo to deliberate on all aspects of a national policy on
education. The recommendations of this seminar formed the twelve sections of the national
policy on education first published in 1977 and revised in 1981. The broad aims of secondary
education within the overall national objective, as contained in section 4 subsection 18 of the
policy (2004) are:

a) Provide an increasing number of primary school pupils with no opportunity for
education of a higher quality, irrespective of sex or social, religious, and ethnic
background;

b) Diversify its curriculum to cater for difference in talents, opportunities and roles
possessed by or open to students after their secondary school course,

c) Equip students to live effectively in our modern age of science and technology;
d) Develop and project Nigerian culture, art and language as well as the world's cultural

heritage;
e) Raise a generation of people who can think for themselves, respect the views and

feelings of others, respect the dignity of labour, and appreciate those values specified
under our broad national aims, and live as good citizens;
f) Faster Nigerian unity with an emphasis on the common lies that unite use in our
diversity;
g) Inspire its students with a desire for achievement and self improvement both at
school and in late life.

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 108

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

Government, therefore, planned secondary education of six-year duration in two
stages; junior secondary school and senior secondary school sages, each being of three year
duration. Students who leave school at the end of the junior high school stage may then go on
to an apprenticeship system or some other scheme for out-of-school vocational training. The
senior secondary school will be for those able and willing (emphasis mine) to have a
complete six-year secondary education.

Since the national policy on education came into operation, it has become universally
accepted as the reference point for the development of secondary education in Nigeria.
Acceptable, though the expression "able and willing" used in relation to those who are
expected to enter senior secondary schools needs modification, in order that the policy
implementation would bring a greater degree of social justice and equal educational
opportunity to ensure the identification and development of talent vital to the requirements of
a highly complex technological society. Questions need be asked whether equality of
educational opportunity and selective senior secondary school can go together Secondly, the
expression "able and willing" for those going to senior secondary school appears equally
questionable in a policy which aims to minimize, if not completely remove drop outs.

It may now be claimed and rightly too, that the end products of the Nigeria 3-3
secondary education system may not be different for the 5-years education system of the
recent past. The only difference is one year added and a provision to legally eject a 16-years
old pupil after the senior school certificate examination. A mere change in the institutional
structure and the addition of few other subjects in the curriculum cannot lead to desired ends
in terms of "equality of educational opportunity, egalitarian society, social justice and
technological development". There may be a submerged pool of talents within the lower
strata of the social structure brought about by social inequality. It is worth-while to examine
carefully the secondary educational policy within our social context because the level of
education attained does have a significant effect upon an individual's life chance.

Challenges of Secondary Education in Nigeria
It is not a gain saying that secondary education is unique in the educational

development of a child, being the link between primary and tertiary education, the
knowledge, skills, values and traits which a child acquires at this stage, will complement
those acquired at the primary level which will eventually prepare the child for tertiary
education. In spite of the rile of secondary education, Ajayi (2002) and Omoregie (2005)
reported that the secondary education is riddled with crises of various dimensions of
magnitude. Examination reveals the following challenges undermining the achievement of
the objectives;

- Inadequate fund
- Inadequate and decay infrastructural facilities
- Inadequate and low quality teachers
- Indiscipline of students
- Negative attitudes of teachers
- Low quality intakes and poor academic performance of students
- Prevalence of examination malpractice
- Incidences of wastage
- Inappropriate curriculum

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 109

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

Conclusion
Secondary education, being the bridge between the primary and tertiary education is

critical to the education of a child. Hence, the need for a truly Nigerian educational policy,
which makes it unique in the educational development of a child. This is because of its
compliment any role in preparing the child for tertiary education. Therefore, the national
policy on secondary education is seen as the first indigenous educational policy and bedrock
for the development of secondary education in Nigeria.

Recommendations
In view of the role of secondary education in educational development of a child, it is

imperative that the challenges facing it in Nigeria be tackled so that, there can be meaningful
development at that level of education. To achieve this, the under listed suggestions were
made:

1. Adequate funding of education particularly the secondary education.
2. Effective administration of secondary schools. To this, the secondary schools

administrators should be more alive to their responsibilities.
3. Curbing examination malpractices
4. Recruitment and training of additional teachers
5. Need for commitment and effectiveness of teachers
6. Curbing wastage in secondary education: to achieve this, the parents on the dangers

of premature withdrawal of their children from school and give scholarship to
students.
7. Review of secondary school curriculum.
8. Recruitment of quality candidates into secondary schools.
9. Regular and effective inspection of secondary schools.

References
Adeyinka, A. A. (1980). The development of grammar school education in the western states

of Nigeria 1908 – 1968. Unpublished M.Ed Dissertation, submitted to University of
Ibadan, Ibadan.

Ajayi, A. I. (2002). Resource factors as correlates of secondary school effectiveness in Ekiti
State Nigeria. Nigerian Journal for Applied Psychology 1(1).

Chinelo, O. D. (2011) Falling standard in Nigeria education: Traceable to proper skills
Acquisition in schools? Education Research 2(1).

Fafunwa, A. B. (1981). History of Education in Nigeria, Macmillan Publishers, Lagos.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) National Policy on Education. Lagos: Nerd Press.
Revised Edition.

Ikojan, O. (1981) (ed): Nigerian education. Bristol: Western Printing Ltd.

Taiwo, C. O. (1981): The Nigerian education system. Past, present and future: Frank and
London: Buller Tanner Ltd.

Omoregie, N. (2005). Re-packaging secondary education in Nigeria for great and dynamic
economy. Paper presented at the 2nd Annual National Conference of Association for
encouraging qualitative Education in Nigeria (ASSEBEN) 9th-11th May.

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 110

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

Child Labour and Academic Performance of Pre-Primary School Pupils in
Social Studies in Uyo Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State.

Eno Nathaniel Udoh

Department of Educational Management,
Michael Okpara University of Agriculture,

Umudike, Abia State
Email: [email protected]

Abstracts
This study examines the relationship between child labour and academic performance of pre-
primary pupils in Social Studies in Uyo Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State. The
study was guided by two objectives, two research questions and two null hypotheses. The
survey design was adopted and the population of the study was 940 pre-primary pupils in the
47 pre-primary schools in Uyo Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State. A sample of 100
pre-primary pupils was selected using multi-stage random sampling. Two research
instruments: Social Studies Academic Performance Test (SSAPT) and Childs’ Labour
Questionnaire (CLQ) were used for data collection. The instruments were validated and the
reliability of the instruments were established using Cronbach Alpha and test-retest
reliability methods and the reliability coefficients of 0.86 and 0.79 were obtained for Social
Studies Academic Performance Test (SSAPT) and Childs’ Labour Questionnaire
respectively. Data obtained were analysed using Pearson Product Moment Correlation
(PPMC). The finding shows significant negative relationship between Childs’ involvement in
house help activities and their academic performance of pre-primary pupils in Social Studies
in the study area. The finding also reveals significant negative relationship between pre-
primary pupils’ involvement in street hawking and their academic performance in Social
Studies. The study recommends among others that children should not be engaged by their
parents or masters in street hawking while their age groups are in the schools learning.

Keywords: Childs’ Labour, House Help, Street Hawking, relationship, academic
Achievement

Introduction
Childhood is the most cherished period in one’s life, a child is unaware of all the

sorrows tensions and constraints in life. When a child is then forced to think, give up his
innocence and develop manipulating viewpoints he is forced to take up responsibilities of
earning for his family, when he should be playing with toys and friends, the child is also
forced to fight for his survival when he is supposed to enjoy his carefree life, it becomes an
abnormal situation. Many children are made to do extremely hazardous work under harmful
conditions, putting their healthy education, personal and social development and even their
life at risk. In Nigeria, children have traditionally been seen as assets to assist with

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 111

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

household, business and farm chores. This socialization process and its related activities have
been carried out with the social safety net of the community.

However, with increasing unemployment, weak institutional frame works and
breakdown of the extended family system, millions of children have been forced into new
types of labour that are exploitative, hazardous and prejudicial to their welfare development.
Child labour is a pervasive social and health problem. It is already attracting the attention of
scholars, professionals, social workers, law enforcement officials, legislators, policy makers,
and the general public. Children are the most important asset of human society and their
education school be addressed early in life. The importance of pre-primary education appears
to have long been recognized by the Federal Government of Nigeria as stated in the National
Policy of Education (FGN, 2013) that the purpose of pre-primary education is to prepare the
child for the primary level of education. The United National International Children
Education Fund (UNICEF, 2004) conducted a pilot study in 1998 on the situation in southern
Nigeria boarder town of Calabar, Uyo, Owerri, Port Harcourt and Lagos and found that 40%
of Nigerian children living on labour. It is generally observed that prevalence of child labour
is more in poor countries.

There is a theory that the researcher found relevant to this study. This is Sigmund
Freud Psycho analytic theory (1938). The study based on Freud Psycho analytic theory which
postulated that major traits of personality were established in early childhood and that
subsequent personality was an elaboration of these traits. Early life arrestment of growth is
coursed by excessive frustration and excessive indulgence. If a childs’ need are either
frustrated too much or indulged too much, a particular aspect of his personality is totally
stunted in some degree. Thus, street hawking brings and inject in frustration which is an
indication of negative child rearing pattern that affect academic performance of the pupils.
Concept of child labour: Child labour is a pervasive social and health problem globally. It is
already attract the attention of scholar, professionals, social workers, enforcement officers,
legislators, policy makers and the public. Not all the children’s work equivalent to child
labour. Child labour refers to negative or undesirable forms of work that should be
eliminated in accordance with ILO Convention No. 138 (minimum age) and No. 182 (Worst
form of child labour) and UN Convention on the Right of the Child (CRC). Child labour is a
serious problem throughout the world, especially in the developing counties. Africa and Asia
together account for over 90% of total child labourers. In Africa (40% of children between
the ages of 5 and 14 work). In Nigeria unofficial estimates indicates that there are 12 million
child workers in the country alone (ILO, UNICEF 1997).

International labour organization (2002) study estimated that 186 million children
below the age of 14 were engage in child labour in 2000. An estimated 110 million child
labourers were below the age of 12. Among the wider age group of 5-17 years old, there
were approximately 146 million children, two third of them (171 millions) were estimated to
work hazardous situations and conditions. An estimated 8.4 million children are involved in
their worst forms of child labour including trafficking. (1.2 million forced and bonded labour
(5.7 million), aimed conflicts (0.3 million) prostitution and phonographs (1.8 million) and
other activities (0.6 million).

Many people are of the notion that child labour is rooted in the tradition and attitudes
of the regions where it is practiced, (ILO, 1979). According to documented ethnographic
studies of African people by Oloko (1996), the involvement of children in the economic
activities of their parents as farming, fishing, trading, craft work and cattle rearing were
perceived as responsibility training such training was a critical component of socialization

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 112

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

through which important values were inculcated and children were integrated into their
particular social and cultural milieu. Both parent and children benefited from this
responsibility training. As a matter of fact children were deemed the greatest beneficiaries
since they are not adults, they require values that technical socialization as learners in various
occupations. Child labour on the other hand, is making children do extremely hazardous
work under harmful condition, putting their health, education, personal and social
development and even their life at risk. Child labour is also any work within or outside the
family that involves a time and energy commitment which affect the ability of the child to
participate in leisure, play and educational activities.

It is worth mentioning here that there has been considerable debate over the use of
terms “child work” and “child labour” and the distinction between the tow. A consensus is
gradually emerging, however that “child work” and “children’s work” is seen as a general
term covering the entire spectrum of work and related tasks performed by children and child
labour as a subset of children’s work that is injurious to children and that should be targeted
for elimination. There is also a growing recognition that there are certain intolerable or
unconditionally worst forms of child labour that constitute especially serious violation of
children’s rights and that should be targeted as a priority for immediate action (Siddigi,
2003).

However Usman, (2004) observed that children are employed as house helps, it is a
common practice among elites, poor and illiterate parent gives their children out as house
help and received wages on them or other terms of agreement may be reached like the
employer agrees to send the child to school. The use of female children are predominant in
this respect, some of them often fall victims of sexual abuse which cause permanent damage
for their lives

The involvement of children in household chores such as preparation of meals,
cleaning of house, dish washing, washing of clothes, ironing clothes and care of siblings
which are normally attended by house helps and other male roles has been seen to affect their
academic performance (Kuriala, 2012). Soars, (2002) argue that children involvement in
house help takes on different forms. Boys become cow and goat herders in rural areas where
farmers keep cattle; girls spent their time caring for younger ones either in their families or in
their masters’ homes where they are employed as house helps. Bryant (1990) notes that,
many children begin work at very early stages and were not enrolled in schools at all or are
involved in such roles which hinder proper participation in schools which leads to poor
academic performance.

Moreover, involving children in hawking goods in the street is an emerging trend in
Nigeria and an issue of concern. This trend is refer to as child street trading (Ashimolowo,
2013), child street hawking (Mathias & Dada, 2013) and child street vendor (Udoh & Joseph,
2012). Children are preferred to adult in hawking goods because they are less criminal and
cheap labour to the employer (Anumaka, 2012). This led to increase in the number of
children who roam the street daily hawking goods while those of their ages are in schools.
Studies identified these children to fall between 10 and 19 years (Micheal & Awa, 2012).
Most of these children hawk before going to school in the morning and continue after until
late night. Street hawking has left many children out of school as they dropout or not enroll at
all. According to Grace (2004), children who hawk before or after school were denied their
educational opportunity. Some hawk before they go to school in the morning, while others do
their shares in the evening after school hours and some may not have the opportunity for
formal education in their life time. Ugoduluwa (2004) reported that street hawking is highly

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 113

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

detrimental to children physically, mentally, psychologically, social and emotional
development. This means, street hawking is the type of child abuse that endangers the health
of the children, interferes with their education and deprive them normal happy childhood life.

Pelton, (2009) conducted a study to find out the effect of street hawking on academic
performance of pupils in social studies in Nasarawa state. The sample comprises of 100 pre-
primary pupils, 50 females and 50 males. Quasi- experimental post- test design was
employed. Test item: Social Studies Performance Test (SSPT) instrument was used. Using t-
test statistics, the result shows that the experimental group exposed to hawking performed
significantly lower than the control group who were not exposed. The performances mean
score of the experimental group was 10.50 while the control group was 15.60. The study
found that street hawking has negative effect on pupils’ academic performance in social
studies. It could be suggested that government should create more job opportunities so that
children would not have to contribute to family income.

Okpara (2014) found that house help had a significant effect on academic
performance of pre-primary pupils. The causal comparative study investigated the effect of
house help on academic performance of pre- primary schools pupils in Imo state. The
participant of the study were 7 pupils drawn from 12 schools in the 4 Local Government
Area. A total of 333 pupils that was, 171 boys and 163 girls participated in the study. The
academic scores which were extracted from the schools’ end-term examination records were
used to compare the participants on the dependent variables. The result of the study showed
that pupils who were involved in house help had a significant lower academic performance
mean score than those not involved. The result also indicated that boys’ not involved in
house help had significantly higher academic performance. The study recommended that,
school pupils should not be engaged in house help activities.

Yap (2003) pointed out that a child who attends school more frequently may
influence the amount of knowledge he or she gains. As such, all obstacles that may prevent
that child from achieving the best in social studies in pre-primary schools must be removed.
One of such is the “child labour”. Therefore, this study want to find out whether a significant
relationship exist in child labour and academic performance of pre-primary schools pupil’s in
Uyo Local Government Area.

Statement of the Problem
The failure of children in public pre-primary schools in Uyo Local Government to

complete their primary school education was inability to combine child labour such as: street
hawking, house help, farm work and so on (Gunnarrson & Orazon, 2003). Thus rendering
them weak, rejected, ill, lonely among others and all of these have a lot of negative
influences on their academic performance, right from the pre-primary schools level.
Moreover, government and stakeholders in educational sector had tried to stop child labour
by making primary schools fees and compulsory education, but yet still child labour is still
going on in many homes and families.

Child labour is a complex phenomenon mostly common in urban and rural areas of
Akwa Ibom state in general and Uyo local government in particular. According to Ehiemere
(2000) child labour constituted street hawking, farm work and domestic chores such as house
help, fetching water and firewood, preparing and cooking food among others. It has been
alleged that there are cases of child labour on the working child which affect the academic
performance of pre-primary schools in Uyo Local Government Area.

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 114

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

Purpose of the Study
The primary purpose of this study is to determine the relationship between child labour and
academic performance of pupils in Social Studies in Uyo Local Government Area of Akwa
Ibom State. The specific purpose of this study includes to:

1. determine the relationship between Childs’ involvement in house help activities and
their academic performance of pre-primary school’s pupil’s in Social Studies in Uyo
Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State.

2. determine the relationship between Childs’ involvement in street hawking and their
academic performance of pre-primary school’s pupil’s in Social Studies in Uyo Local
Government Area of Akwa Ibom State.

Research Questions
The following research questions guided this study:

1. What relationship exists between childs’ involvement in house help activities and
their academic performance of pre-primary school’s pupil’s in Social Studies in Uyo
Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State?
2. What relationship exists between childs’ involvement in street hawking and their
academic performance of pre-primary school’s pupil’s in Social Studies in Uyo Local
Government Area of Akwa Ibom State?

Null Hypotheses
The following hypotheses will be tested at 0.05 level of significance.

1. There is no significant relationship between childs’ involvement in house help
activities and their academic performance of pre-primary school’s pupil’s in
Social Studies in Uyo Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State.

2. There is no significant relationship between childs’ involvement in street hawking
and their academic performance of pre-primary school’s pupil’s in Social Studies
in Uyo Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State.

Methodology
The study was conducted in Uyo Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State which

is one of the thirty-one (31) local government areas in the state. The population of this study
was 940 all the forty-seven (47) pre-primary schools teachers and pupils in Uyo Local
Government Area. The multi-stage random sampling was used to select a sample of 100
pupils. A - ten item multiple choices Students’ Social Studies Academic Performance Test”
(SSAPT) and Child Labour Questionnaire which comprised 10 items rated on four points
scale of always, occasionally, rarely and not involved were used to obtain data. The
instrument was validated by two experts in Department of Early Childhood and Care
Education and one expert in Measurement and Evaluation from the Akwa Ibom State College
of Education, Afaha Nsit. They went through the items and matched them with the variables
to ensure that they are relevant to the study. The reliability of the questionnaire was
established using Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient while that of the achievement test
was carried out using the test retest method and reliability coefficients of 0.86 and 0.79
respectively. Permission was sorted from the Head Teachers of selected pre-primary schools
on arrival. Data obtained were analysed using Pearson Product Moment (PPMC) and all Null
hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 115

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

Results

Answering of the Research Questions`
Research Question 1: What relationship exists between Childs’ involvement in house help
activities and their academic performance of pre-primary school’s pupil’s in Social Studies in

Uyo Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State?

Table 1: Nature of the relationship between the level of pupils’ involvement in house help

activities and their academic performance in Social Studies

Variables X X 2 XY r-value Remarks

Y Y 2 Strong
Pupils’ involvement in house 1535 24113

help activities (X) negative

67400 -.763 relationship
211240
Pupils’ academic 4500

performance in Social

Studies (Y)

Result in Table 1 reveals correlation coefficient of -0.763 between pupils’
involvement in house help activities and their academic performance in Social Studies in
Uyo Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State which means that there is a strong
negative relationship between the two variables. This strong negative relationship is an
indication that the more the pupils are involved in house help activities, the lower their
academic performance in Social Studies in Uyo Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom
State.

Research Question 2: What relationship exists between Childs’ involvement in street
hawking and their academic performance of pre-primary school’s pupil’s in Social Studies in

Uyo Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State?

Table 2: Nature of the relationship between the level of pupils’ involvement in street

hawking and their academic performance in Social Studies

Variables X X 2 XY r-value Remarks

Y Y 2

Pupils’ involvement in street 1676 28694 Strong

hawking (X) negative

73601 -.792 relationship
211240
Pupils’ academic 4500

performance in Social

Studies (Y)

Result presented in Table 2 shows strong negative relationship between pupils’ involvement
in street hawking and their academic performance in Social Studies in Uyo Local
Government Area of Akwa Ibom State. Hence, the nature of the relationship that exists

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 116

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

between these two variables is strong negative relationship. This result implies that the more
pupils are involved in street hawking in the study area, the lower their academic performance
in Social Studies in Uyo Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State.

Test of the Null Hypotheses
Null Hypothesis 1: There is no significant relationship between Childs’ involvement in
house help activities and their academic performance of pre-primary school’s pupil’s in

Social Studies in Uyo Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State.

Table 3: Relationship between the level of pupils’ involvement in house help activities and

their academic performance in Social Studies

Variables X X 2 XY Calculated Critical –r Decision
Y Y 2
-r at p<.05

Pupils’ involvement in 1535 24113

house help activities (X) *

67400 -.763* 0.178
academic 4500 211240
Pupils’

performance in Social

Studies (Y)

*significant at p<.05.

Result in Table 3 reveals that the calculated-r (0.763) is greater than the critical- r (0.178) at
0.05 level of significance. The null hypothesis is rejected. Hence, there is a significant
relationship between the level of pupils’ involvement in house help activities and their
academic performance in Social Studies in Uyo Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom
State. This therefore means that when there is a significant increase in the level of pupils’
involvement in house help activities, there will be a significant decrease in their academic
performance in Social Studies. This result also implies that when there is significant
reduction in pupils’ involvement in house help activities, there will a significant
improvement in their academic performance in Social Studies.

Null Hypothesis 2: There is no significant relationship between Childs’ involvement in
street hawking and their academic performance of pre-primary school’s pupil’s in Social
Studies in Uyo Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State.

Table 4: Relationship between the level of pupils’ involvement in street hawking and their

academic performance in Social Studies

Variables X X 2 XY Calculated Critical –r Decision
Y Y 2
-r at p<.05

Pupils’ involvement in street 1676 28694

hawking (X) *

73601 -.792* 0.178
academic 4500 211240
Pupils’

performance in Social

Studies (Y)

*significant at p<.05.

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 117

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

Result presented in Table 4 shows that the calculated-r of 0.792 is greater than its
corresponding critical- r of 0.178 at 0.05 level of significance. This led to the rejection of the
null hypothesis. Hence, there is a significant relationship between the level of pupils’
involvement in hawking and their academic performance in Social Studies in Uyo Local
Government Area of Akwa Ibom State. This therefore means that when there is a significant
increase in street hawking among pupils in the study area, their academic performance in
Social Studies will be adversely affected. This result also means that when there is significant
reduction in the involvement of pupils’ in street hawking in the study area, there will a
significant improvement in their academic performance in Social Studies.

Discussion of Findings
The study established significant negative relationship between the level of pupils’

involvement in street hawking and their academic in social studies. This could be due to the
fact that involving children in hawking goods in the streets while those of their ages are in
schools will render them weak and thus affecting their academic performance. Most times,
those goods are too heavy for them to carry and also they are knocked down by vehicles.
This finding is in line with that of Pelton (2009) who opined that street hawking had negative
effect on pupils’ academic performance in social studies since street hawking is done to
improve the financial status of poor families and their masters. This is common in most
Nigerian cities and towns, children spend greater part of the day hawking wares on the street
in daily basis either in the morning before going to school or after school till night and have
no time for their homework thus affecting their academic performance negatively.

Also, the finding also shows a significant relationship between the level of pupils’
involvement in house help activities such as preparation of meals, caring for siblings and
their academic performance in social studies. This could be in line with Okpara (2014) who
house help had a significant effect on academic performance of pre-primary pupils due to the
fact that children that are involved in house help activities such as preparation of meals,
washing dishes, caring for siblings among others begin work at very early stages and such
roles hinder proper participation in schools which lead to poor academic performance.

Conclusion
Child labour is making children do extremely hazardous work under harmful

condition, putting their health, education, personal and social development and even their life
at risk. Children who are involved in street hawking before they go to school in the morning
and evening after schools hours have little opportunity for formal education which affect
their academic performance in social studies in pre-primary schools. Thus street hawking is
highly detrimental to children’s’ cognitive development. Also, children who are involved in
house help activities such as preparation of meals, washing dishes, washing clothes, ironing
of clothes, caring for siblings rendered them weak as such their academic performance in
social studies in pre-primary schools are low compared to those children who are not
involved in house help activities which their academic performance is high because they
have time to rest, play, read and go to school in time. Hence, all forms of child labour such as
street hawking and house help should be discouraged.

Recommendations
1. Children should not be engaged by the parents or masters in street hawking while their

age groups are in the schools learning.

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 118

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

2. Parents or guardians should not give out their children/wards as house help and
received wages on them.

References
Anumaka, J.A. (2012). A Turning Point in Education and Development in Nigeria, Inaugural

Lecture series 58 of University of Benin, Benin. Nigeria-Delivered

Ashimolowo, H.S. (2013). Child labour and schooling in Africa: A Comparative Study.
Social Protection Unit Human Development Network. The World Bank.
http://www.worldbank.org/sp.

Bryant, K. C., (1990). Economics of Child Labour. The American Economic Review,
Nashvillev 88.

Ehiemere, V. E., (2000). Selection into worst Forms of Child Labour Child Domestic Porters,
and Regpickers in Nepal: Unpublished Paper (Dartmouth College, Hanover, HH).

Grace, J. A. (2004). Education wastage among girls secondary schools: A case of Homa Bay
district, Kenya, Unpublished master’s thesis, Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya.

Gunnarsson A. and Orazem, P., (2003), Child labour, School attendance, children, and
performance. A review working paper no. 11177 (Department of Economics, Lowa
State University).

ILO (2002) Understanding Children‟s Work in El. Salvador (ILO, San Jose, Costa Rica)
International Labour Organizationa! (1973), (138 Minimum Age Convention, 1973)
(ILO, Geneva).

International Labour Organization. (2002). Every Child Counts - New Global Estimates on
Child Labour. Geneva.

Kuriala, A. P., (2012). Economic Growth and the Demand for Education: Is There a Wealth
Effect? Journal of Development Economics 74 (1): 33-51.

Mathias, M. A., and Dada, F. M, (2013). Estimation of the contribution of Child labour to the
formation of rural incomes. An application to Nepal Working paper for no.10 centre
for Household income, Labour, and Demographic Economics, Rome, Italy.

Michael, E.P. and Awa, O. B., (2012) Attendance and Academic performance of students in
secondary schools: A correlational Approach. Department of Educational
Administration and Policy studies, Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria.

Federal Government of Nigeria (2013) National Policy on Education. Government Press.
NERCD, Lagos

Okpara J. N., (2014). The Family and Parenting in Nigeria’s Social Development. Nigeria.
Tortured Ltd

Oloko, O.S., (1996). Childhood Development and Family Life Education. League of
Researchers in Nigeria (LRN).

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 119

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

Pelton, B. A., (2009). Child labour evil but poverty culprit. The People. Nairobi: The People
Daily Publishers, p. 6.

Siddigi, A. M., (2003). Child Labour and Education. Journal of Women in Colleges of
Education (JOWICE) 6 (4) 24-39

Soars, A. P., (2002). Why should we care about child labor? The education, labor market,
and health consequences of child labor. The Journal of Human Resource 44 (4): 871-
889

Udo, E V., & Joseph T. K., (2012). "Child Labor in Transition in Vietnam." Policy Research
Working Paper. No. 2774. The World Bank.

Ugoduluwa, A. C., (2004). Child labour threatens the lives of hundreds. Daily Nation.

UNICEF State of World’s Children’s Report, (2004). “Myths about Child Labour”.

Http://www. uniceforq//sowc971

UNICEF State of World’s Children’s Report, 1997, “Four Myths about Child Labour”.
Http://www. uniceforq//sowc971.

Usman, M. A., (2004). The Child and the State in India. Princeton: University Press.

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 120

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

Entrepreneurship Education in a Recessive Economy: A Case of the
Nigerian Economy

Ofonime M. Akpan, Justina E. Inyang &
Nkoyo S. Samuel

Department of Curriculum Studies,
Educational Management and Planning

University of Uyo, Uyo,
Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria
E-mail:[email protected]
Abstract
This paper examines the place of entrepreneurship education in the recent economic state of
Nigeria. Nigeria’s economy is sick and at moribund stage, the only drug that can get it back
is a functional entrepreneurial education to its citizens at all levels of education.
Entrepreneurial education is the driving force for economic development, structural and job
creation. The act of job creation cannot be done alone, developing functional entrepreneurial
education would help Nigerian youths acquire skills and knowledge, thus reduces
dependency on government for job creation. This work is categorized according to the
following subheadings: entrepreneurship, emergence of entrepreneurial education,
entrepreneurial education, roles of entrepreneurship education, challenges of a functional
entrepreneurial education, the way forward, economic recession and the place of
entrepreneurial education in a recessive economy. It was concluded that, the focus and
process of education is too theoretical and mechanistic, using lecturing methods, which do
not encourage entrepreneurial behaviour, hence government should ensure a strong
financial support which should reflect in the budgetary allocation to education and that
entrepreneurial education should be made functional through practical application of
theories and solution to practical problems and, government should ensure provision of good
economic environment to encourage individual participation in business for
entrepreneurship to thrive and consequently improve the present economic situation.

Keywords: Functional, Entrepreneurship, Education, Economic Recession

Introduction
Education is often seen as an investment and bedrock for national development of a

nation. Similarly, Okoracha (2013) asserted that the essence of education is to bring about the
best in an individual. Nigeria’s economy is sick and at the point of dead, the only drug that
can get it back is a functional entrepreneurial education to its citizens at all levels of
education. Entrepreneurial education is the driving force for economic development,
structural and job creation. Since the act of job creation cannot be done alone, developing
functional entrepreneurial education for our youths will help in acquiring skills and
knowledge, thus reduces dependency on government for job creation.
The main objective of entrepreneurial education is to equip the participants with the needed
skills, which will enable them to be useful to themselves and the society. With the current

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 121

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

challenges in the global economy and in Nigeria in particular, new innovative strategies
emerging in the bid to stimulate, sustain growth in national economy. Functional
entrepreneurial education could bell Nigeria out of the mess of recession.

Nationally and internationally, it is understandable that many countries like Japan,
United States of America (USA) and France have been technologically giant manufacturing
havens and investors paradise, while Nigeria has become a dump for both substandard and
pricey irrelevant goods. And so indirectly import inflation into the country all because
Nigerians do not embrace entrepreneurial education for her citizens. Even when Nigerian
National Policy on Education gives rooms for programs such as Teaching Practice, Students
Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) and Industrial Attachment (IT) which could
assist the child have a corresponding mastery of real life situation of which those concepts
could be applied. The appropriate agencies do not monitor to ensure students compliance to
these programmes.

Economic recession according to the National Bureau of Economic Research (2015)
is a period of general decline in economic activities, spread across the economy. It is usually
indicated by a fall income level, widespread of unemployment, fall in demand and retail
sales. Ofaha (2014) opined that, the major reason why Nigeria is in recession today is her
negligence of entrepreneurial education, thereby producing graduates that become
economically irrelevant and these graduates are placed in the wrong job of which they
become unproductive. When this happens it reduces production thereby making few goods
pursue money of course, the price will go up causing inflation and because inflation
persists as income level do not increase the reward for factor services like rent will drop and
thus this will affect the circular flow of income in the economy.

This paper seeks to clarify the role of a functional entrepreneurial education in a recessive
economy.

Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship is defined as the pursuit of opportunity beyond the resource one

currently controls. It is the ability to create and build something new from practically
nothing. Entrepreneurship has been simply captured as the use of human courage to seek
investment opportunities and establish a profit oriented entreprise (Ikeme & Onu 2007). It is
the act of seizing an opportunity while others see chaos, contradiction and confusion also it
offers one the ability to complement own skills and talent.

An entrepreneur can be said to be an innovative individual who has develop a
business activity, where none existed before. Meredith (2005) defined an entrepreneur as a
person who possess the ability to recognize and evaluate business opportunity, assemble the
necessary resources to take advantage of the opportunity and take appropriate actions to
ensure success. Entrepreneurship refers to an individual ability to turn ideas into actions. It
includes creativity innovations and taking calculated risk, as well as the ability to plan and
manage projects in order to achieve objectives. This supplies everyone in day-to day life at
home and in society. Makes employees more aware of the content of their work and provides
foundation for establishing a social or commercial activity,” European Commission 2000”
deduced that entrepreneurship is a process that results in creativity innovation and growth.

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 122

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

The Emergence of Entrepreneurship Education
The history of entrepreneurship education in Nigeria according to Odia (2011) started

in the 1960s.This is seen from the various government programmes such as the
Entrepreneurship Development Centre(EDC), Nigeria Industrial Development Bank (NIDB),
National Directorate of Employment(NDE), National Open Apprenticeship
Scheme(NOAS),etc. As promising as they sound, these programmes were short lived. The
reason for the short life span of these programmes is not farfetched. It is simply because they
were not inculcated into the educational system.

Education is a powerful force that can ensure the sustainability of any worthwhile
ventures. In Nigeria today, school curriculum at all levels are now developed with
entrepreneurial mindset. This is with the aim that it will create self-reliance, employment,
and economic growth and development. It is in response to the need for a more productive
education that the 1969 curriculum conference was convened by the then National Education
Research Council (NERC). Decisions at this conference led to the development of
philosophy of education and consequently, the National Policy on Education of 1977 which
was subsequently revised in 1981, 1998 and 2004.

Ofoha (2014) believes that the emergence of the 6-3-3-4 system of education in
Nigeria which implementation started in 1982 brought about significant innovations in
Nigerian Education system, but only in theory. There is no practical implementation. Among
the innovation is the vocationalisation’ of the secondary school curriculum. Prevocational
subjects were introduced into the Junior Secondary School (JSS) curriculum while vocational
subjects were introduced into the Senior Secondary School (SSS) curriculum. Integrated
subjects such as Introductory Technology in the past were to prepare learners to acquire basic
vocation such as woodwork, metal work, basic electronics, technical drawing, automobile
mechanics, etc. This is to empower learners to be productive at the end of the Junior
Secondary School. In today’s curriculum, the above integrated subject is now called Basic
Technology. At the senior secondary school, the integrated vocational subjects are now learnt
separately. They include subjects such as Agricultural science, food and nutrition, auto
mechanics, commerce, typewriting, etc. Due to the frequent review of Nigerian curriculum,
various changes are made to accommodate modern trend in education. The changes are
merely change of nomenclature, the structure and objectives remain the same. The subjects
mentioned above are aimed at developing entrepreneurial skills.

Entrepreneurial subjects such as photography, catering, craft, and data processing
have been recently added in the new secondary curriculum. The new secondary school
curriculum structure which came into effect in September, 2011 has made it mandatory for
every senior secondary school students to take at least a subject from the
trade/entrepreneurship subjects.

At the tertiary level, Ifedili and Ofoegbu (2011) stated that in her efforts to ensure job
opportunity and self-reliance, the federal government of Nigeria through the ministry of
education has made it compulsory for every students in the university to take a course in
entrepreneurship before graduation. This is to free them from dependency on white collar
job, to be self-employed and self-reliant after graduation. With all these efforts, the effects of
entrepreneurship education are very low as millions of Nigerians are dependent on the
grossly inadequate government jobs. Millions of graduates across the country gathered in
various stadia sometime in 2016 for the Nigerian Immigration Service recruitment where less
than a hundred thousand were to be employed. This is an obvious indication that
entrepreneurship education practice is still very low in Nigeria.

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 123

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

Entrepreneurship Education
Entrepreneurship education according to Akpomi (2009) it is that aspect of education that is
given to individual to create innovative organization that will grow and create value either for
the purpose of profit or not. Therefore entrepreneurial education seeks to provide students
with the knowledge, skills and motivation they need to establish a business. Similarly, Paul
(2005) added that entrepreneurial education is geared to achieve the following objectives:

 To offer functional education for the youths that will enable them to be self-
employed.

 Provides the graduates with adequate training that will enable them to be creative and
innovative in identifying novel business opportunities

 To serve as a catalyst for economic growth and development
 Offer tertiary institutions graduate adequate training in risk management.
 To reduce intensity of poverty in the communities, society and country.
 Create employment generation, reduces rural urban migration among others

Role of entrepreneurial education
Entrepreneurial education is an important tool to achieve these goals and so every

successful entrepreneur according to Ayodele (2006 ) brings about benefits not only for
himself/herself but also for the society as a whole. Some of the benefits that can be derived
from entrepreneur activities are as follows:

 Enormous personal financial gain
 Self- employment offering more job satisfaction and flexibility.
 Development of small and medium scale enterprise especially in the rural area

disadvantage by economic activities.
 Encouragement of the processing of local materials into finished goods for domestics

consumptions as well for export and income generation and increased economic
growth.
 Development of entrepreneurial qualities and attitude among potential entrepreneurial
to bring about significant changes in the rural areas.
 Entrepreneurship fosters economic development of a nation thereby encouraging the
production of more goods and services.
 It helps to change and regenerates markets competition it therefore means that
entrepreneurial education helps people to think about the competitive in business.
This is because business competition is the head of progress, it makes entrepreneurs
stir up the wants of competition, which invariable leads to economic development of
a nation.
 Entrepreneurship creates employment: it has been noticed that entrepreneurship
creates employment for the teaming unemployed youths through the creation of small
and medium scale industries, which helps private individual to do business with
minimal resources. Ezema (2005) observed that entrepreneur through Small and
Medium-Scale Enterprise (SME) generates twelve times the employment by large and
medium scale plants.

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 124

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

Entrepreneurial education helps in the utilization of resources through the entrepreneurial
activities. It was observed that small and medium scale enterprise helps to mobilize resource
that would otherwise remain idle in the hands of people and thus enhances productivity.

Entrepreneurship increases productivity: it helps to raise higher productivity by
improving productivity technique research, development and investment in a new plant and
machinery, it also does this by controlling and containing the relative impacts of these
macroeconomic policies for instance decisions on taxation, development cost, spending and
money creation, regulatory control and others external factors such controls helps to increase
productivity.(Jackman2007)

Challenges of a Functional Entrepreneurial Education
Despite the predominate benefits of entrepreneurial education, it is still faced with

numerous challenges, one of which is low budgetary allocation. United Nation Development
Programs (2010) reported as cited in Wapmuk (2011) that Nigeria’s Human Development
Index (HDI) is 0.43, thus ranking Nigeria’s 142 out of 199 countries surveyed. The
budgetary allocation in Nigeria has not met UNESCO standard of 26% of the nation’s annual
budget.
Lack of proper funding has posed serious challenge to entrepreneurship education, as it
demands huge and enormous resources, materials and facilities. According to Oviawe (2010)
there are several factors that hinder the functionality of Entreneurship education in Nigeria
theses among others includes:

 Lack of entrepreneurial teachers, materials and equipment.
 Poor knowledge based economy and low spirit of competition.
 The urge and drive of seeking after white collar jobs.
 Non-inclusive of entrepreneurship programs in the school curriculum. As we are

speaking now, not all colleges running vocational educational programs as a subject
of study, which would have same as a foundation of hope to our economy towards
overcoming recession in future. The negligence of entrepreneurship education is what
we are now paying for today.

The Way Forward
For effective actualization of viable entrepreneurial education that will lift Nigerian economy
up again. The following could help;

 There should be some form of genuine school work based learning incorporated in
some studies as part of national economic development strategies. Hence, the
development of apprenticeship graduate scheme will give some work skills and
experience.

 School-based enterprise where students identify potential business using the school as
mini-incubators, provides small business schools were interested students and
community members can participate.

 Develop entrepreneurship internship program matching students with locally
successful entrepreneurship with clearly established academic program

 Create economy friendly political environments
 A dedicated national funding source
 Close partnership with multiple stakeholder
 An exploit policy mandating and enabling youth entrepreneurship education.

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 125

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

Economic Recession in Nigeria
The National Bureau of Economic Research of Nigeria (2015) defines economic

recession as a period of general decline in economic activities spread across the economy, it
can also be defined as a negative GDP growth, meaning that there is a drop in five major
economic indicators. Real GDP, income level, employment, manufacturing and retail sale.
According to the National Bureau of Economic Research of Nigeria.(2015) The first sign of
recession occurs in one of the leading economic indicators such as manufacturing jobs, a fall
in demand due to sales drop as a result of low income and this will further result to
unemployment. The economic recession in Nigeria started in 2014 when several international
and domestic problems occurred together!

In 2016, the National Bureau of Statistics revealed an inflation rate of 17.1%. The
GDP also declined by 2%. Therefore, Nigeria experienced one of the biggest challenges in
2016.In 2016, Nigeria experienced the downfall of oil barrels’ production ,she could only
provide 1.69 million barrels daily at the end of 2016, while at the beginning of 2016, Nigeria
was producing 2.11 million barrels per day.

Nigerians experienced the greatest Naira downfall in 2016,The lowest rate of Naira in
2016 was N463 in the black market. The unemployment rate was extremely severe! About
4.5 million people lost their jobs in 2016. Nigeria is the country that is highly dependent on
oil production. Therefore, a new Cold War between Russia and USA provoked the decline of
oil prices. According to National Bearuea of Statistics of Nigeria (2016), the Federal
Government of Nigeria also played a major role in the recession The Government made the
move to ban the importation of some agricultural products in 2014.

It also removed the oil subsidy which became an additional factor in the recession.
Therefore, the prices for agricultural products became unbearable high! The high-interest rate
of 27% keeps scaring investors all around the world. In addition to this, there is the increased
taxation rates in Nigeria which does not help small business to grow.

The major causes of economic recession are high inflation rate, a general rise in price
of goods and services leading to low purchasing power, accumulation of debt servicing
especially foreign debt, high interest rate thereby discouraging investors, fall in aggregate
demand, and fall in income wages, massive unemployment and general loss of confident on
the government due to economic indices.

Recession is destructive, it creates widespread unemployment most time as high as 10
percent. In many recession, people lose their home when they cannot afford the mortgage
payment, young people cannot get a good job after school that throw off their entrepreneurial
career. Even if the recession is short, it impact can be long lasting judging by the above
explanation, Nigeria is currently experiencing economic recession

The Place of Entrepreneurship Education in a Recessive Economic
Entrepreneurial education is not a new concept in Nigeria, even though it has been

poorly implemented. According to Nwangwu (2007) entrepreneurship is a process of
bringing together the factors of production, which includes land, labour and capital so as to
provide a product or service for public consumption.

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 126

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

Young people become entrepreneur for the same reason as adult do, sometimes out of
necessity and sometimes to capitalize on an opportunity. Preparing Nigerian students for
success and eventual leadership in the new global market place is the most important
responsibility in education today. “Entrepreneurship education is an important tool to
achieving this objective and should be universally available to provide all students with
opportunity to explore and fulfil their potential” (Gibb 2008).

Nigeria is in a transition stage and must take this opportunity to provide her students and
entrepreneurs with the tools and the thinking that is required for the future. Collaborative
technologies can fundamentally transform both how teaching and learning is done.

Conclusion
It is clear that entrepreneurial education provides a mix of experiential training, skills

building and most importantly mindset shift. Currently, the focus and process of education is
too theoretical and mechanistic, using lecturing methods, which do not encourage
entrepreneurial behavior. A considerably challenges facing educators and teachers to
formulate programmers which are suitable for enabling graduate for the labour market.
Evidently, Nigeria is lagging behind in preparing her workforce for the challenges of rapidly
changing global economy, which has eventually landed us in recession. It is therefore
concluded that an improved and sustainable global economy development depends on a
strong entrepreneurship education

Recommendations
It is against this background that the following recommendations are proffered for the

functionality of entrepreneurship education in Nigeria.
1. Nigeria government should ensure a strong support at all level are dedicated to the
financial support which should reflect in the budgetary allocation to education.
2. Educational administrators in Nigeria should ensure that entrepreneurial education is
made functional through practical application of theories and solution to practical
problems.
3. It is also recommended that at this time of recession, All tiers of government should
give greater attention to entrepreneurship development in the country through the
provision of good economic environment to encourage individual participation in
business and for entrepreneurship to thrive and consequently improve economic
growth.

References
Ayodele, J. B. (2006). Obstacles to Entrepreneurship in Nigeria: Lagos: Newtimes Publishers.
Ezema, P. N. (2005). .Entrepreneurship in Vocational Education. Enugu: Modern Publishers.

Oviawe, J. I. (2010).Repositioning Nigerians Youths for Economic Employment Through
Entrepreneurship Education: European Journal of Education Studies 2(2),23-35.

Paul, E. O. (2005) Entrepreneurship Education, Enugu: Ozybey Publishers.

Wapmuk, L.S (2011).Education and Self Reliance in 21st Century Nigeria. A Key Note Address
Presented at the Conference Organized by Academic Fund of the Federal College of
Education Pakistan on 8th June.

UNESCO (2000) World Declaration on Education Twenty- First Century, Article 7 Section
D.Unesco and IRO Recommendations.

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 127

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

Okorocha R (2013), Education: Bedrock for National Development. Lecture Presented at the
National Association of Nigerian Students Convention Owerri, Imo State.

Steveson, H.H and Jarrillo, C. (1990).A Paradigm of Entrepreneurship: Entrepreneurship
Management: Strategic Management Journal 11(1),17-27.

Meredith, O. (2005). The Practice of Entrepreneurship, Geneva: International Labour Office.

Akpomi, M E (2009). Entrepreneurship Education for all Student in Higher Education Institution
in Nigeria: a Means to Sustainable Development. Journal of Sustainable Education 3(2),
45-57.

European Commission (2000) Commitment by Europeans Heads of States and Government to
make EU “the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-driven-economy by

2010’’March.

Gibb, A A (2008). Towards the Entrepreneurial University. Entrepreneurship Education as a
Lever for Change. Retrieve from www.ncge.org.uk

Jackman, R. W. (2007) Entrepreneurship Teams in New Ventures Creation. Entrepreneurship
theory and practice, 14(1) 7-24

National Bureau of Statistics (2016).Annual socio-Economic Report, Nigerian Economic
Development Report.

National Bureau of Economic Research (2015). Annual socio-Economic Report, Nigerian
Economic Development Report.

Ifedili, C.J and Ofoegbu O (2011).Managing Entrepreneurship Education in Nigerian
Universities. European Journal of Education Studies 3(1) 101 – 109

Odia J. O. (2013). Developing Entrepreneurial Skills and Transforming Challenges into
Opportunities in Nigeria. Journal of Education and Social science Research. 3(3) 289
–298

Ofoha D. C. (2014). Assessment of the Secondary Skill Based Curriculum to Youth
Empowerment in Nigeria. Retrieved from
www.ajol.info/index.php/article/download/72726/6164 2 Accessed on 19/07/14

Ikeme, A. & Onu ,V. C. (2007). Creativity,Innovation and Entreprenership:Implications for
Nigerian Youths and Government, Paper Presentation at the Annual Conference of
Nigerian Psychological Association ,University of Nigeria Nsukka.

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 128

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

Awareness of Benefits Associated with Self-Regulated Learning and
Habitual Participation among Students Studying Engineering Courses:

The Case of Akwa Ibom State Polytechnic, Ikot Osurua

Alexis M. Robert

Department 0f Mechanical Engineering
Akwa Ibom State Polytechnic, Ikot Osurua
[email protected]; 08030466910

Abstract
Awareness of benefits associated with self-regulated learning (SRL) engenders active
engagement in SRL strategies and skills and by extension academic success. This study
therefore aimed to determine the status of National Diploma (ND) II students’ awareness of
benefits associated with SRL and their status in SRL strategies and skills. A survey research
design was adopted. One hundred and ninety eight students from one department was
purposively sampled from other departments. The instrument was face validated by three
validates and a reliability coefficient of .83 was realized. The sample group responded to a
closed ended questionnaire constructed by the researcher for that purpose. Frequency and
percentages were adopted for data analyses. The result revealed that majority of students do
not estimate the grade they would score before the exam, students do not spend enough time
to check the extent they achieved outlined learning goals. Majority of the students were
aware of the benefits associated with some of the SRL skills such as allocation of time to
learning programmes, monitoring of individual’s learning, seeking additional resources
when learning, considering why an activity should be completed and how much efforts to put
toward that activity. In other hand, majority of students were not aware of the benefits
associated with students imitating their teachers, keeping record of their academic learning
and consulting their lecturers on academic matters. There was no clear difference in their
awareness of benefits associated with starting preparing for exams weeks before the
examination date. It was recommended among others that intervention programmes on SRL
should be organized for students by the polytechnic lecturers to ensure the students acquire
SRL Skills.

Keywords: Self-Regulated Learning , Student Engagement , SRL Strategies, Academic Success.
Students’ Awareness, Benefits of SRL

Introduction
Active engagement in the learning process is the master key to acquisition of the

necessary knowledge, skills and attitude in any given occupation. Active engagement is when
a student purposefully disciplines him/herself and regulates the ways he does his academic
work for the purpose of achieving success. In schooling, it is agreeable that all students
irrespective of nature of instruction inevitably engage themselves in some kind of self-
regulation while studying in order to succeed in school subjects. Self-regulation in learning,
according to Winne (1995) implies a situation where students plan, monitor and evaluate
their behaviours to some degree in order to succeed in school subjects. Zimmerman and
Schunk (2011) opined that self-regulation of cognition and behaviour are important aspects
of learning. The source maintained that the extent to which students become self-regulators

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 129

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

of their learning influences their academic achievement. This is in line with the view of
Zimmerman (2008) who stated that self regulation is essential to the learning process. This is
because self-regulation enables a student to create in himself better learning habits and
strengthen his studying skills. Thus, being self-regulator in learning implies that the student
is applying self-regulated learning process in his academic pursuit. The student at this point
will have to discipline him/herself, direct his cognition and behaviours toward learning and
try as much as possible to motivate himself.

Self-regulated learning is defined by Sungar and Tekkaya (2006) as the degree to which
students metacognitively, motivationally and behaviourally participate in the learning
process. Self-regulated learning is the extent to which a student involves actively in the
learning process using motivational skills and appropriate behaviours in learning. Pintrich
(2004), Ainley and Patrick 2006 separately described self-regulated learning as an active
engagement in one’s learning process during which the learner set goals, monitor their
thoughts, feelings and action and can possibly adjust them. Thus self-regulated learning is the
process by which a student willfully involves actively in the learning process during which
he plans, monitors, evaluates and adjusts his learning. By this, a self-regulated learner takes
control over his learning, direct his cognition and motivation. Thus if a student develops a
high interest in any school subject he is likely to perform better. The same understanding
goes to when a student motivates himself.

A self-regulated student adopts active engagement in the learning process. By active
engagement, the student applies SRL skills such as set goals, plan their time, decide on
appropriate strategies, organize and prioritize materials and information, monitor learning,
make appropriate adjustment for future learning (Winne 1995, Butler 1998, and Meltzer
2007); Other skills include self-motivation ( Zimmerman 2004) help-seeking, self-evaluation
and attention control (Winne 1995). In the light of this, research also confirmed that SRL is
an effective means to keep on learning and to achieve high quality performance (Zimmerman
2006).

Researchers have documented that students can benefit immensely from habitual and
extensive application of SRL strategies. Effeney, Carroll and Bahr (2013) stated that
academically capable students are more advanced in their progression through the
development sequence of SRL strategies. Labuhn, Zimmerman and Hasselhorn (2010)
opined that self-regulated learners usually seat themselves toward the front of the classroom.
The source found in their study that students who are taught SRL skills elicit higher levels of
academic self-efficacy and perform higher on academic achievement than those who did not
receive SRL instructions. This finding is similar to that of Kistner, Rakoczy and Otto (2010)
who found the differences in academic success of self-regulated learners and non self-
regulated learners with self-regulated learners having higher academic success. Mason
(2004) maintained that self-regulated learning is a good predictor of academic performance.
Recent study by Effeney, Carroll and Bahr (2013) revealed that early habit-forming
experiences form an important base for effective SRL in children. By implication, SRL is a
developmental process. Thus students could be helped by teaching them SRL skills right
from their childhood most especially from the home and in school by the teachers.

Early instruction on SRL skills can boost students’ awareness and inculcate in them the
interest in habitual participation in self-regulated learning. Thus SRL is crucial for all classes
of learners starting from primary school pupils through secondary school students to students

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 130

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

who had no previous instructions in SRL skills studying in tertiary institutions such as the
polytechnics. Habitual participation in self-regulated learning is a situation where students
consciously or unconsciously engage themselves in learning without being compelled and
by so doing applying various learning strategies and skills for the purpose of making
academic success.

Unfortunately, many students both in secondary schools and tertiary institutions are still
struggling to achieve academic success. A large number of students have resorted to various
forms of examination malpractices such as the use of textbooks, written information on
pieces of papers and the use of other extraneous devices in examination halls while others are
involved in sorting. These have led to increased number of drop-out from school and schools
producing half-baked graduates who lack the necessary knowledge, skills and attitude in their
occupation. Moreover, some of them who are caught in examination malpractice are
incarcerated. However, Zumbrunn, Tadlock and Roberts (2011) observed that only few
students are actually self-regulated learners. This could be as a result of students’ lack of
SRL processes and awareness of the benefits inherent in self-regulated learning.

Understanding students’ awareness of benefits associated with SRL and their status of
participation in the use of SRL strategies would have significant implications in setting
policy recommendation and guidelines that would enable individual students engage in
practicing the SRL strategies as part of good study habits. Also, understanding the students’
level of awareness of SRL skills will help the polytechnic authority and appropriate
authorities to review the curriculum of tertiary institutions to give room for SRL instruction.
Students will also use the recommendation to better their learning. Therefore, this study will
answer the following research questions.

1. What is the status of students in habitual participation in self-regulated learning
behaviours.

2. Are polytechnic students aware of the benefits associated with self-regulated
learning?

Methodology
The pilot study adopted a survey research design. The study was conducted in Akwa Ibom
State Polytechnic, Ikot Osurua in Ikot Ekpene Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State,
Nigeria. The opinions of ND II students in the Department of Science Laboratory
Technology were sought on issues concerning their awareness of the benefits of self-
regulated learning strategies and their status of participation. The population was the
registered National Diploma (ND) II regular students Science Laboratory Technology of the
2016/2017 academic session, numbering 256. The department of Science Laboratory
Technology was purposively selected from other departments because they offer courses of
other schools and departments of the Polytechnic. There was no sampling in this study
because of the manageable size of the population hence the entire population was used during
one of their lecture in which 198 students were in attendance and in turn were used in the
study.

The instrument for data collection was a structured questionnaire developed by the
researcher titled Self-Regulated Learning Benefits Awareness and Participation
Questionnaire (SRLBAPQ). The questionnaire consisted of two sections. Section A:
consisted of 18 items which elicited information on students’ status of participation in SRL,

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 131

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

while section B, consisted of 13 items which elicited information on students’ awareness of
benefits of SRL. Section A carried a four point rating scale of Very Often (4); Often (3);
Occasional (2) and very rarely (1). Section B carried Yes and No. The items were developed
through information obtained from the literature reviewed. The instrument was face validated
by three experts, from the department of Vocational Education, University of Uyo, Uyo,
Nigeria. The comments and criticism made by the experts shaped the final copy of the
instrument. The validated instrument was trial tested on ND II students in the Department of
Architecture Akwa Ibom State Polytechnic, Ikot Osurua, who share the same characteristics.
This test was to ensure the reliability of the instrument using Cronbach alpha method. The
result of the test yielded a reliability index of 0.83. This shows that the instrument is reliable.
The copies of the questionnaire were personally administered during one of the departmental
courses and collected from the respondents immediately after the completion. All the copies
of the questionnaire were returned. Data for answering research questions 1 and 2 were
analyzed using descriptive statistics of frequencies and percentages.

Results
Research Question 1: What is the status of students in habitual participation in self-regulated
learning behaviours.
Table 1: The status of students in habitual participation in self-regulated behaviours.

S/ Very Often Occasionally Very Grand
N often rarely Total
Total Total
Total Total 198
69 56 198
1. I estimate the grade I would score in exams 35 (34.8) (28.3) 38 198
(19.2) 198
before the date of exams (17.8) 78 39 198
(39.4) (19.7) 27
2. I allocate time to study each of the courses 54 (13.6) 198
63 66 198
according to their difficulty (27.3) (31.8) (33.3) 35 198
(17.7) 198
3. I check over my work to make sure I did it 34 59 78 198
(29.8) (39.4) 26
correctly (17.2) (13.1) 198
57 81
4. I check the extent I have achieved outlined 35 (28.8) (40.9) 27
(13.6)
learning goals (17.7) 80
(40.4)
5. Before I begin to do my assignment, I go to 33
the library and get much information as (16.7) 29
(14.6)
possible concerning the topic
66
6. I take notes of class discussions 58 (33.3) 44 16
(22.2) (8.1)
(29.3) 53 110
(26.8) 40 (55.6)
7. I keep records of questions I got wrong 19 (20.2) 34
52 (17.2)
(9.6) (26.3) 40 28
(20.2) (14.1)
8. I keep records of my tests and assignments 58 51
(25.8) 65 32
(29.3) (32.8) (16.2)

9. I use environment that will isolate me from 52 64
(32.3)
passer-by when I study (26.3)

10 I provide all the materials that would be 50

. required during my study period before I (25.2)

commence my study

11 I turn off radio so I can concentrate on what I 43 73 31
(36.9) (15.7)
. am doing (21.7)

12 I sit myself toward the front roll when I 45 58 61 34 198
(29.3) (30.8) (17.2) 198
. attend my lectures (22.7)
51 69 30
13 I rehearse difficult tasks/problems after 48

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 132

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

. school period (24.2) (25.8) (34.8) (15.2)
45 71 54
14 I prepare for exams two weeks before the 28 (27.3) 198
(22.7) (35.9) 198
. examination (14.1) 69 198
42 62 (34.8) 198
15 If I have problem with my academic work, I 25 (21.2) (31.1) 198
19
. consult my lecturers (12.6) 67 67 (9.6)
(33.8) (33.8) 27
16 I submit my assignment on time 45 (13.6)
68 61
. (22.7) (34.3) (30.8) 63
(31.8)
17 I develop I can do attitude during workshop/ 42 45 61
(22.7) (30.8)
. laboratory practical (21.2)

18 I voluntarily offer answers to questions in the 29

. class (14.6)

On Table 1, items 1 and 2 sought the opinion of students on goal setting. Particularly,
item 1 sought their opinion on a particular grade (score) they targeted, 35 respondents
indicated that they do it very often, 69 representing 34.8% indicated often, while 56 and 38
respondents representing 28.3% and 19.2% indicated occasionally and very rarely
respectively. On item 2, 54 respondents indicated that very often, they allocate time to study
each of the courses according to perceived level of difficulty. 78 or 39.4% indicated often,
while 39 and 27 or 19.7% and 13.6% respondents indicated occasional and very rarely
respectively.

Item 3 and 4 sought the opinion of respondents on self-evaluation. Of 198 respondents,, 34
respondents indicated that very often, they check over their work to make sure they did it
correctly, 63 respondents indicated that they do it often, 66 indicated that they do it
occasionally while 35 indicated that they do it very rarely. These are represented by 17.2%,
31.8%, 33.3%, and 17.7% respectively. Item 4 which sought the opinion of students on the
extent they check whether they have achieved outlined learning goals. Only 35 respondents
indicated that they do it very often. Fifty nine indicated that they do it often, 78 indicated
occasionally while 26 respondents indicated that they did it very rarely these are represented
by 17.7%, 28.9%, 39.4% and 31.1% respectively.

On seeking information from non social sources, 33 respondents representing 16.7%
indicated that before they begin to do their assignment, they would go to the library to get
much information as possible concerning the topic at hand while 57 respondents representing
29.8% indicated that they often do it. Eighty one respondents or 40.9% of the respondents
indicated that they do it occasionally while 27 respondents or 13.6% indicated that they do it
very rarely.

On Table 1, items 6, 7 and 8 boarders on keeping and monitoring records. On item 6, 58
respondents or 29.3% indicated that very often they take note notes of class discussion, 80
respondents or 40,4% indicated often, 44 respondents indicated occasionally while 16
respondents indicated that they do it very rarely. On item 7, 19 respondents or 9.6% indicated
that very often they keep records of questions they got wrong, 29 respondents or 14.6%
indicated that often they do it while 40 respondents or 20.2% indicated that they do it
occasionally and 110 representing 55.6% indicated that they do it very rarely. On item 8, 58
respondents indicated that very often they keep records of tests and assignments, 66 indicated
that they often do it while 40 respondents indicated that they do it occasionally and 34
representing 17.2% indicated that they do it very rarely.

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 133

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

Items 9, 10, 11 and 12 sought the opinion of the respondents on environmental
structuring. Fifty two of them representing 26.3% indicated that very often they use
environment that isolate them from passer-by when studying, 53 or 26.8% indicated that
often they do it while 65 respondents indicated that they did that occasionally and 28
indicated that they do it very rarely. On item 10, 50 respondents indicated that very often,
they provide all the materials that would be required before commencement of their study.
Fifty two indicated that often they did that while 64 respondents or 32.3% of them indicated
that they do it occasionally and 32 being 16.2% indicated that they do it very rarely. On item
11, 43 or 21.7% of the respondents indicated that very often they turn off their radio so that
they can concentrate on what they are studying. Fifty one or 25% of the respondents
indicated that often they do while 73 or 36.9% of the respondents indicated that they
occasionally do it while 31 or 15.7% of the students indicated that they do it very rarely.

On item 12, 45 or 22.7% of the respondents indicated that very often they sit themselves
toward the front roll when they attend lectures. Fifty eight or 29.3% respondents indicated
that often they did so, 61 or 30.8% indicated that they do it occasionally while 34 or 17.2%
of the respondents indicated that they do it very rarely.

On item 13 in Table 1, 48 respondents or 12.2% indicated that very often they rehearse
difficult tasks/problems after school period, 51 indicated that they do that often while 69
representing 34.8% indicated that they rehearse occasionally and 30 respondents indicated
that they never rehearse difficult tasks/problems after school.

On exams preparation, 28 respondents indicated that very often they prepare for exams
2 weeks before examinations, 45 respondents indicated that often they do so while 71
respondents representing 35.9% indicated that occasionally they do so and 54 respondents
indicated that they do it very rarely.

On seeking social assistance, 25 respondents to item 15 indicated that if they have
problems with their academic work, they would consult their lecturers. Forty two or 21.2% of
the respondents indicated that often they do so while 62 or 31.3% indicated that they do so
occasionally and 69 or 34.8% indicated that they do so very rarely.

In Table 1, items 16, 17 and 18 sought students’ opinion on self-motivation. On item 16,
45 or 22.7% of the respondents indicated that very often, they submit their assignment on
time, 67 or 33.8% of the respondents indicated that often they submit on time while 67 or
33.8% of the respondents also indicated that occasionally they submit assignment on time
and 19 or 9.6% of the respondents indicated that they submit assignment on time very rarely.

On item 17, 42 or 21.2% of the respondents indicated that very often they develop I can
do attitude during workshop/laboratory practical. Sixty eight or 34.3% of the respondents
indicated that often they develop I can do attitude while 61 or 30.8 % indicated that
occasionally they develop I can do attitude and 27 or 13.6% of the respondents indicated that
they develop I can do attitude very rarely during workshop or laboratory practical.

On item 18, 29 or 14.6% of the respondents indicated that very often they voluntarily offer
answers to questions in the class. 45 or 22.7% indicated that often they do so, while 61 or
30.8% indicated that they will do so occasionally and 63 or 31.8% indicated that they will
hardly do it.

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 134

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

Research Question 2: Table 2: Status of polytechnics’ students’ awareness of the benefits
associated with self-regulated learning

Item statement Total

S/N Is it true that Students who True False

O (%) (%)

19. Started preparing for examinations weeks before examination date 100 98

overcome last minutes rush? (50.5) (49.5)

20. Allocate time to their learning programmes are more focused in their 126 72

learning than those who do not? (63.6) (36.4)

21. Monitor how they learn perform better than those who do not? 116 82
(58.6) (41.4)

22. Imitate their teacher illicit higher levels of academic self confident 82 116

than those who do not? (41.4) (58.6)

23. Seat themselves toward the front of the classroom during lecture 105 93
are engaged in their learning than those who do not? (53) (47)

24. Voluntarily offer answers to questions in the classroom are more 108 90
engaged in their study than those who do not? (54.5) (45.5)

25. Seek additional resources when learning have the potential to 123 75
master content more rapidly than those who do not? (62) (38)

26. Consider why an activity should be completed and how much 143 55

efforts to put toward that activity have higher interest and value on (72) (27.8)

the task or topic than those who do not?

27. Have confidence in their ability to complete a task successfully are 152 46

more likely to do well in the task than those who do not? (76.8) (23.2)

28. Clear their mind of distractive thoughts achieve increased 118 80
academic outcome than those who do not? (59.6) (40.4)

29. Keep records of their academic learning tasks, performances 93 105
visualize their learning and make changes as needed than those (47) (53)

who do not?

30. Participate regularly in workshop /laboratory practical are more 112 86
likely to perform better in workshop practical than those who do (56.6) (43.4)

not?

31. Consult their teachers on academic matters achieve reduced treat 91 107
to their ego and become more motivated to explore both (46) (54)

themselves and school environment than those who do not?

In Table 2, item 19 sought the opinion of the respondents on whether it is true or false that
students who started preparing for examinations weeks before the examination date
overcome last minutes rush, 100 or 50.5% of the respondents indicated that it is true while 98
or 49.5% of the respondents indicated that it is false.

On item 20, 126 representing 63.6% respondents indicated that students who allocate
time to their learning programmes are more focused in their learning than those who do not
while 72 representing 36.4% of the respondents are for the contrary.

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 135

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

On item 21, 116 representing 58.6% of the respondents affirmed that students who monitor
how they learn perform better than those who do not. However, 82 representing 41.4% of the
respondents indicated that it is false.

On item 22, 82 representing 41.4% of the respondents indicated that it is true that students
who imitate their teachers (lecturers) illicit higher level of academic self-confidence than
those who do not while 116 representing 58.6% indicated that it is false.

On item 23, 105 representing 53% of the respondents indicated that it is true that students
who sit toward the front roll of the classroom during lecture are more engaged in their study
than those who do not while 93 representing 47% indicated the contrary.

On item 24, 108 representing 54.5% of the respondents indicated that it is true that students
who voluntarily offer answers to questions in the classroom are more engaged in their study
than those who do not. However, 90 respondents representing 45.5% indicated that it is false.

On item 25, 123 representing 62% indicated it is true that students who seek additional
resources when learning have potential to master content (topic treated) more rapidly than
those who do not. On the other hand, 75 representing 38% showed otherwise. This implies
that 62% of the students are aware of the benefits of seeking additional resources when
learning.

On item 26, 72% of the respondents indicated that students who consider why an activity
should be completed and how much effort to put toward the activity have higher interest and
value on the task or topic than those who do not. In the other hand, 55 respondents or 27.8%
of them indicated that it is not true.

On item 27, 152 out of 198 respondents representing 76.8% indicated that students who have
confidence in their ability to complete a task successfully are more likely to do well in the
task than those who do not while only 23.2% of the respondents indicated otherwise.

On item 28, 59.6% or 118 of the respondents indicated that students clear their minds of
distractive thoughts achieve increased academic outcome than those who do not while 80
respondents or 40.4% of the total respondents indicated otherwise.

On item 29, 93 out of 198 respondents representing 47% indicated that students who keep
records of their academic learning tasks and performance visualize their learning and make
changes as needed than those who do not. On the other hand, 105 representing 53% of the
respondents are not aware that students who keep records of their academic learning (tasks
and performance) visualize their learning and make changes as needed than those who do
not.

On item 30, 112 respondents out of 198 representing 56.6% indicated that students who
participate regularly in workshop/laboratory practical are more likely to perform better in
workshop practical than those who do not. Whereas 43.4% of the respondents indicated that
it is false. Thus, 86 or 43.4% of the respondents are not aware of the benefits associated with
skill of regular participation in workshop practical.

On item 31, 107 out of 198 respondents represented by 54% are not aware of the benefit
associated with teacher consultation. Only 91 respondents represented by 46% indicated that

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 136

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

it is true that students who consult their teachers (lecturers) on academic matters achieve
reduced threat to their ego and become more motivated to explore both themselves and
school environment than those who do not.

Discussion of the Findings
This study examines the status of national diploma (ND) students awareness of

benefits associated with SRL and their habitual participation. The result of this study
revealed that greater percentage of ND students (49.5%) are not aware that preparing for
examinations early enough such as two weeks before the exams enables individual to
overcome last minute rush. However it was revealed from interaction with the students that
most students start preparing for examinations few days to the exams with the belief that they
can still make good grades.

The result of this study also revealed students lack of awareness of benefits associated
with self-monitoring in learning; sitting toward the front roll of the classroom, voluntarily
offering answers to questions in the classroom, keeping records of their academic learning
and consulting their lectures/teachers. This may reflect lack of orientation on the benefits
associated with this skills and also poor academic self-concept. Robert (2008) reported the
effect of poor academic self-concept on the performance of students in technical drawing.
Thus students with negative self-concept will feel lack of ability and as such, will not attempt
to ask questions in class or voluntarily offer answers to questions as well as not prepared to
sit toward the front roll in the class just to avoid questions from the /lecturer/teacher. Also
revealed are that most students do not estimate the grade they will score before the exams
date; do not often check over their work to be sure they did it correctly; do not keep record of
questions they got wrong; do not provide all the materials they will need while studying
before they commence the study; do not always turn off their radio while studying; do not
rehearse difficult tasks/problems immediately after school period. These could also be
attributed to lack of orientation.

Conclusion
The following conclusions are drawn based on the findings of the study: Allowing

students to be entirely independent in tertiary institutions with respect to how they learn is
hazardous to the students and the educational system. This is because; most students who
gain entry into tertiary institutions are often under age. Moreover, they were not taught on
learning skills and in addition were not exposed to rigorous learning and stress associated
with learning. This has resulted in poor academic achievement and examination malpractice
among students. Therefore they should be helped through various intervention programmes.

Recommendations: From the findings of the study the following recommendation were
made:

1. Intervention programmes on SRL strategies and skills at school/faculty level should
be organized for students.

2. Teachers/lecturers should provide students with their test scripts to serve as feedback.
This will enable students to be focus and make adjustment where necessary.

3. Lecturers should create few minutes for direct instruction to students on SRL
strategies and skills.

4. Lecturers/teachers should create conducive environment for students to develop SRL
skills.

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 137

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

5. Educational institutions and appropriate bodies could assist in the development of
SRL skill by organizing workshops/seminars for lecturers on SRL strategies, skills
and appropriate method/means of imparting SRL skills to students

References

Ainley, M. & Patrick, L. (2006). Measuring Self-Regulated Learning processes through
tracking patterns of students’ interaction with achievement activities, Educational
Psychology Review. 18, 267-286.

Effeney, G., Carroll A. & Bahr, N. (2013). Self Regulated Learning: Key strategies and their
sources in a sample of adolescent males. Australian Journal of Education and
Developmental Psychology Vol 13.58-74.

Labuhn, A. S., Zimmerman, B. J. & Hasselhorn, M. (2010). Enhancing Students’ self-
regulation and mathematics performance: The influence of feedback and self
evaluative standards. Metacognition and learning 5(2), 173-194.

Meltzer, L. (2007). Executive function in Education: from theory to practice. New York. The
Guildford Press.

Pintrich, P. R. (2004). A conceptual Framework for Assessing Motivation and Self-
Regulated Learning in College Students. Educational Psychology Review, 16, 385-
407.

Robert, A. M. (2008). Students’ home background, personality factors and their performance
in technical drawing in Akwa Ibom State. M. Sc Thesis, Department of Vocational
Education. University of Uyo, Nigeria.

Robert, A. M. (2016). Promoting self-directed learning and self-regulated learning among
technical college students for higher academic achievement: The role of the teachers.
Book of proceedings: Nigeria Association of Teachers of Technology. Annual
National Conference, 17th – 20th October, 2016. 18 – 31.

Winne, P. H. (1995). Inherent details in self-regulated learning. Educational Psychologies,
30, 173-188.

Wolters, C. A. (2011). Regulation of motivation: Contextual and social aspects. Teachers
College Records, 113(2), 265-283.

Zimmerman, B. J. (2006). Development and adaptation of expertise: The role of self
regulatory processes and beliefs. In K. A. Ericson, N., Charness, P. J., Feltovich and
R. R. Hoffman, (Ed) The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert
performance, 683-703. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 138

Benchmark Journals INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL BENCHMARK (IJEB),
eISSN: 2489-0170 pISSN:2489-4162 University of Uyo

Zimmerman, B. J. (2008). Investigating self-regulation and motivation: historical background
methodological developments and future prospects. American Educational
Research Journal, 45 (1) 166-184.

Zimmerman, B. J. (1989). A social cognitive view of self-regulated academic learning.
Journal of Educational Psychology 81 329-339.

Zimmerman, B. J. & Schunk, D. H. (2011). Motivational: An essential dimension of self-
regulated learning. In B. J. Zimmerman, D. H. Schunk (Eds), Motivation and self-
regulated learning: theory, research and applications (Pp 1-3-). New York:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Zumbrunn, S., Tadlock, J. & Roberts, E. D. (2011). Encouraging self-regulated learning in
the classroom: A review of literature. Metropolitan Educational Research
Consortium Virgina Common-Wealth University.

Vol. 8(3) 2017 Page 139