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XB-5

APPENDICES SCIENCE & GLOBAL ISSUES: BIOLOGY

Interpreting Graphs

Use the following key to help describe the data you are interpreting.
Is there a relationship?

There is a pattern. There is no pattern.

Relationship No relationship
What is the general trend of the data?

Positive: As x increases, Cyclical: As x increases, Negative: As x increases,
y increases y repetitively increases y decreases
and decreases

Linear: As x increases, Nonlinear: As x increases, Linear: As x increases, Nonlinear: As x increases,
y consistently increases y increases at a changing y consistently decreases y decreases at a changing
(sometimes called direct) rate rate (sometimes called
inverse)

XB-6

B: SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS SKILLS APPENDICES

Interpreting Graphs (continued)

You can also use this key to interpret the data in bar graphs. Examine the bar graph in
Figure A, and use the key on the previous page to analyze the data.
Hint: When looking for patterns in this type of graph, try examining each data set
individually.

30
1999
2019
Percentage of students reporting being bullied
20

10

0 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th
Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade
Grade in school

FIGURE A: Reports of Students Being Bullied at School, 1999 and 2019

XB-7

Hours APPENDICES SCIENCE & GLOBAL ISSUES: BIOLOGY

Interpreting Graphs (continued)

Figure B and Figure C are examples of more complicated graphs. Figure B shows two
different y variables, measured on different scales, plotted against a single x variable.
Hint: When interpreting this type of graph, try examining each y variable
independently.

350 30
300 25
250

20
200

15 Average Hours of Sunshine
Average High Temperature (°C)

150
10

100
5

50
00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Month of the Year
FIGURE B: Average Monthly Weather in Chicago

XB-8

B: SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS SKILLS APPENDICES

Interpreting Graphs (continued)

Figure C is a stacked bar graph, where multiple categories are stacked on top of one
another.

Hint: When interpreting this type of graph, focus on each category separately before
considering the combined graph.

150
Fish and Seafood
Other
Pork
Sheep and goat

120 Beef
Poultry

Kilograms (Kg) 90

60

30

0 China France India Kenya Mexico Philippines South United
Bangladesh Brazil Africa States

FIGURE C: Per-Person Meat Consumption Around the World, 2017

LabAids SEPUP SGI 3e XB-9
Figure: Appendi SB 1_02
MyriadPro Reg 9.5/11

APPENDICES SCIENCE & GLOBAL ISSUES: BIOLOGY

Interpreting Graphs (continued)

Describing Your Data Analysis

Once you have analyzed the data for relationships, you can use the following sentence
stems to help you describe your analysis.

Defining the Components of the Graph
Things you can say:

The title of the graph is . . .
The independent variable in this graph is . . .
The dependent variable in this graph is . . .
_________________ is measured in ____________.

Describing What the Graph Reveals
T hings you can say:

This graph shows that . . .
The pattern in the data shows that . . .
I noticed a relationship between ________ and ________.
When ________ increases (or decreases), ________ increases (or decreases).
As the ________ increases, the . . .
The ________ has the highest (or largest, lowest, smallest) ________.
________ is different from ________ because . . .
The ________ peaked at . . .
The rate of ________ increased (or decreased) from . . .

Describing How the Graph Relates to the Topic
T hings you can say:

This graph is important for understanding ________ because . . .
This graph supports the claim that ________ because . . .
This graph refutes the claim that ________ because . . .

XB-10

B: SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS SKILLS APPENDICES

Keeping a Science Notebook

• Write in blue or black ink.
• Cross out mistakes or changes with a single line. Do not erase or use correction

fluid.
• Write neatly.
• Record the date of each entry.
• For each new investigation, write down the following:

Title:
Purpose:
Rewrite the guiding question in your own words.
Hint: What are you going to do? Why are you going to do it?
Materials:
Place a “√” here after you have collected the necessary materials.
Procedure:
Write down whether you understand the procedure.
Data:
Record observations, measurements, and other lab work.
Include data tables, charts, diagrams, and/or graphs when needed.
Be sure to label your work clearly.

• Sometimes, you may want to do the following:
Make inferences or draw conclusions based on the data.

I think my results mean . . .
I think that this happened because . . .

Reflect on how the activity worked in your group.
This is what went well . . . This is what did not go well . . .
If I could do this activity again, I would . . .

Think about what questions you still have.
I wonder if . . .
I’m not sure about . . .

Keep track of new vocabulary and ideas.
A key word I learned is . . .
I would like to find out what happens when . . .
One interesting thing to do would be to . . .

XB-11

APPENDICES SCIENCE & GLOBAL ISSUES: BIOLOGY

Reading a Graduated Cylinder

A graduated cylinder measures the volume of a liquid, usually in milliliters (mL).
To measure correctly with a graduated cylinder:

1. Determine what measurement each unmarked line on the graduated cylinder
represents.

2. Set the graduated cylinder on a flat surface and pour in the liquid to be
measured.

3. Bring your eyes to the level of the fluid’s surface. (You will need to bend down!)
4. Read the graduated cylinder at the lowest point of the liquid’s curve (called the

meniscus).
5. If the curve falls between marks, estimate the volume to the closest milliliter.

This is an example of a plastic graduated cylinder that contains 42 mL of liquid.

50

40

XB-12

B: SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS SKILLS APPENDICES

Using a Dropper Bottle

Incorrect Correct
Holding the dropper bottle at an angle Holding the dropper bottle vertically produces
produces drops that vary in size. drops that are more consistent in size.

XB-13

APPENDICES SCIENCE & GLOBAL ISSUES: BIOLOGY

Using a Microscope

eyepiece

Spirogyra (algae) x 400

coarse focus objectives chloroplast
knob stage clips cell wall
stage
fine focus
knob diaphragm
light source

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Be sure that your microscope is set on the available.
lowest magnification before placing your slide on
the microscope stage. Place the slide on the • Try to relax your eyes when looking through the
microscope stage. Center the slide so that the
sample is directly over the light opening, and adjust eyepiece. You can cover one eye or learn to look
the microscope settings as necessary. If the with both eyes open. Try not to squint.
microscope has stage clips, use them to secure the
slide in position so that it does not move. • Look through your microscope at the same time

• Observe the sample. Focus first with the coarse- as you do your drawing. Look through the
microscope more than you look at your paper.
focus knob, and then adjust the fine-focus knob.
• Don’t draw every small thing on your slide. Just
• After switching to a higher magnification, be
concentrate on one or two of the most common
careful to adjust the focus with the fine-focus or interesting things.
knob only.
• You can draw things larger than you actually see
• Return to low magnification before removing
them. This helps you show all the details you see.
the slide from the microscope stage.
• Keep written words outside the circle.
Safety • Use a ruler to draw the lines for your labels.

Always carry a microscope properly with both Keep lines parallel—do not cross one line over
hands—one hand underneath and one holding the another.
microscope arm. When you are working with live
organisms, be sure to wash your hands thoroughly • Remember to record the level of magnification
after you finish the laboratory.
next to your drawing.

XB-14

C: Assessment in SGI

Analyzing and Interpreting Data (aid) XC-2
Communicating Concepts and Ideas (com) XC-3
Constructing Explanations (exp)  XC-4
Developing and Using Models (mod)  XC-5
Engaging in Argument from Evidence (arg)  XC-6
Evidence and Trade-Offs (e&t)  XC-7
Planning and Carrying Out an Investigation (pci) XC-8

XC-1

APPENDICES SCIENCE & GLOBAL ISSUES: BIOLOGY

Analyzing and Interpreting Data (aid)

When to use this Scoring Guide:

This Scoring Guide is used when students analyze and interpret data that they have
collected or that has been provided to them.

What to look for:

• Response describes patterns and trends in data.
• Response interprets patterns and trends, using relevant crosscutting concepts and

disciplinary core ideas, to describe possible causal, relationships.

LEVEL DESCRIPTION
Level 4 The student analyzes the data with appropriate tools,
Complete and techniques, and reasoning.
correct The student identifies and describes patterns in the data, and
interprets them completely and correctly to identify and
Level 3 describe relationships.
Almost there When appropriate, the student
• makes distinctions between causation and correlation.
Level 2 • s tates how biases and errors may affect interpretation of the data.
On the way
The student analyzes the data with appropriate tools,
Level 1 techniques, and reasoning.
Getting started The student identifies and describes patterns in the data BUT
Level 0 incorrectly and/or incompletely interprets them to identify and
x describe relationships.

The student analyzes the data with appropriate tools,
techniques, and reasoning.
The student identifies and describes, BUT does not
interpret, patterns and relationships.

The student attempts to analyze the data BUT does not use
appropriate tools, techniques and/or reasoning to identify and
describe patterns and relationships.

The student’s analysis is missing, illegible, or irrelevant to the goal of
the investigation.

The student had no opportunity to respond.

XC-2

C: ASSESSMENT IN SGI APPENDICES

Communicating Concepts and Ideas (com)

When to use this Scoring Guide:

This Scoring Guide is used when students are communicating what they have
learned about a phenomenon or problem. They may be communicating their own
ideas, or they may be summarizing and communicating information and ideas from
other sources. The key point is that they are being evaluated for the communication
rather than the reasoning, which is a core component of the constructing
explanations (exp) Scoring Guide.

What to look for:

• Response is clear and effective for the intended audience.
• R esponse presents connections between relevant disciplinary core ideas and

crosscutting concepts.
• W hen appropriate, response includes effective use of more than one mode of

communication (e.g., oral, textual, graphical, mathematical).

LEVEL DESCRIPTION
Level 4 The student communicates clearly and correctly about
Complete and a phenomenon or problem, presenting connections
correct between relevant disciplinary core ideas and relevant
crosscutting concepts.
Level 3 The student communicates clearly and correctly about
Almost there a phenomenon or problem BUT doesn’t present connections
between the relevant disciplinary core ideas and crosscutting
Level 2 concepts.
On the way The student communicates about a phenomenon or problem, BUT
Level 1 the response is somewhat confusing, and/or contains some errors.
Getting started
The student communicates some information about a
Level 0 phenomenon or problem, BUT the response is incomplete, very
x confusing, and/or contains significant errors.
The student’s response is missing, illegible, or irrelevant.
The student had no opportunity to respond.

XC-3

APPENDICES SCIENCE & GLOBAL ISSUES: BIOLOGY

Constructing Explanations (exp)

When to use this Scoring Guide:

This Scoring Guide is used when students develop their own explanations of phenomena.
Their explanations may be based on evidence from their own investigations, on secondary
data sets, and/or on evidence and concepts obtained from text and other media.

What to look for:

• R esponse includes relevant evidence, disciplinary core ideas, and crosscutting concepts.
• R esponse logically links evidence and concepts to develop a causal mechanism for a

phenomenon.

LEVEL DESCRIPTION
Level 4 The student’s explanation
Complete and
correct • i s supported by sufficient use of appropriate evidence and
oncepts* AND
Level 3 • l inks the evidence and concepts to provide a clear and
Almost there complete causal mechanism for the phenomenon.

Level 2 The student’s explanation
On the way • i s supported by sufficient use of appropriate evidence and
Level 1 concepts* BUT
Getting started • d oes not clearly link the evidence and concepts to provide a
Level 0 complete causal mechanism for the phenomenon.

x The student’s response includes some use of evidence and
concepts* relevant to the phenomenon, BUT some key pieces of
evidence and/or concepts are missing.

The student’s response makes little to no use of appropriate
evidence and concepts* to develop an explanation for the
phenomenon.

The student’s response is missing, illegible, or irrelevant to the
phenomenon.

The student had no opportunity to respond.

* C oncepts may include models, representations, and/or accepted scientific theories.

XC-4

C: ASSESSMENT IN SGI APPENDICES

Developing and Using Models (mod)

When to use this Scoring Guide:

This Scoring Guide is used when students develop their own models or use
established models to describe relationships and/or make predictions about
scientific phenomena.

What to look for:

• Response accurately represents the phenomenon.
• Response includes an explanation of relevant disciplinary core ideas and

crosscutting concepts represented by the model or a prediction based on the
relationships between ideas and concepts represented by the model.

LEVEL DESCRIPTION
Level 4 The student’s model* completely and accurately represents the
Complete and components, relationships, and mechanisms of the phenomenon,
correct AND the student uses it to develop a complete and correct
explanation or prediction.
Level 3 The student’s model* completely and accurately represents the
Almost there components, relationships, and mechanisms of the phenomenon
AND includes a mostly correct use of the model to create an
Level 2 explanation or prediction.
On the way The student’s model* represents components of the
phenomenon AND includes a partially correct
Level 1 representation of the relationships or mechanisms
Getting started associated with the phenomenon.
The student’s model* represents components of the phenomenon BUT
Level 0 provides little or no evidence of the relationships or mechanisms
x associated with the phenomenon.
The student’s response is missing, illegible, or irrelevant.
The student had no opportunity to respond.

* A model can be a diagram, drawing, physical replica, diorama, dramatization, storyboard, or
any other graphical, verbal, or mathematical representation. It may include labels or other
written text as required by the prompt.

XC-5

APPENDICES SCIENCE & GLOBAL ISSUES: BIOLOGY

Engaging in Argument from Evidence (arg)

When to use this Scoring Guide:

This Scoring Guide is used when students are developing arguments about alternative
explanations of scientific phenomena.

What to look for:

• Response includes a clear and relevant claim.
• R esponse includes sufficient evidence, including multiple lines of evidence when

appropriate.
• R easoning is logical, sufficient, connects the evidence to the claim, and uses

relevant crosscutting concepts and disciplinary core ideas.

LEVEL DESCRIPTION EVIDENCE REASONING
Level 4 CLAIM The student’s reasoning
Complete and is appropriate, logically
correct The student’s claim is The student’s evidence connected to the claim,
clear and relevant. supports the claim, is and sufficient.
Level 3 accurate and sufficient,
Almost there AND student evaluates
the strength of the
Level 2 evidence in supporting
On the way the claim.

Level 1 The student’s claim The student’s evidence The student’s reasoning
Getting started is relevant but is relevant, accurate, and is appropriate and
incomplete. sufficient. logically connected to
Level 0 the claim BUT is not
x sufficient.

The student’s claim The student’s evidence The student’s reasoning
seems relevant but is is relevant BUT is is scientific BUT is
unclear. incomplete and/or incomplete or not
contains inaccuracies. logically connected to
the claim.

The student’s claim is The student’s evidence The student’s reasoning
irrelevant. is irrelevant or does not is nonscientific, does
support the claim. not logically support
the claim, or does not
connect the claim to the
evidence.

The student provided The student provided no The student provided no
no claim. evidence. reasoning.

The student had The student had no The student had no
no opportunity to opportunity to respond. opportunity to respond.
respond.

XC-6

C: ASSESSMENT IN SGI APPENDICES

Evidence and Trade-Offs (e&t)

When to use this Scoring Guide:

This Scoring Guide is used when students are making a choice or developing an
argument about a socioscientific issue, where arguments may include judgments
based on nonscientific factors.

What to look for:

• Response uses relevant evidence, disciplinary core ideas, and crosscutting concepts
to compare multiple options in order to make a choice.

• Response takes a position supported by evidence and describes what is given up
(traded off) for the chosen option.

LEVEL DESCRIPTION
Level 4 The student provides a clear and relevant choice with
Complete and appropriate evidence and reasoning, including BOTH
correct of the following:

Level 3 • a thorough description of the trade-offs of the
Almost there decision
• reasons why an alternative choice was rejected
Level 2
On the way The student provides a clear and relevant choice with
Level 1 appropriate and sufficient evidence and reasoning, BUT one
Getting started or both of the following are insufficient:
Level 0
x • the description of the trade-offs
• reasons why an alternate choice was rejected

The student provides a clear and relevant choice BUT evidence and
reasoning are incomplete.

The student provides a clear and relevant choice BUT provides
reasons that are subjective, inaccurate, or unscientific.

The student’s response is missing, illegible, or irrelevant.

The student had no opportunity to respond.

XC-7

APPENDICES SCIENCE & GLOBAL ISSUES: BIOLOGY

Planning and Carrying Out Investigations (pci)

When to use this Scoring Guide:

This Scoring Guide is used when students plan and/or carry out scientific investigations.

What to look for:

• Response describes the data to be collected.
• Response describes appropriate tools and methods for collecting the data.
• R esponse includes appropriate variables and controls related to the crosscutting concepts and

disciplinary core ideas being investigated.

LEVEL DESCRIPTION
The student’s plan/investigation is appropriate and includes all
Level 4 essential elements*, with no errors or omissions.
Complete and
correct

Level 3 The student’s plan/investigation is appropriate and includes most
Almost there essential elements*, BUT has one or more minor to moderate omissions
and/or errors.

Level 2 The student’s plan/investigation has a basic plan, with two or more
On the way elements* appropriate to the goal of the investigation, BUT has one or
more significant omissions and/or errors.

Level 1 The student’s plan/investigation has at least one element* relevant
Getting started to the goal of the investigations, BUT is generally incorrect or missing
multiple components essential to the goal of the
investigation.

Level 0 The student’s design or procedure is missing, illegible, or irrelevant to
the goal of the investigation.

x The student had no opportunity to respond.

* Based on the prompt, essential elements may include
a) the phenomenon under investigation.
b) goal of the investigation.
c) descriptions of the data to be collected.
d) how the data relate to the investigation.
e) the methods and tools used to indicate, collect, or measure data.
f) i dentification of tested (independent and dependent) and controlled variables.
g) i ndication of whether the investigation will be conducted individually or collaboratively.
h) systematic collecting and recording of data.
i) evaluation of the investigation.
j) revision of the investigation

XC-8

D: Guidelines for Safety in
the Science Classroom

Before the Investigation • Do not wear contact lenses when using chemicals. If your
doctor says you must wear them, notify your teacher
• Listen carefully to your teacher’s instructions, and follow before conducting any activity that involves chemicals.
any steps recommended when preparing for the activity.
• Read all labels on chemical bottles, and be sure you are
• Use only those materials or chemicals needed for the using the correct chemical.
investigation.
• Keep all chemical containers closed when not in use.
• Know the location of emergency equipment, such as a
re extinguisher, re blanket, and eyewash station. • Do not touch, taste, or smell any chemical unless you are
instructed to do so by your teacher.
• Tie back or remove dangling or bulky items, such as long
hair, jewelry, sleeves, jackets, and bags. Do not wear • Mix chemicals only as directed.
open-toed shoes in the science lab.
• Use caution when working with hot plates, hot liquids,
• Tell your teacher if you wear contact lenses or have and electrical equipment.
allergies, injuries, or any medical conditions that may
a ect your ability to perform the lab safely. • Follow all directions when working with live organisms
or microbial cultures.
• Make sure both the work surface and oor in your work
area are clear of books, backpacks, purses, or any other • Be mature and cautious, and don’t engage in horseplay.
unnecessary materials.
• Report any accidents to your teacher immediately.
During the Investigation
• Not sure what to do? Ask!
• Follow all written and spoken instructions.
After the Investigation
• Read the activity procedure carefully.
• Dispose of all materials as instructed by your teacher.
• Don’t eat, drink, chew gum, or apply cosmetics in the
lab area. • Clean up your work area, wash out trays, replace bottle
caps securely, and follow any special instructions.
• Wear chemical splash goggles when using chemicals.
• Return equipment to its proper place.

I, __________________________________, have read the Guidelines for Safety and have discussed them in my classroom. I agree
to follow all these rules during science investigations.

_________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________

Student Signature Date

_________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________

Parent/Guardian Signature Date

In case of accident or emergency, contact:

_________________________________________________________________________________ ( )_______________________________
Name Phone Number

_________________________________________________________________________________ ( )_______________________________
Name Phone Number

Please list any known allergies or health problems: ______________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

XD-1



E: Group Interactions

Developing Communication Skills XE-2
Evaluating Group Interactions XE-3
Group Interactions Classroom Rubric  XE-4

XE-1

APPENDICES SCIENCE & GLOBAL ISSUES: BIOLOGY

Developing Communication Skills

Communication Sentence Starters

CO M M U N I C AT I O N SENTENCE STARTERS
To better understand
One point that was not clear to me was . . .
To share an idea Are you saying that . . .
Can you please clarify . . .
To disagree
Another idea is to . . .
To challenge What if we tried . . .
I have an idea—we could try . . .
To look for feedback
To provide positive feedback I see your point, but what about . . .
To provide constructive feedback Another way of looking at it is . . .
I’m still not convinced that . . .
To discuss information presented in text and
graphics How did you reach the conclusion that . . .
Why do you think that . . .
How does it explain . . .

What would help me improve . . .
Does it make sense, what I said about . . .

One strength of your idea is . . .
Your idea is good because . . .

The argument would be stronger if . . .
Another way to do it would be . . .
What if you said it like this . . .

I’m not sure I completely understand this,
but I think it may mean . . .
I know something about this from . . .
A question I have about this is . . .
If we look at the graphic, it shows . . .

XE-2

E: GROUP INTERACTIONS APPENDICES

Evaluating Group Interactions

Rate your group’s performance on each group interaction, and enter your scores in the
following table. Give evidence for your scores by answering questions 1 and 2.

GROUP INTERACTIONS SCORE

Group stays on task and mananges time efficiently

Group shares opportunities

1. Give some examples of how your group stayed on task and managed the time efficiently.

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

2. Give some examples of how your group shared opportunities to contribute to the activity.
Your examples might include times when you or your group members respected one another
and treated one another with courtesy, helped one another do the work, shared the work
(rather than have one person do it all), or stayed open-minded and willing to compromise.

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

XE-3

APPENDICES SCIENCE & GLOBAL ISSUES: BIOLOGY

Group Interactions Classroom Rubric

When to use this rubric:

Use this classroom rubric when students work together as a group toward a
common goal.

What to look for:

• Group members work together as a team.
• T he ideas of all members are valued and considered by the whole team in

working toward a common goal.

LEVEL DESCRIPTION
Level 4 Group members accomplish Level 3 and actively collaborate by doing
Accomplished the following:
• Asking questions about one another’s ideas
Level 3 • Helping one another accomplish the task
Almost there • Building on one another’s ideas
Level 2
On the way All group members participate equally, and respectfully consider one
Level 1 another’s ideas.
Getting started
Level 0 Unequal group participation OR group respectfully
considers some, but not all, ideas.
x
Significantly unequal group participation OR group totally
disregards some members’ comments and ideas.

Members do not work together OR a single individual does the entire
task.

Student had no opportunity to work as part of a group.

XE-4

F: Science References

International System of Units XF-2
Classifying Living Organisms XF-4
Elements and Organisms XF-21
Periodic Table of Elements XF-22
The Geologic Timescale XF-23

XF-1

APPENDICES SCIENCE & GLOBAL ISSUES: BIOLOGY

International System of Units

Measurements that appear in this program are expressed in metric units from the
International System of Units, otherwise known as SI units (from Système
Internationale d’Unités), which was established by international agreement. Virtually
all countries in the world mandate use of the metric system exclusively. The United
States does not use the metric system for many measurements, although this system
has been the standard for the scientific community in the United States for more than
200 years. A U.S. government effort to convert from the United States customary
system to metric measurements in all realms of life has yet to extend far beyond
governmental agencies, the military, and some industries.
Many countries have replaced their traditional measurement systems with the metric
system because of its ease of use and to improve international trade. This system has far
fewer units to understand in comparison to the system commonly used in the United
States. The metric system has only one base unit for each quantity, and larger or smaller
units are expressed by adding a prefix. The following table shows the base units in the
International System of Units.

QUANTITY BASE UNIT
length meter (m)
mass kilogram (kg)
time second (s)
temperature kelvin (K)
electric current ampere (A)
luminous intensity candela (cd)
mole mole (mol)

Other international units appearing in SEPUP’s Science and Global Issues units are
shown in the following table.

QUANTITY UNIT COMMON EXAMPLE
temperature Celsius (°C) Room temperature is about
20°Celsius.
volume liter (L) A large soda bottle contains 2 liters.
mass gram (g)
A dollar bill has the mass of about
wavelength nanometer (nm) 1 gram.
Visible light is in the range of 400 to
780 nanometers.

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F: SCIENCE REFERENCES APPENDICES

The International System’s prefixes change the magnitude of the units by factors of
1,000. Prefixes indicate which multiple of a thousand is applied. For example, the prefix
kilo- means 1,000. Therefore, a kilometer is 1,000 meters and a kilogram is 1,000
grams. To convert a quantity from one unit to another in the metric system, the
quantity needs only to be multiplied or divided by multiples of 1,000. The following
chart shows the prefixes for the metric system in relation to the base units.

Note: Although it is not a multiple of 1,000, the prefix centi- is commonly used, for
example, in the unit centimeter. Centi- represents a factor of one 100th.

METRIC PREFIX FACTOR FACTOR (NUMERICAL)
 1,000,000,000
giga (G) one billion      1,000,000
         1,000
mega (M) one million               1
              1/1,000
kilo (k) one thousand               1/1,000,000
              1/1,000,000,000
[UNIT] one

milli (m) one one-thousandth

micro (μ) one one-millionth
nano (n) one one-billionth

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APPENDICES SCIENCE & GLOBAL ISSUES: BIOLOGY

Classifying Living Organisms

The information in this appendix describes the common characteristics of the major
groupings of living organisms. Over the centuries, scientists have created and revised
classification systems by which to categorize and group living organisms. One system
uses seven basic levels of organization. From largest to smallest, they are:
kingdom
phylum
class
order
family
genus
species

Human beings, for example, are classified in the following way:

kingdom: Animalia

phylum: Chordata

class: Mammalia

order: Primates

family: Hominidae

genus: Homo

species: sapiens

Note that to designate the species of an organism, both the genus and the species names
are used. The genus name is capitalized, but the species name is not. Both words should
be italicized. The correct format for the scientific name of humans is Homo sapiens.

Scientific classification was originally based on the work of Carl Linnaeus, who, in the
1700s, worked on grouping organisms based on their physical characteristics. Modern
scientific classification includes other information, such as organisms’ genomes, as
scientists continually update the classification of organisms when new information is
discovered. Phylogenetics is another classification system, based on evolutionary
history and relationships among or within groups of organisms. rather than on overall
similarity. As we learn about the relationships among different groups of organisms,
the system of classification has become more refined, with the addition of such
groupings as superorders and subfamilies that reflect new findings.

Scientists are currently debating how to classify many different groups and organisms
based on new information. Exact designations within the classification system often
change, with scientists proposing differing classifications for a group or a specific
organism. Some of these proposed classifications are noted in the information that follows.

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F: SCIENCE REFERENCES APPENDICES

Domain Archaea

Kingdom Archaebacteria

Archaebacteria are single-celled prokaryotes with genes and metabolic pathways that
are more closely related to eukaryotes than they are to eubacteria. They are found in a
wide range of habitats (some of them extreme), including oceans, soil, marshlands, salt
lakes, and hot springs.
Examples: methanogens (Methanobacterium), which produce methane gas;
thermonacidophilic bacteria (Thermoplasma), which grow in environments with high
temperatures; salt-loving bacteria (Halococcus)

Domain Bacteria

Kingdom Eubacteria

Eubacteria, single-celled prokaryotes, may be shaped as spheres, rods, or
spirals. They sometimes group themselves into chains or clumps. Some
bacteria cause diseases, such as tuberculosis and strep throat, while
others are beneficial to humans, such as those we use to make cheese
and yogurt. typical bacterium
(plural: bacteria)

Examples: spore-forming bacteria (Bacillus); chemoautotrophs 3377 SEPUP SGI Cell SB
(Nitrobacter); blue-green bacteria (cyanobacteria); spirochetes Figure: 3377CellSB 04_01 sm for BM
Agenda MedCond 9/9

(Treponema); obligate internal parasites, such as Chlamydia

Domain Eukarya

Kingdom Protista

Protists are mostly single-celled eukaryotes, but some are multicellular.
Some are consumers, and others are producers.

Phylum Ciliophora (ciliates) protist
Characterized by hair-like cilia at some point in their development,
almost all of these organisms use cilia for motility. Ciliates have two types Stentor
of nuclei: a micronucleus and a macronucleus. In most, genetic stentor
information is exchanged between cells through direct contact or by a
bridge-like connection during a process called conjugation.

Examples: Paramecium, Stentor

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APPENDICES SCIENCE & GLOBAL ISSUES: BIOLOGY typical amoeba
various diatoms
Phylum Apicomplexa, formerly known as Sporozoa (sporozoans)
In sporozoans, disease-causing parasites, a group of organelles are located
at one end, called the apical end. The organelles are involved in the
interaction of the host cell and parasite and the invasion of the host cell.
The complex life cycle includes both sexual and asexual stages.
Examples: Plasmodium, Cryptosporidium

Phylum Dinoflagellata (dinoflagellates)
Dinoflagellates are heterotrophic or autotrophic, and most have two
flagella. Most are marine, but there are some freshwater species. Some
species are bioluminescent, some are parasitic, and some marine species
are symbionts. They reproduce asexually. An algal bloom of dinoflagellates
produces neurotoxins and forms what is called red tide.
Examples: Noctiluca, Gonyaulax

Phylum Foraminifera (forams)
Forams, single-celled marine protists, have shells (or tests) made of organic
compounds, cemented sand, or other particles. They have pseudopods
(projections of the cell) for feeding, locomotion, and anchoring.
Examples: Discorbis vesicularis, foraminiferan

Phylum Rhizopoda (amoebas)
Amoebas are consumers that move and feed with pseudopods. They are
either naked or shelled and are found in fresh water, salt water, and soil.
Note: Some classifications put cellular slime molds in Rhizopoda.

Phylum Bacillariophyta (diatoms)
Diatoms are photosynthetic and are characterized by ornately patterned
shells made of silica. Most are single-celled and grow in colonies of
filaments or ribbons in marine and freshwater.
Examples: Striatella, Hydrosira, Fragilaria

Phylum Chrysophyta (golden algae)
Golden algae are mostly photosynthetic, and most are single-celled. They
live in fresh water ,sometimes in colonies or filaments.
Example: Dinobryon

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F: SCIENCE REFERENCES APPENDICES

Phylum Oomycota (water molds) kelp 3299
Water molds are filamentous, their cell walls are made of cellulose, and volvox Figu
they produce large oogonia that contain the female gametes and smaller Age
gametes (sperm). Most absorb their food from water or soil, but some
invade another organism.
Examples: Phytophthora infestans (causes potato blight), Plasmopara
(downy mildew on grapes)

Phylum Phaeophyta (kelps and brown algae)
Phaeophyta are all photosynthetic, and most are marine. Their complex life
cycle alternates between diploid and haploid forms.
Examples: Fucus distichous, kelp
Note: Some classifications use the phylum heterokontophyta to describe a
group of eukaryotes made up mostly of diatoms. The name refers to the
motile stage of the life cycle in which the cells have two flagella of different
shapes. The classification system followed in this taxonomy appendix
places Bacillariophyta, Chrysophyta, Phaeophyta, and Oomycota in phyla.
Some classifications have designated a separate kingdom called Chromista
to group the colored algae with chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll a and
c and with other closely related colorless algae.

Phylum Chlorophyta (green algae)
Green algae are producers, and their chloroplasts give them a bright green
color. They may be single-celled or colonial flagellates that form colonies or
long filaments. They are mostly aquatic.
Examples: Chlamydomonas, Tetraselmis, Ulva

Phylum Rhodophyta (red algae)
Red algae are marine organisms, most are multicellular, and most
reproduce sexually.
Examples: Corallina, Porphyra, Chondrus

Phylum Myxomycota (slime molds)
Slime molds are characterized as plasmodial (large single cells with many
nuclei) or cellular (separate, single-celled amoeboid protists). They
reproduce sexually and form clusters of spores that are dispersed to start a
new life cycle as amoeba-like cells.
Example: Physarum, Acrasida
Note: Some classifications put cellular slime molds in Rhizopoda.

XF-7

APPENDICES SCIENCE & GLOBAL ISSUES: BIOLOGY radiolarian

Phylum Radiolaria (radiolarians) mushroom
Radiolaria are consumers and are characterized by a silica skeleton that has cup fungus
several pseudopodia (called axopods) containing bundles of microtubules.
Their reproduction is sexual or asexual.
Examples: radiolarian, Actinophyrs

Kingdom Fungi

Fungi are eukaryotes—consumers and key decomposers. Most are
multicellular, their structures are made of thin tubes called hyphae, and
their cell walls are made of chitin. They reproduce both asexually and
sexually.
Phylum Zygomycota (bread molds)
Most bread molds lack cross walls that divide the hyphae. Most reproduce
asexually via spores, but some reproduce sexually by conjugation of
adjacent hyphae.
Examples: Rhizopus, Pilobolus
Phylum Basidiomycota (club fungi: mushrooms, smuts, rusts, puffballs, stinkhorns)
These fungi have cross walls that divide the hyphae. Most reproduce
sexually through spores on the surface of club-shaped structures, but some
reproduce asexually.
Examples: shelf fungus, Cryptococcus
Phylum Ascomycota (sac and cup fungi, yeasts, mildew)
These fungi have cross walls that divide the hyphae. They are also
characterized as having a structure called an ascus where sexual spores are
formed. Some reproduce asexually.
Examples: Saccharomyces, lichen

Kingdom Plantae

Plants are eukaryotic producers, multicellular, and nonmotile (not capable
of movement). They have cell walls and chloroplasts containing
chlorophyll. Vascular plants have tissues for transporting water and
minerals through the plant; non vascular plants lack these tissues. Most are
terrestrial, but some are aquatic. They reproduce sexually with alternation
between a haploid (gametophyte) and a diploid (sporophyte) phase or
generation of the life cycle.

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Phylum Bryophyta (mosses) moss
Mosses are nonvascular, live in moist habitats, and lack true leaves, stems, hornwort
and roots. They reproduce with a dominant gametophyte generation.
Examples: Sphagnum, Polytrichum tree fern
horsetail
Phylum Hepaticophyta (liverworts)
The nonvascular liverworts have a flat-lobed structure, live in moist
habitats, and lack true leaves, stems, and roots. Sexual reproduction is
through gametes; asexual reproduction occurs through spores.
Examples: Marchantia

Phylum Anthcerophyta (hornworts)
Hornworts are nonvascular and characterized by tall stalked sporophytes
that grow from the top of the plant throughout the plant’s life.
Examples: Anthoceros, Dendroceros

Phylum Lycophyta (club mosses)
Club mosses are vascular, low growing and usually evergreen, and they
have roots, stems, and small leaves; they reproduce with a dominant
gametophyte generation. Some club mosses form carpets in the understory
of wet tropical forests.
Examples: Lycopodium, Selaginella

Phylum Pteridopsida (ferns)
Ferns are vascular and live in damp or seasonally wet habitats; they
reproduce with a dominant sporophyte generation.
Examples: tree fern, climbing fern, grape fern

Phylum Sphenopsida (horsetails)
Horsetails are vascular, weedy plants that store granules of silica in their
cells; reproduction is by spores. Most horsetails live in wet sandy soil; some
are semiaquatic, and some live in wet clay soil.
Examples: Equisetum, Calamitaceae

Phylum Cycadophyta (cycads)
Cycads are vascular, tropical and subtropical, evergreen seed plants with
large compound leaves. Their cones are either male pollen-producing or
female seed-producing.

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APPENDICES SCIENCE & GLOBAL ISSUES: BIOLOGY ginkgo

Phylum Ginkgophyta (ginkgoes) dandelion
Ginkgoes, vascular woody trees, have fan-shaped leaves. There are male barrel sponge
pollen-producing trees and female seed-producing trees, which have fleshy Portuguese man o’ war
ovules. Only one species (Ginkgo biloba) exists.

Phylum Gnetophyta (gnetophytes)
Gnetophytes are woody vascular plants that live mostly in desert
environments with some elements of flowering plants.
Example: Welwitschia

Phylum Coniferophyta (conifers)
Most conifers (woody vascular trees with seed-bearing cones) are
evergreen and have needle-like leaves.
Examples: juniper, blue spruce, hemlock, white pine

Phylum Anthophyta (flowering plants)
Flowering plants are vascular and seed-producing plants. They have fruits
that enclose the seeds, and an endosperm within the seeds.
Examples: iris, lily, corn, dandelion, wild rose

Kingdom Animalia

Animals are eukaryotic, multicellular heterotrophs. Their body plans
become fixed as they develop, their cells are organized into tissues and
organs, and most reproduce sexually.

Phylum Porifera (sponges)
Most sponges are marine; adults are sessile (attached to the ground),
asymmetrical, and specialized filter feeders. They reproduce both sexually
and asexually. Sponges are found in oceans worldwide.
Examples: Venus Flower Basket, barrel sponge, red volcano sponge

Phylum Cnidaria (cnidarians)
Most cnidarians are marine, are radially symmetrical, and have a digestive
cavity and tentacles with stinging cells (nematocysts). Many reproduce
both asexually and sexually at different stages in their life cycle.

CLASS ANTHOZOA (CORALS AND SEA ANEMONES)

Corals and sea anemones are polyps and have a subdivided digestive
cavity. They may be solitary or colonial. Some reproduce asexually by
budding. Some produce calcium-based skeletal structures, such as reefs.
Examples: sea pens, reef-building corals, sea fans.

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CLASS HYDROZOA (HYDRAS)

Most hydras are marine. Most have medusa (bell-shaped body) and polyp
(cylindrical-shaped body) stages during their life cycle. They are solitary or
colonial and reproduce both sexually and asexually.
Examples: Portuguese man o’war, by-the-wind sailors, hydra

CLASS SCYPHOZOA (JELLIES)

True jellies spend most of their lives as free-swimming medusa forms. They
all have a divided digestive sac and basic sense organs. They are found in
marine and freshwater ecosystems.
Examples: moon jellies, lion’s mane jelly, box jelly

Phylum Ctenophora (comb jellies) comb jelly
Of these free-living (not attached to the ground) marine organisms, some have
tentacles, but none have stinging cells. They reproduce sexually. Many have rows
of cilia that beat synchronously to move the organism through the water.
Examples: sea gooseberries, sea walnuts

Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
Flatworms are bilaterally symmetrical and have three tissue layers. They
may be free-living or parasitic, and they reproduce sexually or asexually.

CLASS CESTODA (TAPEWORMS)

Cestoda are internal parasites that have a head with hooks or suckers but no
digestive tract. In different life stages, they depend on multiple kinds of hosts.
Example: beef tapeworm

CLASS TREMATODA (FLUKES)

Trematoda are parasites that in different life stages depend on multiple types
of hosts (for example, a snail and then a bird). They all have digestive
systems, and most have suckers at their mouths and ventral surfaces. They
have no external cilia. They are found on land and in marine and freshwater
ecosystems.
Examples: human lung fluke, liver fluke, bird fluke

CLASS TURBELLARIA flatworm

These are mostly free living and usually have external cilia for movement.
Some are carnivores, and some are scavengers. They are found on land and
in marine and freshwater ecosystems. Most reproduce sexually and are
hermaphroditic (one individual has functional male and female
reproductive systems).
Examples: planarians, Bedford flatworm, Hurt flatworm

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APPENDICES SCIENCE & GLOBAL ISSUES: BIOLOGY

Phylum Nemertini [ribbon (or proboscis) worms]
Also known as Nermertina or Nemertea, these worms are free living and
capture prey with a large tubular appendage called a proboscis. They have
bilateral symmetry, they are unsegmented, their digestive tubes have two
openings, and they reproduce sexually and asexually (by fragmenting). They
are found on land and in marine and freshwater ecosystems. Most ribbon
worms are less than 8 cm long, but the largest species grows to nearly 30 m.
Examples: giant ribbon worm, milky ribbon worm, yellow-bellied
ribbon worm

Phylum Nematoda (roundworms) roundworm
Roundworms are found in nearly every ecosystem and are either free living
or parasitic. There are more than 15,000 described species, and some
estimate that up to 500,000 species exist. Their digestive systems have two
openings. Roundworms are pseudocoelomate: They have a body cavity but
no muscular or connective tissues.
Examples: hookworm, pinworm, Guinea worm, elegant worm (C. elegans)

Phylum Annelida (segmented worms) 3422 SEPUP SGI Genetics SB
In these worms, the body is segmented with internal partitions, and the Figure: 3422GenSB 11_08
circulatory system is closed. Their digestive system has two openings. They Agenda MedCond 9/9
are coelomates: They have a fluid-filled body cavity with muscular and
connective tissues. Segmented worms are found in fresh and marine waters
and on land.

CLASS POLYCHAETA (POLYCHAETES OR BRISTLE WORMS)

These have on each segment a pair of parapodia (leg-like appendages)
with bristles. They are primarily found in marine ecosystems, at all
depths, and in extreme marine environments such as hydrothermal vents.
Examples: feather-duster worm, fire worm, sea mice

SUBCLASS HIRUDINEA (LEECHES)

Though most leeches live in fresh water, others live in terrestrial or
marine environments. Some (but not all) are parasitic. They are
hermaphroditic, have a fixed number of segments (normally 34),
and have no appendages or bristles.
Examples: medicinal leech, Japanese mountain leech

SUBCLASS OLIGOCHAETA earthworm

The oligochaetes include terrestrial and aquatic worms. They have
no appendages and few bristles. They are hermaphroditic.
Examples: earthworm, ice worms, blackworms

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F: SCIENCE REFERENCES APPENDICES

Phylum Rotifera (rotifers)
Rotifers have cilia that form a wheel shape around their mouths. They are
pseudocoelomates with bilateral symmetry; most live in fresh water, some
are motile, and some are sessile. Some species can reproduce both sexually
and asexually. Most rotifers are between 0.1 and 0.5 mm in length.
Examples: bdelloids, monogononts

Phylum Mollusca (mollusks)
Mollusks are the largest marine phylum, with at least 50,000 species. They are
coelomates; free living; sessile or motile; marine, freshwater, or terrestrial; have
bilateral symmetry or are asymmetrical; are not segmented; and have developed
digestive, circulatory, and nervous systems. Many have a calcified shell and a
muscular foot. Most reproduce sexually through external fertilization.

CLASS BIVALVIA (BIVALVES) scallop

In this class of 10,000 species are clams, oysters, mussels, and scallops.
All have two-part hinged shells. They may be marine or freshwater, and
most adults are sessile.
Examples: razor clam, blue mussels, bay scallop

CLASS CEPHALOPODA (CEPHALOPODS) 3299 SEPUP
Figure: 3299
Cephalopods are squids, octopi, and other marine animals in which Agenda Me
the foot is divided into tentacles; they propel themselves by jetting
water for locomotion. They have a closed circulatory system. squid
Examples: vampire squid, giant pacific octopus, chambered nautilus,
Pfeffer’s flamboyant cuttlefish

CLASS GASTROPODA (SNAILS AND SLUGS) 32g9a9rSdEePnUsPnSaGilI Ecology SB
Figure: 3299EcoSB 18_06
Found in marine, freshwater, and terrestrial environments, these Agenda MedCond 9/9.5
animals use a foot for movement. Most have a spiraled shell and a
distinct head, and many are hermaphroditic.
Examples: Roman snail, abalone, sea hare

Phylum Arthropoda (arthropods)
Arthropods are the largest animal phylum, and all of them have an external
skeleton made of chitin, which they molt. Their appendages are jointed, bodies
are segmented, and circulatory systems are open. They reproduce sexually.
Note: There is an ongoing debate within the scientific community about the
classification of arthropods. Some systems no longer use Arthropoda as a
phylum and instead classify arthropods into the phyla Chelicerata,
Mandibulata, Orthoptera, Coleoptera, and Crustacea.

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APPENDICES SCIENCE & GLOBAL ISSUES: BIOLOGY typical spider

Subphylum Chelicerata (chelicerates) snow crab
Chelicerates include spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites, and horseshoe
crabs. They have segmented bodies and jointed limbs and are covered 3299 SEPUP SGI Ecology TG
with a cuticle made of chitin and proteins. Their first pair of Figure: 3299EcoTG16_09SS
appendages are feeding structures called chelicerae. Agenda MedCond 9/9
Examples: spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites, horseshoe crabs
honey bee
Subphylum Crustacea (crustaceans)
Most crustaceans are aquatic and free living, but some are parasitic. 3422 SEPUP SGI Genetics SB
They have exoskeletons made of chitin, gills for gas exchange (the Figure: 3422GenSB 11_08
intake of oxygen and respiration of carbon dioxide), and appendages Agenda MedCond 9/9
with two branches.
Examples: crabs, lobsters, shrimp, barnacles, copepods, pill bugs beetle

Subphylum Hexapoda grasshopper
The Hexapoda include insects, collembola, protura, and diplura. All
have three pairs of appendages and a body divided into head, thorax,
and abdomen. Many have wings (one or two pairs), and many undergo
metamorphosis (a dramatic change in body form during different life-
cycle stages).
Examples: silverfish, mayflies, dragonflies, termites, cockroaches, lice,
beetles, fireflies, butterflies, mosquitoes, ants, bees, grasshoppers

Subphylum Myriapoda
All myriapoda are terrestrial and have 10 to several hundred pairs of
appendages. Their sizes range from almost microscopic to 30 cm long.
Examples: centipedes, millipedes

Subphylum Trilobitomorpha (trilobites)
This entire group is extinct and known only through the fossil record.
They all had one pair of appendages on each body segment, and each
appendage had a branch with a gill and a branch with a leg for walking.

Phylum Echinodermata (echinoderms)
These free-living marine animals have water vascular systems and tube feet
for feeding, locomotion, and gas exchange. Their larvae have bilateral
symmetry, and adults are radially symmetrical. Most species reproduce
sexually, but some can reproduce asexually as well.

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F: SCIENCE REFERENCES APPENDICES

CLASS ASTEROIDEA (SEA STARS) sea urchin 3299 SEPUP
Figure: 3299E
Usually having five arms that form a star shape, these carnivorous brittle star Agenda Med
animals have a mouth on the lower surface of their bodies, and many
can turn their stomachs to the outside of their body when digesting prey. sea squirts alternate
Examples: crown-of-thorns sea star, sun star, leather star XF-15
29
CLASS CRINOIDEA Fig
Leg
These filter feeders found mostly in deep-water ecosystems have five
arms that branch at the base. Some are sessile.
Examples: sea lilies, feather stars

CLASS ECHINOIDEA

These have spherical or disc-shaped bodies covered with spines or
short hair-like projections. They have no arms, and their rigid skeletal
structures are formed of interlocking plates.
Examples: sand dollars, sea urchins, sea biscuits

CLASS HOLOTHUROIDEA (SEA CUCUMBERS)

These have a cylindrical body shape, feeding tentacles around the
mouth, and no arms. They are detritus or filter feeders. Their skeletons
are made of small particles joined by connective tissue.
Examples: conspicuous sea cucumber, sea apple, sea pig

CLASS OPHIUROIDEA

Ophiuroidea have small disc-shaped bodies and long slender arms,
rather than tube feet, with which they crawl. Most are filter or detritus
feeders.
Examples: brittle stars, basket stars

Phylum Chordata
The animals have a dorsal hollow nerve cord, a notochord, and a brain
within a skull. Pharyngeal gill slits (slits on the throat or neck) are present
during at least one stage of development. Except for the urochordates,
animals in the chordata phylum reproduce sexually.

Subphylum Urochordata
Sometimes classed as a separate phylum, these marine animals go
through a free-swimming larval stage, during which they exhibit chordate
characteristics, including notochord and dorsal nerve cord. The adults
lose chordate characteristics, are usually sessile, and have no brains.
Examples: sea squirts, sea peaches, salps

APPENDICES SCIENCE & GLOBAL ISSUES: BIOLOGY

Subphylum Cephalochordata
Sometimes classed as a separate phylum, these marine, free-swimming
creatures have a hollow dorsal nerve cord, a notochord, and pharyngeal
slits, but no internal skeleton and no brain.
Examples: Florida lancelet, amphioxus

Subphylum Craniata
Craniata have a single hollow nerve cord that develops into a brain and
spinal cord, and a well-developed head with skull. Some have a bony
vertebral column (spine).
Note: Subphylum Craniata is a new grouping based on current
research. Scientists have not clearly defined the classification of
Craniata. They are part of the chordates but have not been designated
as a phylum or subphylum. Historically, chordates included the
Urochordata, Cephalochordata, and Vertebrata under the phylum
Chordata.

CLASS CYCLOSTOMATA (JAWLESS FISHES)

These fishes have a cartilaginous skeleton and a two-chambered
heart, and exchange gas through gills. They lack true jaws.
Examples: lampreys, hagfish

CLASS CHONDRICHTYES (CARTILAGINOUS FISHES) tiger shark

The Chondrichtyes have a cartilaginous skeleton,
true jaws, calcified teeth (and sometimes vertebrae)
a two-chambered heart, and paired fins. They
exchange gas through gills and have external gill slits.
They are found in marine and freshwater ecosystems.
Their bodies are covered in tooth-like scales called
denticles.
Examples: tiger shark, manta ray, guitar skate

CLASS OSTEICHTHYES (BONY FISHES) cod

Bony fishes have a bony skeleton, true jaws, a two-chambered
heart, paired fins, and scales. They exchange gas through gills, and
their gill slits are covered. They are found in marine and freshwater
environments.
Examples: tuna, lungfishes, coelacanth, perch, goldfish, salmon, cod

3299 SEPUP SGI Ecology SB
Figure: 3299EcoSB 16_03
Agenda MedCond 9/9.5

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CLASS AMPHIBIA (AMPHIBIANS) frogGT noitulovE IGS PUPES 6543

Amphibians have a bony skeleton, moist skin, and a three- drac01_70 GTovE6543 :erugiF
chambered heart. Adults exchange gas through their skin or lungs, 9/9 dnoCdeM adnegA
but larvae have gills for gas exchange. Adults of most species live
on land but lay their eggs in water where the young develop.
Examples: salamanders, frogs, toads, caecilians

CLASS REPTILIA (REPTILES) lizard

Reptiles have a bony skeleton, lungs, and dry and scaly skin. Most 3456 SEPUP SGI Evolution TG
have two pairs of limbs, and three-chambered hearts and are Figure: 3456EvoTG 07_14card
ectothermic (cold-blooded). Females’ eggs are fertilized Agenda MedCond 9/9
internally, and they lay eggs with leathery shells.
Examples: tuataras, lizards, snakes, turtles, alligators, crocodiles

CLASS AVES (BIRDS) owl

Birds have a bony skeleton with hollow and lightweight bones,
lungs, feathers (modified scales) over much of the body, a beak
with no teeth, and a four-chambered heart. They are endothermic
(warm-blooded) and lay hard-shelled eggs.
Examples: owls, chickens, penguins, flamingoes, honeycreepers

CLASS MAMMALIA (MAMMALS)

Mammals have a bony skeleton, lungs, and hair and are endothermic.
They have a four-chambered heart and mammary glands for nursing
their young, and most give live birth (as opposed to laying eggs).

ORDER ARTIODACTYLA (EVEN-TOED HOOFED MAMMALS)

Of these varied herbivores, most have complex stomachs
adapted for plant material, most have two toes (though some
have four) and many have horns or antlers.

Examples: hippopotamus, sheep, cows, pigs, giraffes, deer. pig

ORDER CARNIVORA (CARNIVORES) 3456 SEPUP SGI Evolution TG
Figure: 3456EvoTG 07_12card
These animals have small incisors and large canines Agenda MedCond 9/9
and often have sharp claws.

Examples: bears, dogs, cats, hyenas, sea otters sea otter

ES ygolocE IGS PUPES 6523
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5.11/01 muideMsnaSycageL

XF-17

APPENDICES SCIENCE & GLOBAL ISSUES: BIOLOGY

ORDER CETACEA (CETACEANS) sperm whale

Cetaceans may be marine or freshwater,
their front limbs are modified into
flippers, they breathe through a blowhole
at the top of the head, and they have no
external hind limbs. They live in water their
entire lives, including when giving birth and
nursing their young. Some navigate by
echolocation (biological sonar).
Examples: whales, dolphins, porpoises

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Examples: fruit bat, flying fox
9/9 dnoCdeM adnegA

ORDER INSECTIVORA

Insectivora have numerous and unspecialized teeth, long and
narrow snouts, and sharp claws for digging.
Examples: shrews, moles, hedgehogs

ORDER LAGOMORPHA

Lagomorpha have four incisors in the upper jaw and a total of
26 or 28 teeth. They have very short tails, and most are
herbivores.
Examples: rabbits, hares, pikas

ORDER MARSUPIALIA (MARSUPIALS)

Marsupialia young are born in an undeveloped state and
complete development in the mother’s pouch.
Examples: opossum, koalas, kangaroos

ORDER MONOTREMATA platypus

Monotremata are egg-laying and produce milk for their young
from mammary glands without nipples.
Examples: platypus, echidna (spiny anteaters)

XF-18

F: SCIENCE REFERENCES APPENDICES

ORDER PERISSODACTYLA (ODD-TOED HOOFED MAMMALS)

Perissodactyla herbivores have teeth and a digestive system
adapted for grazing on plant material. All species in this order
have an odd number of toes, often in the form of one fused hoof.
Examples: rhinoceros, tapir, horse

ORDER PHOLIDOTA (SPINY ANTEATERS)

Spiny anteaters have no teeth, the body is covered in scales
developed from modified hairs, and their strong, clawed limbs are
suited for digging. They eat social insects, such as termites and ants.
Example: Sunda pangolin, tree pangolin, Asian giant pangolin

ORDER PINNIPEDIA (AQUATIC CARNIVORES) Caspian seal

Pinnipedia may be marine or freshwater animals. They have human
limbs modified as flippers for swimming, and they give birth
and nurse their young on land. 3456 SEPUP SGI Evolution TG
Examples: seals, sea lions, walruses Figure: 3456EvoTG 07_18card
Agenda MedCond 9/9
ORDER PRIMATES
mouse
Primates are distinguished as having large brains, eyes usually
set directly forward, and fiinvetrdoipgiiAF3ctig2ge9suan9redlSo:aE3rPM2nU9ee9PdEgSCtcGoohiInToEGdec19o6ni/l_o9r1.gs55yS.hSTGands and feet.
Most species live in trees

Examples: gorilla, chimpanzee, lemurs, humans, monkeys

ORDER PROBOSCIDEA (ELEPHANTS)

Elephants, the largest living land animals, are herbivorous, with
upper incisors modified as tusks, and nose and upper lips
modified to become trunks.
Examples: African elephant, Asian elephant

ORDER RODENTIA (RODENTS)

In addition to some molars, rodents have two continuously
growing chisel-shaped incisors in the upper and lower jaws,
but no canine teeth.
Examples: squirrels, rats, hamsters, beavers, porcupines

XF-19

APPENDICES SCIENCE & GLOBAL ISSUES: BIOLOGY armadillo

ORDER SIRENIA

These aquatic herbivorous mammals have forelimbs modified
as flippers, little body hair, a flat tail modified as a fin, and no
hind limbs.
Examples: manatees, dugongs

ORDER TUBULIDENTATA

These animals have small tubular mouths, they eat ants and
termites, and the adults have few teeth. The aardvark is the only
living species.

ORDER XENARTHRA

In most of the Xenarthra, the teeth are reduced either in size
and/or number or are absent entirely. They primarily eat social
insects, such as termites and ants.
Examples: anteaters, sloths, armadillos

XF-20

F: SCIENCE REFERENCES APPENDICES

Elements and Organisms

Of the 92 naturally occurring elements, 11 make up most of the human body. Additional
elements, called trace elements, are present in humans in very small amounts.

The Big Four: C, H, O, and N

Approximately 96% of the mass of all living matter, including humans, is made of just
four elements—carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N). These
elements are indicated in the periodic table on the following page in green. They are
the building blocks of all biological macromolecules, which are the proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.

Seven More

Seven more elements constitute about 4% of the human body. These elements are
indicated in the periodic table on the following page in blue. Sulfur (S) is present in one
of the amino acid building blocks of proteins, and phosphorus (P) is in both DNA and
RNA, as well as in such molecules as ATP and NADPH, which provide energy for many
reactions within cells. The elements calcium (Ca), chlorine (Cl), magnesium (Mg),
potassium (K), and sodium (Na) are generally present in small molecules or charged
particles called ions, and they play a number of roles in the human body. For example,
calcium and phosphorus are important in bone strength, and calcium regulates many
cellular activities, including muscle contraction and cell division. Sodium and
potassium ions are essential for nerve cells’ ability to transmit electrical signals.

Trace Elements

Less than 0.01% of humans’ body mass is composed of trace elements, and scientists
have not yet established their exact number or the roles that all of them play. You are
most likely to be familiar with the biological role of iron (Fe), which is found in
hemoglobin in red blood cells. You may also know that thyroid hormone contains
iodine (I). Additional trace elements are cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), fluorine (F),
manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), selenium (Se), and zinc (Zn).

XF-21

APPENDICES SCIENCE & GLOBAL ISSUES: BIOLOGY

Periodic Table of Elements

1A 8A

1 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 2

H 4 COLOR KEY 6 atomic 5 6 7 8 9 He
Four elements make up 96% of the mass of all living matter.
hydrogen Be Seven elements constitute about 4% of the human body. C number B C N O F helium
1.008 4.003
beryllium carbon boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine
3 9.012 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 10
12.01 atomic mass
Li 12 14 15 16 17 Ne
13
lithium Mg Si P S Cl neon
6.941 Al 20.18
magnesium aluminum silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine
11 24.31 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 8B 8B 1B 2B 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 18

Na 20 Ar

sodium Ca argon
22.99 39.95
calcium
19 40.08 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

K 38 Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper zinc gallium
potassium Sr 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.39 69.72 germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton
39.10 72.64 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
strontium 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49
37 87.62 50 51 52 53 54
Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In
Rb 56 yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium Sn Sb Te I Xe
88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 (98) 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 tin
rubidium Ba 118.7 antimony tellurium iodine xenon
85.47 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
barium
55 137.3 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86

Cs 88 Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
lutetium hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon
cesium Ra 175.0 178.5 180.9 183.8 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0
132.9
radium 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
87
Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo
Fr
lawrencium rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium bohrium hassium meitnerium darmstadtium roentgenium copernicium ununtrium flerovium ununpentium livermorium ununseptium ununoctium
francium

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 SHADING KEY

La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb A solid at room

lanthanum cerium praseodymium neodymium promethium samarium europium gadolinium terbium dysprosium holmium erbium thulium ytterbium temperature
138.9 140.1 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0
A liquid at room
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102
temperature
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No
A gas at room
actinium thorium protactinium uranium neptunium plutonium americium curium berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium
232.0 231.0 238.0 temperature

XF-22

F: SCIENCE REFERENCES APPENDICES

The Geologic Timescale

GEOLOGIC ERA GEOLOGIC GEOLOGIC EPOCH TIME (MYA) MAJOR EVOLUTIONARY EVENT
OR EVENT PERIOD
Earth is formed — — 4,500 There is no free oxygen.
Archean — — 4,300
— 2,500 Hydrosphere forms and supports life.
Proterozoic — — At 3,500 mya, prokaryotes diversify.
Paleozoic Cambrian — 542
Paleozoic Ordovician — 488 Eukaryotes evolve.
Paleozoic Silurian — 444
— 416 Marine animals diversify.
Paleozoic Devonian — 359
299 First vertebrates (jawless fish) evolve.
Paleozoic Carboniferous —
251 Earliest vascular plants and arthropods
Paleozoic Permian — on land. Jawed fish evolve.
200
Mesozoic Triassic — Bony fish diversify. Amphibians,
145 insects, ferns, and seed plants evolve.
Mesozoic Jurassic Paleocene
65 Insects and amphibians diversify. First
Mesozoic Cretaceous Eocene “reptiles” evolve.
55.8
Cenozoic Tertiary Oligocene Mostly mammal-like reptiles exist.
Cenozoic Tertiary 33.9 Major mass extinction occurs at end of
Cenozoic Tertiary Miocene period.
Cenozoic Tertiary 23
Cenozoic Tertiary Pliocene “Reptiles,” including first dinosaurs,
Cenozoic Quaternary 5.3 diversify. Cone-bearing plants are
Cenozoic Quaternary Pleistocene dominant. First mammals evolve.
1.8
Recent (Holocene) Dinosaurs diversify. First birds evolve.
0.01 Cone-bearing plants are still dominant.
First flowering plants evolve.

Dinosaurs, birds, mammals, and
flowering plants continue to diversify.
Mass extinction of many taxa, including
dinosaurs, occurs at end of period.

Mammals, birds, snakes, flowering
plants, pollinating insects, and bony
fish diversify.

Mammals, birds, snakes, flowering
plants, pollinating insects, and bony
fish diversify.

Mammals, birds, snakes, flowering
plants, pollinating insects, and bony
fish diversify.

Mammals, birds, snakes, flowering
plants, pollinating insects, and bony
fish diversify.

Mammals, birds, snakes, flowering
plants, pollinating insects, and bony
fish diversify.

Extinctions of large mammals and
birds occur. Homo erectus and Homo
sapiens evolve.

Extinctions of large mammals and
birds occur.

XF-23



Patterns

A ➞ B Cause and E ect
G: Crosscutting Concepts
Scale, Proportion, and Quantity

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O and ideas about what causes these relationships.
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and B occur but
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energy and matter Tracking changes of energy and matter into, out of, and within
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xxstability and change For natural and built systems alike, sometimes conditions are stable
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yy or change.

xxx XG-1

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