BUISINESS INTERNATIONAL

and remaining competitive in an increasingly environmentally aware global market. The cited journals offer valuable perspectives on each of these critical facets of sustainability in international business. Identify An Ethical, Corporate Social Responsibility, or Sustainability Quandary. Identifying ethical conduct and fundamental principles is a core element of moral philosophy and is frequently a subject of discussion in scholarly writings (Carlin, 2021). Recognizing ethics entails the identification of actions, choices, or conduct that harmonize with established moral values and principles (Jakobsen & Sunde Mæhre, 2023). While these principles may exhibit variation in different cultures, certain ones enjoy broad acknowledgment, including values like truthfulness, equity, and the regard for the rights and dignity of individuals. Within this discourse, we will delve into the notion of recognizing ethical behavior and furnish a journal citation for more in-depth study (O’Sullivan et al., 2022). Identifying ethical conduct poses a challenge due to the fact that ethical standards can differ among various cultures and societies. What is regarded as ethical in one culture may not be perceived similarly in another. Grasping the concept of cultural relativism is an essential aspect of ethical recognition (Jakubanecs et al., 2023). Ethical awareness is guided by a set of fundamental moral principles, including respect for autonomy (recognizing individuals' right to make their own choices), the promotion of beneficence (acting in the best interests of others), the avoidance of non-maleficence (preventing harm), and the pursuit of justice (ensuring fair and impartial treatment of individuals) (Różyńska, 2022). The concept of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has attracted significant attention in recent years (Wu & Amoasi, 2023). It embodies a company's dedication to ethical and socially responsible business strategies that go beyond the sole objective of profit generation (Bocean et al., 2022). Conversely, it directs its attention towards evaluating the influence of an organization on society, the environment, and various stakeholders (Alsayegh et al., 2020). Within this conversation, we will explore the core principles of CSR, its significance, and how it affects businesses, society, and the environment. CSR involves a company's voluntary actions to address social and environmental issues that extend beyond its legal obligations. This encompasses charitable endeavors, sustainable business methods, ethical labor practices, and engagement with the community (Rehman & Khan, 2023). CSR frequently corresponds with the "triple bottom line" notion, emphasizing the importance of not just financial profits but also social and environmental achievements. A

company's prosperity is assessed based on its economic, social, and environmental impacts (Shim et al., 2021). An integral component of CSR involves the acknowledgment and involvement of diverse stakeholders, including employees, customers, communities, and investors. Grasping their concerns and anticipations is vital in formulating efficacious CSR approaches (Jha, 2022) . Businesses that place CSR at the forefront often experience an enhanced reputation, resulting in heightened customer confidence and loyalty to the brand. This can ultimately lead to enduring financial advantages (Il Park & Xiao, 2021). CSR efforts can draw in top-tier talent, as individuals with a social conscience often look for employers that share their principles. Additionally, a robust CSR program can elevate employee morale and enhance employee retention rates (Il Park & Xiao, 2021). CSR can aid in the reduction of risks linked to environmental, social, and governance matters. Businesses that take a proactive approach to addressing these issues are more prepared to manage crises and adapt to regulatory modifications (Dr. M. Ganesan @ Kanagaraj, K. Guru, 2021). CSR promotes sustainable business methods, which result in the reduction of a company's environmental impact and resource usage. This not only benefits the environment but can also generate cost reductions (López, 2022). CSR is far more than a mere trendy term; it stands as an essential component of contemporary business strategy. Enterprises that incorporate CSR into their practices not only contribute positively to society and the environment but also reap rewards in terms of their reputation, talent attraction, and risk mitigation. The core of numerous conversations about conscientious and ethical decision-making in today's intricate world revolves around sustainability challenges (Fritz, 2022). The emergence of these dilemmas can be attributed to the natural discord between the preservation of the environment, economic growth, and the welfare of society. The pursuit of sustainability involves seeking a balanced equilibrium that considers the current requirements while ensuring the well-being of future generations. One of the most significant sustainability challenges revolves around the compromise between economic expansion and the preservation of the environment . Advancements in the economy and its growth frequently result in environmental deterioration, encompassing issues like deforestation, pollution, and the exhaustion of resources. Corporations often grapple with the quandary of giving precedence to immediate profits at the expense of enduring sustainability (Coleman, Anne; Keenan, Laura; Sidhu, 2020). The urgency to provide

immediate financial gains can entice businesses into making decisions that may not be in accordance with long-term environmental and social sustainability (Coleman, Anne; Keenan, Laura; Sidhu, 2020). Another crucial challenge pertains to the balance between promoting social fairness and safeguarding the environment (Viano et al., 2023). Development initiatives can usher in economic prospects and improved living conditions, yet they can also potentially damage ecosystems and lead to the displacement of local communities (Khan & Yu, 2022). Consumer demand for inexpensive goods frequently incentivizes unsustainable manufacturing methods (Sun et al., 2022). Mass production and the fast fashion industry, for instance, result in substantial waste and may involve the exploitation of labor. Striking a harmonious equilibrium in this context necessitates consumer education regarding responsible choices and the encouragement of companies to embrace environmentally-friendly practices (Farvazova, 2020). Challenges related to sustainability are intricate and encompass various facets, necessitating collaborative endeavors from individuals, institutions, and governments to identify sustainable resolutions. Achieving the proper equilibrium between economic advancement, societal welfare, and environmental conservation is a continuous struggle, but it holds utmost importance for the well-being of our planet and our communities in the future. The Roots of Unethical Behavior In organizations, values contain an element of internal deliberation, the understanding that values express an individual's ideas about what is right, good, or desirable. In the study of organizational behavior, values are considered important(Hildayani & Serly, 2021) A complete ethics program should touch all business functions. This includes operations, human resources, and marketing (Yusnita Arvianti & Sari, 2021). Absolute ethical standards apply. but don't force it. Moral standards apply to all humans, they do not apply to animals, because only humans are rational. Every human action in everything. The area still faces review. Human actions are always being assessed, and at all times they are always being judged.(Fetra Bonita Sari, Risda Amini, 2020). According Khadarisman in (Putri et al., 2020) to Unethical behavior entails actions that diverge from the primary responsibilities or core goals established. Unethical conduct should not be ethically justifiable since it leads to negative consequences for both individuals and the environment. Impact Organizational Culture

organizations operating in certain industries tend to behave unethically. The culture of a particular industry can influence an organization to develop a culture that encourages its members to choose unethical actions.(Pasaribu & Radikun, 2021) Example in Corona Era the organization makes a change in work culture, namely carrying out activities remotely or reducing the number of face-to-face meetings with employees or other people. This will of course affect human relationships with other humans which are related to individual characteristics and ethics in the implementation of work.(Utami, 2021) According to Robbins dalam (Nurhasanah et al., 2022), the most recent research shows that there are seven key characteristics that together capture the essence of organizational culture, which are: The extent to which employees are not only encouraged to introduce new ideas but also to take calculated risks, The level to which employees are anticipated to showcase accomplishments, analytical skills, and meticulous attention to detail, The extent to which management places importance on the outcomes achieved, prioritizing them over the methods and processes utilized. The Influence of Personal Ethics on Unethical Behavior People want to continue to learn and seek information to develop their capacities, especially in solving ethical problems and dilemmas (Fetra Bonita Sari, Risda Amini, 2020) This theory, formulated by Fritz Heider, posits that an individual's actions are shaped by a blend of internal influences, particularly external elements like work challenges or fortune..(Hildayani & Serly, 2021). In (Martinelli et al., 2023) so In organizations, individual behavior is a product of the interplay between personal traits and the features of the organization itself. Each person within an organization exhibits unique behaviors, molded by their distinct environments and circumstances.(Wahjono, 2023) Citing Gartner's opinion, Schroeder (2019) in (Yusnita Arvianti & Sari, 2021) said the ethics program should do the following: Identify an ethics program tailored by each company to focus on its needs, Reduce risk of violations and monitor conditions to motivate employees to act in accordance with the ethics program, Establish clear policies and procedures within the company, If someone is accused of a violation, they must be supervised, Training and continued communication, Reinforcing the tendency to behave well, and Managing the ethical function of conduct. The Influence of Decision Making in Unethical Behavior Decision making is "a process of selecting the best alternative from several alternatives systematically to be followed up or to be used as a way of solving problems". Decision making

chooses various alternatives that most benefit the various interested parties.(Pasolong, 2023) According (Palindangan, 2021) six ethical principles discussed here will serve as a guide and a means for reflection before a decision is made : The key that can make a business easier is when an entrepreneur can apply how to carry out ethical business procedures such as being polite and courteous.(Yulia, 2023) What is meant by the principle of good behavior is that there is a prima facie obligation to do good and avoid evil. Every decision should be the best alternative with minimal risk so that unwanted risks do not occur, produce results that can be seen directly and can bring good results.(Subagia et al., 2020) The accuracy of a leader's decision making can be a criterion of competence and trust. If a leader is slow and indecisive, his followers will know that he is a leader who does not dare to take risks (Alexandra et al., 2022). To increase the intensity of ethical decision making requires a positive attitude towards ethical decision making, a positive understanding of subjective norms, and strong behavioral control towards ethical decision making.(Pasaribu & Radikun, 2021) Decisions will be increasingly difficult to make if they have to be made in conditions of uncertainty and risk. When making decisions, it is necessary to consider the assumptions used so that the decision result (payoff) that has the greatest value will be taken. (Nasution, 2021) Decision making will have an inappropriate impact if it is done in the wrong way. Numerous human service entities, particularly those in the public domain, possess inflexible cultures that may lead to decisions that do not align with evolving societal needs and expectations. To alter these outcomes, it is crucial to gain a deeper insight into the assumptions, values, and convictions that set organizational culture apart as a dynamic and evolving process..(Campos-Moreira et al., 2020) Urealistic Performance Goals performance is a difficult concept, both from definition and measurement. To get comprehensive results, performance is not seen from just one measurement dimension, but is seen from two dimensions, operational performance and market performance. Performance (Kristanto, 2020) Performance measures the extent to which a job's objectives have been attained. In contrast, Jamari posited that performance represents a demonstration of the authority, tasks, and obligations entrusted to an individual in order to accomplish the objectives defined by the organization..(Prameswari, 2020) Individuals who have ethical behavior prioritize the interests of the organization over their own interests and contribute positively to

the function and sustainability of the organization. Therefore, in the context of continuous change where innovative behavior is needed to adapt to new changes, employees who have high ethical behavior work enthusiastically.(Ali, 2020) An organization's overall performance is predominantly influenced by the quality of its workforce. When human resources are highly motivated, creative, and capable of fostering innovation, their performance tends to excel. Consequently, endeavors to enhance the capabilities of the human resources are essential..(Aini et al., 2020) The company performance assessment aims to determine the effectiveness of the company's operations and the implementation of appropriate strategies to suit the company's goals, mission and vision.(Nofrianto et al., 2021) Impact Social Cultural Leadership Leadership is a concept that is very close to success in achieving the goals of an organization. towards others to achieve the goals of an organization or cooperative effort. Leadership will greatly color, influence and even determine how an organization achieves its goals (Atijah & Bahri, 2021) Leaders influence change and achieve goals by influencing organizational members to achieve high levels. Positive employee attitudes and behavior are indicators of potential improvement in job performance (Bhayangkara & Raya, 2021) Socio-cultural, political and historical context, policy practices, both concrete and physical regarding leadership styles and the importance of cultural fluency achieved through cultural humility and cultural competence to enhance leadership in various workplaces and environments. (Campos-Moreira et al., 2020) Sustainable leaders understand and accept the world's increasing complexity, making it easier for them to adapt. Guided by strong values, they take bold steps that prioritize the organization's impact on future generations (Peran et al., 2023) Philosophical Approach to Ethics Philosophy of science seeks to restore the spirit of science itself, so that its development does not have a negative impact on human civilization. (Muktapa, 2021) Philosophy is a humble attitude in which people who philosophize feel that they do not know what exists in nature.(Muslim et al., 2022) The link between science and ethics cannot be ignored, science does not only have a ingle impact. its effect on humanity as a universal/general effect. Ethics discusses

considerations in assessing whether an action is good or bad in carrying out a relationship other people so that divisions and misunderstandings do not form (Tarigan et al., 2022) Science is related to the issue of the value of knowledge which in philosophical studies can be classified into three types, namely: The logical value here is the value of right or wrong (Nurachmi & Hidayatulloh, 2021), As Aesthetics are values related to beauty, physical appearance, not ethical values. Aesthetic values are related to appearance, while ethical or bad moral values are related to human behavior. Philosophy and science are two interrelated things. The birth of knowledge cannot be separated from the role of philosophy. On the other hand, the existence of philosophy is strengthened by the development of science. This happens because there is a change in thinking patterns from mythocentric to logocentric, which initially believed in gods turned to rational things (Nmr, 2023). Managerial Implementation Managerial implementation is the ability to implement effectively and efficiently in managing resources through the processes of planning, organizing, directing and monitoring with the aim of achieving organizational targets (Afandi & Mardliyah, 2023). Below, we will discuss some important aspects of managerial implementation. Making Ethical Descisions Internationally An ethical decision is a decision that is legally sound and has a moral basis that can be accepted by society in general. An individual's ethical decision-making is significantly shaped by a range of individual factors, including ego strength, reliance on the surrounding environment, and self-discipline, alongside situational factors like the immediate work environment, the culture within the organization, and the attributes of the job according to (Trevino, 1986, dan Jones, 1991) in (Damayanti, 2022). In this context, there are seven steps that international companies and their managers can implement to incorporate ethical considerations into business decisions: endorsing the hiring and advancement of individuals with sound personal ethics, fostering an organizational culture and demonstrating leadership practices that prioritizes ethical conduct, establishing a decision-making procedure that mandates the inclusion of ethical aspects in business decisions, making corporate social responsibility the basis of company policy, and pursuing sustainable strategies.

Hiring and Promotion Sunyoto (2012:93) explains that recruitment is a series of actions that include searching, finding and attracting individuals who have the potential to become employees in an organization, based on motivation, skills, expertise and knowledge that have been identified in human resource planning (Lina, 2020). In principle, every company has guidelines for procuring new employees. According to Rivai Veithzal (2005) in (Hasibuan, 2020), Recruitment principles include: Ensure that the quality of employees recruited is in line with existing needs,ensure that the quantity of recruited employees matches the number of available positions, minimize the costs involved in the recruitment process, and consider planning, legal considerations, and flexibility in the recruitment process. According to Budiantoro, an effective selection system is categorized into three main aspects, namely: accuracy, which reflects the ability of the selection process to correctly predict the performance of prospective applicants; fairness, which ensures that all qualified applicants have equal opportunities in all stages of selection; Confidence, refers to the level of confidence of individuals involved in the selection process regarding the benefits that will be obtained from the process (Titisari & Ikhwan, 2021). In the recruitment process that is generally used, information about job vacancies is provided via pamphlets, then applicants send an application letter along with the required requirements according to the qualifications set by the company. After that, they undergo a series of tests, including physical, knowledge, health and psychological tests, then complete the test, and after that, they complete the employment requirements and sign the contract. (Endrayani, 2020). Promotion refers to a situation where an employee is moved from one job position to a position that has more responsibilities, is at a higher level in the organizational hierarchical structure, and is usually accompanied by an increase in income. (Widayani & Putra, 2020). Position promotions are carried out with the aim of optimizing the use of existing human resources in the organization, and also as an effort to renew or regenerate human resources in the organization to ensure the continuity of the organization (Haryadi et al., 2022). Promotion principles according to Hasibuan in (Fadli, 2020) includes: Trust Principle

Promotions should be based on confidence or trust in the employee's integrity, ability and competence in carrying out their duties effectively in the position being considered. New employees will be promoted if they can demonstrate the integrity, ability and competency required for the role. Principle of Justice Promotion must be based on the principle of justice, namely a fair evaluation of the integrity, ability and competence of all employees. Evaluations must be carried out honestly and objectively, without favoritism or prejudice. The highest-ranking employees should get the first chance to be promoted, regardless of factors such as their ethnicity, group, or background. Promotions based on the principle of justice can be a motivational tool for employees to improve their performance. Principles of Formation Promotions must be adjusted to existing formations, because employee promotions can only occur if there are positions available. Therefore, a clear job description is needed for each position to be filled by an employee. Promotions must be in line with the needs of existing position formations within the company. Organizational Culture and Leadership Organizational culture develops through concepts initiated by organizational leaders, and then transferred to other members through a learning and experience process so that organizational culture plays an important role in the organization in determining leadership behavior and orientation. (Indajang et al., 2020). Culture in an organization has a supporting role in encouraging companies to improve the quality of employee performance, because culture is behavior that is implemented in daily work routines (Armawan & Suana, 2019) in (Marpaung & Darmawan, 2022). Apart from that, leadership also has an impact on increasing employee performance, as indicated by Barrow in 1976(Sungkono, 2022). Improved employee performance can be achieved when a leader has authority in the eyes of employees, has the authority to make decisions, involves subordinates in the decision-making process, is responsible for all team members, and serves as an example for subordinates to follow (Sutoro et al., 2020). Decision Making Process

According to (Manalu, 2020) explains that The process of decision-making comprises these stages: Problem Identification: Leaders are expected to be able to identify existing problems in the organization. Problems arise because there is a mismatch between the current situation and the goals to be achieved or standards to be met. Problems also arise when there are obstacles or difficulties in achieving these goals. Data Collection and Analysis: Leaders need to collect and analyze relevant data to help solve problems. The problem solving process involves gathering facts, discovering ideas, and finding solutions. Creating Policy Alternatives: Once the problem is clearly identified and structured, leaders need to think of various ways to overcome it. This involves creating policy alternatives along with considering their consequences, both positive and negative. It is important to make careful estimates using adequate information. Selection of the Best Alternative: Leaders must choose one alternative that is considered the most appropriate to overcome a particular problem. This selection is based on careful consideration and recommendations provided. Decision Implementation: The decision implementation process includes the leader's ability to accept the positive or negative impacts of the decision. When facing negative impacts, leaders must have other alternatives that can be used. Implementation of decisions is often a challenge because decisions taken by a small number of people must be accepted by many people. Monitoring and Evaluation of Implementation Results: After decisions are implemented, leaders should be able to measure the impact of the decisions that have been made. Evaluation needs to be carried out, and the factors to be evaluated must be determined from the start, not after implementation begins. Although this may give rise to debate, it increases accuracy in the evaluation of the results. Corporate Sosial Responsibility Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is sustainable involvement that shows a company's commitment to creating a positive impact on the environment and communities in its region (Sri Ardani & Mahyuni, 2020). According to Budimanta et al. (2008:24) This is a crucial process in managing costs and profits in business activities with stakeholders, both internal

(such as employees, shareholders and investing parties), and external (including institutions, government regulations, society, civil groups, and other companies)(Akbar & Humaedi, 2020). Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is a practice carried out by business entities or stakeholders with socially responsible behavior towards society. In this case, companies or business actors emphasize their attention to three main aspects, namely economic, social and environmental. This is an ongoing initiative and aims to prevent crises by improving the company's reputation or image (Pratiwi, 2022). The principle of CSR is that companies must assume responsibility for making positive contributions to society and the environment in return for the profits they obtain (Nabilla & Hamid, 2021). In accordance with ISO 26000, Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) represents an organization's obligation regarding the impacts of its choices and actions on society and the environment. This is achieved through transparent and ethical conduct, which should: Adhering to sustainable development and the well-being of the community's principles, considering the stakeholders' interests, complying with relevant regulations, and aligning with international standards, integration is practiced across all facets of the organization's operations, including the products and services provided (Pasila et al., 2022). Sustainability According to Suhayati (2011), corporate sustainability developed in response to community encouragement for corporate ethics which emphasizes social responsibility which includes aspects such as employee wages, local community participation in human resource development which has the potential to have a positive economic impact on the community (Dura, 2022). Sustainability is believed to be a long-term commitment that embodies a company as an entity that pays attention to environmental and social issues (Masulis & Reza, 2015) in (Trisakti, 2023). In order for a program to be sustainable, a sustainable program implementation strategy is needed which is based on a social analysis of needs, potential and problems (Larasati & Sunartiningsih, 2020). Sustainability implementation refers to the way a company carries out its operations. The concept of sustainable development, in this case, not only includes conventional principles that emphasize increasing value for shareholders, but also includes the interests of all parties involved (such as employees, customers, suppliers, society and the environment) in the process. (Nurfahmi & Anis, 2022).

CONCLUSION From the explanation of the article above, it can be concluded that in achieving sustainability in an organization, an organization must be able to provide activities in the form of corporate social responsibility (CSR), which by holding these activities in the company will have an impact on the company's sustainability in the long term because of its support from external parties who are able to support and influence the company's sustainability. The way to implement corporate sustainability is by implementing international business ethics strategies.

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NAVIGATING THE COMPLEXITIES OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE: THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS, PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS, AND POLICY DEBATES Lecturer : Dr. Eko Handayanto, M.M Team Group : Alkhabisatus Sahara 202110160311220 Deva Septia Ningrum 202110160311245 Minchah Ilaahiyah 202110160311246 MANAGEMENT MAJOR FACULTY OF ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS UNIVERSITY OF MUHAMMADIYAH MALANG 2023

2 | A r t i k e l B i s n i s I n t e r n a s i o n a l NAVIGATING THE COMPLEXITIES OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE: THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS, PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS, AND POLICY DEBATES Alkhabisatus Sahara 202110160311220 / Manajemen – Fakultas Ekonomi dan Bisnis Deva Septia Ningrum 202110160311245 / Manajemen – Fakultas Ekonomi dan Bisnis Minchah Ilaahiyah 202110160311246 / Manajemen – Fakultas Ekonomi dan Bisnis Abstract. In this discussion, there are four main points relevant to understanding international trade. First, international trade is a legal sector experiencing rapid growth and involves various types of trade relationships that encompass cross-border transactions. International trade plays a key role in shaping the global economy by providing significant economic benefits, but it often sparks resistance and concerns, especially from those feeling threatened by imports. Second, economic theories such as absolute advantage and comparative advantage provide essential foundations for understanding the benefits of international trade, although their implementation can be complicated due to involving considerations of many aspects, including their impact on local industries, employment, and the overall economy. Third, international trade involves social, political, and cultural aspects in addition to economic aspects, making trade policies always a complex and controversial topic at both national and international levels. Fourth, debates regarding the government's role in regulating international trade encompass views supporting protectionism to safeguard domestic industries and views advocating barrier-free free trade. The disputes between these two perspectives create heated and ongoing debates in the world of trade. Keywords: International Trade, Economic Theories, Trade Policies, and Debates.

3 | A r t i k e l B i s n i s I n t e r n a s i o n a l INTRODUCTION In the intricate web of the global economic landscape, international trade theory stands as a guiding beacon, shedding light on the intricate interplay of forces shaping the world's economic future (Muhammad et al., 2023; Obikwelu Ifeanyi John et al., 2023) . Like the threads of a vast tapestry, it weaves a nuanced understanding of the patterns and intricacies underlying global economic exchanges (Beuret, 2023). The title, "Navigating the Complexities of International Trade: Theoretical Foundations, Practical Implications, and Policy Debates," encapsulates the multifaceted nature of this study (Bris et al., 2021). Just as a navigator steers through uncharted waters, international trade theory guides us through the multifarious dimensions of global trade, elucidating its intricate dynamics (Dharmayanti et al., 2023). The theoretical framework of international trade is an indispensable tool for unraveling the enigmas of global commerce(Argudo et al., 2023; Dharmayanti et al., 2023). As a guiding compass, it dissects concepts such as comparative advantage, first-mover advantages, and economies of scale, providing insights into the direction and intensity of international trade (Devlin et al., 2023; M. Li et al., 2023). Through the lens of international trade theory, we embark on a journey to explore the ever-evolving landscape of trade patterns, the pivotal role of early adopters in shaping export dominance, and the far-reaching influence of government policies on the trajectory of international trade (Devlin et al., 2023; Jing, 2023). With this title as our guiding star, we are poised to navigate the intricate maze of international trade, probing the theoretical foundations, practical applications, and the spirited debates that define the complex world of global commerce (Agurto et al., 2023; Zhong, 2023). As we delve deeper into this multifaceted exploration, we'll uncover the significance of international trade theories in deciphering the dynamics of global economic interactions (Savin et al., 2023). These theories not only provide us with a framework to comprehend the benefits of international trade, including increased efficiency and specialization, but also prompt us to confront the challenges and tensions that arise in a world where economic nationalism and trade protectionism continue to cast their shadows (Minakir, 2023). In this journey, we'll confront the intricate and nuanced debates surrounding the role of governments in trade policies (F. S. Chien et al., 2023). While some argue for unrestricted free trade as a path to economic prosperity, others champion protectionist measures to safeguard domestic industries and employment (Yu & Liu, 2022). The ongoing clash of ideas on the global stage paints a vivid picture of the complexities inherent in international trade (Kutyauripo et al., 2023).

4 | A r t i k e l B i s n i s I n t e r n a s i o n a l Our title, "Navigating the Complexities of International Trade," thus stands as an invitation to explore the multifaceted landscape of international trade—its theoretical underpinnings, practical implications, and the ongoing policy debates that shape our global economic destiny (Veneziani & Zamparelli, 2022). It is a testament to the enduring relevance and importance of international trade in an ever-changing world, where the forces of globalization continue to forge new pathways and present fresh challenges (Calvo, 2023). DISCUSSION LO 1. Reasons for international trade. International trade is a rapidly growing legal sector, and the scope of law related to international trade is extensive (Lal et al., 2023; Mardones, 2023). This encompasses various types of trade relationships involving cross-border transactions (Bezpalov et al., 2023). These relationships can vary, ranging from simple exchanges like barter, buying and selling goods or commodities (such as agricultural products, plantations, and the like), to highly complex trading transactions (I. Chien et al., 2023). International trade plays a key role in shaping the global economy by providing significant economic benefits, such as increased production efficiency and specialization (Wassénius et al., 2023). However, it often faces resistance and concerns from parties feeling threatened by imports (Livingstone et al., 2023). The reason is the competition from imported products that can disrupt the local industry (Spina et al., 2023). This can result in a decline in domestic production and job loss if the industry cannot compete with imports (Chen et al., 2023). Economic theories, such as the theory of absolute advantage by Adam Smith and the theory of comparative advantage by David Ricardo, provide an essential foundation for understanding the benefits of international trade (Bortis, 2023). the theory of absolute advantage asserts that each country possesses advantages in producing certain goods or services, and trade allows them to leverage those advantages (Aslam et al., 2020). Meanwhile, the theory of comparative advantage indicates that a country can benefit from trade even if it lacks an absolute advantage in producing any goods (Brondino, 2023). However, while this theory provides a robust perspective on the advantages of international trade, implementing policies that support it is not always straightforward (Lee, 2020). Decisions related to trade policies involve many considerations, including their impact on local industries, employment, and the overall economy (Autor et al., 2023). That's why debates on trade policies are often

5 | A r t i k e l B i s n i s I n t e r n a s i o n a l intense, and many countries implement protectionist policies to shield their domestic industries from foreign competition (Hill, 2023). The international trade involves social, political, and cultural aspects in addition to economic considerations (Kalagy & Braun-Lewensohn, 2023). Decisions about trade often reflect the values, political interests, and preferences of the society in a country (Torkunov & Streltsov, 2023). Therefore, debates and trade policies will continue to be complex and controversial topics at both the national and international levels (Maia Siradze, 2022). Global trade patterns have undergone changes, with many multinational companies or high-tech-based firms now preferring to disseminate their production processes across various developing countries (Nahar et al., 2023). They are not only seeking cheaper labor but also aiming to reduce transportation and communication costs by cutting production chains into specific components (Mikaeil et al., 2021). According to Hill, (2023) various economic theories have been developed to explain why international trade occurs and why countries participate in the production of specific goods. Theories such as David Ricardo's comparative advantage, the Heckscher–Ohlin theory, the product life cycle theory, the new trade theory, and Porter's national competitive advantage theory all seek to explain why countries engage in international trade and why they focus on the production of particular goods (Fernandes et al., 2023). Several alternative theories have emerged in response to discrepancies in explaining trade patterns (S. Li et al., 2021). For instance, the product life cycle theory emphasizes the role of the product life cycle stages in determining trade patterns (Siriwat & Nijman, 2023). Meanwhile, the new trade theory and Porter's theory of national competitive advantage bring new perspectives on why countries may choose to specialize in the production and export of specific types of goods (Kim, 2021) LO 2. Theory of international trade flows. According to Hill, (2023) Mercantilism is an economic concept that emerged in the 18th century, focusing on the prosperity of the nation. Merchants played a crucial role in society, and cooperation between them and the rulers supported the economy(Deter & van Hoorn, 2023). Thomas Mun and Philipp Wilhelm von Hornick were influential thinkers in mercantilism, Government trade policies were designed to promote exports and limit imports, with the view that a nation's economic gain came at the expense of other nations in international trade (Betz et al., 2023). Smith argued that every nation possesses an absolute advantage in producing certain goods based on their efficiency (Acharyya & Marjit, 2023). For instance, England excelled in

6 | A r t i k e l B i s n i s I n t e r n a s i o n a l textile production, while France had a comparative advantage in wine production, according to Smith, nations should concentrate on producing goods with absolute advantages and trade them with goods produced by other nations, for example, England should produce textiles and buy wine from France, and vice versa (Sucandrawati et al., 2023). Smith emphasized that nations shouldn't produce goods that could be obtained more inexpensively from abroad, by specializing in the production of goods with an absolute advantage, both nations would benefit from trade (Hill, 2023). That international trade theory explains how countries can utilize their comparative advantages to enhance global trade (Andrianarimanana et al., 2023). In the era of globalization, companies can leverage comparative advantages from various countries to produce goods or services more efficiently, thereby increasing their profitability (Boccara, 2022). However, this theory also emphasizes the importance of trade policies and protection to ensure that companies do not harm other nations (Franco et al., 2023). It prioritizes absolute advantage, stating that a country gains an absolute advantage by being able to produce goods at a lower cost than other countries (Bampaou et al., 2023). According to Hill, (2023) that David Ricardo developed the theory of international trade, building upon Adam Smith's ideas about comparative advantage. Ricardo explained that even if one country has an absolute advantage in producing all goods, international trade can still be beneficial (Qi et al., 2023). According to Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage, a country should focus on producing the most efficient goods and purchase less efficient goods from another country, even if the country can produce those goods more efficiently itself (Rahmat Akbar et al., 2023). This illustrates that international trade can provide benefits, even though it may seem counterintuitive. Ricardo explained this concept with a simple example (Deka, 2023). For instance, the availability of natural resources such as iron, gold, and copper in a country is an unchangeable factor(Wang & Yan, 2023). If the domestic currency depreciates, exported goods become cheaper, potentially boosting exports (Bonato et al., 2023). Thirdly, the inflation rate can impact comparative advantage, where inflation may make exported goods more expensive and imported goods cheaper (Arlt, 2023). Lastly, trade barriers such as subsidies and taxes imposed by the government can create artificial comparative advantages, subsidies can enhance the competitiveness of exports, while tariffs can prevent imports (Klotz & Sharma, 2023).

7 | A r t i k e l B i s n i s I n t e r n a s i o n a l LO 3. Economists argue that engaging in unrestricted free trade can enhance the economic well-being of participating countries. The theory of comparative advantage posits that goods with definite utility also possess exchange value, that this theory states that the exchange of goods that are still valid as long as the goods can be used can be exchanged (Scheufele & Pascoe, 2023). International trade theory discusses the mechanisms and benefits of global trade, and the international trade policy talks about protectionism and the reasons behind trade restrictions (Piekutowska & Konopka, 2023). The goal of international trade is to address imbalances caused by government policies, whether in the form of tariffs or non-tariff measures (Saputra et al., 2023). The imposition of tariffs as a form of taxation increases trade costs, leading to higher prices for imported goods in the exporting country, a decline in export prices, and a reduction in trade volume (Hidalgo et al., 2023). A country can benefit from international trade by choosing to specialize in producing and exporting goods in which they have a relative advantage in production efficiency (PatalasMaliszewska et al., 2023). Simply put, a focus on producing and exporting goods with relative advantages will continue to provide benefits to trade, reflecting relative efficiency in the production process (Gala et al., 2018). By exploiting these relative advantages, countries can increase economic prosperity through active participation in international (Mishra & Alavi, 2023). According to Hill, (2023) simple comparative advantage theory states that free trade can bring two types of dynamic advantages to a country. According to Hill, (2023) First, opening the economy to trade can increase the supply of resources by supplying labor and capital from abroad. An example is the capital investment of western companies in Eastern European countries after 1990 (Hill, 2023). According to Hill, (2023) secondly, unrestricted free trade has the potential to enhance the utilization of a country's resources by promoting efficiency. This efficiency may stem from factors like the broadening of the overall market for domestic firms, the adoption of superior foreign technologies, and the competitive pressure from international counterparts, driving domestic producers to improve their efficiency. According to Hill, (2023) dynamic increases in the supply of resources and the efficiency of use of these resources can cause a country's PPF (Production Possibility Frontier) to shift outward, resulting in economic growth. According to Hill, (2023) the dark side of the free trade theory discovered by Ricardo is that it uses two products and two countries. According to Hill, (2023) the dark side of the free trade theory discovered by Ricardo is that it uses two products and two countries. According to Hill,

8 | A r t i k e l B i s n i s I n t e r n a s i o n a l (2023) while endorsing free trade, Paul Samuelson points out that, under specific circumstances, dynamic progress might yield less favorable outcomes. Nevertheless, overall, there is robust support for free trade due to its potential dynamic benefits that can spur economic growth. (Hill, 2023). According to Hill, (2023) Paul Samuelson criticizes free trade theory in the context of trade relations between the United States (US) and China. According to Hill, (2023) Samuelson notes that when the US entered into a free trade agreement with China, thereby rapidly increasing China's productivity, there were dynamic gains in the efficiency of resource use in poorer countries. However, according to Samuelson's model, the lower prices of goods imported from China may not be enough to generate net gains for the US if the dynamic impact of free trade is a decline in the real wage rate in the US (Hill, 2023). According to Hill, (2023) some other economists dismissed Samuelson's concerns, stating that developing countries are unlikely to reach the same situation as Samuelson's model because increasing the skill level of the workforce takes time. According to Hill, (2023) however, this contradicts data showing that several Asian countries have rapidly improved their education systems. Although there is debate about the impact of free trade, some consider that in the long run, free trade remains profitable despite significant adjustment costs (Hill, 2023). As a result, consumers benefit from access to products that were not previously available and lower prices for products that could not be produced efficiently without international trade (Saghaian et al., 2023). In other words, trade opens up opportunities for mutual benefit, increases the variety of goods available to consumers, and lowers overall production costs (Egeland-Eriksen et al., 2023). This advantage refers to the economic and strategic benefits gained by a company or country that enters an industry early (Gómez-Reino et al., 2023) . When substantial economies of scale are present, early entrants can attain cost advantages that prove challenging for new competitors to replicate (Arai & Morimoto, 2023). According to Hill, (2023) The new trade theory, products characterized by significant economies of scale and substantial global demand may witness dominance in exports by the industry's first movers. Being the first to achieve economies of scale can confer an advantage, as illustrated by the commercial aerospace sector. In this industry, the development of new jet aircraft is closely linked to the benefits of being a first mover. (Zarbakhshnia et al., 2023). Airbus, as the first company to develop the A380 superjumbo jet, faced huge development costs (Eisenreich & Füller, 2023). To cover those costs, they need to sell a certain number of planes, like the achieving economies of scale earlier, Airbus has a first-mover advantage in the superjumbo aircraft category (Shehata et al., 2023).

9 | A r t i k e l B i s n i s I n t e r n a s i o n a l Due to its status as the first mover in attaining economies of scale, the European Union, particularly through the Airbus company, has the potential to dominate exports of superjumbo jets (Gómez-Reino et al., 2023). Potential rivals, like Boeing, might face challenges in reaching comparable economies of scale, potentially leading to their sidelining (Gala et al., 2018; Mishra & Alavi, 2023). The challenging nature of matching the first-mover advantage in this scenario positions the European Union as the frontrunner in exporting superjumbo jet aircraft. According to Hill, (2023) however, keep in mind that certain markets, such as the superjumbo market, may not be large enough to support a single manufacturer, as was the case with the A380 which was discontinued in 2021 due to weak demand. In essence, first mover advantages based on economies of scale can play a key role in determining global trade patterns (Hill, 2023). The new trade theory carries significant implications, one being that countries can reap trade benefits even when they don't exhibit differences in terms of resources or technology (Jani et al., 2023). Trade allows countries to specialize in the production of specific goods, leading to economies of scale, reduced production costs, and a broader array of products accessible to consumers (Hill, 2023). According to Hill, (2023) Secondly, the theory underscores that a country can lead in exporting a particular good solely due to the fortune of having the first company to produce that good. According to Hill, (2023) The advantages of being a first mover, particularly those stemming from economies of scale, can establish barriers that impede the entry of new competitors, leading to dominance in global trade. The new trade theory recognizes economies of scale as a crucial source of comparative advantage, with the first-mover advantage in attaining such economies playing a pivotal role in shaping trade patterns (Hidalgo et al., 2023). This is different from the Heckscher–Ohlin theory which emphasizes production factors (Gala et al., 2018). Empirical studies validate the predictions of this theory, indicating that trade has the potential to enhance production specialization, expand the range of available products, and reduce average prices (Tassone et al., 2023). According to Hill, (2023) however, a controversial implication is the view on government intervention and strategic trade policy. According to Hill, (2023) some new trade theorists argue that government intervention, such as subsidies and R&D support, can increase domestic firms' chances of becoming first movers in emerging industries (Song et al., 2023). This prompts consideration of proactive trade policies that deviate from conventional free trade recommendations. Essentially, the new trade theory offers a more nuanced comprehension of international trade dynamics, incorporating elements like

10 | A r t i k e l B i s n i s I n t e r n a s i o n a l luck, innovation, and government intervention as influential factors in shaping global trade patterns (Shehata et al., 2023). LO 4. The arguments put forth by those who believe that the government can play a proactive role in enhancing national competitiveness in specific industries are as follows. According to Hill, (2023) In this argument, the researcher utilizes the Diamond Porter Model, which is one of the methods that can be used to understand the factors influencing the success of an industry within a country and how it relates to international trade. However, to assess the relevance of this theory in the real world context, a more in-depth empirical research is needed (Jani et al., 2023). The Porter Diamond model is one of the useful frameworks for analyzing the factors that influence the performance of industries at the national level and how they relate to international trade (Manggala et al., 2023). According to Hill, (2023) This theory focuses on four key factors considered crucial in shaping the competitiveness of industries, namely, supporting factors, domestic demand conditions, related and supporting industries, and domestic rivalry. This model has provided valuable insights in the effort to understand why some industries succeed internationally while others may not (Sun et al., 2023). The model has been utilized by some researchers, however, it should be emphasized that, to date, this model has not undergone in-depth empirical testing across various industries and countries (Rapina et al., 2023). Although there are some examples where the factors introduced by Porter appear to be relevant, to ascertain the extent to which this model applies in various real-world situations, more extensive and comprehensive empirical research is needed (Murtaza et al., 2023). Critiques of the Porter Diamond Model have also been put forward (van Zyl et al., 2023). Some researchers argue that this theory tends to be overly descriptive and may not always provide an adequate picture of the complexity of today's global industries (Hoppe et al., 2023). Furthermore, in the era of globalization, factors like global supply chains and cross-border collaborations are becoming increasingly important, so this theory may need to be adapted or combined with other approaches to offer a more comprehensive understanding (Hoppe et al., 2023). The Porter Diamond model remains one of the essential tools in industry and international trade analysis (Wei, 2023). However, for this theory to remain relevant in the real world, more in-depth empirical research and adjustments to the ever-changing dynamics of global trade are needed (Rampon Neto & Barcellos, 2023). This will help us better understand the role of factors influencing industry performance at the national and international levels, therefore, it is necessary to review and refine this model to remain relevant in the face of

11 | A r t i k e l B i s n i s I n t e r n a s i o n a l economic, technological, and policy changes affecting industrial competitiveness (Guseynova, 2022). LO 5. The significant implications of international trade theory apply to practical management. In understanding the benefits of international trade through theories proposed by Adam Smith, David Ricardo, and Heckscher-Ohlin, these theories specifically identify tangible benefits of international trade, namely the gains from trade (Duodu & Mpuure, 2023). Although, in essence, this concept seems sensible - that a country can acquire goods it cannot produce itself through trade - these theories demonstrate that international trade is beneficial not only in such a situation but also when a country can produce all goods efficiently (Duodu & Mpuure, 2023). If a country like Iceland, for example, can produce oranges at a higher cost compared to another country, but can produce fish at a lower cost, it would be beneficial for Iceland to trade some of its fish for oranges from the more efficient orange-producing country (Hassan Malik et al., 2023). Therefore, international trade allows Iceland to enrich its food supply with oranges while still focusing on the more efficient production of fish (Xue et al., 2023). However, these theories often conflict with the nationalist sentiments that still exist in many countries. For example, in the United States, there is a tendency to support the purchase of domestically-made products to bolster domestic employment and protect domestic industries (Brakman et al., 2023). Yet, international trade theories assert that import restrictions often benefit domestic producers more than domestic consumers as a whole, as such restrictions can lead to increased costs for consumers due to a lack of competition and product choices (Luo et al., 2023; Rapina et al., 2023). The policies also acknowledge that the government can implement export restrictions to bolster domestic output. This strategy aims to improve the efficiency of domestic industries without causing substantial disruptions to foreign markets, especially when accompanied by well-designed and targeted taxation measures. (Wei, 2023). International trade theories help us understand why international trade, even for products that can be domestically produced, can be beneficial for a country as a whole . Although this perspective may not always be accepted by everyone, especially those holding nationalist sentiments or protecting domestic industries, these theories provide an intellectual foundation to support unrestricted free trade in the context of today's economic globalization (Lal et al., 2023; Lee, 2020). With this framework of thought, we can design smarter trade policies that focus on common interests to enhance global prosperity and economic growth

12 | A r t i k e l B i s n i s I n t e r n a s i o n a l (Veneziani & Zamparelli, 2022). International trade has a significant impact on a country's economic growth. If a country exports more than it imports, its national income increases, which can potentially contribute positively to economic growth (Veneziani & Zamparelli, 2022). The benefits of international trade include increased national income, foreign exchange reserves, capital inflows, and improved job opportunities (Savin et al., 2023). CONCLUSION International trade plays a crucial role in shaping the global economy and can offer significant economic benefits. These benefits include increased production efficiency, specialization, and economic growth. The theoretical foundations underpinning our understanding of the benefits of international trade are the theories of absolute advantage and comparative advantage, although their implementation is often complex and involves many considerations, including the impact on local industries and employment. The debate over the government's role in regulating international trade involves two main viewpoints: those supporting unhindered free trade and those advocating protectionist policies. Supporters of free trade argue that unrestricted international trade can enhance the economic well-being of participating countries, resulting in dynamic effects, economic growth, increased product variety, and lower costs. However, there are also criticisms and concerns about adverse effects, particularly in terms of jobs and wages. New trade theories, particularly the Porter Diamond model, provide deeper insights into the factors influencing the success of industries at the national level and their relationship with international trade. Industry success often depends on factors such as supporting factors, domestic demand, the presence of related industries, and domestic competition. This perspective, the government can play an active role in enhancing national competitiveness by creating conditions that support the development of specific industries. Nonetheless, complex debates and considerations persist. Some view excessive government intervention or protectionist policies as hindrances to international trade and economic growth, while others see the government's role as essential for protecting domestic industries and jobs. Therefore, issues related to international trade remain a complex and controversial topic at both the national and international levels.

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GLOBAL iTRADE iDYNAMICS: iNAVIGATING iGOVERNMENT iPOLICIES iFOR iINTERNATIONAL iSUCCESS Lecturer ii: ii Dr. Eko Handayanto, M.M. Team iiGroup ii: Ilham. Yahya 202110160311218 Fernando. Natalis 202110160311225 Aulia. Ficky 202110160311239 MANAGEMENT iSTUDY iPROGRAM i FACULTY OF ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS UNIVERSITY OF MUHAMMADIYAH MALANG 2023

CHAPTER iiI INTRODUCTION Government iipolicy iiand iiinternational iitrade iiare iitwo iipillars iiupon iiwhich iithe iimodern iiglobal iieconomic iisystem iistands ii(Ehimen iiet iial., ii2023; iiJatmiko iiet iial., ii2023; iiMakarov iiet iial., ii2023). iiThese iitwo iiintertwined iiconceptsiihold iithe iipotential iito iishape iithe iiprosperity iiand iiwell-being iiof iinations, iiindividuals, iiand iibusinesses iiworldwide ii(Ardelt iiet iial., ii2023; iiBaldwin iiet iial., ii2023; iiGardiner iiet iial., ii2023). iiAs iiwe iidelve iiinto iithe iicomplexities iiand iidynamics iiof iithese iisubjects, iiit iibecomes iievident iithat iiunderstanding iithe iiintricate iirelationships iibetween iigovernment iipolicies iiand iiinternational iitrade iiis iivital iiin iithe iicontemporary iicontext ii(DeAngelo iiet iial., ii2023; iiMogavero iiet iial., ii2023; iiNociti ii& iiRomozzi, ii2023). iiThis iiextensive iiexploration iiwill iitake iius iithrough iithe iihistorical iievolution iiof iithese iiareas, iithe iipivotal iirole iigovernments iiplay iiin iishaping iitrade iidynamics, iithe iivarious iitrade iipolicies iiimplemented iiglobally, iithe iiimplications iiof iithese iipolicies iion iidomestic iiand iiglobal iieconomies, iiand iithe iiongoing iidebates iiand iichallenges iisurrounding iithem (Allen, 2022). Government iipolicies iiserve iias iithe iirulebook iifor iia iination's iieconomic iigame, iiinfluencing iithe iimovement iiof iigoods, iiservices, iiand iicapital iiacross iiborders ii(Huerta-Soto iiet iial., ii2023; iiNociti ii& iiRomozzi, ii2023; iiObisesan, ii2023). iiThey iiencompass iia iiwide iiarray iiof iiregulations, iifrom iitax iipolicies iiand iisubsidies iito iitrade iiagreements iiand iilabor iilaws. iiInternational iitrade, iion iithe iiother iihand, iitranscends iigeographical iiboundaries, iibringing iinations iicloser iithrough iithe iiexchange iiof iiproducts iiand iiservices ii(Adedoyin iiet iial., ii2023; iiJ. iiKim, ii2023; iiObisesan, ii2023). iiIn iitoday's iiinterconnected iiworld, iiglobal iitrade iiis iia iicentral iidriver iiof iieconomic iigrowth iiand iidevelopment ii(Mahran, ii2023; iiMohamed iiKamal ii& iiAboElsoud, ii2023; iiY. iiZhang ii& iiCheng, ii2023). iiHowever, iithe iirelationship iibetween iigovernment iipolicies iiand iiinternational iitrade iiis iifar iifrom iistraightforward; iiit iiis iimarked iiby iia iidelicate iibalance iiof iipower, iipolitics, iiand iieconomics. (Bhaskar, 2022) To iiembark iion iiour iicomprehensive iijourney, iiwe iimust iibegin iiby iitracing iithe iihistorical iidevelopment iiof iigovernment iipolicies iiand iiinternational iitrade ii(J. iiLi, iiBurgess, iiet iial., ii2023; iiSari iiet iial., ii2023; iiTraianou, ii2023). iiThis iihistorical

iicontext iiis iicrucial iito iigrasp iithe iievolution iiof iitheir iiinterplay iiand iithe iiways iiin iiwhich iithey iihave iishaped iiour iimodern iiglobal iieconomy ii(Adedoyin iiet iial., ii2023; iiJ. iiKim, ii2023). iiUnderstanding iithe iihistorical iicontext iiwill iialso iihelp iius iiappreciate iithe iisignificance iiof iicontemporary iidebates iiand iipolicy iidecisions. (Cobham, 2023) The iirelationship iibetween iigovernment iipolicy iiand iiinternational iitrade iihas iideep iihistorical iiroots ii(Baldwin iiet iial., ii2023; iiGardiner iiet iial., ii2023; iiHeatwole iiShank, ii2022). iiTrade iibetween iidistant iicivilizations iican iibe iitraced iiback iito iiancient iitimes iiwhen iithe iiSilk iiRoad iiconnected iithe iiEast iiand iiWest, iiand iiexplorers iisuch iias iiMarco iiPolo iiventured iiinto iinew iiterritories, iifostering iiexchanges iiof iigoods iiand iiideas ii(Buck iiet iial., ii2023; iiSandgren iiet iial., ii2023; iiXie iiet iial., ii2023). iiThe iipolicies iiof iiempires iiand iikingdoms iiin iithese iieras iiplayed iia iisignificant iirole iiin iishaping iithe iidynamics iiof i(Sandgren iiet iial., ii2023; iiSwitek iiet iial., ii2023). iiFor iiinstance, iithe iiBritish iiEmpire's iimercantilist iipolicies, iiwhich iiaimed iito iiaccumulate iiwealth iithrough iia iifavorable iibalance iiof iitrade, iigreatly iiinfluenced iiglobal iicommerce iiin iithe ii16th iiand ii17th iicenturies ii(Gruber iiet iial., ii2023; iiI. iiIslam iiet iial., ii2023; iiWahab iiet iial., ii2023). The iiIndustrial iiRevolution iiin iithe ii18th iicentury iiushered iiin iian iiera iiof iirapid iitechnological iiadvancements, iileading iito iian iiincreased iidemand iifor iiraw iimaterials iiand iinew iimarkets iifor iimanufactured iigoods ii(K. iiAli iiet iial., ii2023; iiGruber iiet iial., ii2023; iiReineholm iiet iial., ii2023). iiThe iipolicies iiof iination-states iievolved iito iisupport iitheir iieconomic iiinterests, iiculminating iiin iithe iiexpansion iiof iicolonial iiempires ii(IFSB iiReport, ii2021; iiLivingstone iiet iial., ii2023; iiZheldibayeva, ii2023). iiThis iiperiod iialso iisaw iithe iidevelopment iiof iitrade iitheories, iisuch iias iithe iiclassical iitheories iiof iiabsolute iiand iicomparative iiadvantage, iias iiarticulated iiby iiAdam iiSmith iiand iiDavid iiRicardo, iirespectively ii(Livingstone iiet iial., ii2023; iiTurnhout iiet iial., ii2021). iiThese iitheories iilaid iithe iiintellectual iifoundations iifor iiunderstanding iithe iibenefits iiof iiinternational iitrade ii(Buck iiet iial., ii2023; iiRani, ii2023; iiSandgren iiet iial., ii2023). The ii19th iiand iiearly ii20th iicenturies iimarked iithe iipeak iiof iiimperialism iiand iicolonialism ii(Bianchi ii& iiCordella, ii2023; iiChu iiet iial., ii2023; iiHomayouni iiet iial., ii2023). iiEuropean iipowersiiextended iitheir iidominions, iioften iiexploiting iithe iiresources iiand iilabor iiof iicolonized iiregions ii(Baldwin iiet iial., ii2023; iiEhimen iiet iial., ii2023;

iiNociti ii& iiRomozzi, ii2023). iiThe iipolicies iigoverning iiinternational iitrade iiwere iiheavily iiinfluenced iiby iiimperialist iiinterests, iiprotectionism, iiand iithe iiquest iifor iieconomic iidominance ii(Buck iiet iial., ii2023; iiHeatwole iiShank, ii2022; iiI. iiIslam iiet iial., ii2023). iiWorld iiWarsiiI iiand iiII iidisrupted iiglobal iitrade iiand iiprompted iithe iineed iifor iiinternational iiinstitutions iito iifoster iipeace iiand iicooperation. (Amaglobeli, 2022) The iiBretton iiWoods iiConference iiof ii1944 iiestablished iithe iiInternational iiMonetary iiFund ii(IMF), iithe iiWorld iiBank, iiand iithe iiprecursor iito iithe iiWorld iiTrade iiOrganization ii(WTO), iithen iiknown iias iithe iiGeneral iiAgreement iion iiTariffs iiand iiTrade ii(GATT) ii(Buck iiet iial., ii2023; iiHeatwole iiShank, ii2022; iiMullin ii& iiHansen, ii2023). iiThese iiinstitutions iiwere iifounded iiwith iithe iiaim iiof iicreating iia iimore iistable iiinternational iimonetary iisystem iiand iipromoting iitrade iiliberalization, iireflecting iia iipost-war iiconsensus iithat iiopen iitrade iiwas iiessential iifor iiglobal iieconomic iigrowth iiand iipeace. (Amaglobeli, 2022) The iipost-World iiWar iiII iiera iiwitnessed iithe iibirth iiof iithe iimodern iiglobal iitrading iisystem, iiwith iithe iiGATT iiserving iias iia iiforum iifor iinegotiating iitrade iiagreements iiand iireducing iitariffs ii(K. iiAli iiet iial., ii2023; iiCharfeddine ii& iiUmlai, ii2023; iiXie iiet iial., ii2023). iiIt iiwas iisucceeded iiby iithe iiWTO iiin ii1995, iiwhich iiassumed iia iimore iicomprehensive iirole iiin iiregulating iiinternational iitrade ii(Switek iiet iial., ii2023). iiThe iiGeneral iiAgreement iion iiTrade iiin iiServices ii(GATS) iiand iithe iiAgreement iion iiTrade-Related iiAspects iiof iiIntellectual iiProperty iiRights ii(TRIPS) iiwere iiintroduced, iiexpanding iithe iiscope iiof iitrade iiregulation iito iiservices iiand iiintellectual iiproperty. (Svartzman, 2022) The iiend iiof iithe iiCold iiWar iiin iithe iiearly ii1990s iimarked iia iinew iiera iiof iiglobalization, iias iicountries iilike iiChina iiand iiIndia iiembraced iimarket-oriented iipolicies iiand iibecame iisignificant iiplayers iiin iithe iiglobal iieconomy ii(Babaev iiIsa, ii2023; iiRani, ii2023; iiS. iiYuan, ii2023). iiThe iiproliferation iiof iiregional iitrade iiagreements, iilike iithe iiNorth iiAmerican iiFree iiTrade iiAgreement ii(NAFTA) iiand iithe iiEuropean iiUnion ii(EU), iifurther iitransformed iithe iilandscape iiof iiinternational iitrade ii(Chu iiet iial., ii2023; iiHomayouni iiet iial., ii2023). iiThese iiagreements iiaimed iito iireduce iitrade iibarriers iiamong iimember iistates, iibut iithey iialso iiintroduced iicomplexities iiand iidebates iiover iisovereignty iiand iieconomic iiimpact. (Ari, 2022)

As iiwe iitransition iiinto iithe ii21st iicentury, iithe iidigital iirevolution iiand iiadvancements iiin iitransportation iihave iiaccelerated iithe iipace iiof iiglobalization ii(Livingstone iiet iial., ii2023; iiRaihan, ii2023b; iiZelenev, ii2023). iiE-commerce iiand iiglobal iisupply iichains iihave iiredefined iithe iiway iigoods iiand iiservices iimove iiacross iiborders ii(Kazachenok iiet iial., ii2023; iiKiki iiet iial., ii2023). iiGovernments iiare iigrappling iiwith iithe iichallenges iiof iiregulating iia iidigital iieconomy, iiaddressing iiissues iilike iidata iiprivacy, iicybersecurity, iiand iiintellectual iiproperty iiprotection iiin iian iiincreasingly iiinterconnected iiworld. (Soderberg, 2022) In iithis iihistorical iicontext, iiwe iican iisee iithe iicontinuous iiinterplay iibetween iigovernment iipolicies iiand iiinternational iitrade, iias iinations iihave iiadapted iitheir iiapproaches iito iireflect iichanging iieconomic iilandscapes, iitechnological iiadvances, iiand iigeopolitical iishifts ii(Feng iiet iial., ii2023; iiKwaw-Nimeson ii& iiTian, ii2023; iiI. iiMaqbool iiet iial., ii2023). iiUnderstanding iithis iihistorical iievolution iiis iivital iifor iicomprehending iithe iicomplexities iiof iicontemporary iigovernment iipolicies iiand iitheir iiimpact iion iiinternational iitrade. (Allen, 2022) The iirelationship iibetween iigovernment iipolicies iiand iiinternational iitrade iiis iimultifaceted ii(Fan iiet iial., ii2023; iiFu iiet iial., ii2023; iiLe, ii2023). iiGovernments iiplay iia iicentral iirole iiin iishaping iitrade iidynamics iithrough iia iirange iiof iipolicy iiinstruments ii(Brondino iiet iial., ii2023; iiNts’upa iiet iial., ii2023; iiT. iiH. iiWang iiet iial., ii2023). iiThese iiinstruments iiinclude iitariffs, iitrade iiagreements, iinon-tariff iibarriers, iisubsidies, iiexchange iirate iipolicies, iiand iiregulations ii(Calabrese ii& iiTang, ii2023; iiVargas-Hernandez iiet iial., ii2023). iiLet's iidelve iiinto iisome iiof iithe iikey iiaspects iiof iithis iirelationship ii(Cobham, 2023): 1. Tariffs iiand iiTrade iiBarriers: iiTariffs, iior iiimport iitaxes, iihave iihistorically iibeen iia iitool iiused iiby iigovernments iito iiprotect iidomestic iiindustries. iiWhile iithey iican iiprovide iishort-term iiadvantages iito iispecific iiindustries, iithey iioften iilead iito iihigher iiprices iifor iiconsumers iiand iican iiprovoke iitrade iidisputes. iiThe iireduction iiof iitariffs iihas iibeen iia iicentral iigoal iiof iiinternational iitrade iiagreements, iileading iito iithe iiconcept iiof ii"free iitrade." ii(Bajraktari iiet iial., ii2023; iiDhingra iiet iial., ii2023; iiKlotz ii& iiSharma, ii2023) 2. Trade iiAgreements: iiInternational iitrade iiagreements iiare iinegotiated iibetween iigovernments iito iifacilitate iiand iiregulate iitrade. iiThey iican iivary iiin iiscope,

iifrom iibilateral iiagreements iibetween iitwo iicountries iito iiregional iiagreements iiencompassing iimultiple iinations, iilike iithe iiComprehensive iiand iiProgressive iiAgreement iifor iiTrans-Pacific iiPartnership ii(CPTPP) iior iithe iiEU's iisingle iimarket. iiSuch iiagreements iidefine iithe iirules iiof iitrade, iiincluding iitariff iireductions, iiintellectual iiproperty iiprotection, iiand iidispute iiresolution iimechanisms ii(Adam iiet iial., ii2023; iiDür iiet iial., ii2023; iiEl-Sahli, ii2023). 3. Non-Tariff iiBarriers: iiNon-tariff iibarriers, iisuch iias iiquotas, iilicensing iirequirements, iiand iitechnical iistandards, iican iihave iia iisignificant iiimpact iion iitrade iiflows. iiThese iibarriers iiare iioften iiused iito iiprotect iidomestic iiindustries iiand iiensure iisafety iiand iiquality iistandards iibut iican iialso iibe iiabused iifor iiprotectionist iipurposes ii(Felbermayr iiet iial., ii2023; iiTopornin iiet iial., ii2023; iiTurkson iiet iial., ii2023). 4. Subsidies: iiGovernments iimay iiprovide iisubsidies iito iidomestic iiindustries iito iibolster iitheir iicompetitiveness. iiWhile iisubsidies iican iibe iiessential iifor iipromoting iicertain iisectors, iithey iican iidistort iiinternational iitrade iiby iigiving iidomestic iiindustries iian iiunfair iiadvantage ii(S. iiAhmad iiet iial., ii2023; iiLennan ii& iiSwitzer, ii2023; iiK. iiWang iiet iial., ii2023). 5. Exchange iiRate iiPolicies: iiExchange iirates iiplay iia iicrucial iirole iiin iiinternational iitrade. iiGovernments iican iiinfluence iiexchange iirates iithrough iivarious iimeans, iiincluding iiinterventions iiin iicurrency iimarkets. iiThese iipolicies iiimpact iia iination's iitrade iibalance iiand iican iibe iia iisource iiof iicontention iiamong iitrading iipartners ii(Andini, ii2023; iiHamano ii& iiPappadà, ii2023; iiC. iiC. iiLee ii& iiWen, ii2023). 6. Regulations iiand iiStandards: iiDomestic iiregulations iiand iistandards iican iiact iias iitrade iibarriers iiwhen iithey iidiffer iisignificantly iifrom iithose iiof iitrading iipartners. iiHarmonizing iiregulations iiis iia iicomplex iibut iinecessary iiprocess iito iifacilitate iiinternational iitrade, iiparticularly iiin iiindustries iilike iifood iisafety, iipharmaceuticals, iiand iiautomotive iimanufacturing ii(Okamura ii& iiKano, ii2023; iiX. iiSun iiet iial., ii2023; iiY. iiWang iiet iial., ii2023). The iiinterplay iiof iithese iipolicy iiinstruments iican iishape iia iicountry's iitrade iibalance, iiinfluence iithe iicompetitiveness iiof iiits iiindustries, iiand iiimpact iithe iiwelfare iiof iiits iicitizens ii(Adedoyin iiet iial., ii2023; iiMahran, ii2023; iiMohamed iiKamal ii& iiAboElsoud, ii2023). iiGovernment iipolicies iican iiboth iipromote iiand iihinder

iiinternational iitrade, iiand iiunderstanding iithe iimotivations iiand iiconsequences iiof iithese iipolicies iiis iivital iifor iieconomists, iipolicymakers, iiand iibusiness iileaders. (Wray, 2023) Government iipolicies iiin iithe iirealm iiof iiinternational iitrade iihave iifar-reaching iiimplications iifor iieconomies, iibusinesses, iiand iiindividuals ii(Adedoyin iiet iial., ii2023; iiNociti ii& iiRomozzi, ii2023; iiObisesan, ii2023). iiThe iieffects iican iibe iiboth iipositive iiand iinegative, iiand iithe iibalance iidepends iion iia iimyriad iiof iifactors, iiincluding iithe iispecific iipolicy, iithe iieconomic iicontext, iiand iithe iiglobal iitrade iienvironment ii(Z. iiChen, ii2023; iiLim iiet iial., ii2023; iiSmith iiet iial., ii2022). iiLet's iiexplore iisome iiof iithe iikey iiimplications ii(Arslanalp, 2022): 1. Economic iiGrowth: iiTrade iiliberalization, iioften iifacilitated iithrough iigovernment iipolicies, iihas iithe iipotential iito iistimulate iieconomic iigrowth. iiBy iiallowing iibusinesses iito iiaccess iilarger iimarkets, iitrade iican iilead iito iiincreased iiproduction, iiinvestment, iiand iijob iicreation. iiFurthermore, iispecialization iidriven iiby iicomparative iiadvantage iican iienhance iioverall iieconomic iiefficiency ii(Acheampong ii& iiOpoku, ii2023; iiChinoda ii& iiKapingura, ii2023; iiVarvarigos, ii2023). 2. Consumer iiWelfare: iiLower iitrade iibarriers iitend iito iibenefit iiconsumers iiby iiproviding iiaccess iito iia iiwider iivariety iiof iiproducts iiat iilower iiprices. iiCompetition iifrom iiforeign iiproducers iican iihelp iikeep iiprices iiin iicheck iiand iiimprove iithe iiquality iiof iigoods iiand iiservices ii(Dubé ii& iiMisra, ii2023; iiJoo, ii2023; iiMills iiet iial., ii2023). 3. Business iiCompetitiveness: iiExport-oriented iibusinesses iican iithrive iiwhen iigovernment iipolicies iisupport iiinternational iitrade. iiThese iipolicies iimight iiinclude iisubsidies, iiexport iifinancing, iiand iitrade iipromotion. iiAdditionally, iiaccess iito iiglobal iisupply iichains iican iireduce iiproduction iicosts iiand iienhance iicompetitiveness ii(Minaya iiet iial., ii2023; iiSarwar iiet iial., ii2023; iiUntari iiet iial., ii2023). 4. Income iiDistribution: iiWhile iitrade iican iiboost iioverall iieconomic iigrowth, iiits iibenefits iiare iinot iievenly iidistributed. iiCertain iiindustries iimay iisuffer iijob iilosses iior iideclining iicompetitiveness iiwhen iiexposed iito iiinternational iicompetition. iiGovernment iipolicies iimust iiaddress iiissues iiof iiincome iiinequality iiand iijob iidisplacement ii(Fitrawaty iiet iial., ii2023; iiKappes, ii2023; iiKhamnei iiet iial., ii2023).

5. Trade iiDeficits iiand iiSurpluses: iiGovernment iipolicies, iiparticularly iithose iirelated iito iiexchange iirates iiand iitariffs, iican iiinfluence iia iination's iitrade iibalance. iiPersistent iitrade iideficits iior iisurpluses iican iihave iimacroeconomic iiconsequences, iiaffecting iia iicountry's iicurrency iivalue iiand iiits iiinternational iidebt ii(Aliber, ii2023; iiW. iiKim, ii2023; iiSchweinberger, ii2023). 6. Innovation iiand iiIntellectual iiProperty: iiGovernment iipolicies iirelated iito iiintellectual iiproperty iiprotection iican iiimpact iiinnovation iiand iitechnology iitransfer. iiStrong iiintellectual iiproperty iirights iican iiencourage iiresearch iiand iidevelopment, iiwhile iiweak iiprotection iican iilead iito iicounterfeiting iiand iithe iiunauthorized iiuse iiof iipatented iitechnologies ii(Arunnima iiet iial., ii2023; iide iiBeer iiet iial., ii2023; iiSiltaloppi ii& iiBallardini, ii2023). 7. Environmental iiand iiSocial iiStandards: iiGovernments iimay iiimplement iipolicies iito iiaddress iienvironmental iiconcerns iiand iilabor iirights iiin iiinternational iitrade. iiTrade iiagreements iioften iiinclude iiprovisions iirelated iito iienvironmental iiprotection iiand iilabor iistandards, iiaiming iito iiprevent iia iirace iito iithe iibottom iiin iiterms iiof iiregulation ii(Blind iiet iial., ii2023; iiGutiérrez-Ponce, ii2023; iiIturralde, ii2023). 8. Geopolitical iiConsiderations: iiInternational iitrade iiis iiclosely iiintertwined iiwith iigeopolitics. iiGovernment iipolicies iican iibe iiused iias iia iitool iiof iidiplomacy iior iicoercion, iiand iitrade iirelations iican iibe iiaffected iiby iipolitical iidisputes, iisanctions, iiand iinational iisecurity iiconcerns ii(Cai ii& iiEfstathopoulos, ii2023; iiQuaglia ii& iiVerdun, ii2023; iiSovacool iiet iial., ii2023). 9. Global iiSupply iiChains: iiThe iifragmentation iiof iiproduction iiprocesses iiacross iiborders, iiknown iias iiglobal iisupply iichains, iihas iibecome iia iidefining iifeature iiof iicontemporary iitrade. iiGovernment iipolicies iican iiimpact iithe iiintegration iiof iia iicountry iiinto iithese iisupply iichains, iiinfluencing iiits iieconomic iiprospects ii(Hertzel iiet iial., ii2023; iiTiwari iiet iial., ii2023; iiX. iiXu iiet iial., ii2023). These iiimplications iidemonstrate iithe iiprofound iiand iimultifaceted iiimpact iithat iigovernment iipolicies iirelated iito iiinternational iitrade iican iihave iion iieconomies(Soyland iiet iial., ii2023). iiPolicymakers iimust iicarefully iiconsider iithese iieffects iiwhen iimaking iidecisions iiabout iitrade iiagreements, iitariffs, iiand iiother iitraderelated iimeasures ii(Bhaskar, 2022).

The iirealm iiof iigovernment iipolicies iiand iiinternational iitrade iiis iifar iifrom iistatic ii(iet iial., ii2022; iiJatmiko iiet iial., ii2023). iiIt iiis iicharacterized iiby iiongoing iidebates iiand iichallenges iithat iireflect iithe iievolving iinature iiof iithe iiglobal iieconomy ii(Babaev iiIsa, ii2023;iJatmiko iiet iial., ii2023). iiThese iidebatesiirevolve iiaround iia iirange iiof iiissues, iifrom iitrade iiprotectionism iiand iiglobalization iito iidigital iitrade iiand iithe iirole iiof iiinternational iiinstitutions (Bhaskar, 2022) ii. 1. Trade iiProtectionism iivs. iiFree iiTrade: iiThe iitension iibetween iiprotectionism iiand iifree iitrade iihas iibeen iia iilongstanding iidebate. iiProtectionist iimeasures, iisuch iias iitariffs iiand iisubsidies, iiare iioften iiimplemented iito iishield iidomestic iiindustries iifrom iiforeign iicompetition. iiThis iidebate iicenters iion iiwhether iiprotectionism iiis iia iivalid iimeans iiof iisafeguarding iinational iiinterests iior iiwhether iifree iitrade iiultimately iibenefits iiall iiparties iiinvolved ii(Honeker, ii2023; iiMacdonald, ii2023; iiMoon, ii2023) 2. Globalization iiand iiIts iiDiscontents: iiGlobalization iihas iibeen iia iipowerful iiforce iiin iireshaping iithe iiworld iieconomy, iibut iiit iihas iialso iigenerated iidiscontent iiamong iisegments iiof iithe iipopulation. iiCritics iiargue iithat iiglobalization iihas iiled iito iijob iidisplacement, iiincome iiinequality, iiand iithe iierosion iiof iinational iisovereignty. iiAdvocates, iion iithe iiother iihand, iiemphasize iiits iirole iiin iieconomic iigrowth iiand iipoverty iireduction ii(Agunyai ii& iiAmusan, ii2023; iiEast iiAsia iiand iithe iiPacific, ii2023; iiSamuels, ii2023). 3. Digital iiTrade iiand iiE-commerce: iiThe iidigital iirevolution iihas iibrought iiforth iinew iichallenges iiin iithe iirealm iiof iiinternational iitrade. iiIssues iisuch iias iidata iiprivacy, iicybersecurity, iiand iicross-border iitaxation iihave iibecome iicentral iiconcerns. iiGovernments iiare iigrappling iiwith iihow iito iiregulate iidigital iitrade iiwhile iiallowing iiinnovation iito iiflourish ii(Fang, ii2023; iiY. iiYang iiet iial., ii2023) 4. Trade iiand iithe iiEnvironment: iiConcerns iiabout iithe iienvironmental iiimpact iiof iitrade iihave iigrown, iileading iito iidebates iiabout iihow iito iireconcile iieconomic iigrowth iiwith iisustainability. iiTrade iipolicies iimust iiconsider iienvironmental iistandards, iiresource iiconservation, iiand iicarbon iiemissions, iioften iileading iito iitensions iibetween iitrade iiand iienvironmental iigoals ii(A. iiKhan iiet iial., ii2023; iiA. iiKhan ii& iiSafdar, ii2023; iiPadhan ii& iiBhat, ii2023).

5. Role iiof iiInternational iiInstitutions: iiThe iieffectiveness iiof iiinternational iiinstitutionsiilike iithe iiWTO iiisiia iisubject iiof iidebate. iiSome iiargue iithat iithese iiorganizations iiare iiessential iifor iimaintaining iia iirules-based iiglobal iitrading iisystem, iiwhile iiothers iicontend iithat iithey iineed iireform iito iiaddress iicontemporary iichallenges ii(Bhatt iiet iial., ii2023; iiHouran, ii2023; iiRyazantsev ii& iiKhramova, ii2023). 6. Trade iiand iiNational iiSecurity: iiNational iisecurity iiconsiderations iiincreasingly iiintersect iiwith iitrade iipolicy. iiExport iicontrols, iisanctions, iiand iitrade iirestrictions iimay iibe iiimposed iito iiaddress iinational iisecurity iiconcerns, iibut iithese iimeasures iican iialso iiimpact iiglobal iitrade iiflows ii(Garibaldi ii& iiDeane, ii2023; iiS. iiY. iiPeng, ii2023; iiW. iiZhou iiet iial., ii2023). 7. Regional iivs. iiMultilateral iiTrade iiAgreements: iiThe iiproliferation iiof iiregional iitrade iiagreements iihas iiraised iiquestions iiabout iitheir iiimpact iion iithe iimultilateral iitrading iisystem. iiDebates iifocus iion iiwhether iiregional iiagreements iifragment iithe iiglobal iitrade iilandscape iior iiserve iias iibuilding iiblocks iifor iibroader iimultilateral iiagreements ii(Yang iiet iial., ii2023). 8. These iiongoing iidebates iiand iichallenges iiunderscore iithe iicomplex iiand iidynamic iinature iiof iigovernment iipolicies iiand iiinternational iitrade. iiAs iithe iiworld iicontinues iito iievolve, iiso iido iithe iiissues iiand iiconsiderations iithat iishape iitrade iipolicies iiand iitheir iiimplications ii(Quaglia ii& iiVerdun, ii2023; iiSovacool iiet iial., ii2023; iiTiwari iiet iial., ii2023). 9. Government iipolicies iiand iiinternational iitrade iiare iifundamental iicomponents iiof iithe iimodern iiglobal iieconomic iisystem. iiThey iiare iiinexorably iiintertwined, iiwith iigovernment iiactions iiplaying iia iipivotal iirole iiin iishaping iithe iidynamics iiof iiinternational iitrade. iiThis iiextensive iiexploration iiof iitheir iirelationship, iispanning iihistorical iievolution, iipolicy iiinstruments, iieconomic iiimplications, iiand iicontemporary iidebates iiand iichallenges, iiunderscores iithe iisignificance iiof iiunderstanding iithese iitopics iiin iiour iiinterconnected iiworld ii(de iiBeer iiet iial., ii2023; iiW. iiKim, ii2023; iiSiltaloppi ii& iiBallardini, ii2023). 10. As iiwe iijourney iithrough iithis iivast iiterrain, iiwe iifind iithat iigovernment iipolicies iihave iievolved iiover iicenturies, iiadapting iito iichanges iiin iieconomic, iitechnological, iiand iigeopolitical iilandscapes. iiFrom iiancient iitrade iiroutes iito iithe iimodern iidigital iieconomy, iithe iiinterplay iibetween iipolicies iiand iitrade iihas iileft iian iiindelible iimark iion iihuman iihistory. iiThe iidevelopment iiof

iiinternational iiinstitutions, iisuch iias iithe iiWTO iiand iiregional iitrade iiagreements, iireflects iia iicollective iirecognition iiof iithe iibenefits iiof iiopen iitrade iiand iicooperation ii(Chinoda ii& iiKapingura, ii2023; iiMinaya iiet iial., ii2023; iiUntari iiet iial., ii2023). However, iigovernment iipoliciesiirelated iito iiinternational iitrade iiare iinot iiwithout iitheir iicontroversies iiand iicomplexities ii(Frias iiet iial., ii2023; iiJain iiet iial., ii2023; iiWahab iiet iial., ii2023). iiThe iiongoing iidebates iibetween iiprotectionism iiand iifree iitrade, iithe iichallenges iiposed iiby iiglobalization, iidigital iitrade, iiand iienvironmental iiconcerns, iiand iithe iiquestion iiof iithe iirole iiof iiinternational iiinstitutions iiall iihighlight iithe iiintricaciesiiof iithis iifield ii(Chu iiet iial., ii2023; iiHomayouni iiet iial., ii2023). iiThese iidebates iiand iichallenges iidemand iithoughtful iianalysis iiand iiconsideration, iias iithey iihave iiprofound iiimplications iifor iieconomies, iibusinesses, iiand iiindividuals ii(Allen, 2022). In iiour iijourney iito iicomprehend iigovernment iipolicies iiand iiinternational iitrade, iiwe iiwill iiexplore iithese iihistorical iiroots, iithe iiintricate iirelationships iibetween iipolicy iiinstruments iiand iitrade iidynamics, iithe iiprofound iiimplications iion iieconomies, iiand iithe iicontemporary iidebates iiand iichallenges iithat iidefine iithe iilandscape ii(Bushell, ii2023; iiKazachenok iiet iial., ii2023; iiI. iiMaqbool iiet iial., ii2023). iiBy iidelving iideep iiinto iithese iitopics, iiwe iiseek iito iigain iia iicomprehensive iiunderstanding iiof iithe iiforces iishaping iithe iiworld's iieconomic iiand iitrade iiorder. (Ari, 2022) As iiwe iicontinue, iiwe iiwill iiexplore iieach iiof iithese iiaspects iiin iigreater iidepth, iishedding iilight iion iithe iiintricacies, iicontroversies, iiand iiimplications iithat iidefine iigovernment iipolicies iiand iiinternational iitrade ii(Almakayeel, ii2023; iiFehl, ii2023; iiRaihan, ii2023b). iiIn iidoing iiso, iiwe iiequip iiourselves iiwith iithe iiknowledge iineeded iito iinavigate iithe iicomplexities iiof iithe iiglobal iieconomy iiand iicontribute iito iiinformed iidiscussions iiand iipolicy iidecisions iiin iithis iiever-evolving iifield.. (Arslanalp, 2022)

CHAPTER iiII DISCUSSION ii LO ii7-1 iiThe iiInstrument iiused iiby iithe iigovernment iito iiinfluence iiinternational iitrade iiflows International iitrade iiis iithe iiexchange iiof iigoods iiand iiservices iiacross iinational iiborders, iiand iiit iiplays iia iifundamental iirole iiin iithe iiglobal iieconomy ii(Bris iiet iial., ii2021). iiGovernments iiactively iiparticipate iiin iishaping iitheir iicountry's iiinternational iitrade iiflows iito iiprotect iitheir iiindustries, iienhance iieconomic iigrowth, iiand iifoster iidiplomatic iirelations ii(Hashim iiet iial., ii2023; iiHosono iiet iial., ii2023; iiSu, iiYuan, iiet iial., ii2023). iiThese iiefforts iiinvolve iithe iiuse iiof iivarious iiinstruments, iiwhich iiare iipolicy iitools iidesigned iito iiinfluence iithe iiquantity, iiquality, iiand iidirection iiof iiinternational iitrade ii(Hashim iiet iial., ii2023; iiStoll iiet iial., ii2022; iiSu, iiYuan, iiet iial., ii2023). iiThis iicomprehensive iidiscussion iiwill iiexplore iithe iimultitude iiof iiinstruments iiemployed iiby iigovernments, iidelving iiinto iitheir iieconomic iiand iipolitical iiimplications ii(Desmedt iiet iial., ii2023; iiZaidi iiet iial., ii2023). iiFrom iitariffs iiand iisubsidies iito iinontariff iibarriers iiand iitrade iiagreements, iiwe iiwill iidissect iieach iiinstrument's iimechanics iiand iiimpact iion iiinternational iitrade. (Ari, 2022) Tariffs iiare iione iiof iithe iimost iicommon iiand iidirect iiinstruments iiused iiby iigovernments iito iiinfluence iiinternational iitrade iiflows ii(iMartínez-Martínez iiet iial., ii2023; iiTudorache, ii2023). iiThey iiare iitaxes iiimposed iion iiimported iigoods, iimaking iithem iimore iiexpensive iifor iiconsumers iiand iiless iicompetitive iiwith iidomestic iiproducts ii(Febriana iiet iial., ii2023; iiMartínez-Martínez iiet iial., ii2023; iiTudorache, ii2023). iiTariffs iiserve iiseveral iipurposes, iiincluding iirevenue iigeneration, iiprotection iiof iidomestic iiindustries, iiand iinegotiation iileverage iiin iiinternational iitrade iiagreements ii(Doix, ii2021; iiSoukal, ii2021). iiThis iisection iiwill iiexplore iithe iivarious iitypes iiof iitariffs, iitheir iieffects iion iitrade iiflows, iiand iithe iistrategies iiemployed iiby iigovernments iiin iisetting iitariff iirates. (Alami, 2022) Subsidies iirepresent iithe iiopposite iiend iiof iithe iispectrum iicompared iito iitariffs ii(Ferrari ii& iiOssa, ii2023; iiKrolage, ii2023; iiY. iiLi, iiLiang, iiet iial., ii2023). iiInstead iiof iimaking iiimports iimore iiexpensive, iigovernments iiprovide iifinancial iisupport iito

iidomestic iiindustries iito iimake iithem iimore iicompetitive iiin iiinternational iimarkets ii(Abzhalelova iiet iial., ii2023; iiGarner, ii2023; iiNing ii& iiXydis, ii2023). iiThis iiapproach iican iilead iito iidistortions iiin iitrade iipatterns, iias iidomestic iiproducts iibecome iiartificially iicheaper ii(Hu iiet iial., ii2023; iiMingyi iiet iial., ii2023). iiWe iiwill iiexamine iithe iidifferent iiforms iiof iisubsidies iiand iitheir iiimplications iifor iiinternational iitrade, iiasiiwell iiasiithe iicontroversiesiiand iichallenges iiassociated iiwith iitheir iiuse. (Arslanalp, 2022) Non-tariff iibarriers iiencompass iia iiwide iirange iiof iipolicy iitools iithat iirestrict iiimports iiwithout iiemploying iitraditional iitariffs ii(Athanasiadis iiet iial., ii2023; iiSediqi iiet iial., ii2022). iiThese iiinclude iiquotas, iilicensing iirequirements, iitechnical iistandards, iiand iisanitary iiregulations ii(Prodanchuk iiet iial., ii2023; iiPrysthon iiet iial., ii2023). iiNontariff iibarriers iican iibe iiemployed iifor iivarious iireasons, iisuch iias iiensuring iiproduct iisafety iior iiprotecting iidomestic iiindustries ii(Dawar, ii2022; iiF. iiYuan, ii2022). iiThis iisection iiwill iiprovide iian iiin-depth iianalysis iiof iinon-tariff iibarriers, iiexploring iitheir iiimpacts iion iitrade iiflows iiand iithe iiintricacies iiof iiimplementing iiand iimonitoring iithem. (Amaglobeli, 2022) Trade iiagreements iiare iicrucial iiinstruments iifor iishaping iiinternational iitrade iiflows ii(Alhassan ii& iiPayaslioğlu, ii2023; iiBarnett ii& iiNam, ii2023; iiLarionova ii& iiShelepov, ii2023). iiThey iiestablish iithe iirules iiand iiconditions iigoverning iitrade iirelationships iibetween iicountries ii(Pujalte iiet iial., ii2023; iiPyurbeeva iiet iial., ii2023; iiZeitoun iiet iial., ii2023). iiGovernments iinegotiate iithese iiagreements iito iireduce iitrade iibarriers, iifoster iieconomic iiintegration, iiand iipromote iicooperation ii(Asal iiet iial., ii2023; iiIacobucci, ii2023; iiKarlén, ii2023). iiWe iiwill iidelve iiinto iithe iidifferent iitypes iiof iitrade iiagreements, iiincluding iibilateral iiand iimultilateral iiones, iiand iiassess iitheir iiimpacts iion iiinternational iitrade iiand iieconomic iigrowth. (Ari, 2022) The iivalue iiof iia iicountry's iicurrency iiplays iia iisignificant iirole iiin iiinternational iitrade. iiGovernments iican iiinfluence iitrade iiflows iiby iimanipulating iitheir iiexchange iirates iithrough iivarious iimeans, iiincluding iicurrency iidevaluation iior iipegging iito iianother iicurrency ii(Asal iiet iial., ii2023; iiIacobucci, ii2023; iiNasira iiBanu ii& iiCholakkal, ii2023). iiThis iisection iiwill iiexamine iithe iimotivations iibehind iiexchange iirate iipolicies, iitheir iieffects iion iitrade iibalances, iiand iithe iichallenges iiand iicontroversies iiassociated iiwith iicurrency iimanipulation. (Arslanalp, 2022)