The First Step: Assessing the Coaching Philosophies of Pre ...

The First Step: Assessing the Coaching Philosophies
of Pre-service Coaches

by Karen Collins; Heather Barber, University of New Hampshire; could be a significant factor in improving the coaching experience,
Kristina Moore, University of Northern Colorado; Amanda Laws,
Emmanuel College and in turn, the performance and experience of athletes. The process

Abstract of developing a coaching philosophy is complex and continually
Coaches are influential in creating positive and achievement- evolving. Young coaches need to reflect on and integrate their
oriented sport environments and the development of a sound
philosophy is the key to successful coaching (Martens, 2004). Yet, experience as a coach and athlete, and their knowledge of the sport
few coaches spend significant time early in their careers developing
and modifying their philosophical beliefs (Wilcox & Trudel, and training demands of the sport, with sound research on coaching
1998). While coaching educators have consistently recognized the
importance of a well-honed coaching philosophy, little research behaviors (Smoll & Smith, 2002), developmental considerations
has examined the beliefs of pre-service coaches. Therefore, this
study examined written coaching philosophy statements of 35 (see Weiss, 2004), participant motives (Weiss & Williams, 2004),
pre-service coaches (PSCs) prior to enrollment in an intensive 15-
week coaching education course. An inductive content analysis and motivational theory (Conroy, Kaye, & Coatsworth, 2006;
revealed several emergent dimensions and priorities: Coaching
Behavior, Defining Success, Development, Expectations, Fun, Fredricks & Eccles, 2004), to name a few. Recognizing this
Life Lessons Learned Through Sport, and Relationships. It was
clear that these young coaches have strong expectations of the complexity within coaching philosophy, it is not surprising that
sport experience. What was less clear was their role in creating
positive sport experiences, which highlights the importance of few investigators have undertaken this effort.
coaching education in transforming philosophy into action.
Key Words: coach education, novice coaches, coaching Central to the development of a coaching philosophy is the
psychology approach to achievement. Both Martens’ (2004) and Vealey’s

Introduction (2005) frameworks have employed constructs from achievement
Think of your favorite coach. What makes them great? Chances
are it is their beliefs, values, and approach to their athletes and the goal theory and subsequent research on motivational climate (See
sport that make these coaches stand out from the rest. Differences Ntoumanis & Biddle, 1999). Understanding how individuals define
in belief systems, values, and approaches to performance and
participation in sport distinguish successful coaches at all levels success and failure is at the heart of these theories. Motivational
(i.e., youth, school, club, collegiate, national). At the heart of these
differences are unique philosophies that guide their behavior and orientations are proposed to be dispositional and therefore can
decisions. Martens (2004) indicated that a sound philosophy is
the key to successful coaching and to the provision of positive be affected by the environment and individuals who frame the
sport experiences. He proposed that the three central elements
of a coaching philosophy are the relative roles of winning, environment. Coaches clearly craft the environment in sport settings
development, and fun. Similarly, Vealey (2005) operationalized and thus influence individuals’ performance and experience.
these three elements as optimal performance, optimal development, It is the motivational climate that has the potential to influence
and optimal experience, where Burton and Raedeke (2008, p.6)
identified “personal excellence-the foundation for success” as a individual perceptions of their ability and subsequent motivation
sound working philosophy. Sport psychology professionals like
Martens, Vealey, Burton, and Raedeke have been at the forefront (Balaguer, Duda, & Crespo, 1999). While motivational climate has
of developing and evaluating coaching education. While each
of these individuals has identified the critical role of coaching been extensively examined, the link between motivational climate
philosophy, little is known about how coaching philosophies are
developed. and coaching philosophy remains unexplored.
Recognizing that coaches are the providers and interpreters of
sport experience, coaches’ philosophical beliefs are central to the The link between theories of achievement motivation and
climate they create. Building a theoretically driven and research-
based coaching philosophy that can drive professional practice philosophy development appears to be contained in the key
components identified by Martens (2004) as well as Burton and

Raedeke (2008). These include the major objectives and the

principles or beliefs that help coaches achieve those objectives

(Martens, 2004). One of the few investigations examining

coaching philosophy utilized interviews with youth baseball

and softball coaches (McCallister, Blinde, & Weiss, 2000). The
authors found that coaches’ philosophies tend to focus on two key

elements: learning skills and having fun. They also found that

coaches did not identify key issues such as the roles of winning

and competition, and the value of participation as part of their

philosophies, until prompted. Many of these coaches, while able
to articulate their philosophies, had difficulty describing how they

teach those values and life skills within their philosophy on a day-

to-day basis. They concluded, “The extent to which coaches can

articulate their philosophies and the degree to which their behavior

parallels those philosophies are important in determining the
nature of the participant’s experience” (McAllister, et al., 2000,

p. 36). Furthermore, results indicate that these coaches regularly

experienced inconsistencies between their beliefs and actions.

Common inconsistencies occurred in dealings with inappropriate

behavior, communication, playing time, and the emphasis on

winning.

In reviewing the limited research relative to coaching

volume 6, issue 2 21

Coaching Philosophy

philosophy, an early investigation of over 500 male high school to gain a greater understanding of the extent and importance of
coaches of girls’ and boys’ basketball teams, examined gender their belief system prior to formal coach education as well as the
differences in coaching philosophies (Pratt & Eitzen, 1989). While practical application of those early beliefs. Only then, can coaching
educators effectively prepare PSCs in the development of research-
the examination of gender differences in coaching philosophies based coaching philosophies. Therefore, this study examined
was the primary purpose of this study, their findings reinforced coaching philosophies of PSCs at the start of an intensive 15-week
perceptions that principles and beliefs are altered or shaped by coaching education program. The purpose was to explore beliefs,
values, and principles within philosophy statements of individuals
experience and social context. The important role of experience prior to a coaching education program and significant coaching
experience.
exposes a gap in the literature relating to novice coaches. If
Method
experience is essential to the formulation of a coaching philosophy, Participants

where and how do young coaches begin this process? Participants (N=35, males=19; females =16) enrolled in an
intensive coaching education program at a mid-size Division I
Aside from the aforementioned research, most of the coaching university in the U.S. wrote philosophy statements relative to their
beliefs about coaching. On average, these individuals were just
literature does not explicitly explore coaching philosophy. over 20 years of age (M=20.1) and 58% (n=20) of the participants
Consistent with Gilbert and Trudel’s (2004a) meta-analysis identified themselves as student-athletes at the university. Almost
of coaching research, the primary focus has been on coaching half of the PSCs had no previous coaching experience (46%,
n=16). The remaining 54% (n=19) had limited coaching experience
behaviors of experienced coaches and their effects on athletes averaging 2.5 seasons, predominantly as assistant coaches at the
youth level. Further, less than 15% (n=5) were currently coaching
(Smith & Smoll, 1997). Additionally, the development of or assistant coaching a team at either the youth or high school
level. When asked about the extent to which they believed they
knowledge and expertise (Abraham & Collins, 1998), mentoring of would coach in the future, participants’ responses ranged from 4
to 7, with a mean of 5.8, on a 7-point likert scale from unlikely to
young coaches (Bloom, Durand-Bush, Schinke, & Salmela, 1998), definitely. Two individuals enrolled in the program who had no
and experience and reflection in coaching (Gilbert & Trudel, 2000; plans to coach in the future completed the philosophy statements,
Gilbert & Trudel, 2005) were significant topics in the research but were removed from the analysis. Based on the limited coaching
literature. While coaching philosophy is not explicitly identified, experience and the commitment of individuals to coach in the
the role of philosophy is implicit within many of these constructs. future, the remaining 35 participants were characterized as PSCs..

Issues such as coach behavior, knowledge, role framing, and Procedure
mentoring, influence and are influenced by a coach’s philosophical Permission to conduct this study and approval for the use of
beliefs.
human subjects was granted by the investigators’ university
Philosophy is often alluded to in discussions of coaches’ Institutional Review Board. As members of an intensive 15-week
characteristics, role framing and behavior. For example, by coaching education program, these PSCs were asked to write a
statement about their beliefs about coaching. Participants granted
investigating six case studies, Gilbert and Trudel (2004b) consent for the use of their statements and acknowledged that their
identified key components of a coach’s personal approach to statements would not be used as an evaluative component of the
coaching, including discipline, fun, personal and athletic growth course. Prior to this in-class assignment the participants were asked
to spend time reflecting on what they believed to be important
and development, positive team environment, winning, equity, and about coaching and alerted that they would be writing these beliefs
into a statement. Philosophy statements were written at the very
safety. These categories were described as role frame components beginning of the coaching education course prior to receiving
and can arguably be described as priorities reflecting philosophical materials, lectures or teaching points on coaching philosophy.
beliefs that impact daily action. PSCs were given the following directions: “In the space provided,
please write a statement of your coaching philosophy. Philosophy is
Similarly, Smoll and Smith’s (1997) and Smith and Smoll’s defined as the beliefs and principles that guide your actions. Please
(2002) research examining Coach Effectiveness Training (CET) circle the level of sport you are referring to in your philosophy
has identified principles that could be considered philosophical statement.”
in nature. Specifically they argued for a positive approach to
coaching and coaching education that takes into account a healthy All 35 participants wrote a coaching philosophy statement.
Statements ranged in length from half to one and a half pages,
attitude about winning and prioritizes development. Their research and all were completed within 30 to 50 minutes. After compiling
the written philosophy statements, the statements were transcribed
has demonstrated that coaches who create positive learning verbatim. At this point all the members of the research team read

environments through sound instruction and feedback produce

positive experiences for athletes.

Although a focus on coaching education programs has begun to

impact the preparation of coaches (Gilbert & Trudel, 2005), very

little research has focused on the next generation of coaches. Less

than 6.1 percent of the coaching research includes prospective

coaches as participants (Gilbert & Trudel, 2004a). There are no

studies in the sport psychology or coaching literature that explore

coaching philosophy in pre-service coaches (PSCs). However,

research with veteran coaches shows that few coaches spend
significant time early in their careers developing and modifying
sound philosophical beliefs (Wilcox & Trudel, 1998). Since

coaches learn most of their coaching knowledge through actual

experience (Gilbert & Trudel, 2005), perhaps their philosophies

develop over time through experience. It is imperative that applied

sport psychology research examines philosophies of PSCs in order

22 Journal of Research

Coaching Philosophy

each statement in order to develop a complete understanding of the treatment of athletes, as well as a number of lower-order themes

data prior to content analysis. As recommended by Creswell (2003), which merged directly into Coaching Behavior.
Coach creates climate. In this general dimension of Coaching
the research team employed the pragmatic qualitative perspective
Behavior, the higher-order theme of coach creates climate was
of using multiple strategies and perspectives to understand the data.
highlighted by participants writing about the importance of
However, the primary approach utilized a thematic content analysis ‘creating a fun learning environment’. Specifically, one participant
recommended by Miles and Huberman (1994). The research team’s wrote “In order for your team to be successful you must combine
first step in the process of analysis was to agree on an operational
definition of coaching philosophy. The research team mutually enjoyment and fun with an atmosphere that makes players want to
agreed to use Martens’ (2004, p.6) definition (“beliefs or principles
that help achieve your objectives”) to discriminate between learn and encourage each other to learn” (PSC 9, line 256). This
statements that fit or did not fit into the analysis. Each of the four statement parallels findings from the work of McCallister, et al.,
members of the research team independently analyzed the data to (2000) where they identified the importance of coaching belief
identify quotes that clearly reflected the operational definition and systems to include the philosophy of learning new skills while
which statements fell outside the definition. While the subsequent
analysis only dealt with raw data associated with philosophy, other having fun. It is interesting to note how the participants in this

categories associated with coaching style, characteristics and level investigation took ownership in creating a positive climate. This
of coaching were also identified. Raw data units (N=177) (i.e.,
quotes representing a meaningful point or thought) associated with was one of the few times throughout the investigation where the
coaching philosophy were individually identified and consensually participants clearly identified their role in implementing the belief
validated during group meetings with the four investigators. Quotes systems.

with similar meaning were merged into lower-order themes and Equitable treatment of athletes. PSCs also addressed the
labeled to reflect a common understanding. Lower-order themes treatment of athletes and identified the next higher-order theme
were then analyzed for similarity and combined to reflect a common, of equitable treatment of athletes by writing about the importance
more global understanding (i.e., higher-order theme). This process
continued through to the development of final categories. At each of fair and equitable treatment. One PSC highlighted this point
step of this process the four person investigative team reached by writing specifically about fair treatment in regards to playing
time:
consensus in the merging and labeling of themes. It is important
I believe when coaching at the high school level every player
to note that while the data often coalesced cleanly from smaller
deserves the chance to prove themselves and earn playing
lower-order themes to broader higher-order themes and general
time. This does not mean everyone plays equally, but everyone
dimensions, there were cases where a particular lower-order theme
is given a chance. Earned playing time would be based on
carried through to a general dimension (e.g., contributors to success
merged directly into the general dimension of Defining Success). performance, work ethic, and attitude (PSC 30, line 376).
In these cases, the same theme code (e.g., contributors) was carried
While coach creates climate and equitable treatment of athletes
through each level. Similarly, in one case (i.e., Development), the were identified as the higher-order themes in the general dimension
of Coaching Behavior, there were a number of lower-order themes
data was particularly complex and therefore it was necessary to
that carried directly into Coaching Behavior. Examples of such
include a middle-order theme between the lower-order theme and
lower-order themes included using an individualized approach
the higher-order theme.
to coaching, maximizing team potential, strategic playing time,
Throughout the data analysis process, the research team aimed
supportive coaching behaviors, maximizing a learning experience,
to retain the holistic view of the participants while maintaining the
using effective communication and effective coaching behaviors.
uniqueness of each individual participant. Trustworthiness of the More specifically, participants wrote about the importance of
flexibility and individualized approaches to coaching. For instance,
data (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Patton, 1990) was demonstrated by one PSC simply stated, “You can’t approach every situation the
same [,]much the way you can’t coach every kid the same way”
continually going back to the initial statements of the individuals, (PSC 11, line 295).

as well as through consensual validation of themes. PSCs also identified the importance of supportive coaching
behaviors as a lower-order theme leading directly to the general
Results and Discussion
Initial results from the content analysis revealed seven general dimension of Coaching Behavior. Supportive coaching behaviors

dimensions derived from a number of higher-order themes, included behaviors such as encouragement and positive

lower-order themes, and raw data units. General dimensions reinforcement. An example of such beliefs is found in the following
included: Coaching Behavior, Defining Success, Development,
Expectations, Fun, Life Lessons Learned Through Sport and statement. “My philosophy to coaching is structured off positive

Relationships. Patterns and themes emerging from each of these reinforcement and enthusiasm” (PSC 8, line 251). Many of these

general dimensions and subsequent discussion are presented themes refer to feedback and expectancies and relate to previous

below. research on coaching behavior (Horn, 2008; Smith & Smoll, 1997).

Coaching Behavior Further, sport psychology consultants and coaching educators can
The general dimension of Coaching Behavior consisted of benefit from the knowledge of these belief statements in their work
with teams, coaches, and individuals.
two higher-order themes: coach creates climate and equitable
Along similar lines, participants identified how knowing their
players can lead to maximizing team potential, and thus highlights

another lower-order theme that lead directly to Coaching Behavior.

“A coach should have an understanding of his/her players as

volume 6, issue 2 23

Coaching Philosophy

unique individuals and be able to combine these qualities together early, keep you awake watching film, get that loose ball, keep
to create a fluid team” (PSC 20, line 173). However, while some you out of trouble, and will keep you focused and much more
participants highlighted the importance of equitable treatment and
consistent playing time for individuals, others stated the importance (PSC 6, line 78).
of a coach effectively using strategic playing time. This lower- Success as process over product. In addition to defining
order theme of strategic playing time can be best understood in contributors to success, participants were able to articulate the
the following quote. “I will not hold back players when it comes
to winning, the correct players need to be in the game” (PSC 30, differenceinprocessandproductandthusemphasizedtheimportance
line 369). of process. This is exemplified in the following statement, “Wins
keep everyone coming back but it is not all about product, it is all
Strategic playing time, maximizing team potential, and an
individualized approach to coaching are all related to the decision about process. Success can come at any point [,] not just after the
making of the coach. Gilbert and Trudel (2000) examined coaches’ final buzzer rings after play is complete” (PSC 2, line 13). The
decision making as a link to the beliefs and behaviors exhibited coaching literature relative to goal setting often identifies process
by a coach and the statements by these PSCs support their work. over product. That is, the process of setting small, measurable,
Linking decision making to beliefs and behaviors is an important
content area for coaching educators and sport psychology attainable goals throughout a season is a better indicator of success
consultants. When working with coaches it is critical to help them
process the reasons behind the decisions that they make. and improvement than the product (i.e., outcome) goals. Process

It is not at all surprising to read about positive reinforcement and goals are prominent in sport, whether in life skill development
enthusiasm as part of the coaching philosophy of PSCs. Gilbert and
Trudel (2004b) highlighted how coaching behavior and coaching (Danish, Fazio, Nellen, & Owens, 2002; Gould, Collins, Lauer, &
belief systems is often a product shaped by experience. This finding
supports this notion. The PSCs in this study were young adults Chung, 2006) or in goal setting for performance (Wilson, Hardy,
who had very limited experience coaching (46% had no previous
coaching experience). However, the majority of the participants & Harwood, 2006). While these PSCs were able to identify the
were either current or former student-athletes and as a whole, they
had extensive playing experience. Most current and former athletes difference between process and product goals, coaching educators
highlighted the importance of positive reinforcement because they
experienced supportive behavior and positive reinforcement and need to assist coaches in translating beliefs into behavior.
they attributed their success to it, or they did not experience these Discipline as the foundation of success. A number of the
behaviors and therefore had negative attributes. Recognizing the
importance of personal experience, it is not surprising that these participants wrote extensively about discipline. Specifically, the
PSCs highlighted this theme. participants were able to identify discipline as a building block
for success. “It’s my belief [that] discipline is the back bone of a
In summarizing the Coaching Behavior general dimension, successful team” (PSC 5, line 70). Once again, these PSCs wanted
participants made statements of belief in line with current literature.
Of particular interest was the coach’s role in creating a positive discipline on their teams but did not discuss how to create it or
climate. This was one of the few times throughout the results
where the PSCs took ownership for their role in contributing to a what discipline looks like.
positive environment. Role of winning and losing. The final lower-order theme in

Defining Success Defining Success was the role of winning and losing. Individuals
The second general dimension derived from the statements varied in their beliefs about winning and losing. For some, winning

of coaching philosophy was Defining Success. This dimension was the ultimate goal, while for others, athlete development was
consisted of four unique lower-order themes that merged directly
to the general dimension of Defining Success. These unique prioritized over winning. Differential views on the importance of
lower-order themes included: contributors to success, success as a
process over product, role of winning and losing, and discipline as winning can be seen in the following quotes. “If a coach cares
the foundation of success.
about his/her players, he should thus always put their best interests
Contributors to success. PSCs identified a number of first, even if this means putting winning second” (PSC18, line
contributors to success including effort, attitude, creativity, hard 150). Alternately, one PSC indicated, “I would put an emphasis
work and commitment. Specifically, participants were able to
identify the influence of important characteristics in defining on winning because I think it feels so great to achieve a win. I say
success. The theme of defining success based on attitude can be that we wouldn’t keep score if we weren’t trying to win” (PSC13,
seen in the following statement: line 95). While some of the participants had philosophical beliefs
of “athletes first, winning second” (Martens, 2004, p.22), others
Attitude is just as important. Attitude reaches to many other emulated their current collegiate playing experience by focusing
aspects in sports. A positive strong attitude will guide a player
and a coach to success. A good attitude will get you to practice on the importance of winning. Coaching educators are often faced

24 Journal of Research with the task of helping coaches to understand the role of winning

and although these PSCs have limited experience thus far, they

were able to articulate their beliefs about how they prioritized

winning.

Development
The general dimension of Development was one of the richest

dimensions in all the data. Because of the complexity and richness

of this general dimension, the development of lower and higher-
order themes was significantly more multifaceted than other
dimensions. Almost all of the participants wrote about growth in

some capacity as it became clear that development was a priority in

their coaching. Results from content analysis revealed two higher-

order themes, athletic development and personal development.
Athletic development. The higher-order theme of athletic

Coaching Philosophy

development consisted of a middle-order theme, as well as multiple Creating a framework for positive youth development through

lower-order themes. The middle-order theme of development of sports programs has positive outcomes (Petitpas, Cornelius, Van

an athletic mentality as well as lower-order themes of supporting Raalte, & Jones, 2005) and the PSCs in this investigation have

multiple sport experiences, skill development, goal setting process, been able to articulate their beliefs about the importance of this

development of a hard work ethic, and lessons of achievement development.
Finally, there were those participants who identified the lower-
merged to form the higher-order theme of athletic development.
order theme combining personal and athletic development to be
The middle-order theme of development of an athletic mentality
reflected lower-order themes of development of a hard work a critical component of their coaching philosophy. The idea of
ethic, goal setting process, developing confidence, and lessons
of achievement. Participants described this athletic mentality in developing the person as well as athletic skill appealed to these

a number of ways, but in essence it could be characterized as PSCs. For instance, one participant stated, “It is your job as a youth

the intangible skills athletes develop to help them succeed. For coach to provide not only skill/ability advise [sic], but also to shape

instance, one participant stated: “Encouraging the athletes to push that athlete into a respectable human being” (PSC 15, line 113).

themselves and allow them to see they are capable of much more These PSCs recognized that personal and athletic development
than they ever imagined, helps build a stronger and more confident
athlete” (PSC 5, line 68). were not mutually exclusive and might actually be mutually
beneficial. Personal and athletic growth and development is one of
Both empirical and anecdotal evidence suggest that the the role frame components (i.e., priorities reflecting philosophical
beliefs that impact daily action) as described by Gilbert and
development of an athletic mentality is a familiar concept in
Trudel (2004b) in their investigation of coaching behavior. These
coaching (Vealey, 2005). As sport becomes inherently more components are keys to a coach’s approach to coaching.

specialized and competitive, the importance of mentally tough Coaching education programs throughout the United States are

athletes is crucial. Coaches at all levels strive to recruit and maintain based on creating a philosophy relative to three main principles
athletes who are confident and have this athletic mentality. What is
interesting to note about the PSCs in this investigation is that while in coaching: winning, development, and fun. Coaching educators

they clearly articulated the desire for their athletes to develop this encourage PSCs to think about these three main objectives and
mentality, they were much less clear in identifying their specific
role in helping them to achieve it. This is a recurring theme with prioritize them appropriately. The PSCs in this study, while not

these young coaches and not surprising given the lack of coaching explicitly stating as such, prioritized development. We draw this

experience of the participants. conclusion based on the holistic context of the written statements,

While development of an athletic mentality was a rich middle- as well as the repetitive nature of development in their philosophy

order theme, two other lower-order themes contributed to athletic statements. While these coaches were not able to articulate their
specific role in development, they were able to address development
development. The lower-order theme of skill development was as a salient construct.

highlighted throughout the content analysis of athletic development. Expectations
As an example, participants identified the development of skills The next general dimension, Expectations, consisted of only
as a salient piece of their coaching beliefs. For instance one PSC
one higher-order theme, behavioral expectations, and several
wrote, “Creating strong fundamental skills is a strong building
lower-order themes that merged directly to the general dimension
block for the next level. A player can always get better, but getting
of Expectations.
better with the right skills can get you further” (PSC 6, line 76); Behavioral expectations. In relation to the higher-order theme
while another added an age appropriate qualifier “When kids
are just starting out it is important to attempt to develop their of behavioral expectations, participants wrote about the appropriate

skills” (PSC 35, line 219). These PSCs recognized their role in representation of the school and community as well as the lower-
physical skill development. The statements in this area reflected
more concrete ideas of what they would focus on. The lower- order theme of adhering to rules and regulations on and off the
field. For example, one participant wrote, “I would want them to
order theme of supporting multiple sport experiences also merged represent themselves, their family and friends, their town, their

into the higher-order theme of athletic development. This theme school, and their team extremely well” (PSC 13, line 93). Recently,
reflected a desire to minimize the specialization of young athletes there has been an increase in the scientific research in applied sport
and let them experience multiple sport environments. While this psychology relative to principles of life skill development in sport

theme was infrequently reported, it was heavily emphasized by a (Danish, et al,, 2002; Dworkin, Larson, & Hansen 2003; Gould

few PSCs. et al., 2006; Gould, Collins, Lauer, & Chung, 2007). One of the
Personal development. Personal development was the second
tenets in developing positive life skills in and through sport is the
higher-order theme in the general dimension of Development. This
ability of coaches to not only set expectations, but also to hold
theme consisted of raw data units that led directly to the higher-
athletes accountable (Gould et al., 2007).
order theme of personal development. These data units consisted
In addition to the higher-order theme of behavioral expectations,
of character, personal growth, and personal development as most PSCs also identified lower-order themes of performance
important in PSCs’ coaching beliefs. “My coaching philosophy, expectations and expectations of effort as critical components
along with most coaches, has many different aspects involving not
just sport specific/goal coaching. Athletics is something that aids of their philosophy. For example, the lower-order theme of
kids in their development as an overall person” (PSC 21, line 297). performance expectations is exemplified in the following quote:
“When we hit the ice for practice, it[‘]s work time and I expect my
players to perform as best they can daily, knowing that physical

volume 6, issue 2 25

Coaching Philosophy

mistakes will happen regardless but mental mistakes are not all the fundamentals, the patience, the motivating speeches, it’s
acceptable” (PSC 26, line 342). The performance expectation was really all about having a fun time” (PSC 23, line 315).
reinforced with an additional lower-order theme of expectation of
effort. This is evident in this statement, “If you aren’t going to Coaches of all levels value fun. This finding was confirmed
show up willing to give 100% and in the right mental state then through this investigation. In all levels of sport, coaches need to be
think twice about even showing up” (PSC 36, line 231). Athletes
interpret beliefs about their ability based on beliefs and behaviors aware of the motives of their athletes. Understanding participant
of significant others (Fredricks & Eccles, 2004). By conveying motives is arguably the first step in creating a positive sport
expectations about performance, coaches provide information experience. Fun or enjoyment has been found as a key component
relative to the ability of their athletes to meet such expectations.
Further, by including expectations in their philosophy statements, in a variety of theoretical models of participant motivation in
these PSCs are laying the groundwork for the importance of effort
in perceptions of ability. sport psychology. The Competence Motivation Model (Harter,
1978) identifies enjoyment as central; Expectancy-value (Eccles
While the PSCs were clear about the importance of setting et al.,1983) posits that positive affect impacts achievement
expectations, a few also identified the importance of clearly
communicating these expectations to their athletes. Therefore, related choices. Finally the Sport Commitment Model (Scanlan,
convey clear expectations emerged as a raw data unit that carried
directly to the general dimension of Expectations. For example, Carpenter, Schmidt, Simons, & Keeler, 1993) indicates lack of
one participant noted: “A college level coach should have a basic
philosophy of what he/she expects from his/her athletes on a day-to- enjoyment and satisfaction as key components in the decision
day basis and they should make these foundations of their program
clear” (PSC 20, line 171). Conveying clear expectations is arguably to withdraw from sport. Whether planning to coach youth, high
a component of effective communication. Bloom, Schinke,
and Salmela (1997) investigated developmental components of school, or college, participants in this investigation consistently
communication with coaches. Their research identified the process identified fun as an important factor in their coaching beliefs. What
of communication styles from the novice coach to the international is interesting to decipher in this context is not only the value of fun,
elite coaches and found how communication styles are modified but more importantly, how fun is defined. It is a positive finding
throughout one’s coaching career. Further, when consulting with that these PSCs were able to identify fun as a salient component
coaches and athletes, coaching educators identify enhancing in their philosophy, without the benefit of understanding how
communication as a common strategy for enhancing performance this consistently paralleled major theoretical foundations in sport
and team relationships. It is encouraging that the PSCs in this psychology. Further, this finding is also consistent with major
investigation were able to articulate the need for conveying clear objectives in coaching education programs about prioritizing
expectations, as it is rare that novice coaches are cognizant of
effective communication. winning, fun, and development.

What was most interesting about the general dimension of Life Lessons Learned Through Sport
Expectations was again the PSCs’ lack of ownership in helping The general dimension Life Lessons Learned Through Sport
athletes to meet these expectations. For example, participants were
clear in addressing the importance of conveying clear expectations; consisted of the two higher- order themes of intra sport values and
however, they did not address the coach’s role in working towards specific life skills gained through sport. The research team defined
meeting these expectations. This appeared to be a common theme intra sport values as general values that could be learned both in
among most of the general dimensions (with the exception of and out of the sport context. Specific life skills gained through
Coaching Behavior). PSCs were able to articulate their belief sport, on the other hand, was represented by clearly identifying a
systems, but were unable to articulate the implementation of such specific life skill and the relationship with sport.
beliefs. This is one of the most telling findings of this investigation
and parallels research by McCallister et al., (2000) as the authors Intra sport values. Content analysis of the higher-order theme
found a disconnect between stated beliefs and subsequent action. of intra sport values revealed lower-order themes of such values
It is likely due to the fact that the participants in this investigation
were either novice coaches or PSCs. as fairplay, importance of hard work, sportspersonship, respect,

Fun learning sport values, learning responsibilities, and lessons of team
The general dimension Fun was by far the most concise of all dynamics. For example, this PSC identified a list of values that
should start early in sport, “The youth level is the starting point
the dimensions. Participants talked extensively about how fun
was a critical component of their philosophy. There were multiple to hard work and dedication, team work, fair play, and respect”
raw data units that all merged into the lower-order theme of fun.
Subsequently, the lower-order theme of fun merged directly to the (PSC 15, line 112). The development of such traits as respect,
general dimension. This quote taken from one of the statements
succinctly highlights this point, “I think most importantly behind character, and responsibility are traits that are proposed to enhance

26 Journal of Research a particular experience. These intra sport values were critical
components of these PSCs’ beliefs.

Specific life skills gained through sport. Alternately the
higher-order theme of specific life skills gained through sport
highlighted similar values in a more specific context. In relation to
the higher-order theme of specific life skills gained through sport,
such lower-order themes of discipline, positive team dynamics,

appropriate stress, and positive affect, equitable treatment of others,

commitment, dedication, and work ethic emerged. For example:

Team unity at any level is great, but a lot of high school athletes

will never play college or pro so being able to relay a message

of unity, respect, and compassion for their peers will teach them

life lessons (PSC 19, line 156).

Finally, content analysis also revealed a unique lower-order

Coaching Philosophy

theme of the importance of life lessons that led directly to the emphasizing team unity to the importance of teamwork and social
cohesion, participants consistently referred to team relationships.
general dimension of Life Lessons Learned Through Sport. The As one participant noted:
coach’s role in enhancing these life lessons was a theme that
participants wrote about in their philosophy statements. For I want to try and get the message across to students the
importance of a team, and working together as one. Many think
example, one stated, “For these reasons, I feel it is important for it is about individual glory, but they need to understand that
team comes before the individual, in any sport (PSC 12, line
the coach to realize that his/her actions contribute to the lifelong 82).
This finding is comparable to one of the key principles of Smith
lesson that sport teaches a child” (PSC 31, line 381). and Smoll’s (1997) Coach Effectiveness Training. Their third
principle relates to the importance of teaching coaches the benefits
Building life skills through sport is fast becoming a trend in of enhancing cohesion and support among team members. The
PSCs in this investigation were able to articulate their beliefs about
the sport psychology and coaching literatures (Danish et. al, 2002; the importance of team relationships. It is a positive finding that
the statements of the PSCs in this study coincide with evidence in
Dworkin, et al., 2003; Gould et al, 2006, 2007; Mahoney, Larson, established coach training programs.
Finally, the unique lower-order theme of coach-parent
& Eccles, 2005). Recent research has demonstrated a relationship relationships was important to the participants in this study. Being
open to parent interaction was viewed as a critical component by
between positive life skills and sport. What is less clear, however, one participant. PSC 24 emphasized this in the following statement,
“Lastly, I would always be 100% fair with both the child and the
is the exact nature and role of the coach in this relationship. Gould parent and be open to new ideas and build a friendly relationship
et al. (2006) identified the importance of having systematic and with the parents” (line, 325).
specific strategies combined with the foundation of a workable Relationships are a critical part of sport. Numerous investigations
coaching philosophy for building positive life skills through sport. have examined the impact of coach-athlete relationships on a
The PSCs in this investigation have begun with the first piece of the particular sport experience (Côté & Salmela, 1995; Gilbert &
puzzle, which is identifying a coaching philosophy that directs life Trudel, 2004). While the participants in this investigation mirrored
skill development. While Gould et al.’s (2006) research focused previous findings about building relationships, what is interesting
on veteran coaches, this group of PSCs has yet to learn how to to note is that again the PSCs, with few exceptions, were not able
to articulate their role as a coach in systematically cultivating such
implement such belief systems. Coaching educators need to be relationships.

at the forefront in providing coaches with strategies to translate Conclusion
The development of a coaching philosophy has been highly
belief into behavior. touted as a key to success in coaching, yet few examinations have
explored this concept. This investigation of PSCs’ philosophies
Relationships identified seven general dimensions including: Coaching Behavior,
The final general dimension was Relationships. Content Defining Success, Development, Expectations, Fun, Life Lessons
Learned Through Sport, and Relationships. These dimensions
analysis revealed a single higher-order theme of coach-athlete reflect commonly accepted constructs within coaching education
and sport psychology and are regularly illustrated by highly
relationships, as well as multiple lower-order themes that merged experienced, model coaches on the sidelines. Despite their lack
of coaching education and coaching experience, these PSCs were
directly into the general dimension. well versed in their beliefs about coaching and the positive impact
Coach-athlete relationship. The higher-order theme of coach- that sport can have on participants. Sport psychology practitioners
and coaching educators are the logical professionals to assist young
athlete relationships consisted of lower-order themes of directional coaches in creating that impact. While social desirability may have
been operating to some extent, these coaches were fairly articulate
relationships from the coach to the athlete as well as the directional in writing about their beliefs.
These results also highlighted a disconnect within their
relationship from the athlete to the coach. Additionally, participants coaching philosophies. The PSCs’ beliefs about coaching and their
role as a coach in implementing their philosophy reflect a lack of
wrote about mutual coach-athlete relationships, which emerged as congruence between belief and behavior. This reinforces the need
for coaching education programs to provide young coaches with
the third lower-order theme. specific strategies for taking ownership and implementing their
beliefs.
The coach to athlete directional relationship was an important
factor in many of the participants’ coaching philosophy. Of
particular importance was the role of the coach in creating a

positive relationship with their athletes. PSC 34 highlights this

in the following statement, “I think it is important for coaches to

relate to their players on a personal level, as well as a professional

level” (line 213). When participants wrote about the lower-

order theme of athlete to coach directional relationship, trust
was a common finding. One participant stated this succinctly,
“Athletes must be able to trust their coaches” (PSC 4, line 58).

While directional relationships revealed important constructs

of philosophy statements, the lower-order theme of mutually

dependent relationships between the coach and athlete were also
viewed as important, “If coaches don’t genuinely care about the
players than the players will not learn to trust or respect the coach

in return” (PSC 18, line 148).

In addition to the higher-order theme of coach-athlete
relationship, content analysis indicated significant lower-order
themes of team relationships, mutual respect, and coach-parent

relationships that merged directly to the general dimension

of Relationships. The importance of team relationships was a

recurring topic in this general dimension. From the raw data units of

volume 6, issue 2 27

Coaching Philosophy

Future Directions of growth experiences in youth activities. Journal of Youth and
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Eccles, J., Adler, T., Futterman, R., Goff, S., Kaczala, C., Meese, J., &
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