economy of much of West Virginia and eastern Kentucky. Coal is used for the power plants and steelworks
of the mid-Atlantic and lower Great Lakes regions. Drilling is another extractive activity that takes out the
vast deposits of oil and natural gas buried under the Earth for using it as energy and fuel. North America is
home to vast deposits of oil and natural gas and extracting them out is a key component of North American
economy. The United States, Canada, and Mexico are among the world’s top oil producers. Extraction of oil
and natural gas in fact creates maximum number of employment in areas of mining in North America and
is crucial to the welfare of provincial regions like Texas, Oklahoma, and Louisiana in United States. Oil and
gas extraction is the dominant industry in North America. Mexico leads other North American countries
as one of the top oil exporters in the world, largely because of its reserves in and around the Gulf. Thus,
Mexican economy thrives on export of oil whereas Alberta’s economic barometer pulsates with the rise and
fall of petroleum price. Although both the United States and Canada produce more oil than Mexico, they
also consume far more. Both the countries are mostly importers, not exporters, of oil and natural gas.
Manufacturing in United States for fuel, cotton and wool, leather, wood products, and metals has been
traditionally strong in the New England area. New England having a total area of about 176,000 sq km
(about 68,000 sq mi) is the collective name given to the six states of the north-eastern United States, namely
Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. At present there are the
regions in United States that place constant demands for industrially manufactured products like the mid-
Atlantic states place demand for coal, oil, natural gas, iron ore and other metals, and food products, while
the Pittsburgh region needs iron, copper, oil, and gas. Last but not the least, the lower Great Lakes–Lake
Michigan area’s need for coal, oil, gas, iron, pulp and paper, and wood and the Los Angeles–San Francisco
region place the demand for steel, aluminium, cellulose products, oil, and chemicals. Manufacturing is
a principal economic activity in Canada. Ontario and Quebec put together account for three-fourths of
the nation’s manufactured goods. Toronto and Montreal are the leading manufacturing centers. Many
manufacturing factories and industries are situated primarily in the cities of Ontario, Québec Province,
British Columbia, and Alberta. Canada produces a wide variety of goods, especially processed food and
beverages, transportation equipment, paper and other forest products, primary and fabricated metals,
chemicals, and electrical and electronic equipment. Definitely, Mexico is not at par with United States and
Canada with regard to technological and industrial advancement. Nevertheless, Mexico produces variety
of goods, notably chemicals, clothing, processed food, motor vehicles and motor-vehicle parts, construction
materials, and electrical and electronic equipment. Mexico City is world-renowned manufacturing centre,
but several other cities, including Monterrey and Guadalajara, have important concentrations of factories.
Service sectors are concentrated in the highly populous areas of Boston, New York City, Philadelphia,
Pittsburgh, Chicago, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Toronto, Montreal, Mexico City, San Jose and so on. Space-
age developments followed by revolution of information and communication have spurred the growth of
service industries from Texas through Louisiana to Florida to farther Vancouver. These service industries,
mainly science-based, are to meet the immense demand for travel, recreation, research and exploration.
Service industry has a bearing on other economic sectors too like agriculture and industry—directly or
indirectly. Transport, communication, health and education have direct relationship with service sector
and thus are adequately developed in both the northern countries of North America i.e. United States and
Canada. For example, major highways connect the tourist areas in the Appalachians, in the Cordilleras, and
along the seacoasts.
North American trade patterns show marked contrasts. Canada earns much due to foreign trade and depends
on foreign trade more than any other developed country, as internal consumption within the country is
much less because of low population but blessed with great resource and high productivity. External trade
in United States just accounts for about one-fourth of its total trade.
Mexico and Central America still have subsistence level economy and produce little more than enough goods
for local trade. The oil exports have given Mexico higher income and made this country overly dependent
on a commodity that is subject to market fluctuations. Lately, the Mexican government has attempted to
diversify the country’s export economy by expanding Mexico’s industrial base with a view to increase the
export of manufactured goods, and augmenting the export of agricultural goods and metals.
245<< Nova Social Studies Grade-10
Words and terms you would like to know
Extractive (adj.): the process of pulling something out
Cellulose (n.): a substance used to make plastic and synthetic fibers
Fluctuation (n.): change often from high to low levels or from one thing to another in an unpredictable way
Augment (v.): to add to something in order to make it larger or more substantial, or to grow in this way
Activities
1. Make a list of all the economic activities after holding a discussion on this topic in the classroom.
2. Describe why people from different parts of the world want to visit either Canada or United States of
America. Organize a lively discussion in the classroom in the presence of your Social Studies teacher in
an effort to write a description on it.
3. Read the following passage:
Agriculture and Forestry in Canada
Canada is additionally one of the world’s largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian
Prairies are one of the most important global producers of wheat, canola (rapeseed that yields oil with
high nutritional quality), and other grains. Actually, Canada’s abundant production and relatively small
population has made it a leading exporter of food products in the world. Farms in Canada are almost
equally devoted to crop raising and livestock production. Wheat is the most important single crop, and the
Prairie Provinces of Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan constitute one of the greatest wheat-growing
areas of the world. Livestock and livestock products play significant role within the Canadian economy.
That is why west part of Canada especially the dry grasslands of southern Alberta and Saskatchewan has
specialized ranches for beef cattle.
The United States has some of the best farm-cultivation land in the world. Cultivated farmland constitutes
19 percent of the land area of the country and makes the United States the world’s richest agricultural
nation. Farmers produce surplus quantities of agricultural commodities and a variety of crops and
livestock backed up with the nation’s favourable climate, soil, and water conditions. It is not surprising
that the United States is the largest producer of corn, soybeans, and sorghum, and it ranks second in the
production of wheat, oats, citrus fruits, and tobacco. The United States is also a major producer of sugar
cane, potatoes, peanuts, and beet sugar. It ranks fourth in the world in cattle production and second in
hogs. Uniqueness of US economy lies in the fact that on an average agriculture accounts for one or less
than 1 percent of annual GDP with barely 2-3 percent of the workforce involved in agricultural activity
despite the production of such a vast agricultural output.
Forest products in Canada sustain regional and rural economy. In fact, the forest industry right from
logging, through manufacturing, to trade in wood products in Canada supports around 1 million jobs as a
whole and generates roughly 1 in 15 jobs to become the largest non-urban employer. Forest covers around
31% of the total land area in Canada and makes up about 10% of the world’s total forest area. Forest
related economic activities are mainly concentrated in British Columbia, Québec, and Ontario. Canadian
wood products are of the best quality and the resultant pulp (that Canada produces as the second largest
producer in the world) makes durable, light-colour paper products. Canada ranks the first in the world
in production of newsprint followed by United States and exports most of the products. Canada is the
world’s largest exporter of softwood lumber too.
I. Both Nepal and Canada have stressed on agriculture and forestry. Canada has become the world
leader in farming as well as forestry and Nepal is still a developing country fighting poverty. Hold
a discussion in the classroom why Nepal is still backward despite majority of people in the country
engaging in agriculture and forestry.
II. Based on above passage, suggest the ways for improving our agriculture and forestry.
4. Make a list of social activities of North America on the chart paper and display the same in the classroom.
246 Nova Social Studies Grade-10 >>
Exercise
1. Present a brief commentary on the social life pattern of North America.
2. Specify the areas in North America with high and sparse density of population. Give reasons behind
such a pattern of population distribution across the regions of North America.
3. Make a list of all the economic activities of North America and briefly describe them.
4. Point out the reasons behind having such a high per capita income in United States of America and
Canada and analyse them.
5. Explore the reasons behind highly developed economy of North America.
6. Explain why the eastern part of United States and Canada are more developed than the western part.
7. Describe how forest products in Canada sustain regional and rural economy.
8. Differentiate between ‘wheat belt’ and ‘corn belt’ in North America.
9. Which part of North America is more suitable for ‘crop farming’ and why?
10. Oil and gas extraction is the dominant economic activity in North America. Briefly mention about it by
giving examples of the region.
11. Name the major industrial belts of North America.
12. Mexico has lately emerged as important manufacturing country. Explain the reasons behind it by citing
examples of its important manufacturing centres.
13. Specify why Canada earns much out of foreign trade.
14. Give reasons why US culture is recognized as a “salad bowl”.
15. On the outline map of North America, show (mark) the following points or places:
Set 1: Appalachian Highlands, St. Lawrence River, Alaska, Great Lakes, Boreal (Taiga) forest,
Hudson Bay, Prairies, Mackenzie Mountain, Mississippi River
Set 2: Ottawa, Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of California, Haiti, Yukon River, Iron Ore Area, Coal Mines
Area, Philadelphia, Kingston, Labrador Current
Set 3: Yucatan Peninsula, Santiago River, St. Johns’ Port, Puerto Rico, Gold Mines, Lumbering Area,
Calgary, Gulf of Campeche, Mt. Whitney, California Current
Project Work
Draw a map of North America on a big chart paper and colour it to show all the physical features and
different states (countries). Display the hand-drawn map of North America on the classroom wall.
Community Work
Make a comparative study of natural resources available in Nepal with that of three prominent countries of
North America in order to learn how to use resources from them.
247<< Nova Social Studies Grade-10
Lesson South America –Natural and
1 2 Physical Features
South America: An Introduction
Map of South America
South America is the fifth biggest in terms of population and fourth largest in terms of area (after Asia,
Africa and North America) of the world’s continents, lying entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly
248 Nova Social Studies Grade-10 >>
in the Southern Hemisphere (55°S) with only a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere (12°N).
South America has an area of 17,814,000 square kilometers (6,878,000 sq mi). South America shares its border
with the Caribbean Sea to the northwest and north, the Atlantic Ocean to the entire east (covering both the
northeast and the southeast), and the Pacific Ocean to the west. In the northwest, Isthmus of Panama joins
South America with North America as a land bridge that narrows down to about 50 miles (80 kilometers) at
one point and the Drake Passage, south of Cape Horn, separates South America from Antarctica.
The coastline of South America is relatively regular except in the extreme south and southwest. Brazil is the
largest country in South America, covering around half of the continent’s land area and population. Portuguese
and Spanish are two most popular languages in South America and have been adopted as official languages by
several countries. Brazil has adopted Portuguese as its official language whereas Spanish is the official language
in countries like Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Equatorial Guinea, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay,
and Venezuela. In terms of number of language-users, Portuguese exceeds Spanish.
South America is famous as the land of superlatives. South America is home to the world’s highest waterfall
– Angel Falls (979 m of height) in Venezuela in Guiana Highlands. Amazon River is the largest flowing river
in the world in terms of watershed area, number of tributaries, and volume of water discharged. A vast
forested area of the Amazon River basin in Brazil and neighbouring countries in South America is the largest
rainforest with highest biodiversity in the world. Andes, a mountain range having the chief mountains in
South America, is the longest one in the world with Mountain Aconcagua, the highest peak in the western
hemisphere located near the border with Chile. Aconcagua is an extinct volcano having the height of 6,962
m. Atacama Desert, arid region in northern Chile, is one of the driest regions in the world having received
the rainfall only for two to four times in a century. La Paz, a city in Western Bolivia and located on the La
Paz river is Bolivia’s largest city. This city perches on about 3625 m above sea level in the Andes Mountains
thereby making it the highest large city in the world. Similarly, Lake Titicaca Extending from south-eastern
Peru to western Bolivia is the highest navigable lake in the world (about 3,810 m above sea level). This is
how continent of South America makes the fascinating land of wonders.
South America: Physical Feature
Physical feature of South America is almost the same as North America. South America except Antarctica
is the only continent that penetrates so deep to the south to reach almost up to sub-polar (sub-Antarctic)
latitudes. Although much of the high Andes lies within the tropics (it also reaches to sub-Antarctic latitudes)
yet climate near the equator along the Andes exhibits the features of temperate and cold regions all due to
dominant influence of altitude along the Andes. The physical feature of South America is no less attractive
in terms of contrasts. For example, Mount Aconcagua in Argentina having the altitude of 6,962 m is not
only the continent’s highest point but also the highest elevation in the Western Hemisphere. There are
other mountain peaks too in South America which go beyond the height of 6000m. On the other hand, the
Valdes Peninsula on the south-eastern coast of Argentina towards the Pacific Ocean is the lowest point in the
continent, at 40 meters below sea level.
Physical feature of South America has three main divisions as given below:
1. Main Land Topography
2. Rivers and Lakes
3. Climatic Conditions
Let us understand them in detail.
1. Land Topography: Andes Mountains cover almost the entire western portion of South America. Andes have
been formed because of westward drifting of the South American plate thereby forcing the oceanic plate to
the west under it and thus constituting a gigantic backbone along the entire Pacific coast of the continent. The
continent’s main rivers and their tributaries have deposited large quantities of sediments and thus formed the
big basins between the east of the Andes and the eastern highlands. Following are the major land topography
in South America:
A. Western Mountain-ranges (cordilleras)
B. Central Plains (lowlands)
249<< Nova Social Studies Grade-10
C. The Eastern Plateaus (Highlands)
D. Deserts
A. Western Mountain-ranges: Western mountain system popularly known as Andes – a chain of mountains
running closely along the Pacific coast right from Venezuela in the north to the Tierra del Fuego (Land
of Fire) in the South covers the length of about 7000 km (with an average width of 500 km) making it the
world’s longest mountain range above the sea level. Tierra del Fuego is an archipelago located at the southern
tip of South America. The Andes, only after the Himalayas, possess some of the world’s highest peaks-- as
more than 50 mountain peaks go higher than 6,100 above sea level along with Mount Aconcogua. The Andes
have emerged as the longest system of high mountain ranges on earth. The mountains of Andes in the west
reach into seven countries: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. The
world’s highest volcanoes are in the Andes. Over fifty other Andean volcanoes also rise above 6,000 m.
Cotopaxi, an active volcanic mountain in central Ecuador, is situated in the Andes mountains, near Quito.
The Andes are part of the Circum-Pacific volcanic chain, often called the Ring of Fire where earthquakes are
frequent.
Physical Map of South America
250 Nova Social Studies Grade-10 >>
B. Central Lowlands (Plains): Plain land (also known as lowland) lies in between the Western Mountains
and Eastern Plateaus (or Highlands). Llanos, the tropical grassland in the north of South America, is almost
coextensive with the Orinoco River basin. Llanos lies between the Venezuelan Andes and the Guiana
Highlands and is covered with alluvia brought down by the Andean torrents (fast and powerful rush water).
The Amazonian depression is covered with deep layers of alluvial sand and clay. The Amazonian depression
is the largest river basin in the world and forms an immense plain bounded by the Andes to the west,
the Guiana Highlands to the north, and the Brazilian Highlands to the south. Similarly, the basin of the
Paraguay has a series of alluvial plains drained by a complex network of rivers interspersed with marshes.
The extensive plain to the west of the river Paraguay is called the Gran Chaco – that generally remains arid.
However, annual flooding during the rainy season (about November through March) causes an extensive
swamp-formation.
The Pampas of Argentina is the landscape that appears perfectly level land covered with thick deposits
of loose sediments brought down from the Andes. It covers an area of almost 480000 square km (300,000
square miles).
C. Eastern Highlands: Eastern Highlands consist of Guiana Highlands and Brazilian Highlands. Both the
highlands are geologically similar to each other. The eastern part of the Amazon lowland separates the
Guiana Highlands from the Brazilian Highlands.
1. Guiana Highlands are plateau and low-mountain region of South America located north of the Amazon
and south of the Orinoco River. It is a heavily forested plateau and covers the most of southern half of
Venezuela. The elevation of Guiana Highlands ranges from 300 meters above sea level to 2,772 meters
of Mount Roraima where the boundaries of Brazil, Venezuela, and Guyana meet. The Guiana Highlands
extend westward across the Upper Orinoco.
The crystalline rocks carry a wealth of minerals, but thick forest cover in the region makes the exploration
a difficult endeavour. Guiana is famous for Gold and diamond mining, and the Serranía Imataca of
Venezuela is a major source of iron ore. Angel Falls – the world’s highest waterfall (979 meters) - is the most
notable natural landmark in the Guiana Highlands.
2. Brazilian Highlands – an eroded plateau region having an average elevation of 1000m covers most of
the South and Southeast of the continent South America. The Brazilian Highlands is an eroded plateau
dotted with irregular mountains and separates Brazil’s inland regions. It covers more than half of the
country’s landmass characterized by low mountains, hilly uplands, and tabular plateaus and includes
Mato Grosso and Parana Plateaus. The Brazilian Highlands are known for the great diversity within the
region as several biomes, vastly different climatic conditions, different types of soils, and thousands of
animal and plant species exist there.
D. Deserts: South America has a number of extensive and extremely arid deserts. The Atacama Desert in
Chile is the driest desert in the world while the vast Patagonian Desert in Argentina is the cold desert. The
Atacama Desert (between 5° S and 31° S), located in Northern Chile is a coastal desert which covers a narrow
strip along the Pacific coast. It is certainly the driest desert in the world because it receives rainfall only two
to four times in a century. Up in the mountains, the desert receives as little as 0.004 inches of rain a year, and it
has been estimated that some parts of the Atacama have not seen rain for more than 400 years.
The lack of rain is a result of thermal inversion. Along the Pacific coast the Peru (Humboldt) Current, which is
characterized by upwelling (the upward movement of cold water from the depths of the ocean) creates a thermal
inversion at the surface where cold waters brought from the Antarctic by the Humboldt Current release cold air
at the surface, forcing warmer air to go much higher up in the atmosphere. The inversion produces fog in the
desert without any actual rain. The inversion also keeps temperatures low between 0° and 25° degrees Celsius
in the Atacama, despite the region’s proximity to the equator. For example, the Chilean cities of Antofagasta
and Santiago have comparable temperatures, despite the fact that Antofagasta, located in the Atacama region
is closer to the equator.
Patagonia desert extending between 37° S to 51° S latitudes as semiarid scrub plateau covers nearly the entire
southern portion of mainland Argentina and across the border into Chile. Patagonia experiences snow in
the winter that lasts for five months (June and September) and hence remains cold and arid. Temperatures
can drop as low as three degrees Celsius below zero. The desert is home to a small human population and a
fragile ecosystem of plants and animals. Indigenous red foxes and pumas have been hunted and poisoned
nearly to become extinct.
251<< Nova Social Studies Grade-10
2. Rivers and Lakes: The major river basins lie east of the Andes. The four largest drainage systems of the
Amazon, Río de la Plata (Paraguay, Paraná, and Uruguay rivers), Orinoco, and São Francisco drain most
part of South America to cover nearly three-fourths of the continent and merge into the Atlantic Ocean. The
largest river system in the world namely the Amazon River stretches some 4,000 miles across equatorial
South America and the volume of water it carries surpasses that of all other rivers, constituting one-fifth
of the total flowing fresh water of the world. The Paraguay, Paraná, and Uruguay rivers form the second
most important drainage system in Brazil. These rivers empty into the Rio de la Plata – actually an estuary
and not a river. Estuary is a section of a river meeting the sea – it is the wide lower course of a river where
the tide flows in, causing fresh and salt water to mix. The Orinoco River basin is the third largest drainage
system. The Orinoco divides into a series of distributaries near the ocean to form the delta. The smaller
São Francisco River drains north-eastern Brazil. Numerous lesser rivers drain the Caribbean and Pacific
flanks of the Andes like the Magdalena River with its tributary and the Cauca River. Such river system has
provided a traditional access route to the interior as it drains the northern area in western Colombia finally
to empty into the Caribbean Sea.
High elevations in the Andes possess some of the large permanent lakes in South America. Lake Titicaca and
Lake Poopó in Bolivia; Buenos Aires, Argentino, and Nahuel Huapí lakes in Argentina; and Lake Valencia in
Venezuela are some of the examples of the large lakes in South America.
3. Climatic Conditions: Since South America extends over a wide latitudinal range (8º N to 55º S), it
experiences a great variety of climates. The broadest extent of South American area lies in the equatorial
zone. That is why tropical conditions prevail over more than half of the continent. Elevation, particularly in
the Andes, is another determining factor that influences the climate in South America.
The tropical rainy (or rain forest) type, among the tropical climates, prevails in the Pacific coast of Colombia,
in the Amazon basin, on the coast of the Guiana’s, and in parts of the coast of Brazil. The average daily
temperature is about 30ºC, with very small monthly and annual variations (of less than about 3º C). The
above areas receive heavy rainfall throughout the year. The Chocó region of Colombia receives in excess of
1000 cm making it one of the wettest areas in the world and at the top of it rains more than 300 days per year.
In the Amazon region (Selvas region), rains do not fall evenly over the basin. The southern part receives
most of its rainfall during the Southern Hemisphere summer (October to April), while the northern part has
its rainy season during the Northern Hemisphere summer (May to September). Thus, “dry” season is hardly
noticeable and all through the year, humidity stands high.
The second type of tropical climate popularly known as Savanna type (tropical wet-dry climate) is
characterized by high temperatures (all monthly means above 18º C) but receives less precipitation and
experiences a prolonged dry season. This type of climate prevails over the fringes of the tropical-rainy belt,
in the Orinoco basin, on the Brazilian Highlands, and in part of western Ecuador.
North-eastern Brazil and the northern coast of Venezuela and Colombia experience droughts as a serious
problem. In the northern half of South America, only the Andes region has a cool climate as temperatures
decrease with increasing elevation, so that the tropical climate of the lowlands and lower slopes transforms
into subtropical and temperate climates at intermediate elevations, and finally to cold alpine climate at the
mountain crests (peaks).
Temperate climates, characterized by lower winter temperatures to the south of the Tropic of Capricorn
prevails in Paraguay, parts of Bolivia, Brazil, Argentina, and Chile and in the mid-level elevations of the
Andes. On the Atlantic side, temperatures in the warmest month average 25º C, but cold-month averages
vary from 17º C in the north (Asunción, Paraguay) to 10° C in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Rainfall exceeds 38cm
each month in the east but decreases to the west.
Arid climate exists in warm and cold deserts of South America prevailing in certain coastal and interior
regions of the continent. Patagonia and north-western Argentina constitute the largest of the interior arid
regions. South of the tropic of Capricorn in South America, range of cool to cold winters and cool to warm
summers exist. For example, southern Chile receives heavy precipitation, because of the cyclonic storms that
move off the Pacific Ocean from the west and the frequency of the storm is the greatest in winter and then
goes on diminishing northward through Chile, resulting in a zone of Mediterranean-like climate, with mild,
wet winters and warm, dry summers.
To the east of the southern Andes lies the Pampas and the southern Brazilian Highlands where sub-humid
and arid conditions prevail. Nevertheless, cyclonic storms in the winter may bring rain and chilly weather.
Not so often, snow falls over the Brazilian Highlands. Frosts in this region may move towards the north near
the Tropic of Capricorn causing extensive damage to crops. Frosts are crystals of frozen water deposited on
a cold surface.
252 Nova Social Studies Grade-10 >>
Cold Climate prevails over the southernmost parts of Argentina and Chile and in the high Andes above
about 3300 meter. Average annual temperatures are less than 10º C. Mean temperatures are relatively low
throughout the year, but daily variations are wide. Near Lake Titicaca, the average annual temperature is
only about 1º°– 2º C. November is the warmest month, with an average temperature of 5º C, while the coldest
month, July, has an average of –2ºC.
South America: Natural Vegetation
South America's natural vegetation follows closely the continent's climatic zones. And the Climate of
South America is influenced by different geographical locations Away from the equator to the north and
south, there is a greater contrast in the topography (geographical regions) and the climatic conditions.
Therefore, South America has variety of vegetations in its different geographical regions. The lowlands
(or plains) in South America are full of grasses and they are called grasslands. For example, Savannas in
the tropical region and Argentine Pampas in the sub-tropical region are well known grasslands. Tropical
savannas are found mostly in the Llanos of Venezuela and north-eastern Colombia. The Amazon region
is the largest area in the world covered by evergreen rainforests. This is probably the oldest forest area
in the world. The coastal desert areas from northern Peru to northern Chile are filled with xerophytic
plants which include thickets of small trees and thorny shrubs. The vegetation in the Atacama is extremely
sparse, with the exception of a few irrigated oases. The south eastern coast of Brazil has tropical deciduous
forest. The lower slopes of Andes have the cover of temperate deciduous forest while the coniferous
forests are found on the higher slopes of the Andes. Look at the following list for knowing more about the
vegetations in South America.
Different varieties of natural vegetations in South America
Words and terms you would like to know
Crystalline (adj.): resembling or being crystals (mineral in crystal form)
Endeavour (n.): an earnest attempt to achieve something
253<< Nova Social Studies Grade-10
Coextensive (adj.): sharing the same limits or boundaries
Diminish (v.): to make something smaller
Elevation (n.): the height above a specific reference point
Activities
1. Mark the physical features of South America indicating their geographical regions with proper name
by using appropriate colour in the following blank map number – 1 and pigment the countries of South
America with different colours map number – 2.
Blank Map Number – 1 Blank Map Number – 2 for colouring
2. The equatorial evergreen rainforests popularly known as Selvas are found in the Amazon basin of South
America. The Selvas cover the largest forest area in the world. What benefits can Brazil take from the
presence of such a widely spread evergreen rainforests? Hold a discussion in the classroom to know
about the benefits of Selvas in social, economic and environmental fields of human life. Write down the
conclusions of the discussion in a form of letter and send it to your relative or friend or friend’s friend
who is currently staying or working in Brazil.
3. Identify the Andes mountain range in a map of Atlas and make a list of highest 10 mountain peaks lo-
cated in that mountain range by mentioning their respective height.
4. Mention any six main rivers in South America and their journey from the point of origin till the point of
culmination. Use the Atlas while finding out details on the rivers.
5. Draw a map of South America in your note-book and show the following facts: Andes Mountain Range
(System), Amazon Basin, Brazilian Highland, Atacama Desert, Selvas, Pampas Grassland, Cape Horn,
Galapagos Island, Titicaca Lake
6. On the outline maps of South America, show (mark) the following points or places:
Set 1: Mount Cotopaxi, Bolivian Plateau, La Paz, Rio de la, Pacific Ocean, French Guiana, Tierra del Fuego,
Equator, Sao Francisco River
Set 2: Mato Grosso, Mt. Aconcogua, Guiana Highlands, Llanos, Patagonia, Magdalena River, Rio de la Plata,
Winter Rainfall Area, Lima
254 Nova Social Studies Grade-10 >>
Set 3: Area receiving rains throughout the year, Tropic of Capricorn, Paraguay River, Rio de Janeiro, Falkland
Island, Atlantic Ocean, Gran Chaco, Colorado River, Amazon River
Set 4: Magellan’s Strait, Parana River, Surinam, Buenos Aires, Caribbean Sea, Angel Falls, Sau Paulo,
Humboldt Current, Orinoco River
7. Draw the outline map of South America and show all the major climatic regions along with natural
vegetations.
Exercise
1. Explain with the help of appropriate examples why South America is called the land of superlatives.
2. Describe the features of land topography of South America.
3. Compare and contrast the physical features of South America with those of North America.
4. Give reasons why ‘Atacama Desert’ of South America has become one of the driest places in the world.
5. Bring out the complete profile of climatic conditions that prevail in South America along with its natural
vegetation.
6. Name the longest mountain range of the world. What is its length? Also name the highest mountain
peak in that longest mountain range.
Project Work
Draw a map of South America showing the natural regions and all the natural resources spread in
different regions. Now, insert all the important features and necessary details in it. Get suggestions from
your classmates and the teacher to make your map better in information, presentation and outlook.
Community Work
Make a comparative study of natural resources available in Nepal with that of Brazil in order to learn to
use resources from them. Send your copy of research to the local administration of your home district and
persuade them for reply.
255<< Nova Social Studies Grade-10
Lesson South America – Social and
1 3 Economic Activities
Social Profile of South America
Both South America and North America have been named after Italian navigator Amerigo Vespucci. He was
the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the part of the East Indies, but an entirely separate
landmass. The portions of the landmass that lie south of the Isthmus of Panama became known as South
America. South America is home to the citizens of Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana,
Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina, the Falkland Islands, Chile, Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Paraguay. Portuguese
and Spanish are two dominant languages used by the South Americans for communication. Other languages
such as English, French and Dutch are also used here. Indigenous populations and their connection to the
physical environment have deeply influenced the social and cultural life of South America. A variety of
celebrations, religions, and even political actions has come up to shape the living pattern of this continent
due to the deep relationship developed by the indigenous peoples with their physical land characterized
by specific climate and natural vegetation. The Incan Empire established in 1438 in the Andean city of
Cuzco, Peru is the most well known indigenous culture of South America. Inca sites which survive today
are the testimony to the well-developed culture of South America. The Inca built roads, forts, inns, food
storage facilities, and signal towers and so on. The cultural landscape of South America changed after the
importation of African slaves to Brazil. Africans have influenced the indigenous Indian beliefs as well as
European rituals resulting in the integrated composite culture in South America. The Pampas region here
has a distinct gaucho (or “cowboy”) culture. Just like the North American cowboy, the gauchos are free-
spirited, strong, and honest people. Gaucho culture is still strong in Argentina and Uruguay. Many different
dresses, foods, songs, stories, and films have been created inspired by the gaucho culture.
Languages used in South America Images of Gauchos and Gaucho Culture
Indigenous societies continue to have a strong presence in South America. Religious practices remain the
backbone of many South American cultures. Catholicism (Christianity) dominates the continent. Other
spiritual beliefs have also gained space in South America to influence both spiritual and secular activities.
Economic Activities in South America
South America followed an economic policy of import substitution for half a century from the 1930s to
1980s in a bid to replace foreign businesses and imports. Domestic production was stepped up to develop
the economy of the continent in order to help grow domestic businesses as they were not competing with
other international industries. Unfortunately, this policy did not click and many countries of South America
plunged into a debt crisis. These countries borrowed funds at high interest to invest in their domestic
production to compete with the manufacturing industries in the international market from other continents
but things didn’t work out for them. Therefore, the trend of borrowing continued and they were not
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able to pay even the interest of the borrowed fund. The continuous borrowings got accumulated on their
outstanding debt thus creating the so-called “debt crisis”. The countries in South America revised their
mistakes to adopt the new economic policy of the “Free-Market Economy” from the 1990s. The system
of ‘Free-Market Economy’ pulled countries in South America out of the debt crisis. Now, South America
practices agriculture, forestry, mining, manufacturing and tourism as major economic activities.
Following are the major economic activities in South America:
1. Agriculture as crop cultivation: Agriculture constitutes a large sector of South America’s economy in both
its tropical and temperate regions. Only about one-eighth of South America’s land is suitable for permanent
cropping or grazing. As a whole, use of agricultural land throughout the continent is relatively less efficient.
Corn is the most widely cultivated crop throughout the continent. Beans are widely cultivated by small-scale
methods and form an important food item in most countries. Cassava, sweet potato and potato are widely
grown in South America. Cashews, cultivated in most tropical countries, and Brazil nuts, harvested from
trees in the Amazon basin, are local favourites and are widely regarded as delicacies. Tobacco is cultivated in
many countries but is produced commercially mainly in Brazil and Colombia. Subsistence farmers grow the
production of staples such as root crops, beans, and corn under unfavourable climatic and soil conditions
whereas wheat and rice are grown wherever conditions are most suitable.
Allspice, red chilli and pepper are commercially most important native South American spices and are
exported from Brazil. Coffee is the most important tropical crop and produced in the highlands, chiefly
in south-eastern Brazil and in west central Colombia while Cacao – the source of Cocoa - is important in
eastern Brazil and west central Ecuador. Other tropical crops like bananas and sugarcane are produced
mostly for domestic markets. However, Colombia and western Ecuador grow bananas for export. Similarly,
Guyana, coastal Peru, and Suriname grow sugar for export. Coastal Peru has been producing cotton for
export for many decades.
Soybeans cultivation in Brazil Coffee Plantation Farm in Brazil
2. Fishing: Many South American rivers especially in the Amazon region and in the Guianas are abundant
source of freshwater fish exploited as a food source since the earliest times. Most freshwater fishing is for
local consumption. South America’s most important commercial fisheries are the Pacific coastal waters.
Large amounts of fishes are caught off the Peruvian and Chilean coasts, although overfishing has depleted
recent harvests. Tuna are harvested off the Ecuadorian and Peruvian coasts while Crustaceans are an
important catch in Chilean, Brazilian, and Guianese waters. Peru has gone on to emerge as one of the
world’s major fishing countries especially based on its anchovies (small silvery fish), pilchard, and jack
mackerel fisheries. Chile has developed a large commercial marine fishing industry as well as salmon, trout,
and shrimp “farms” aimed at the export market. Lately, Ecuador has become a leader in shrimp exports.
3. Forestry: Some 50 percent of the total South American area is covered with forest but recently a large area
of forested land particularly in Amazon basin has been cleared for bringing conventional development and
creating farmland. Timber harvesting is popular economic activity in Amazon basin. Forestry has become
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commercially useful activity in South America as some tropical hardwoods and softwoods like pine lumber
from southern Brazil and south central Chile, together with some pulpwood are exported. Chile and Brazil
cover significant areas of commercial forest. The widespread planting of eucalyptus trees for firewood,
for timbering, and for use in rough construction is widespread since long in the past. Many species like
Mahogany from Venezuela, Brazil, Peru, and Bolivia and several leguminous (bearing nodules for nitrogen
fixing bacteria) species such as rosewood are used as cabinet woods. Cabinet is an upright piece of furniture
usually made of wood and consisting of drawers, shelves, and compartments for storing or displaying objects.
Chile is a chief exporter of wood chips, plywood, and paper pulp.
Other species, such as the quebracho tree found in the Gran Chaco of Argentina and Paraguay, which produce
tannin, have significant commercial value. Chicle, a latex gum extracted from the sapodilla tree, is used in
the preparation of chewing gum. The most notable native beverage, yerba mate, is brewed from the leaves
of a plant indigenous to the upper Paraná basin and is still gathered in its wild state in Paraguay, Brazil, and
Argentina, as well as grown on plantations in the latter two countries. Vegetable ivory is a hard pale material
like ivory used to make decorative items and accessories.
4. Cattle Farming (Animal Husbandry): South America has a significant percentage of the world’s total cattle
population and they are of enormous cultural and economic importance to South American society right
from the days of being the Hispanic (Spanish) colonies. South America is known for the highest quality of
hybridized cattle in the world. These cattle are raised on the rich mid-latitude pasturelands of the Argentine
Pampas and in Uruguay and much of the Llanos of northern South America are given over to the grazing of
Zebu (Asian oxen). The pastures of the Amazon basin, created in the latter part of the 20th century, consist
of imported African tropical grasses, which support large herds of Asian oxen, Charolais [pronounced
as shàrrə láy means beef cattle – a large white cow belonging to a breed originating in France] and other
hybridized breeds as well as exotics such as Asian water buffalo. Thus, livestock production especially
cattle ranching is popular economic activity in large parts of rural South America. Ranch is a livestock
farm where cattle, horses or other livestock are raised on large tracts of open land. Most of the commercial
livestock production, especially for the export sector, occurs on huge estancias (estates) that have been the
source of economic and social dominance for their owners for many generations. For example, wool and
hides derived from livestock in Estencia of Uruguay earn a great foreign exchange through export trade and
export of beef supports the economy of countries like Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Colombia. These
estencias operate at a large-scale level and provide employment to many people from unskilled to semi-
skilled and up to skilled level human resource. The non-export beef-cattle industries too are widespread in
South America. Almost all rural areas of the continent domesticate pigs and chickens.
5. Mining and Drilling: Most of the mining in South America is undertaken on a large scale for export
because of the long history of foreign corporate control of South American mining operations. However,
nowadays sale of raw minerals is on decline due to rise in national political movements and pressures
imposed on foreign companies. Petroleum, copper, bauxite, and iron ore are the principal commodities in
value and volume used for export. South America as a whole is an important world producer of lead, zinc,
manganese, and tin. Venezuela’s oil and gas account for more than half of the total value of the continents’
output whereas countries like Peru and Ecuador have relied heavily on the sale of minerals. Mineral
production is of great importance to several national economies. Countries like Suriname, Bolivia, and
Chile are less dependent on mineral exports. Mineral commodities are important to the continent’s growing
industrial diversification. Thus, mining and drilling of mineral ores generate government revenue and at the
same time provide raw materials to manufacturing to strengthen the domestic economy. However, mining
contributes little to continental GDP and employment.
6. Manufacturing Industry: Lately, the governments of several countries, including Venezuela, Argentina,
Chile, and Brazil, have begun selling off nationalized industries for the immediate financial benefits and
in the hope of achieving higher efficiency at a lower cost through this measure of privatization. Such spree
of privatization has generated higher unemployment and rise in the prices of goods and services. South
American industries face some basic problems like the small size of the national markets, inadequate
technology, and weak transportation and distribution networks.
Agro-based industries and the processing of agricultural commodities continue to be the most widespread
and important industry in most of the countries including Argentina and Brazil. Other industries like
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petroleum refining, the making of iron and steel and cement, and the manufacture of consumer goods such
as textiles, beverages, motor vehicles, electrical and mechanical equipment, and plastics are concentrated
around the largest cities. South American industrial production have made substantial gains, especially
in the output of cement and steel (ingots, rolled, plates, and sheets), pig iron, automobiles, and household
appliances. Brazil, with its manufacturing centre in São Paulo, has emerged as the industrial giant of the
continent, followed by Argentina, Venezuela, and Chile. The textile industry is the favourite of every South
American country.
7. Tourism: South America being the land of superlatives is the popular spot for tourists from all over the
world. Tourism has emerged as major economic activity in South America. Major attractions for tourists in
the continent are historical relics, architectural and natural wonders, a diverse range of foods and cultures,
vibrant and colourful cities, and stunning landscapes. Millions of tourists every year visit different places of
South America. Some of the most visited places in the region are Machu Picchu (ruined ancient Inca city in
the Andes in southern Peru known for its architecture and system of terraces), the Amazon Rainforest, Rio
de Janeiro, Salvador, Bogota, Buenos Aires, Sao Paulo, Lake Titicaca and Patagonia. Galapagos Islands or
Colón Archipelago in the Pacific Ocean constitutes a province of Ecuador that contains 13 large and several
hundred small islands lying on or near the equator. These chains of islands are the major attractions for
tourists from all over the world. ‘Angel Fall’ is of course one of the most attractive natural sites in the world.
The Carnival of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, a festival held every year about 40 days before Easter, is the world
famous event. The Rio Carnival attracts millions of Brazilian and foreign tourists every year. Some of them
pay hundreds of dollars to participate in the carnival parade and hotel prices are often four times higher
than average during carnival period.
Moments of celebration in the Rio carnival
Words and terms you would like to know
Catholicism (n.): the beliefs, doctrines, and rituals of a Catholic church, especially those of the Roman Catholic Church
Spiritual (adj.): relating to religious or sacred things rather than worldly things
Exotic (adj.): strikingly unusual and often very colorful and exciting or suggesting distant countries and unfamiliar
cultures
Carnival (n.): a public festive occasion or period, often with street processions, costumes, music, and dancing
Activities
1. There are some similarities between the economy of South American countries and the economy of
Nepal. Discuss with your classmates and write them down with relevant examples.
2. Spanish and Portuguese colonizers captured South America by defeating the indigenous peoples and
caused the original civilizations disappear in a bid to establish their own foreign civilization. Conduct
research on it by making groups in the classroom and clarify it with relevant examples.
3. Many people living in the central region of South America have migrated to the coastal regions and big
cities making the central region thinly populated area with insufficient number of workforce. At the
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same time, coastal areas and big cities in South America are flourishing with abundance of workforce
due to continuously flowing population from different regions of the continent. What would be its ef-
fects in the long run on the social and economic aspects of human life in South America?
4. Why do people living in the Andes Mountains use the sheep as pack animals by making them carry a
heavy load? Hold a discussion in the classroom to find out the reasons behind it. Finally, write down the
reasons on a piece of paper and present the same before the entire class by reading the text aloud.
5. Draw an outline map of South America and mark the following points (facts) on it:
Area of iron ore reserve, Petroleum extraction region, Region of animal husbandry, Minas Gerais,
Caracas, Area of subsistence shifting agriculture, Area of high density population, Area of copper re-
serve, Area of significant number of Hindu population
Exercise
1. Describe the main economic activities of South America.
2. Around 75 percent people of the total population of Brazil live in urban areas. Compare this fact with
the population distribution in Nepal and write a paragraph on it.
3. Find out similarities and dissimilarities between Yak found in the Himalayan region of Nepal and Llama
found in the Andes region of South America.
4. Name any two commercial crops grown in South America mainly for export. Write down the regions
too where these crops are actually grown.
5. What is Estencia and how does it contribute to the economy of South America? Name four countries
from South America specially known for having estencia.
6. Provide a brief account of two most economically advanced countries of South America.
7. Give a brief description of social profile of South America.
8. South America is a great place to visit for tourists. Justify this statement with appropriate examples.
9. Both mining and industry are complementing each other in bringing economic development in South
America. Examine it with suitable examples in light of progressive development of several countries of
South America.
Project Work
1. Create four groups in the classroom and assign each group with a task to identify features of similarities
and dissimilarities between the Himalayan and Andes mountain ranges. List the features of similarities
and dissimilarities on a chart paper and display all the four chart papers prepared by each of the four
groups in the classroom.
2. Uruguay fondly called 'Switzerland of America' is sandwiched between Brazil and Argentina. Uruguay
has become a progressive society which boasts of having beautifully designed capital Montevideo and
temperate grass-land of Pampas. Nepal is being projected as future 'Switzerland of Asia' by the politi-
cians but the prospect seems to be weak with meshed up capital city Kathmandu and unused natural
resources. Landlocked country Nepal requires implementation of long-term developmental plans. Do a
project work finding out similarities and dissimilarities between Uruguay and Nepal with suggestions
to develop the country
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Lesson Africa – Natural and Physical
1 4 Features
Africa: An Introduction
Africa, the second largest of Earth’s seven continents, covers 23 percent of the world’s total land area and
accounts for just over 14% of the world’s human population. It lies roughly between 37° N to 35° S latitudes
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and 18° W to 52° E longitudes. The continent is cut almost equally in two halves by the Equator as a result of
which most of Africa lies within the tropical region bounded on the north by the Tropic of Cancer and on the
south by the Tropic of Capricorn. Prime meridian (0° longitude) crosses Africa from north to south that passes
through a point located a little away to the east of Accra, Ghana. Africa’s total land area is approximately
30,365,000 square kms (11,724,000 square miles). Africa is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the north,
both the Suez Canal and the Red Sea along the Sinai Peninsula to the northeast, the Indian Ocean to the east
and southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. Sinai Peninsula connects Africa with Asia.
Sudan was divided into two sovereign countries North Sudan and South Sudan
[Note: On the 9th of July 2011, Sudan (formerly the largest country in Africa) was divided into two - Sudan and
the Republic of South Sudan. South Sudan became Africa's youngest nation only after two decades of
conflict with the north. The Northern Sudan is an Arabic-speaking, Muslim Sudan and South Sudan is an
English speaking country with most of the population following Christianity as religion.]
Africa: Physical Feature
The whole of Africa actually is a vast plateau made up of ancient crystalline rock rising steeply from narrow
coastal strips. The height of the plateaus is more in the southeast direction and then it gradually sl towards the
northeast. Mount Kilimanjaro (5,895 meters) in north-eastern Tanzania is the highest point on the continent
whereas the Lake Assal (157 meters below sea level) in Djibouti is the lowest point in Africa. Considering
the size of Africa, it has quite a few high mountains and even fewer lowland plains than any other continent.
The limited areas of highlands above 2,500 meters are either volcanic peaks or resistant massifs. Massif is a
large mountain mass, or a group of connected mountains that forms a mountain range. All the low land (or
plain) below 150 meter from sea level occurs within 800 km of the coast.
Physical feature of Africa has three main divisions as given below:
1. Main Land Topography
2. Rivers and Lakes
3. Climatic Conditions
Let us begin with the main land topography, first.
1. Land Topography: The land surface of Africa has following four major attractions:
A. Highlands (Plateau): The plateau is conveniently studied in two divisions – a south-eastern portion
and a north-western portion. The north-western portion, which contains the Sahara (desert) and that part
of North Africa known as the Maghrib, has two mountainous regions – the Atlas Mountains considered as
geologically young mountains exactly like Himalayas in north-western Africa and the Ahaggar (Hoggar)
Mountains in the Sahara. The south-eastern portion of the plateau includes the Ethiopian Plateau, the East
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African Plateau, and -- in eastern South Africa, where the plateau edge falls downward in a scarp (a steep
slope or cliff, formed by erosion or faulting) – the Drakensberg range.
East Africa has various ranges with the highest elevations in Africa. After Mount Kilimanjaro (5,895 meters
– the highest peak in Africa)) in north-eastern Tanzania, the next highest peak is Mount Kenya (5,199 m)
-- north of Kilimanjaro in central Kenya. The Atlas Mountains, a system of high ranges, extend for 2,200 km
(1,400 mi) across Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, roughly parallel to the northern coast. In southern Africa,
the U-shaped Great Escarpment extends 5,000 km (3,000 mi) along the coast from Angola to Mozambique
(an escarpment is a ridge that is steep on one side and slopes down gently on the other). The Drakensberg
Mountains form the most pronounced relief of the Great Escarpment, rising to 3,482 m (11,424 ft) in Lesotho.
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West Africa has the highest peak called the Cameroon Mountain (4,095 m). To the north, isolated highlands
like the Ahaggar Mountains in southern Algeria and the Tibesti in northern Chad occur in the desert land
of the Sahara.
B. Great Rift Valley: The Great Rift Valley is one of the most striking features of this continent. Rift valleys
are long, deep valleys bounded by parallel faults, or fractures in Earth’s crust. The Great Rift Valley system
begins in Syria, in the Middle East, and extends southward, down the length of the Red Sea and enters
Africa at the coast of Eritrea and Djibouti, and covers some 6400 km (4,000 miles) crossing through many
of the lakes of East Africa. Natron and Manyara are the largest lakes in this region. In Africa, it breaks into
two major branches, the Eastern Rift Valley and the Western Rift Valley. The East African Rift Valley has
more distinctive relief feature as it is known for seismic and volcanic disturbances and possesses most of the
higher peaks of East Africa, including Kilimanjaro. From the Gulf of Aqaba it can be traced southward along
the Red Sea and into the Ethiopian Plateau to Lakes Rudolf, Naivasha, and Magadi in Kenya. The Western
Rift Valley extends from the northern end of Lake Nyasa in a great arc, taking in Lakes Rukwa, Tanganyika,
Kivu, Edward, and Albert. The Western Rift Valley is not that attractive.
Note: 1. Rift Valley is formed when Earth’s crust is being pulled apart by the action of convection currents
beneath the surface. Convection current is the circulatory movement in a liquid from regions of different
temperatures and different densities rising and falling in response to gravity.
2. Gulf of Aqaba is the north-eastern arm of the Red Sea in south-western Asia, separating the Sinai and
Arabian peninsulas.
C. Deserts: The Sahara is the world’s largest desert that stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in the northwest to
the Red Sea in the northeast and then moving southward from the Mediterranean Sea and Atlas Mountains
for 2,000 km till it slips into the semi-desert Sahel region. Most of the desert forms extensive plains made
up of loose gravel and boulders. The remaining part of the desert area has cover of shifting sand dunes
interspersed with stretches of bare, rocky areas. Two other prominent deserts namely Namib and Kalahari in
southern part of Africa are much smaller than the Sahara. The Namib Desert spreads along the Atlantic coast
for 1,500 km from southern Angola to the entire length of Namibia. Towards the west of Namib Desert lies
the Kalahari Desert sharing the boundary with the former. The nearby Kalahari Desert is a semiarid region
in the center of the Kalahari Basin and stretches into Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa.
D. Coastline: Africa has more or less very even coastline with some of the few good natural harbours.
Narrow coastline around the continent particularly in the south and east has major escarpments running
parallel to the coast in several areas. Coral reefs abound the fringes of most of the Red Sea and Indian Ocean
coastline – a great obstacle to movement of ships. The Atlantic coast does not have development of coral
reefs because excessively cold water deters any such growth of coral reef. Africa’s best natural harbours
locate between Senegal and Liberia in the deep coastal inlets especially at the mouths of rivers. Between
Liberia and Nigeria lie the lagoon coasts. Lagoon is partly enclosed area of seawater: a coastal body of
shallow water formed where low-lying rock, sand, or coral presents a partial barrier to the open sea.
2. Rivers and Lakes: Africa is blessed with some of the world’s largest rivers. The Congo River originates
from northern Zambia and southern Congo-Kinshasa (DRC) and ranks second only to South America’s
Amazon River in terms of discharge and size of drainage basin. It accounts for some 38 percent of the
continent’s total discharge into the Atlantic Ocean and drains an area of more than 4.1 million sq km (1.6
million sq mi). The Congo is also the second longest river in Africa (after the Nile). The longest river on
Earth is the Nile with a length of 6,695 km (4,160 mi) from its headwaters in Burundi (near Lake Victoria) to
its mouth at the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile River basin covers an area of 3,349,000 sq km (1,293,000 sq mi).
The Niger basin formed by the Niger River is the largest river basin of western Africa. The Niger River (the
third longest river in Africa, after the Nile and Congo) originates in the mountains of Guinea and empties into
the Gulf of Guinea. The Benue is its largest tributary. Orange River in southern Africa, rising on the western
slope of the Drakensberg range in Lesotho empties into the Atlantic Ocean at Alexander Bay. Several major
rivers, including the Congo, Zambezi, and Orange, cross through narrow valleys and fall steeply through
escarpments fringing the continent. Zambezi River while flowing in its course creates numerous waterfalls,
the most spectacular of which is the Victoria Falls.
Africa possesses many lakes with diverse characteristics like deep lakes of tectonic origin (such as Lakes
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Malawi and Tanganyika in East Africa) and shallow lakes located at the centre of drainage basins (including
Lake Chad in West Africa). Lake Victoria in East Africa – the largest of all African lakes - is the world’s third
largest lake by area after the Caspian Sea (saltwater lake in south-eastern Europe and south-western Asia)
and Lake Superior, while Lake Tanganyika is the world’s second deepest lake after Lake Baikal (in south-
eastern Siberia).
3. Climatic Conditions: Most of Africa experiences high temperature as the continent lies dominantly
between the Tropic of Cancer (in the north) and the Tropic of Capricorn (in the south). As a whole, Africa
has six climatic belts: tropical wet, tropical summer rainfall, semiarid, arid, highland, and Mediterranean.
West and southern Africa and most of Madagascar lying to the north and south of the tropical wet zone
experiences tropical summer rainfall popularly known as tropical Savannah climate. Annual rainfall
varies between 50 and 150 cm (20 and 60 in) with considerably more rainfall in the areas like Freetown,
Sierra Leone averaging about 380 cm (150 in) per year. The maritime air masses produce up to six months
of rainfall in the months of high sun. In fact, the length of the rainy season depends on nearness to the
equator.
Regions with the equatorial or tropical wet type of climate are constantly covered by warm maritime
air masses; variations in their monthly and daily temperatures are less pronounced than in the tropical
Savannah regions. However, daily high temperatures average more than 30°C over the course of the year
in the northern section of this zone whereas temperatures tend to be cooler because of higher altitudes in
the southern and eastern sections of this zone.
The semi-arid or hot steppe climatic belt fringes the desert areas and includes the greater part of the land
south of the Zambezi River. This climatic region has a short rainy season of up to three months with
about 25 to 50 cm (10 to 20 in) of annual rain with average daily temperature ranging from 25º°C to 36º°C.
Normally, temperatures are about the same as those in the desert regions but precipitation in the semiarid
belt is unreliable and scarce, creating difficult conditions for plant growth.
Savanna grassland with few trees in-between: the sun sets on a Savanna in the African country of Kenya
Africa’s arid climatic belt covers the hot desert region of the Sahara and Kalahari deserts, which are always
under the influence of dry continental tropical air masses, and the northern Kenya–Somali desert wherethe
maritime air masses that pass over it throughout the year create aridity. These regions have significant
annual variations in temperature and extreme fluctuations over the course of a day are recorded. In the
Sahara, daytime summer temperatures can exceed 50º°C and winter night-time temperatures can drop
below freezing point.
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Most of the East Africa experiences ‘tropical highland climates’. Temperatures in the highlands of Ethiopia
and Kenya range between 16º C to 21º°C on average about 5º°C cooler than the lower plateau areas of
Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania. In most parts of the world, higher elevations receive higher levels of
precipitation, but the highlands of East Africa are an exception, experiencing rather low levels of rainfall.
However, the highest mountains and the south-eastern flank of the Ethiopian plateau receive greater
precipitation on their windward slopes.
Dry summer sub-tropical (popularly known as Mediterranean Climate) prevails in the northern and
southern extremes of the continent. Rain falls only in winter (December–January in North Africa, June–
July in southern Africa) although in some areas it may fall in autumn (September in North Africa, April in
southern Africa). Thus, the coastlands of the Cape region of South Africa and the North African coast from
Morocco to Tunisia experience Mediterranean climates. These areas have mild, rainy winters followed by
a prolonged summer when conditions are warm and dry. They receive from 25 to 100 cm (10 to 40 in) of
annual rainfall. Mean monthly temperatures are lower than in tropical climates, dropping to about 10º C
in winter, while summer (June – July in North Africa, and December –January in southern Africa) records
about 22º°C.
Africa: Natural Vegetation
Africa is home to thousands of plants extending to the north and south of the equator. Africa contains
vegetation as varied as tropical rainforests, desert scrubs, savannah, and wetlands and others. The
rainforests have various layers of vegetation. Africa has a range of vegetations from shrubs and ferns on
the ground to trees that grow up to a height of 50 meters. Moving away from the equator towards
the temperate region, the longer grass is replaced by shorter grass with trees scattered in-between.
Droughts are becoming more widespread across the Sahel and eastern Africa. The Sahara is moving
southward and more and more areas are threatened by deforestation. Desert vegetations like thorny
plants, scrubs (stunted trees or bush) and shrubs are more prominent here.
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Words and terms you would like to know
Massif (n.): a large mountain mass, or a group of connected mountains that forms a mountain range
Intersperse (v.): to put or insert something here and there among or in something else
Reef (n.): a ridge of coral or rock in a body of water, with the top just below or just above the surface
Shrub (n.): woody plant with several stems
Spectacular (adj.): impressive or dramatic to look at or watch
Aridity (n.): a situation of low rainfall
Activities
1. Variations in topographical features within Africa have resulted in different types of climates across the
continent. Justify by giving appropriate reasons.
2. A vast Savannah region is the natural resource (wealth) for Africa. What benefits can Africa get from this
region? Hold a discussion in the classroom and make a list of all the benefits.
3. Draw a map of Africa on your own and mark the following facts in it:
Atlas mountain range, Equator, Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of Capricorn, Sahara Desert, Mount Kilimanjaro,
Nile River, Rift Valley and Victoria Lake
4. Describe the physical features of Africa.
5. Mark (Show) the following points or places on the outline map of Africa:
Set 1: Ahaggar (Hoggar) Mountains, Niger River, Libyan Desert, High Veldt Area, Mauritius, Congo
Basin, Tripoli, Tropical Wet Climate, Madagascar
Set 2: Tibesti Mountains, Lake Chad, Senegal River, Arabian Desert, Rabat, Algoa Bay, Nubian Desert,
Red Sea, Mogadishu
Set 3: Comoros Islands, Nile River, Lesotho, Mount Elgon, Zaire River, Somali Peninsula, Mount Sinai,
Indian Ocean, Mediterranean Climatic Zone
Set 4: Orange River, Lake Volta, Cairo, Drakensberg, Canary Islands, Cape of Good Hope, Dgibouti,
Victoria Falls, Limpopo River
Set 5: Sahel, Zambezi River, Kalahari Desert, Gulf of Aden, Cape Verde Islands, Togo, Cape Town,
Lake Rudolf, East London
Exercise
1. Illustrate all the climates found in Africa.
2. Name the highest mountain peak of Africa. Where is it located?
3. Explain the reasons why Savannah is called the “Zoo of the World”.
4. What is Sahel? How does it differ from Sahara?
5. What is “Rift Valley” and where is it found in Africa? Mention the process of formation of the rift valley.
6. Name any three major rivers of Africa with their respective headwaters (origin) and the end (or merger
point) where they empty themselves.
7. Africa is the continent of plateaus. Analyze with the help of suitable examples.
8. Compare and contrast the climates and natural vegetations of Africa with those of South America.
Group Work
Hang the wall map of Africa in the classroom. Look out the map attentively to make sense of physical
features, highest mountain peak, deserts, rivers and lakes. Pinpoint their exact location and create a mental
image to recall it later when your friends quiz you on these locations.
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Lesson Africa – Social and Economic
1 5 Activities
Social Profile of Africa: Language, Religion and Ethnicity
Most Africans are multilingual. According to an estimate, around 3,000 languages are spoken in Africa and
all these languages are believed to have originated in Africa itself. The most widely spoken indigenous
African language is Swahili, spoken by nearly 50 million Africans, followed by Hausa and Yoruba, each
with more than 20 million speakers. Arabic is a popular language for North Africans and for those who have
converted to Islam. Besides, the use of European languages has spread across the continent since the time
of colonialism.
Africans are known to hold their strong ethnic identity and most of the times ethnic identity appears to
clash with national identity. For example, Zulu and Xhosa have their own languages and life-patterns in
South Africa. Similarly, the Songhai identity prevailed in West Africa much before the region succumbed
to foreign powers in 16th century. Although the Masai and Arusha in Tanzania speak the same language,
those who herd cattle are known as Masai, while those that gave up herding to become farmers are known
as Arusha. The Hutu and Tutsi clans of Rwanda and Burundi have attracted world attention because of their
bloody conflict killing tens of thousands of the people from both the sides. Germans and later the Belgians
promoted Tutsi when they colonized the region due to which ‘bad blood’ was created between them and
this continued even after the mid-20th century when Rwanda and Burundi become independent states.
This separateness has periodically led to one group treating the other as a hated enemy in efforts to rule the
countries and treat each other as separate ethnic groups.
Sometimes older ethnic rivalries are expressed in different ways as it happened in Sudan. Sudan, wrecked
by a decades-long civil war between the Islamic, Arabic-speaking north and the non-Islamic, non-Arabic-
speaking south, ultimately created two countries – North Sudan and South Sudan on July 9, 2011. The
creation of new nation as South Sudan has halted long-standing disputes between the Dinka and Nuer of the
south for now that may resurface at any provocation. Violence in the name of religion is not new in Africa.
Islam and Christianity have clashed with each other for the last 800 years in Ethiopia whereas religious
clash between Islam of North and Christianity of South in Sudan broke the country. Chad too experiences
this kind of religious conflict quite often. Sectarian violence has also occurred in Nigeria in the late 1990s.
The Islamic extremists (Al-Qaeda and Boko Haram) are another threat to violence-free environment for
development of this region, particularly in West Africa.
Africa: Economic activities: A Brief Summary of African Economy
Africa has abundant natural resources with low use and development of science and technology. Various
other causes are responsible for inadequate utilization of these natural resources and widespread poverty
in Africa such as corrupt governments committing serious human rights violations, high level of illiteracy,
failure of central planning, low level of foreign direct investment and frequent tribal and military conflict
(ranging from guerrilla warfare to genocide). Lack of proper planning and poor implementation of science
and technology have triggered vicious cycle of poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa particularly in West, East
and Central African countries. Africa has no reasons to lag behind the rest of the world but for the above
stated reasons. If Africa is able to successfully industrialize itself, it could easily become a global economic
powerhouse within the next decade. Africa’s economy must move beyond producing raw materials to build
dynamic and competitive manufacturing sectors producing quality products. Africans need knowledge,
investment in education and skill transfer training for laying a strong foundation of successful economy.
Africa is well placed to industrialize due to the abundance of raw materials. Let us discuss the prominent
economic activities of Africa:
1. Crop Cultivation and Cattle Raising (Animal Husbandry): Africa’s high rate of population growth,
the loss of farm labour due to widespread movement of workers from rural areas to urban areas, the
economic priority given to the production of export crops, and a general lack of adequate investment
268 Nova Social Studies Grade-10 >>
in modern agricultural technology have contributed to the problem of ‘food shortage’-- “less food and
more mouths to feed”. Different climatic regions in Africa bring both opportunities and limitations for
agricultural development. Moreover, lack of modern technology among farmers makes them powerless
in face of adverse climatic impact.
Dense natural vegetation requires periodic clearing and burning to obtain plots for cultivation in the
“tropical wet zone”, occurring close to the equator in West and Central Africa and eastern Madagascar
giving rise to shifting cultivation. Agriculture is practiced at small-scale level in this zone along with
plantation agriculture for growing both export crops as well as food crops. Major export crops include
coffee, oil palms, and cacao, and important subsistence food crops include cassava, yams, okra, bananas,
and legumes. Actually, most of Africa’s exports of coffee, cacao, and oil palm products come from
small-scale producers in this region. However, plantation-agriculture is practiced by using modern
mechanical equipment and artificial fertilizers in some of the areas of Liberia (rubber), Ivory Coast
(oil palm and coffee), Ghana (cacao), and Nigeria (Africa’s most populous and resource-rich nation).
Firestone rubber plantation of Liberia stands out as the most striking example, which produces most
of the country’s rubber crop. Coffee growing in Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast) and cacao production in
Ghana as mentioned above are other examples of such successful commercial undertakings in the field
of agriculture. Large-scale plantations are uncommon, except in wetter plateaus of Zimbabwe, South
Africa, Kenya, Ethiopia, and Tanzania, which support plantations of tea, coffee, tobacco, pyrethrum,
and fruit. The prevalence of the tsetse fly, which spreads sleeping sickness is real menace in this region
and limits the prospect of both crop cultivation and livestock herding. Tsetse fly is a two-winged biting
fly that feeds on the blood of humans and animals and is responsible for transmitting several diseases
including sleeping sickness, especially in central Africa. Impact of the tsetse fly is relatively less in
the open and drier savannah making it suitable for the raising of cattle, sheep, and goats. Ethiopia,
Zimbabwe, and Botswana export substantial quantities of livestock products, including live animals.
In semiarid region of Sahel in particular along with east central and southern Africa, rainfall is sparse
and unreliable. ‘Migratory herding’ is still an important economic activity in this semiarid region as a
source of food and of exportable hides and skins. Subsistence farming for growing low-yield crops like
millet and cowpeas on small plots is common practice because of having short growing season in the
region. Aswān High Dam on the Nile built by Egypt expanded agriculture in the region. Area along the
Nile grows cotton as the chief export crop along with lentils and many cereal crops such as rice, maize,
wheat, and millet.
The Mediterranean climatic region (the northern and southern extremities of the continent, on the
coasts of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and South Africa) is suitable for the cultivation of vineyards and
orchards of citrus and olive trees. The farms in this region are among the most prosperous and modern
in Africa, and agriculture backed up with food-processing activities such as wine making and fruit
preserving add much more importance to economic activity. Wheat is the chief crop among cereals
and sheep accounts for the highest value in livestock farming. Morocco, Tunisia, and South Africa earn
profits by exporting their farm products.
Profits from agriculture are gradually increasing and more optimistic scenario for Africa’s food supply
is on the card even in the face of current population growth (that is outpacing the growth of food
production).
2. Forestry and Fishing: Forest industry (lumbering) in Africa has not shown expected growth despite
having about one-fifth of the continent’s land covered with forest. Most of the forested areas are cleared
for agriculture and to lesser extent to supply fuel-wood. Countries like South Africa, Cameroon, Gabon,
Ivory Coast, and Ghana are the largest exporters of forest products. These countries with their industrial
base process timber into “sawn wood” (wood is sawed into planks or boards by machine) for export,
which is typically more profitable than exporting uncut timber. However, some of the countries like
Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, and Liberia exported almost all of their forest products entirely unprocessed
(not in form of ‘sawn wood’). The most preferred timber trees are mahogany, obeche (tropical tree of
West and Central Africa), iroko (hard brown African wood often used instead of ‘teak’), and other
tropical hardwoods.
269<< Nova Social Studies Grade-10
Agricultural activities in Africa
Fish competes with livestock as a source of protein for average African diets. Livestock are still the
major source of staple food for the people living in the Savannah region and other parts of Africa.
However, fishing is the main economic activity in the West African coast (from Morocco to Senegal
and from Angola to Namibia) and the West Coast serves as the principal ground for marine fish such
as tuna, sardines, and hake. Besides, the Nile, Niger, Congo, and Senegal rivers and Lakes Victoria,
Tanganyika, Malawi, and Chad are major sources of freshwater fish. Nile perch is the most common
freshwater catch. Fishing instruments like spears, nets, canoes and motorboats, and fleets of trawlers
(in Senegal and Morocco) are in use. Canoe is a lightweight boat pointed at each end while trawler
is specially designed boat meant for catching fish. Morocco is one amongst the world leaders in fish-
processing industries, producing more canned-fish, fish oil, and fishmeal than any other African
country. Canned-fish is preserved by sealing it into an airtight metal container. Other leading countries
in fishing are Egypt, South Africa, Ghana, and Nigeria and major exporters of most of the fish catch are
Morocco, Namibia, South Africa, Senegal, and Libya.
A fisherman in Mauritania on his wooden boat Diamond mining in West Africa
3. Mining and Manufacturing: Africa has tremendous mineral wealth and hence plays a very important
role in the global mineral economy. Africa’s contribution to global mineral economy is astounding as
the continent produces about three-quarters of the world’s cobalt; half of the global supply of platinum,
chromium, and diamond; approximately one-third of all gold, manganese, and uranium; one-fifth of
all bauxite; and one-tenth of the world’s petroleum. Countries like Angola, Nigeria, Algeria, Libya, and
Zambia are dependent heavily (as high as 90% of the total exports) upon mineral-exports for survival
of their economy. North Africa followed by West and Central Africa lead in oil production in the world.
Libya, Algeria, and Egypt in North Africa are leading producers of crude petroleum in the continent
while Nigeria is Africa’s top petroleum producer in West and Central Africa followed by Angola,
Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo as other important oil-producing countries. North Africa is also
rich in phosphate deposits and production. Morocco is a leader in world output of phosphate (salt
of phosphoric acid). Other minerals of lesser significance in this region are coal, iron ore, uranium,
platinum, lead, zinc, and cobalt. Similarly, West and Central Africa figure on the World Mineral Map
as the most significant sources of cobalt, manganese, potash, bauxite, and copper. For example, Guinea
270 Nova Social Studies Grade-10 >>
contains about one-third of the world’s reserves of bauxite (the commercial source of aluminium).
Turning towards Southern Africa there is dazzling reservoir of gold, diamond and several other rare
metals making the region as one of the world’s richest sources of these precious metals. South Africa
leads in mineral economy and as a leading producer of gold and of uncut diamonds too trailed by
Zimbabwe (as an important producer of gold) and Botswana and Namibia (as important producers
of diamonds). Other important minerals found in southern Africa are chromium, cobalt, antimony,
uranium, lithium, nickel, manganese, asbestos, platinum, titanium, and vanadium.
Africa is tremendously rich in minerals but terribly poor in manufacturing. This is the reason Africa
is sometimes referred to as rich continent of poor people. Only few countries in Africa have relatively
better manufacturing infrastructures. These countries are South Africa, Egypt, Algeria, Zimbabwe,
Burkina Faso and Ivory Coast. Much of Africa’s modern industrial activity relate to processing of raw
materials derived from primary economic activity such as agriculture (meat, milk, fish, banana and so
on), mining (minerals), drilling (petroleum), and lumbering (timber). Consumer goods such as textiles,
footwear, beverages, and soap are other remaining manufactured output of Africa. Manufacturing
technology varies from simple tools used in small-scale cottage industries to complex tools and
machinery in large-scale factories. Cottage industry sector makes significant contribution to total
manufacturing in Africa by producing goods mainly for local consumption and for the tourist trade.
However, use of modern machine is visible in textile and footwear plants. Heavy industries using
modern and complex machines produce metals, cars, motorcycles, bicycles, and household appliances
only in a few countries as mentioned above like South Africa, Egypt, Algeria, Zimbabwe, Nigeria,
and Ivory Coast. All the consumer goods produced in Africa are almost totally consumed within the
continent.
4. Tourism by ‘Wildlife Management’ and National Parks: Africa has both types of animals – herbivores
and carnivores. African antelope, duiker, horse antelope, zebra, giraffe, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, and
African elephant are noted herbivores whereas big (or roaring) cats (such as the lion, leopard, and
cheetah) and wild dog, hyena, wildcat, jackal, fox, weasel, civet, and mongoose are famous carnivores
of Africa. These carnivore predators and scavengers play a vital role in maintaining the ecological
equilibrium of the areas where they inhabit.
As a whole, Africa is known for some of the largest and most colourful wildlife populations in the
world, from the rare mountain gorillas in the highlands of Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of
the Congo to the lemurs of Madagascar. Overhunting, poaching and reclaiming the forestland for
agriculture have greatly reduced the number of wildlife and many of them have come on the verge
of extinction in Africa in the past 50 years. Countries like Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Kenya, Tanzania,
Zimbabwe, and South Africa have taken positive action by setting aside land for the protection of
wildlife called “national park”. These national parks serve multiple purposes like attracting tourists,
providing natural habitat for wildlife, promoting scientific study of animal behaviours and arranging
for economic activities for locals. Government of Kenya has special arrangement with locals who have
ceded land for establishing “national park” by paying money earned from tourism as compensation
for the loss of land to people who live next to the parks. Government of Kenya also promotes projects,
which directly benefit the locals in the hope that more people will turn towards setting up such national
parks. Besides, Africa has far more farm animals like cattle, poultry, goats, and pigs than the wild ones.
Elephant National Park in Eastern Cape, South Africa and Tsavo National Park in Kenya
271<< Nova Social Studies Grade-10
Words and terms you would like to know
Abundance (n.): large amount
Scarcity (n.): an insufficient supply of something
Menace (n.): a possible source of danger or harm
Astounding (adj.): surprisingly impressive or notable
Activities
1. Africa has a range of diversity at ethnic, cultural and physical levels. Hold a discussion in the classroom
and justify the statement by providing appropriate examples.
2. Find out the names of ten biggest cities from Africa. List them in a table along with the name of their
countries along with the name of the countries they belong to in a table.
3. With the help of Atlas, write down the names of African countries which produce diamonds, gold and
petroleum.
Diamond producing countries Petroleum producing countries Gold producing countries
4. The capital of Egypt – Cairo is located on the bank of Nile. Giza pyramids and Great Sphinx, dating back
to the 26th century BC are situated near this city. At the heart of Cairo lies the Tahrir Square and the vast
Egyptian Museum which displays antiquities including royal mummies and gilded King Tutankhamun
artifacts. The development of such a big city with a great cultural and architectural significance is a
surprise as the place does not receive much rainfall. Analyze how could a city as vast as Cairo could
develop amidst such a scarcity of water.
Cairo city --- the capital of Egypt Cairo University
5. Africa for long has been struggling with the problems like hunger, conflicts, epidemics, illiteracy and
poverty. Make a list of steps to be taken for Africa to become strong, peaceful, prosperous and developed
continent.
6. Draw an outline map of Africa and show the following:
Diamond Mines Area, Petroleum Extracting Area, Equatorial Rain Forest Area, Migratory (Nomadic)
Herding, Region suffering with chronic poverty, Area influenced by Arabian culture, Masai herding
area, Kenya, Spotting the countries which lead in copper, peanuts and sugar
272 Nova Social Studies Grade-10 >>
Exercise
1. Describe the major economic activities of Africa.
2. Africa has a great potential of tourism. Justify the statement with appropriate examples.
3. For a long time, Africa carried the tag of being a ‘Dark Continent’. List the reasons why this tag of being
a ‘Dark Continent’ was labelled on Africa.
4. Africa is tremendously rich in minerals but terribly poor in manufacturing. Critically analyze the
statement.
5. Africa has interesting ethnic and religious compositions. Comment by giving illustrations.
6. Which region in Africa has the maximum incidence of poverty and why?
7. Name any four mineral resources with their percentage of availability (occurrence) in which Africa
leads in the world.
8. Africa has a lesson to teach regarding upkeep and management of wild animals in national parks.
Comment on it by making comparison with Nepal.
9. What is plantation crop? Why is it getting popular in Africa lately?
10. Give an account of the Saharan economy. Why is it dependent upon migratory herding?
11. Outline Africa’s status in coastline fishing by giving examples.
Community Work
The New York Times reported, “The slaughter of the African elephant continues. Nearly 100 of these majestic
animals are sacrificed every day for ivory trinkets – bracelets, statuettes and other baubles sold illegally
around the world. Wildlife experts estimate the remaining African elephant population at 350,000 to 500,000,
with poachers targeting 30,000 to 35,000 a year.” Wildlife trade is an organized and widespread criminal
activity, involving transnational networks. Nepal, of course is not untouched by it. Wildlife conservation
in Nepal has reduced the wildlife crimes on rhinos, tigers and elephants in Nepal but has not completely
stopped the poaching.
Operation COBRA II (held from December 30 to January 26, 2014) was a joint operation involving multiple
countries to apprehend wildlife criminals in Asian and African countries. During the period, the operation
was carried out in 14 districts of Nepal, resulting in the arrest of 14 people involved in wildlife crimes. This
operation was launched a year after the first COBRA operation with six more countries joining in this year.
The operation has found that organized wildlife trafficking has turned more dangerous than ever before
because of porous borders and strong networks of organized criminals. The international agenda of wildlife
conservation, no doubt, has received top priority.
With the help of like-minded people in your community, use various awareness campaigns to sensitize the
community regarding ‘wildlife conservation’ and establish a communication network to get information
about illegal poaching and wildlife trade to know more about it.
273<< Nova Social Studies Grade-10
Lesson North America, South America,
1 6 Africa and Nepal
Understanding Nepal in relation to three continents
There are similarities amongst North America, South America, Africa and Nepal on various issues and on
several aspects. Natural similarities relate to lofty mountain ranges, grasslands, rivers and climates. Africa
has two fold mountains: Atlas and Drakensberg. Mount Kilimanjaro is the highest peak of Africa. In North
America, the Rocky mountain range has covered the western coast-side right from Alaska in the North till
Panama in the south. The Rocky is also a fold mountain range. Mount Albert is the highest mountain peak
(4401 meter) here. In South America, the Andes mountain range located in the north-south angle runs along
the western side. Mount Aconcagua is the highest peak in the Andes. In Nepal too, the Himalayan mountain
range contains some of the highest peaks in the world. Mount Everest located in the Nepal’s Himalaya is the
highest mountain peak (8848 m) in the world.
North America has some big rivers like Saint Lawrence, Mississippi, Missouri and Colorado crisscrossing
the continent. Similarly, the well-known rivers like Amazon, Parana, and Paraguay of South America and
Nile, Congo and Zambezi of Africa are put to multi-purpose use there. Nepal’s rivers such as Kosi, Gandaki
and Karnali are perennial rivers having water flowing throughout the year and are multi-purpose in use.
The Prairies in North America, Compos and Llanos in South America, Veld in Africa and Kharka land in
Nepal’s Himalaya are used as pasture land for animal grazing. These land regions support animal husbandry
and cattle farming of cow, oxen, buffalo, sheep, goats and so on.
North America is quite developed in social and economic activities. Nepal’s economic profile matches a lot
with the countries in South America. Africa is relatively behind so far as development is concerned.
Nepal has strong diplomatic relationship with the United States of America (USA) and Canada. Thousands
of Nepali students visit the USA and Canada for higher studies. These two countries provide scholarship
to Nepali students making it convenient for them to specialize in different subjects at higher level of study.
Both the countries have also been helping in development works of Nepal. The citizens from the USA and
Canada visit Nepal as tourists in quite a good number. Both the North American countries are very helpful
to Nepal as they have been extending financial and technical assistance for the development of Nepal.
Nepal has maintained a good diplomatic relationship with the countries of South America. Nepal has its
own embassy in Brazil. Nepalese citizens have begun to visit South American countries for tour and travel
every year and the number of Nepalese tourists heading to South America is increasing every passing year.
Though Nepal is predominantly an agrarian economy, a significant number of cases of malnutrition and
poverty are found in the agricultural sector of Nepal. Nepal has to learn from countries like Canada, the
USA, Brazil and Argentina regarding the techniques and technologies involved in agriculture and animal
husbandry. Interestingly, Nepal has 39% of the total land area covered with forest but the local community
has not found sustainable source to survive on forest resources. On the other hand, Canada has around 31%
of the total land area covered with forest which sustains its rural economy. Canada has a load of advice and
assistance to offer to Nepal on silviculture.
Words and terms you would like to know
Predominantly (adv.): most commonly, most importantly
Silviculture (n.): Silviculture is the art and science of controlling the establishment, growth, composition, and quality of
forest vegetation. Silviculture is not just used for cutting trees for getting timbers. It is also used in regard to management
of forests for wildlife, water creation, aesthetics, or any combination of these or other forest uses.
Crisscross (v.): to travel or move backward and forward or in all different directions over something
Pasture (n.): grass-covered land used for grazing livestock
274 Nova Social Studies Grade-10 >>
Activities
1. Minutely observe the maps of natural features of North America, South America and Africa in order
to figure out the mountain ranges, grasslands, rivers and lakes, plateaus and big cities. Find out the
directions of all the pointers and facts which you observe in the map and note them down. Compare
them with the natural and topographical features of Nepal.
2. Explore from when Nepal established the diplomatic relationship with Canada and the United States of
America.
3. The Prairies in North America, the Compos and the Lalnos in South America, the Veld in Africa and the
Kharka in Nepal’s Himalaya are the pasture lands. List the topographical features of these grassland
areas and present the same in the classroom.
4. Make a table to write down the names and heights of the highest mountain peaks from Africa, North
America, South America and Nepal.
5. Name the three major physical features of North America. Hold a discussion in the classroom on their
main features.
Exercise
1. What lessons do you think Nepal must learn from North America?
2. Why do you think Nepal is suffering similar to some of the African countries?
3. What lessons must Nepal learn from South America? Write with illustrations.
4. Mention any four features of Tundra vegetation.
Project Work
1. Create four groups in the classroom for joint map drawing activity. Assign each of the four groups with
the task of map drawing of any one of the four maps of North America, South America, Africa and
Nepal without repeating any map to any group. Make a request to your subject teacher to act as an
evaluator to judge the best map. Arrange for a reward to be given to a winner group for drawing the
best map in front of all the students and teachers in the morning prayer assembly.
2. Botswana in Africa is now a democratic and progressive country. Above all, Botswana is invigoratingly
wild. The story of Botswana's journey from poverty to become one of Africa’s most stable and thriving
societies is truly inspirational for Nepal. The country completes its 50 years in 2016 while Nepal
recovers from both the natural disaster (earthquake) and the political disaster (economic-blockade)
in the same year. Botswana's rise in terms of achieving the balanced economic growth protecting its
natural riches has made the country as an appropriate case to follow for Nepal's own economic growth
and sustainable development. Prepare a project report mentioning the development model and crisis-
handling measures adopted by Botswana which can be helpful for Nepal.
275<< Nova Social Studies Grade-10
Lesson Natural Disasters – Earthquake
and Tsunami
17
Various types of natural processes keep on taking place both on the Earth’s surface as well as below the
surface. These natural processes, if high in intensity, destroy the human settlements and physical infrastruc-
tures bringing damage to human lives and property thereby crippling social and economic life in human
society. Naturally caused destructive incidents are called natural disasters. Thus, a natural disaster is the
destructive event caused by natural processes of the Earth. For example; earthquakes, tsunamis, floods,
hurricanes, tornadoes, volcanic eruptions, lightening, landslides, glacier bursts are natural disasters. These
disasters according to their intensity (severity) disrupt or destroy social and economic activities of human
beings. The present lesson deals with two such natural disasters: earthquake and tsunami.
Earthquake: Meaning, Nature, Causes and Measurement
Earthquake is simply understood as shaking of the Earth’s surface caused by rapid movement of the Earth’s
rocky outer layer. An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) takes place because of a sud-
den release of energy in the Earth’s crust that creates seismic waves. The study of earthquakes and the
waves they create is called seismology (derived from the Greek word ‘seismos’ that means, “to shake”) and
seismologists are those scientists who study earthquakes. Earthquakes, or seismic tremors, go on occurring
at a rate of several hundreds per day around the world. A worldwide network of seismographs (machines
that record movements of the Earth) detects about 1 million small earthquakes per year and thousands of
them every day. But only the earthquakes measuring more than 4 in magnitude on the Richter scale are
experienced by us. The measurement of seismic waves with seismograph in a pattern of graphic show on
two-dimensional paper is called the seismogram.
Application of Seismograph Seismogram
In the last 500 years, earthquakes around the world have killed several million people. For example, over
270,000 people died in the 1976 T’ang-Shan earthquake (having a magnitude of 7.5) in China, near about
250,000 people died in the 2004 Sumatra earthquake (of 9.15 magnitude), more than 87,000 people died in
the 2008 China earthquake (of 7.8 magnitude) and 230,000 people died in the 2010 Haiti earthquake (of 7.0
magnitude). Chile has a dubious distinction of being the country of high seismicity and this country has
already experienced the largest earthquake (9.5 magnitudes) in 1960 ever recorded on earth. Nepal also is an
earthquake-prone country. The earthquakes in Nepal on Magh 2, 1990 and Bhadra 5, 2045 are known for the
extensive damages of human life and property. The last major earthquake which jolted Nepal in April 2015
(Baisakh 2072) killed more than 9,000 people and injured above 23,000 people. This earthquake struck Nepal
in a series of small and big jolts. First major jolt of earthquake occurred on 25th April 2015 (Baisakh 12, 2072
276 Nova Social Studies Grade-10 >>
at 11:56 NST) having a magnitude of 7.8 (Moment Magnitude) followed by the other one on 12th May 2015
(Baisakh 29, 2072 at 12:51 NST) measuring the magnitude of 7.3.
The earthquake-prone areas in the world: The most important earthquake belt is the Circum-Pacific Belt,
which includes coastal regions around the Pacific Ocean – for example, New Zealand, New Guinea, Japan, the
Aleutian Islands, Alaska, and the western coasts of North and South America. It is estimated that 80 percent
of the energy presently released in earthquakes comes from those whose epicenters are in this belt. Therefore,
this belt earns the sobriquet of “Pacific Ring of Fire.” A second belt known as the Alpide Belt passes through
the Mediterranean region eastward through Asia covering Himalayan mountain system of which Nepal is a
part crisscrossing Indo-China to join ultimately the Circum-Pacific Belt in the East Indies. The energy released
in earthquakes from this belt is about 15 percent of the world total.
Causes of an Earthquake
An earthquake is a naturally originating sudden tremor or movement of the earth’s crust. There are two
main causes of earthquakes:
Firstly, earthquakes caused by volcanic eruptions; they are very common in areas of volcanic activity (like
Asia Pacific Regions also known as “Ring of Fire”) where they either precede or accompany or succeed
eruptions. When extraordinary levels of pressure develop due to deposition of acidic lava on the mouth
(crater) of the volcano, the volcanic explosion is of devastating nature producing an earthquake of de-
structive magnitude. When Krakatoa (Indonesia, between Java and Sumatra) exploded in 1883, the explo-
sion was heard over 5000 km away in Australia and the shockwaves produced a series of tsunami (large
sea waves), one of which was over 36 m high killing over 36,000 people. On the other hand, volcanoes
producing free flowing basic lava do not cause earthquakes because the vent remains open allowing the
release of pressure all freely and constantly. Since pressure does not accumulate inside the volcano, violent
explosions do not happen and therefore no earthquake takes place.
Secondly, earthquakes caused by ‘plate-tectonic activity’; the majority of earthquakes worldwide are of
this type. Tectonic earthquakes take place when the crust accumulates ‘strain’, and eventually moves.
Earth has a rigid outer layer, known as the lithosphere having a thickness of about 100 km (60 miles). This
lithosphere is broken up into about a dozen large and several small plates. Himalayan Mountain-range
is made up of both Indian Plate and Tibetan Plate. According to geologists, Indian and Euro-Asian plates
are in motion. Euro-Asian plate is also known as Tibetan Plate. These plates move relative to each other,
typically at rates of 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 inches) per year, and interact at their boundaries, where they either
converge or diverge or slip past one another. Such interactions are responsible for most of Earth’s seis-
mic and volcanic activity, although earthquakes and volcanoes are not wholly absent in plate interiors.
Location of the continental plates and their movement in the Himalayan region
277<< Nova Social Studies Grade-10
Hypocenter and Epicenter
An earthquake is the effect just as concentric waves created after a stone falls into the water. Imagine a
situation when a stone is thrown into the water. After the stone hits the water level, a series of concentric
wave as mentioned earlier moves outwards from the center. Exactly the same event occurs in an earth-
quake when a sudden movement within the crust or mantle creates concentric shock waves moving out
from that point. Geologists and geographers call this point as origin of the earthquake – the focus or the
hypocenter. Since this is often deep below the surface and difficult to map, the location of the earthquake
is fixed at a point on the Earth surface directly above (or vertically above) the focus i.e. the hypocenter.
This point located on the earth surface lying vertically above the hypocenter (actual origin of the earth-
quake below the earth surface) is called the epicenter. For example, the April 2015 Nepal Earthquake (of
7.8 Mw) had its epicenter located in east of the district of Lamjung and its hypocenter at a depth of approx-
imately 15 km (9.3 mi). Similarly, the 12 May 2015 Nepal Earthquake (of 7.3 Mw) had its epicenter near the
Chinese border between Kathmandu and Mt. Everest and hypocenter at the depth of 18.5 km (11.5 miles).
The epicenter is directly above the earthquake’s focus (hypocenter)
Effects of Earthquake
A series of earthquakes with a 5.6 magnitude collapsed houses and triggered landslides in a remote
mountainous part of south-western China on September 7, 2012, killing at least 50 people and damage
caused by this earthquake was preventing rescuers from reaching some outlying areas, and communications
were disturbed. April 25, 2015 earthquake in Nepal caused an avalanche on Mount Everest thereby killing
at least 19 people, and hence, making it the deadliest day on the mountain in history. This earthquake
caused another avalanche in the Langtang valley leaving 250 people reportedly missing.
Above examples show the effects of earthquake. Let us see some more effects:
1. Shaking and Ground Rupture: Shaking and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes,
more or less responsible for damage to buildings and other rigid structures causing death to human
beings and loss of human property.
2. Landslides and avalanches: Earthquakes can produce slope instability leading to landslides. Massive
amounts of soil, rock and vegetation crash down when landslides and avalanches take place.
3. Fire, Floods and Diseases: Earthquakes can cause fires by rupturing electrical power or gas lines and it
is difficult to put off the fire if the water supply line is also ruptured. For example, many number of people
died in 1906 San Francisco earthquake by fire more than the earthquake.
Floods may be the result if the earthquakes damage dams. Floods are the secondary effect of earthquake.
The spread of various contagious diseases is a secondary effect of earthquakes. Diseases break out because
of broken water lines, choked drains, dead corpses infecting the water and unhygienic conditions in
hospitals.
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A glimpse of Baisakh 12, 2072 BS earthquake in Nepal
4. Soil liquefaction: Because of shaking of the earth, soil liquefaction takes place when water-saturated
granular material (such as sand) temporarily loses its strength and transforms from a solid to a liquid.
Soil liquefaction may cause rigid structures, like buildings and bridges, to tilt or sink into the liquefied
deposits as a devastating effect of earthquakes. Many number of buildings and high-rise multi-stories
in Gangabu, Kathmandu caved in due to soil liquefaction caused by April 25, 2015 earthquake in Nepal.
5. Tsunamis: Tsunamis, caused by ‘undersea earthquake’ are long-wavelength and long-period sea waves
generated by the sudden or abrupt movement of large volumes of water and can submerge coastal areas in
just a few minutes. Tsunamis may travel 600-800 kilometres per hour (373–497 miles per hour), depending
on water depth. For example, a 9.0-magnitude earthquake and subsequent tsunami struck Japan in March
2011and brought much destruction to human life and property. Earthquakes (having magnitude 7.5 and
more) cause tsunami.
Tsunami: Meaning, Nature and Effects
Tsunami is a Japanese word meaning “harbour wave,” used for a class of abnormal sea waves (or tidal
waves) that can cause catastrophic damage when it hits a coastline. Tsunami is a series of waves in a water
body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake causing
damage to life and property. It is caused by an undersea earthquake, an undersea landslide, the eruption
of an undersea volcano, or by the force of an asteroid dashing into the ocean. The most frequent cause of
tsunami is an undersea earthquake. Therefore, tsunami is most popularly understood as the earthquake
under the ocean/sea. The Ring of Fire, a zone of volcanoes and seismic activity, 32,500 km (24,000 mi)
long, which encircles the Pacific Ocean experiences most number of tsunamis in the world. Tsunami is not
one wave but a series of waves. Tsunamis should not be mistaken for storm surges, which are caused by
hurricanes or cyclones and bring extensive coastal flooding when the storms reach land-coast. For example,
super storm Sandy hit the east coast of the USA in North Atlantic Ocean on October 29, 2012 when much
of New York was plunged into darkness by this super storm that overflowed the city’s historic waterfront,
flooded the financial district and subway tunnels and cut power to nearly a million people. This was not a
tsunami.
Most tsunamis are not very destructive for humans but few of them are devastating in nature. On December
26, 2004, the Indian coastline experienced the most devastating tsunami in recorded history. An earthquake
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having a magnitude of 9.0 off the coast of Sumatra in the Indonesian Archipelago triggered the tsunami. In
another example, a ferocious tsunami spawned by one of the largest earthquakes slammed Japan’s eastern
coast on March 11, 2011, killing hundreds of people as it swept away boats, cars and homes while widespread
fires burned out of control. The magnitude 8.9 offshore quake unleashed a seven-meter tsunami and was
followed by more than 50 aftershocks for hours, many of them of more than magnitude 6.0. Dozens of cities
and villages along a 2100-km stretch of coastline were shaken by violent tremors that reached as far away as
Tokyo, hundreds of kilometres away from the epicentre.
The effects of a tsunami: A tsunami causes loss of human and animal life, devastates property, brings
flooding and spreads diseases. It causes environmental effects such as contamination of soil and water,
unmanaged toxic substances, permanent change to the landscape, scattered solid waste and disaster debris.
Like earthquakes, small and undetectable tsunamis occur almost every day but only larger tsunamis have
devastating effects on life, property and land. Tsunami strikes suddenly giving no time to escape causing
near instant death, usually by drowning, and also by collapsing buildings, electrocution and more. Since
1850, tsunamis have killed more than 430,000 people. The March 2011 tsunami in Japan left a total of 15,894
people dead, 6,152 injured and 2,562 people missing.
Tsunami hitting the coastal area
The excessive flooding caused by the tsunami waves also damages sewer systems, water supplies and worsens
the quality of soil. Standing dirty water in this way becomes the source of spreading malaria and other
diseases along with illness, infection and even death. The inflow of sea water on the coastal and mainland
areas makes the soil saline lowering the fertility of land which in turn affects the long-term yields of crops.
The high intensity impact of tsunami waves destroys the architecture, building and property permanently
alter the landscape. Tsunami waves have even wiped out entire islands. They leave nothing intact on their
path and destroy everything including buildings, trees, power lines, bridges, factories, nuclear plants, cars,
boats and more. A huge mound (mass) of solid waste and debris that is almost impossible to clean up is
left behind after a tsunami attack. Tsunami attack damages the entire ecological system consisting of flora
and fauna and other natural resources on its way. Hazardous materials and toxic substances released by
the leakage and bursting of the physical infrastructures and the factories release toxic gases and chemicals
spreading environmental pollution which causes death by inhalation and consumption of toxic foods.
280 Nova Social Studies Grade-10 >>
Ways to remain safe both from earthquake as well as tsunami
Both the earthquake and tsunami are unpredictable natural disasters leaving very less time to minimize the
loss of life and property. However, modern science and technology have made it possible to catch some early
signs of impending natural disasters to take precautionary steps for evacuating or rescuing the people from
the danger zone.
The following are some of the ways to remain safe both from earthquake as well as tsunami:
(a.) To be always in the reachable zone to access information from radio, television or others
(b.) To be prepared in advance for the mitigation of the impacts when the earthquake and the tsunami strikes
(c.) To install earthquake and tsunami resistance physical structures in building architecture
(d.) To make emergency kit and disaster bag ready to deal with sudden strike of natural disasters like an
earthquake and tsunami
Words and terms you would like to know
Geologist (n.): a scientist who studies the structure of the Earth or another planet, especially its rocks, soil, and
minerals, and its history and origins
Displacement (n.): the movement of something from its usual or correct place
Archipelago (n.): a group or chain of islands (often used in place names)
Ferocious (adj.): very intense
Spawn (v.): to generate or give rise to something
Contamination (n.): the act or process of making something dirty or unclean or impure
Undetectable (adj.): untraceable
Wipe out (v.): to destroy large numbers of things or kill large numbers of people, especially suddenly and violently
Hazardous (adj.): potentially very dangerous to living beings or the environment
Activities
1. Even today an earthquake cannot be predicted. An earthquake is a dangerous natural disaster which
destroys and displaces hundreds of thousands of people in just a few seconds. If this is the situation
today, just think what would have it been like in the past. Meet the elderly and senior people from your
community to record their experiences of facing earthquake in their life time. Note the experiences they
share with you and present the same in the classroom.
2. You must have heard about tsunami and learnt about it from different sources like radio, television,
newspapers, and magazines. Based on your present understanding, differentiate between the earthquake
and tsunami.
3. Illustrate the causes of earthquake and tsunami in the table given below:
Causes of Earthquake Effects of Earthquake Causes of Tsunami Effects of Tsunami
4. Even though earthquake cannot be prevented, its destructive effects can definitely be minimized.
Explain how it is possible.
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5. What are the steps required to keep safe and be alert before the earthquake, during the earthquake and
the after the earthquake. Hold a discussion in the classroom and write at least four points for each of the
three situations above.
Exercise
1. What is earthquake? How can it be handled? Explain.
2. Write a paragraph on the high intensity of earthquake which Nepal experienced in Baisakh 2072 (April
2015).
3. Differentiate between epicentre and hypocentre.
4. How does seismograph measure the magnitude of earthquake? Illustrate with the help of drawing a
picture.
5. Specify the most dangerous zones of earthquake and tsunami across the world. 6. Do you think “Storm
Surges” in oceans are tsunamis? Give reason for your answer.
7. Make a list of effects of the earthquake.
8. Highlight the effects of tsunami.
9. Mention the ways to remain safe in the events of natural disasters like earthquake and tsunami.
10. Mention any two secondary effects each caused by the earthquake and the tsunami.
11. Explain how diseases break out because of the earthquake and the tsunami.
12. Explain the causes of the earthquake with the help of illustrations.
13. Nepal falls in the earthquake-prone zone and yet falls short of preparations to face earthquake. Critically
analyse the above stated observation in light of past responses to earthquake and giving suggestions to
follow.
Community Work
When and how did you experience (sense) the earthquake for the first time in your life? When and how did
the elderly members of your family experience the earthquake? Ask them and collect their experiences in a
chart paper along with your own experience and share those experiences with your neighbours and other
members of your community.
282 Nova Social Studies Grade-10 >>
Lesson Map – Its Different Methods of
Drawing and Modern Practical
18 Map-related Technologies
Ever wondered to gain perfection in map making or thought about how exactly such an accurate map of
different regions on the earth is displayed with great precision? With just a bit of planning and designing,
you’ll be a regular cartographer in no time. A cartographer is a person who creates maps, whether they are
of the world, the local bus routes, or a buried archeological site or a pirate treasure. And cartography is the
study and practice of making maps. Cartography brings the reality of vast geographical or physical area
in front of us to communicate with full spatial information effectively. Maps function as visualization tools
for spatial data. At present, digital systems capable of producing dynamic interactive maps which are ma-
nipulated digitally are able to give more information in all the possible dimensions. Therefore, maps are no
longer available on just the two dimensional plane, though such maps are still in use with a lot of practical
significance. The application of modern “information technology” has changed the modern cartography.
The cartographers use new methods for visualization and communication of spatial information on the
maps with the help of evolving technologies.
Drawing map is an art which is done in more than two ways.
The following are the techniques commonly used for map making:
1. Free Mapping Method: This method is used to draw a map after minutely observing the details of the
maps which are to be copied or drawn. All of us use this technique when we attempt to draw a map. One
can draw a map as accurately as given in the base (source) map if the art and technique are followed with
care and precision.
2. Carbon Printing Method: This method is commonly used when a carbon is placed above the blank paper
and below a base map which is to be copied or drawn. After that, a base map is pressed with a pencil or
some pointed objects to run around its boundaries and other details to get them printed on a blank sheet of
paper in form of a map.
3. Tracing Method: A glass-fixed table is illuminated beneath with a sharp light of a bulb or a tube light
which directly falls on the surface area of a glass table where a base map is affixed under the table. A blank
sheet of paper is placed exactly on the affixed map above the glass table. With the illumination of light, a
base map which is to be drawn gets clearly visible on the blank sheet of paper. Using a pencil, a map is easily
drawn showing all the details being reflected with a force of light on a glass table.
4. Photocopy Method: A photocopy machine is used to take duplicate impression of outlines of a base map.
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A photocopy of a base map does not reveal all the details except the broader outline of a map in general.
However, a photocopy of a high resolution machine may disclose most of the details of a base map in its
print (or a photo copy).
5. Over Head Projector (OHP) or Light Method: The OHP machine is used to throw the beams of light in
order to create reflected images of a base map which is affixed in a transparent plastic frame on the wall.
After that, a map is drawn by looking at the reflected image of base map on the wall. Currently, this method
is not much in use and has become unpopular too.
6. Stencil Method: In this method, first of all the required map is drawn on the stencil paper. Then after, a
stencil machine is used to convert the drawn map into a “litho” form to create different copies of it. Lithogra-
phy is generally used to draw an image with oil, fat, or wax onto the surface of a smooth, level lithographic
limestone plate. This traditional technique is no longer in use except in some fine art printmaking applica-
tions.
7. Square Method: This method begins with making square and then many numbers of smaller squares into
it. So squares within a square prepare a map to be drawn from a base map. Careful observation of a base
map gives the idea how and when boundaries of a base map take turns and twists which get easier to draw
in a square without making mistakes. All the curves, twists and turns in the smaller as well as bigger squares
make it possible to minimize or avoid errors of designing a map of a base map.
8. GIS Method: A geographic information system (or GIS) by using computer, information and communica-
tion technology captures, stores, manipulates, analyzes, manages, and presents spatial or geographic data.
GIS applications are tools that allow users to analyze spatial information, edit data in maps, and present the
results of all these operations. GIS uses space-time location as the key index variable for all other informa-
tion. Just as a relational database containing text or numbers can relate many different tables using common
key index variables, GIS can relate otherwise unrelated information by using location as the key index vari-
able. The key is the location and/or extent in space-time. Most of the countries in the world are at present
using the GIS technology to produce and improve upon the quality of the map.
The various uses of GIS tool and coming up of GIS professional as an expert
9. Template Method: Following this method, a map is neatly scissored to fit it into a frame or a block. Then,
the frame or a block is firmly placed on a plain paper. After that, outlines of a map are drawn on the plain
(blank) paper and other details inside the map are also filled up. This is how a map gets ready on a plain
(blank) paper.
284 Nova Social Studies Grade-10 >>
Whichever method of drawing a map it may be, all the necessary details and information must be shown in-
side the body of a map. A map uses universal colors, signs and symbols to indicate the facts and information
mentioned there. Therefore, the universally accepted practice and pattern must be followed while drawing a
map so that everybody living in different parts of the world comprehend and understand the map with ease.
Modern Practical Technology for Drawing a Map
The rapid progress in science and technology has touched every aspect of human life and human activity.
Cartography too has not remained untouched from the reach of science and technology. In drawing a map,
modern technologies are being used with an aim to create clear and errorless map. Moreover, drawing a
map has become easier nowadays, thanks to the continuously evolving technology.
1. Geographical Information System/GIS: A geographic information system (GIS) uses a computer system
for capturing, storing, checking and displaying data related to different positions or locations on Earth’s
surface. GIS can show many different kinds of data on one map thereby enabling people to see, analyze,
and understand patterns and relationships amongst all the details on the map. It uses special GIS software
to analyze layered data and create new layers of data as a result of having a "layering" technique to combine
various types of data.
GIS tool in fact is very popular amongst analysts and geographers to visualize data in various ways to view
patterns and relationships in a specific area or subject. These patterns are not only visible on maps, but
are also seen or available in reports and charts and on globes. A dynamic and multi-dimensional nature of
information is gathered from multiple sources by employing (applying) the GIS technique (tools). The GIS
software establishes contacts with the electromagnetic radiation (waves) acting as the carrier of information
or data released by the artificial satellites placed in the space. The information so gathered by GIS software
system in computer is later converted into a map with the specific details.
The GIS tools have brought a revolution in creating maps showing details of various kinds facilitating re-
search, education, discovery, governance, development and more. People can compare the locations of dif-
ferent things in order to discover the relationship of various dimensions between them with GIS technology.
The same map could include sites that produce pollution, such as gas stations, and sites that are sensitive
to pollution, such as wetlands by using GIS. Thus, people come to know which wetlands are most at risk.
GIS is able to use any information that includes a location. A location can be expressed as latitude and lon-
gitude or through a ZIP code or in an address form. Using GIS, multiple types of information (data) can be
compared and contrasted by gathering them from multiple sources. The information (data) may be collected
by satellites or by survey or by both or by any other source. GIS combines the information from different
sources in a unique way to create different maps of different projections including three dimensional planes.
For example, many kinds of information can be shown about a single city showing an average income, slum
areas, drainage leakages, groceries sales, and voting patterns and what not.
2. Global Positioning System/GPS: The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based system which
is generally used to locate positions anywhere on the earth. The operation of GPS is dependent upon the
constellation of artificial satellites (popularly known as global navigation satellite system – GNSS) orbiting
the earth at high altitude (of about 11,000 nautical miles where one nautical mile is equal to 1.852 km). GPS
satellites complete an orbit in approximately 12 hours. In this way, they pass over any point on the earth
about twice a day. The GPS satellites continuously broadcast (emit) the data relating to satellite position and
timing through radio signals which travel at the speed of light (186,000 miles per second) and take approx-
imately 6/100ths of a second to reach the earth. This is why the Global Positioning System (GPS) is called
a space-based radio-navigation system. The GPS receivers work in all weather conditions to receive the
information provided by the global navigation satellite system (GNSS) regarding time and location on the
earth. The GPS operations depend on a very accurate time reference, which is provided by atomic clocks on
board the satellites orbiting the earth. The GPS system operates independently of any telephonic or internet
reception if only there is no obstruction (or interference) caused by water, soil, walls or other obstacles like
thick forest. It is because satellite signals cannot penetrate them to reach the GPS receivers.
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The constellation of artificial satellites and the working of the GPS (Global Positioning System)
Using the GPS technology, various regions of the earth can easily be drawn into a map with accurate in-
formation of their latitudes, longitudes and of course altitudes. Modern information and communication
technology such as internet operated through mobile phone or computer or tablet uses this technique to
show exact time and location which are very useful in multiple ways. The Google earth by using the GPS
software has turned out to be the modern source of all kinds of geographical information on the earth. The
GPS system provides critical information regarding time and geo-location to military, civil, and commercial
users around the world.
An illustration of how the GPS technology works to our convenience
Many farmers today are using a field map created by using GPS to record the coordinates of field borders,
fence lines, canals, pipelines, and point locations such as wells, buildings, and landscape features. In addi-
tion to that, a field map showing crop damage from hail or drought, and riparian (along river bank) areas or
wetlands is being mapped using GPS. Furthermore, the GPS aided maps are very helpful for emergency re-
sponse (fire, ambulance, and police), search and rescue, fleet management (trucking, delivery vehicles, and
public transportation) and for automobile guidance systems. GPS has also been used to map archaeological
sites and for infrastructure (streets, highways and utilities) mapping, management, and planning for future
growth. The civil engineers, builders and architects use GPS for surveying when building roads, bridges and
other structures are to be built.
286 Nova Social Studies Grade-10 >>
Words and terms you would like to know
ZIP code: a trademark for a mail delivery system using a set of numbers to identify a postal district; The ZIP is an
acronym for Zone Improvement Plan which was chosen for mails to travel more efficiently.
Illumination (n.): the provision of light to make something visible or bright or the fact of being lit up
Groceries (n.): goods, especially food, sold in a grocery
Navigation (n.): the act or task of moving through a place or along a route
Constellation (n.): an arrangement of a group of things felt to be related to each other
Activities
1. Amongst all the mentioned techniques (methods) of making map, which technique (method) of map-
making have you used repeatedly so far and which ones you have never used (touched)?
2. Hold a discussion by making groups in the classroom why “Light and Stencil methods” are not much
in use in drawing the maps. Write down the conclusions and read the same aloud in front of all the
students in the class.
3. Choose a method of drawing a map independently and draw a map of Nepal covering the full page of
your notebook.
4. Place a tracing paper on top of any map that you want to draw. Carefully line up the tops of the two
pieces of paper. It may be hard to see through the tracing paper. So use a special table made of glass
and have a light shining up to make tracing easier. Use a dark pen to outline the edges of individual
features in a map you are drawing (tracing). Color those features with proper index, scale and directions
shown at suitable places. Get a map so traced (drawn) by your Social Studies teacher and seek his/her
suggestions if any.
5. Have you ever used the “Google Earth”? How does it help in locating different places across the earth?
Search “Google Earth” on the internet and prepare your notes to share the same in the classroom.
6. Find out the fundamental differences between the Global Positioning System and the Geographical
Information System.
7. Draw the map of South Asia using the square method.
Exercise
1. What are the methods (techniques) available for drawing a map? List them with brief description of
each method.
2. A carbon paper method of drawing a map is different from a tracing method. Why is this so?
3. Specify why a photocopy method of drawing a map involves no real skill of a man.
4. List the information that one can get from a GPS map.
5. Differentiate between a GPS map and a GIS map.
6. Point out the different uses (applications) of the GIS and GPS maps.
7. Use the free mapping method and draw a map showing all the important areas and ways leading to
your school from your home.
Project Work
Many students in your classroom may have access to internet. Amongst them some may have used the
‘Global Positioning System’ for getting the map of Nepal while some may have got the map of Nepal by
using the ‘Geographical Information System’. Ask them to bring the maps of Nepal from both the systems
mentioned above. Hold a discussion to compare and contrast the maps of Nepal obtained by using the GIS
and GPS methods. Prepare a project based on your outcomes of the discussion and present the same in the
classroom.
287<< Nova Social Studies Grade-10
Lesson
1 9 Map Work
Meaning of Map, Cartography and Cartogram
A map is the graphic representation of an area of the Earth or of any other celestial body, drawn to scale usu-
ally on a flat surface showing features like geographical, geological, or geopolitical, natural resources, etc.
Globes are maps represented on the surface of a sphere. A map is a reduced projection of the Earth’s surface
drawn specifically to measure up the distance, direction, and size on the whole or part of the earth. Maps are
drawn to present different facts such as boundary, physical features, altitude, vegetation, human population
and settlement, minerals and forest, religious places, physical infrastructures, industrial bases and more on
a flat surface. Maps drawn in such a manner are easy to carry from one place to the other place. Maps are
not the photographs or pictures. Maps can show many things that a picture cannot show, therefore, a map
looks different in many ways from a photograph of the Earth’s surface. A map is a visual representation of
an area – a symbolic depiction showing relationships between elements of that space such as objects, regions
and themes. Any good map must have three essential elements: scale, index (legend or labeling) and direc-
tion. Maps are in use for centuries. A geographical map essentially provides measurement of coordinates of
latitudes and longitudes of an area on the Earth’s surface along with a proper scale, direction and index. A
scale on a map must represent the accurate ratio of distance (measured generally in kilometer or mile) on
the land to a distance on a map (measured usually in centimeter). Similarly, the signs or symbols used in a
map must have universal acceptance and must be in practice at international level. Art of map making is
known as cartography and one who makes maps as a profession is called a cartographer. Cartogram is that
map whose scale has undergone deliberate minimization by manipulation with an aim to show the details
on the actual land area.
An art of drawing map by means of hand-sketch
We have already known about different ways (methods or techniques) of drawing a map. Drawing a map
by means of hand-sketch was very popular in the past. At present, modern techniques and technologies
have changed the way a map is drawn and has replaced the traditional style of drawing a map.
Below are the steps to draw a map of Nepal by hand:
1. Draw a rectangle having length of 10 cm and a breadth of 6 cm. In case you have a big chart paper, take
a longer length of 20 cm and a breadth of 12 cm.
2. Draw a line after the distance of every 2cm from the end of a box. Fix a mid point that divides a rectan-
gle into two equal halves and draw a vertical line touching that point. The lines thus drawn in a manner
mentioned above show the different corners of our country Nepal.
288 Nova Social Studies Grade-10 >>
3. Fix a scale on the map drawn as per the area it covers. For example, one cm in a map is equal to 80 km
on the real ground if the area of a map happens to be 10 cm x 6 cm but in case the area of a map measures
20 cm x 12 cm the scale will change to show one cm on the map as equal to 40 km on the real ground.
This measurement of scale needs to be written at the bottom corner of the map similar to the one as being
shown here.
A map of Nepal with a scale written at the bottom (left hand)
4. Repeat the exercise several times to perfect the art of drawing a map of Nepal. Not only this, draw a
map of your province and show all the districts which all under it. Pick your own district and village to
draw them separately to show several details in them.
Note: Following the above ratio of length and breadth in a map of Nepal, a bigger map can be converted
into a smaller one and a smaller map can be changed into a bigger one.
289<< Nova Social Studies Grade-10
Words and terms you would like to know
Coordinate (n.): number specifying position
Depiction (n.): portrayal of a picture or map
Manipulation (n.): handling numbers or working with data
Convert (v.): to change something from one character, form, or function to another, or be changed in character, form
or function
Atlas: An atlas is a compendium of maps revealing information on various themes such as physical feature, political
boundaries, climate, population, natural vegetation etc. Atlas is a brief account of all the details about the continents,
countries, oceans, seas, cities and so on with accurate symbolizations in a series of maps.
Cadastral Map: A cadastral map (also known as cadastre or cadaster) is a map, which provides detailed information
about real property within a specific area.
Topographic Map: This kind of maps includes contour lines to show the shape and elevation of an area.
Map Symbols: Map symbols represent real objects in the world. Without symbols, we would not have maps.
Activities
1. As instructed in the present lesson, make a rectangle to practice an art of drawing a map of Nepal until
you get perfection in it. At the end, draw a map of Nepal and display the same in the classroom.
2. Write a paragraph on your first experience of drawing a map.
3. Do we need an art to draw a map? Hold a discussion in a group and present the conclusions.
4. A good way to learn about maps is to make and use a map of a familiar area. Therefore, draw a series of
maps of your own schoolyard, city or town or village you live in, or even neighbourhood you face every
day. Display all these maps in an exhibition organized under the auspices of the department of Social
Studies.
Exercise
1. What is meant by a map? What are the essential elements of a map? Illustrate them.
2. Provide a brief account on cartography. Introduce a cartographer.
3. Briefly explain the role played by a scale and an index of signs (symbols) to complete a map.
4. What is atlas? What are its different uses?
5. What is cartogram? What do you mean by ‘Grid System’ in map?
6. How would you show the following by means of map symbols?
Tower, Mine, Historical Site, Boundary Marker, Town, Boundary, Desert and River
7. Differentiate between cadastral map and topographical map.
Project Work
1. Divide your class into three groups. Assign the first group with the task of drawing a map of Nepal,
the second group with drawing the provinces shown independently and the third group with drawing
zones. Collect all the maps drawn on the chart papers and display them inside the classroom.
2. There must have been many constructions going on around your house. Prepare a cadastral map of
your own house as well as construction sites in the nearby areas of your house.
290 Nova Social Studies Grade-10 >>
UNIT
7
Our Past
Learning Objectives:
After the completion of this Unit, students will be able to......
Describe all the important political events from 2007 BS till the present and analyze their impacts
on social and economic life of the people in Nepal
Illustrate the roles played by Nepal in the first and the second world wars
Find out the historical and cultural perspectives of historical and archaeological sites located in
their area of residence and place of birth
Learn from the mistakes committed in the past in order to develop insight into the present political
developments and to make positive contributions towards the development of the Nepalese
society
Lesson The Revolution of 2007 BS and
Delhi Agreement
1
The Delhi Agreement/End of Rana Rule
A Brief background of Rana rule: Rana rule began after Jung Bahadur Rana established himself as the
Prime Minister and Commander-in-Chief of Nepal in 1903 BS (1846 AD) through the Kot Parva and ended
with Mohan Shamsher Rana as Prime Minister when Delhi Agreement was signed in 2007 BS (1951AD). This
is how Rana dictatorship which began on Asoj 2, 1903 lasted for 104 years in Nepal. Rana’s dictatorial auto-
crats ruled over Nepal by imposing hereditary prime ministers and reduced the traditional Shah monarchs
as mere titular heads of the state with no executive power. For the first time in the history of Nepal, both
the Monarch as well as the Prime Minister became hereditary dynastic positions. Ranas openly promoted
their family members in different departments of administration at the cost of nation’s welfare. Ranas sup-
ported imperial rule of the ‘British Empire’ over India and helped the Britishers in suppressing democratic
political movement in India which sought for the end of British rule. Ranas never wanted any democratic
movement in Nepal. Therefore, Ranas decided to suppress the assertive King Tribhuvan enjoying support of
political parties of Nepal to become the constitutional head with democratic government under him. Mohan
Shamsher Rana dethroned the Shah King Tribhuvan on November 7, 1950 (Kartik 22, 2007) and enthroned
his second grandson Gyanendra as titular King of Nepal to perpetuate the Rana’s autocratic dictatorship.
In this scenario, political parties took up the onus to uproot the ruthless Ranas and dislodge their feudal
autocratic regime.
291<< Nova Social Studies Grade-10
Political Parties and anti-Rana movement
King Tribhuvan, successor of Prithvi Bir Bikram Shah, had desired to come out of “clutches” of the Rana
and was looking for support from outside. A small group of persons who called themselves “Prachanda
Gorkha” in 1988 BS undertook one of the early royal attempts to extricate King Tribhuvan of his fettered
(or helpless without political power) life as a symbol of freeing Nepal from Ranas. “Prachanda Gorkha”
wanted to stage a coup to end the Rana Rule in order to establish constitutional monarchy. But the activities
of the Prachanda Gorkha did not prove to be very effective. After that the Praja Parishad was established as
the political party on Jestha 20, 1993 in a meeting organized in Kathmandu. It was the first political party
of Nepal which was formed due to the initiatives taken by five leaders of those times. These five leaders
were Tanka Prashad Acharya (Chairman), Dashrath Chand (Deputy Chairman), Ramhari Sharma (General
Secretary), Dharmbhakta Mathema and Jeevraj Sharma as founder members. The Praja Parishad as the po-
litical party intensified the anti-Rana movement. Meanwhile, the Ranas made the life of King Tribhuvan
more miserable than before and imposed more restrictions on him. King was projected as the symbol of
sovereignty of Nepal in order to usher in democracy in the country by overthrowing the Rana rule. Praja
Parishad received the full support from King Tribhuvan. Praja Parishad began to distribute hand-written
pamphlets among the people and wrote articles against the Rana rule both in Nepal as well as in India. This
political party distributed pamphlets against the Rana dynasty to enlighten the people against the atrocities
committed by Rana dictators. Juddha Shamsher Rana was the prime minister of Nepal at that time. A secret
meeting of Praja Parishad was held in Lainchaur that was also attended by King Tribhuwan. Prime Minister
Juddha Shumsher and the other leading Ranas with the help of the informer Ramji Joshi arrested most of the
members of Praja Parishad. The court of the Ranas declared Death Penalty against Shukraraj Shastri (who
was not, however, involved in Praja Parishad), Dharma Bhakta Mathema, GangaLal Shrestha, and Dashrath
Chand on January 19, 1941 (Magh 4, 1997 BS). Shukraraj Shastri was hanged from a tree on the side of the
road at Teku, Kathmandu on 24 January 1941. Shastri and the other martyrs are honored on Martyrs Day,
which is observed annually on 29-30 January across the country. Other three members of the Praja Parishad
were of Brahmin caste, and hence were insulted and exiled. The Rana’s tribunal also interrogated King
Tribhuvan on his alleged involvement in the Praja Parishad movement but the Prime Minister’s plan to
depose him did not succeed because the crown prince (Prince Mahendra) completely refused to accept the
Maharaja’s offer of his father’s throne. Finally, Nepal Praja Parishad was dissolved in January of 1941. The
capital punishment given to the leaders of the Praja Parishad led to massive public outrage in Nepal against
the Ranas. Two new political parties came up on the horizon of Nepali politics: Nepali National Congress
(established in 2003 BS) and Nepal Communist Party in 2006 BS. Both the parties kept the momentum of an-
ti-Rana movement going. The final culmination as the end of Rana dictatorship came when Nepali Congress
was formed and led the anti-Rana movement to get the success. After the dissolution of the Praja Parishad,
surviving members of the Nepal Praja Parishad joined either the Nepali Congress or the Nepal Communist
Party.
Nepali Congress and Anti-Rana Movement: The two parties National Congress (led by B. P. Koirala) and
Prajatantrik Party (led by Subarna Shamsher Rana) held a joint session in Calcutta’s Tiger Hall from April 9
to 11, 1950 (Chaitra 27-29, 2006 B.S.). Both the parties decided to merge to give birth to a new political party
“Nepali Congress”.
Subarna Shamsher Rana B. P. Koirala Pushpa Lal Shrestha (Communist)
292 Nova Social Studies Grade-10 >>
Under the new establishment, Bisheshwor Prasad Koirala took the responsibility to shape up the political
wing of the party whereas Subarna Shamsher Rana took over the charge of “Action Wing” – that included
the activities related with procurement of arms and ammunitions and recruitment of cadres. On September
26-27, 1950 (Ashwin 10-11, 2007 B.S.), Nepali Congress adopted the strategy of the armed revolution to
overthrow the Rana regime at Bairgania (Bihar, India) Conference hoping that many “C” class Ranas in
the army would prevent the army from siding with the Rana regime. King Tribhuvan was under strict
surveillance and was desperate for concrete action to overthrow the Ranas. Nepali Congress under the
leadership of Ganesh Man Singh decided to abduct the King from the palace with a view to establishing the
Government under the King and to stage manage a revolt by a section of the Army mostly commanded by
“C” grade Rana. On September 29, the Rana Government discovered the plan to kill the Prime Minister and
high officials and thus cracked down on leaders of Nepali Congress. Many leaders of the Nepali Congress
were arrested and many number of “C” grade Ranas were punished. The Ranas once again suspected the
hands of King Tribhuvan and by then King Tribhuvan – the monarch - had already emerged as the focal
point of the democratic movement in Nepal. Both the King and the Nepali Congress supported each other
in this endeavor of overthrowing autocratic and anti-people Rana rule. Strange turn of a situation hastened
the downfall of Rana rule in Nepal when on November 5 (Kartik 21, 2007 B.S.), the Royal family, except the
three-year-old prince Gyanendra, took refuse in the Indian Embassy in Kathmandu leaving the Ranas in an
awkward and difficult situation.
King Tribhuvan fled to India to intensify anti-Rana movement in Nepal (seen with Pundit Nehru, PM India)
Mohan Shamsher Rana, the then Prime Minister could not persuade the Royal fugitives (King Tribhuvan
family) to come back to the palace. Helpless as Mohan Shamsher was, he deposed (dethroned) King
Tribhuvan and enthroned the three year toddler Prince Gyanendra as the King of Nepal on November 7,
1950 (Kartik 22, 2007). Obviously, the Rana Government could not receive the legitimacy and recognition
for the new King in absence of King Tribhuvan from the countries like India, Britain and United States of
America. Ranas suspended the air link with India to check the entry of the Royal family into India but on the
next day, two special aircrafts of the Indian Air Force lifted the royal family to Delhi.
Armed Revolution: Taking full advantage of the opportunity brought forth to Nepali Congress because
of a sudden twist in the national politics, the “liberation army” (Mukti Sena: armed wing of the Nepali
Congress) launched an armed revolution to strike hard at the Rana regime. About two hundred armed
volunteers under the command of Thirbom Malla and Tej Bahadur, operating from Raxaul, attacked and
captured Birgunj during the night of November 10-11 (1950) i.e. Kartik 26, 2007 B.S. Rana’s army and the
Mukti Sena went on fighting for almost a month. Mukti Sena claimed some of the important victories like
Biratnagar in the East and Palpa in the West to add confidence to their revolutionary struggle. Places like
Atharai, Okhaldhunga, Bhairahwa, Gorkha, Kailali, Kanchanpur and Doti came under the control of Mukti
Sena after stiff fight whereas places like Mahotari, Chitwan, Pokhara, Gulmi, Syangja, Banglung, Pyuthan,
Dadeldhura, Dailekh and Baitadi fell under the control without much fighting. Kirats of Eastern Nepal
proclaimed the establishment of an independent republic over an area of 6,000 square miles. The rift among
the Ranas themselves widened and about 100 “C” class and some young “A” class Ranas demanded for
293<< Nova Social Studies Grade-10
liberalization of administration and the return of King Tribhuvan to the throne. The “C” class Rana started
revolting against the Rana regime and thus supported the Mukti Sena. For example, Rudra Shamsher,
who was Bada Hakim of Palpa District, staged a coup and seized control of the Government and one
thousand and five hundred soldiers stationed there defected to Rudra Shamsher and defied the central
authority.
Unable to manage the hostile environment against the Rana regime inside and outside Nepal, Prime Minister
Mohan Shamsher Rana requested the Government of India to mediate between the concerned parties
(stakeholders: the Ranas, Nepali Congress and King Tribhuvan) to bring peace and order in the country.
Having sensed the urgency of the situation, Government of India brokered the “peace agreement” among the
three parties mentioned above. This peace agreement was the tri-lateral agreement which became famous as
the “Delhi Agreement” in the modern history of Nepal. ‘Delhi Agreement’ was signed on February 12, 1951
(Falgun 1, 2007) amongst the three parties namely Ranas, Nepali Congress and King Tribhuvan under the
mediation offered by the then Prime Minister of India, Pundit Jawaharlal Nehru. King Tribhuvan returned
to Kathmandu on Falgun 4, 2007 and made the announcement of establishment of democracy in Nepal on
Falgun 7, 2007 BS and a new coalition government was formed by removing the Rana dictatorship.
Delhi Agreement: An Analysis
Through the mediation offered by the Government of India, three parties (stakeholders): Ranas, Nepali
Congress and Monarch Tribhuvan were brought together on the negotiating table and this is how “Delhi
Agreement” came into existence. The following were the main clauses (provisions) of the Delhi Agreement:
1. Elections based on adult franchise would be held no later than 1952 AD in order to form a constituent
assembly, which would draw up a constitution for the country.
2. An ‘Interim Cabinet’ of 10 ministers under the Prime Minister-ship of Mohan Shamsher Rana would
rule the country until the new democratic constitution comes into place.
3. Out of the 10 ministers in the ‘Interim Cabinet’ for the transitional period, seven ministers would be
the representative of the people and remaining would come from the Rana’s side.
4. An amnesty would be given for all political prisoners against whom politically motivated criminal
charges had been labelled.
5. Revolutionaries fighting against the Rana regime would submit their arms and ammunitions to the
Government and stop the revolution forthwith.
6. King would become the legitimate monarch and allow the political parties to run the political
administration in a democratic way.
The critics observe that the Delhi Agreement did not settle the political situation in Kathmandu in favour
of democracy because the progressive democratic forces (political parties especially Nepali Congress)
were asked to play under King Tribhuvan and co-exist with old Rana regime in the ‘Interim Cabinet’. This
provided full chance to both Ranas and the Monarchy to play against the Nepali Congress to once again
set up the traditional and feudal model of governance with ‘absolute political power’ remaining in the
hands of monarch this time. On the other hand, supporters of the “Delhi Agreement” held the view that it
was very difficult at that time to oust the Ranas directly as they still had influence on the ‘administrative
machinery’ of Nepal. ‘Delhi Agreement’ wanted King Tribhuvan to function as the “Constitutional
Monarch” by giving total power to democratic parties. Unfortunately, later on, King Tribhuvan on the
instigation from Crown Prince Mahendra backtracked on his promise and Nepali Congress was sidelined
and weakened.
Crown Prince Mahendra with an aim to foil the ‘Delhi Agreement’ had managed Kunwar Indrajit Singh,
better known as Dr. K. I. Singh, along with other freedom fighters to oppose the deal by staging a coup. This
created considerable turbulence within Congress and chaos in Kathmandu Valley because Dr. K. I. Singh
was a member of the Nepali Congress at that time. The situation went out of control. The government
and all the ministers took refuge in the royal palace with King Tribhuvan in order to save their lives. Two
battalions (approx. 1,500 each) of Royal Guards of Nepal Army suppressed the coup finally and arrested
many of them. Dr. K. I. Singh and some of his followers fearing death fled to China.
Causes of the Anti-Rana movement in Nepal and their eventual end (collapse):
More than a century old despotic ‘Rana regime’ officially ended on February 18, 1951 (Falgun 7, 2007 B.S.)
when Rana-Nepali Congress coalition government was formed on parity basis according to the provisions
294 Nova Social Studies Grade-10 >>
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