Unit 2

Civil Engineering Department | DCC3113 : Highway & Traffic Engineering



DCC3113 :







e-
Course Notes






| Unit 1 : Introduction to Highway and Traffic

| Unit 2 : Pavement Materials

| Unit 3 : Construction Of Flexible Pavement

| Unit 4 : Construction Of Rigid Pavement

| Unit 5: Flexible Pavement Design


| Unit 6 : Highway Maintenance

| Unit 7 : Transportation Planning

| Unit 8 : Traffic Control Equipment And Road Furniture

| Unit 9 : Junction Design

| Unit 10 : Traffic Management


Prepared By :
SITI ZURAIFA BINTI MD SAH |Lecturer in Civil Engineering Department, Politeknik Mukah, Sarawak
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| Introduction


| Video


| Concept


| Assessment


| Summary






Prepared By :
SITI ZURAIFA BINTI MD SAH |Lecturer in Civil Engineering Department, Politeknik Mukah, Sarawak
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Introduction





COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES (CLO)

Upon completion of this course, students will be able to:-
CLO 2 : Assesses design performance based on specifications and requirements for well defined highway and traffic, problems with
appropriate consideration for public safety, society and environment. (C5,PLO4)(C5,PO3)

CONTENT

2.2
Design the
concrete mix
of materials in
road and
highway
2.1 construction
Understand
the materials TOPIC 2:
and test on
material PAVEMENT

MATERIALS
















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Introduction





COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES (CLO)

Upon completion of this course, students will be able to:-
CLO 2 : Assesses design performance based on specifications and requirements for well defined highway and traffic, problems with
appropriate consideration for public safety, society and environment. (C5,PLO4)(C5,PO3)

CONTENT

2.2
Design the
concrete mix
of materials in
road and
highway
2.1 construction
Understand
2.1.1 The materials used in the materials TOPIC 2:
highway construction and test on
material
2.1.2 The objectives and PAVEMENT
characteristics of MATERIALS
asphaltic concrete mix
2.1.3 The uses, types and
grades of aggregate and
binder
2.1.4 The types and their
objectives of tests on
road construction
materials


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Introduction





COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES (CLO)

Upon completion of this course, students will be able to:-
CLO 2 : Assesses design performance based on specification and requirement for well-defined highway and traffic, problems with
appropriate consideration for public safety, society and environment.(C5, PLO4) (C5,PO3)

CONTENT

2.2
Design the
concrete mix
of materials in
road and
highway
2.1 construction
Understand
the materials TOPIC 2:
and test on
material PAVEMENT 2.2.1 Design of asphaltic

MATERIALS concrete mix using
Marshall Mix Design
Method
2.2.2 Calculate the optimum
bitumen content









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Video Video













































Source : Project of Reuse of Waste Plastic to Making Road - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m9Ak5h1AA20



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Concept Concept


















































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Concept Concept


















































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Concept Flexible Pavement















(Emulsion Tack-Coat)


TYPICAL LAYER TYPICAL
NAME MATERIAL


Surfacing – Wearing Course Asphalt Concrete

Surfacing – Base course; Binder
Course Asphalt Concrete



Base; Roadbase Crushed Aggregate
Crusher-Run


Natural Sand
Sub-base Gravel
(possibly more than one) Crushed Rock
Crushed Concrete

Natural Soil
Subgred Imported Fill
Stabilised Soil *
(Geotextile)*
* Optional treatment for very poor subgrades

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Material use The materials used in highway construction











Aggregate







Steel
Reinforce Fillers
ment
The materials
used in highway
construction







Bitumen
Cement And
Asphalt







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Material use The materials used in highway construction











also known as reinforcing steel, Aggregate
reinforcement steel, or a main material that makes up about 93 % of the mix. The
deformed bar, is a common steel strength is resulted from the interlocks between the aggregate
bar and is commonly used as a and assist to distribute loads from the traffic in the pavement
tensioning device in reinforced
concrete and reinforced masonry
structures holding the concrete in
compression.
Steel
Reinforce Fillers
ment
The materials
used in highway its fills the voids between aggregate
construction and help stiffening the binder to
produce a stronger and stiffer mix
that could last long.




Bitumen
Cement And
Asphalt


is a binder to glue the aggregate together
is a binder, a substance that sets and to form an improved mix
hardens independently and can bind other
materials together.
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Aggregate Aggregates




• “Aggregate” is a collective term for sand, gravel and crushed stone mineral materials in
their natural or processed state (NSSGA, 1991).

• In hot mix asphalt (HMA), aggregates are combined with a asphalt binding medium to
form a compound material.
• The raw material which is used as road aggregate can be further classified as:
a. Naturally occurring aggregate :

i. Igneus

ii. Sedimentary
iii. Metamorphic










b. Artificial Aggregate Figure : Naturally occurring aggregate sources
i. Blast Furnace Slag

ii. Burnt Shale


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Aggregate Classification of road aggregates








Road Aggregate






Natural Artificial





Igneus Sedimentary Metamorphic






Basalt Flint Hornfels
Gabbro Gritstone Quartzite Blast furnace

Granite Limestone Schist Slag

Porphry Gravel Burnt Shale

Sand






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Broad category of coarse particulate material
Aggregate
used in construction










Slag
Sand









Broad category of coarse

particulate material used in

Recycled concrete construction Gravel













Crushed stone
Geosynthetic aggregates


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Aggregate Terms used for aggregate




In road construction materials, some other terms used for aggregate are:
• Coarse Aggregate – pass sieve 28 mm and retained sieve 2.36 mm

• Fine Aggregate – pass sieve 2.36 mm and retained sieve 75 micron
• Mineral Filler – pass sieve 75 micron, consist fine material such as cement, lime, crushed
aggregate dust


































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Aggregate The uses, types and grades of aggregate and binder




The types and grades of aggregate :
• Dense or well graded: Refers to a gradation that is near maximum density.

• Gap graded: Refers to a gradation that contains only a small percentage of aggregate
particles in the mid-size range. These mixes can be prone to segregation during
placement.

• Open graded: Refers to a gradation that contains only a small percentage of aggregate
particles in a small range. This results in more air voids because there are not enough
small particles to fill in the voids between the large particles.
• Uniformly graded: Refers to gradation that contains most of the particles in a very narrow
size range. In essence, all the particles are the same size.
















Gap graded

Open graded Figure : Typical Gradations


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Aggregate Aggregate physical properties




• Aggregates can be classified by their mineral, chemical and physical properties. The
pavement industry typically relies on physical properties for performance
characterization. An aggregate’s physical properties are direct result of its mineral and
chemical properties.


• Important properties of aggregates are:

i. Strength – to withstand crushing, impact during construction and traffic load
ii. Soundness – resistance to disintegration under weathering

iii. Shape and surface texture – help in interlocking, resistance to sliding, affect strength
iv. Affinity – properly coated by binder

v. Relative density and absorption – stripping, drying time and mix design
vi. Resistance to wear (hardness) – polished under traffic, skid resistance

vii. Gradation – quality and pavement strength














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Aggregate Aggregate Shape








































i. Rounded, ii. Irregular, iii. Angular, iv. Flaky, v. Elongated, vi. Flaky & Elongated

(Source: BSI 812 : 1975)




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Now, let’s take five and do this activity. Match the aggregate shape below CHECK






Angular
Let’s do this activity




Flaky &
Elongated





Irregular






Rounded






Flaky





Elongated



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The types and their objectives of tests on road construction
Type of test
materials



The tests for evaluate on Aggregates Properties are divided into several type which is

• Aggregate Crushing Value (BS 812:Part 110:1990)
• Ten Percent Fine Value (BS 812:Part 111:1990)
• Aggregate Impact Value (BS 812:Part 112 :1990)

• Los Angeles Abrasion (ASTM C: 131-81)

• Soundness (AASHTO-T :104)
• Flakiness Index (BS 812:Section 105.1 :1989)

• Elongation Index (BS 812 :part 1 :1975)
• Water Absorption and Specific Gravity (BS 812:part 2:1975)

• Coating and Striping (AASHTO-T :182)
• Polished Stone Value (BS 812:Part 14:1989)

• Sieve analysis (BS 1377:Part 2:1990)














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The types and their objectives of tests on road construction
Type of test
materials



The tests for evaluate on Aggregates Properties are divided into several type which is



Coating and Flakiness
Striping Index (BS
(AASHTO-T 812:Section
:182) 105.1 :1989)
Ten Percent
Fine Value (BS Sieve analysis
(BS 1377:Part
812:Part 2:1990)
111:1990)
Elongation
Index (BS 812
:part 1 :1975)
Polished Stone
Value (BS Soundness
812:Part (AASHTO-T
14:1989) :104)
Aggregate
Crushing Los Angeles
Value (BS Abrasion
812:Part (ASTM C: 131-
110:1990) Water 81)
Absorption
and Specific
Gravity
(BS 812:part
2:1975)




Aggregate
Impact Value
(BS 812:Part
112 :1990)


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Type of test The objectives of tests on road construction materials




Aggregate Crushing Value Test (BS 812:Part 110:1990)
• To determine the percentage aggregate crushed by applying compressive load

• Standard size of aggregate is normally used i.e passing 14 mm and retained on 10 mm
sieve size. Place about 3000 gm of aggregate in the mould in three layers and compact
with rod 25 times for each layer. Use compression machine to compress the aggregate
for 10 minutes with gradually applying load from 0 to 400 kN. Then, sieve out the
aggregate using 2.36 mm sieve size and determine the weight passing and calculate the
ACV


ACV = Weight pass sieve 2.36 mm x 100

Weight Original


















Mould and rods for ACV and TFV Test

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Type of test The objectives of tests on road construction materials




Ten Percent Fine Value Test (BS 812:Part 111:1990)
• To determine the load needs to crush the aggregate with 10 percent fine

• Sample is prepared similar to ACV test, then apply the expected load that could
produce ten percent fine.

• Calculate the exact percentage of fine and calculate the exact load using the following
formula provided the fine is the range of 7.5 to 12.5%




TFV = 14f

4 + y



Mould and rods for ACV and TFV Test


Where : f = Load applied

y = Percent Crushed








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Type of test The objectives of tests on road construction materials




Aggregate Impact Value Test (BS 812:Part 112 :1990)
• To determine percent crush due to impact load

• Size used is aggregate passing 14 mm retained 10 mm. Aggregate is placed in the mould
and compacted in a mould with 25 times of rodding. Then, it is subjected to 15 times of
impact loading. After impact, calculate the weight crushed using 2.36 mm sieve size and
determine the AIV :




AIV = Weight pass sieve 2.36 mm x 100
Weight Original






















AIV Equipment
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Type of test The objectives of tests on road construction materials




Los Angeles Abrasion (LAAV) (ASTM C: 131-81)
• To determine the percent of degradation under combination of abrasion or attrition,
impact and grinding

• Aggregates weight 5000 gram are placed in a steel drum with specified number of steel
balls. Drum is rotated 500 revolutions at 33 rpm. Then, aggregates are sieved with 1.70mm
sieve size and calculate :




LAAV = Weight pass sieve 1.70 mm x 100
Weight Original
Steel Balls


500 revolutions at 33 rpm













Result before and after rotate in steel drum

LAAV Equipment
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Type of test The objectives of tests on road construction materials




Soundness (AASHTO-T :104)
• To determine resistance to disintegration due to cycle of wetting and drying, heating and
cooling (weathering)

• Aggregates are soaked in solution of sodium or magnesium sulphate for 16-18 hours.
Remove sample and put in oven at 105C or 16-18 hours. Repeat the same process until
complete 5 circles. Then wash and dry the sample. Sieve the sample and calculate :




Soundness = Weight of loss x 100
Weight Original




















Result before and after soaked in solution

Sodium or magnesium sulphate
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Type of test The objectives of tests on road construction materials




Flakiness Index (BS 812:Section 105.1 :1989)
• To determine percentage of flaky aggregate. An aggregate is considered flaky when its
thickness is less than 0.6 times its average dimension. Aggregate that needs to be tested

is between 6.3 mm and 63 mm.
• Aggregate according to the size and weight is recorded. Each aggregate is to be
inserted to the specific slot and record the weight of passing aggregate. Aggregate
passes the slot is considered flaky.




Flakiness Index (FI) = Weight pass slot x 100
Weight Original

















Sample of flaky aggregate
Flakiness Index Equipment

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Type of test The objectives of tests on road construction materials




Elongation Index (BS 812 :part 1 :1975)
• To determine percentage of elongated aggregate. An aggregate is considered
elongated when its thickness is more than 1.8 times its average dimension. Aggregate

that needs to be tested is between 6.3 mm to 63 mm
• Aggregate according to size and weight is recorded. Each aggregate is to be inserted to
the specific slot and record the weight of retained aggregate. Aggregate retained the
slot is considered elongated



Elongation Index (FI) = Weight retained slot x 100
Weight Original
















Sample of elongated aggregate


Elongation Index Equipment

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Type of test The objectives of tests on road construction materials




Water Absorption and Specific Gravity (BS 812:part 2:1975)
• To indicate the strength and porosity of aggregate. Aggregate with high specific gravity is
expected to have high strength. High water absorption suggests the aggregate needs

more time to dry during the mixing process could absorb more bitumen which result in
higher cost of production
• Aggregate is washed and soaked in distilled water 24 hours. Weight in water and record
it as C. Remove the aggregate and dry with damp towel and weight it as B. Then put it in
the oven for 24 hours to dry and weight it as A


Water Absorption (WA) = B - A x 100

A






Specific Gravity (SG bulk ) = A x 100
B - C




Equipment using water
displacement method for SG



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Type of test The objectives of tests on road construction materials




Coating and Striping (AASHTO-T :182)
• To determine the adhesion of the bitumen and the aggregate with the influence of water

• Aggregate and bitumen are heated and mixed. Soaked and coated aggregate 16 to 18
hours in distill water. Determine the coated surface area whether more or less than 95%





























The coated surface area





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Type of test The objectives of tests on road construction materials




Polished Stone Value (BS 812:Part 14:1989)
• This test is only for aggregate to be used for wearing course. PSV indicates the resistance
to polishing effect by traffic. Polished aggregate influences the skidding resistance of

pavement surface
• This test consists of three stages :
i. Sample preparation

ii. Sample polishing

iii. Measure skidding resistance






















PSV specimen



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Type of test The objectives of tests on road construction materials




Sieve analysis (BS 1377:Part 2:1990)
• In the sieve analysis, a sample dry aggregate of
known weight is separated through a series of

sieves with progressively smaller opening. Once
separated, the weight of particles retained on
each sieve is measured and compared to the
total sample weight. Particle size distribution is
then expressed as a percent retained by
weight on each sieve size. Result are usually
expressed in tabular or graphical format






















Sieve Machine and set of sieves

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Bitumen Bitumen or Asphalt




Asphalt or bitumen is a dark brown to black, highly viscous, hydrocarbon produced from
petroleum distillation residue. This distillation can occur naturally, resulting in asphalt lakes or
occur in petroleum refinery using crude oil. The primary use (70%) of asphalt/bitumen is in
road construction, where it is used as the glue or binder mixed with aggregate particles to
create asphalt concrete. Its other main uses are for bituminous waterproofing products,
including production of roofing felt and for sealing flat roofs.


Bituminous binders preparations most commonly used are:

• Penetration bitumen : Grade of bitumen is determined by Penetration and Viscosity Test .

• Cut-back bitumen : Bitumen (60-85%) + light solvent (kerosene, gasoline, and
naphthalene)

• Bitumen emulsion : Bitumen (55-70%) + water, either penetration bitumen or cutback
bitumen.












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Tar Tar




• Tar is a dark brown or black viscous liquid of hydrocarbons and free carbon, substance
obtained from a variety of organic materials through destructive distillation. Tar can be
produced from coal, wood, petroleum, or peat. It is black, and a mixture of hydrocarbons

and free carbon.































Definition of peat : a brown, soil-like material characteristic of boggy, acid
ground, consisting of partly decomposed vegetable matter.



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Difference The difference between tar and bitumen




• Not the distillation of petroleum.
• Easily change shape on temperature changes.

• Easily damaged at high temperatures and brittle at low temperatures.
• Easy to enter the cavity on aggregates.

• Insoluble in solvents such as gasoline, kerosene and others.

































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The types and their objectives of tests on
Type of test
road construction materials



• The tests for evaluate on Bitumen Properties are divided into several type which is




Viscosity
(AASHTO T202-
84)


Penetration Flash and Fire
(AASHTO T 53- Point (AASHTO
84) T48-84)



Softening point
(AASHTO T53)


Ductility Loss on
Heating
(AASHTO T51- (AASHTO T 47-
86) 83)












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Type of test The objectives of tests on road construction materials




Penetration Test (AASHTO T 53-84)
• To examine the consistency of a sample of bitumen by determining the distance in tenths
of a millimeter that a standard needle vertically penetrates the bitumen specimen under

known conditions of loading (100 gram), time (5 seconds) and temperature (25 C).
• Can characterize asphalt binder at one temperature 25C (77F). Penetration grades are
listed as a range of penetration units (one penetration unit = 0.1 mm of penetration by
the standard needle)

• In Malaysia, use of 80-100 PEN is very common. However, the 60-70 PEN is recommended
in the new JKR specification. For cold climate regions, softer grade is preferred whereas
hot climate demands harder grade. Typical range of pen. value is 40 to 300 PEN





















Penetration Test Apparatus

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Type of test The objectives of tests on road construction materials




Softening point test (AASHTO T53)
o
• To determine the softening point of bitumen with range 30 C to 157 C by means of the
o
Ring and Ball apparatus.
• In this test, bitumen is heated and poured in pair of rings. When the bitumen is hard,
placed the rings in a container filled with water at 5C. Two steel balls are placed on the
rings and gradually heat the water container. When temperature increases, the bitumen
softens thus the balls which act as weight, start to fall and land on the plate, 25.4 mm
below. The temperature at which ball touches the plate is called softening point

• Softening Point (SP) together with Penetration Value (P) are used to determine the
Penetration Index (IP). IP can indicate the properties of bitumen tested and its suitablity.

• IP can be determined using nomograph or the following eqution (BS 4987):

IP = 1951.4 – 500 log P – 20 SP x 100

50 log P – SP – 120.14


• Normally IP of bitumen for road construction is 25 mm
between -1 and +1

3.5g steel ball
Bitumen in brass ring Heater and magnetic stirrer unit
Starting point End Point

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Type of test The objectives of tests on road construction materials




Ductility (AASHTO T51-86)
• To determine the ductility of a bitumen. Sample of bitumen will be stretched at a rate of 5
o
cm/min in 25 C water. The distance where it breaks is recorded. This test could predict
the potential of cracks of bitumen.

































Mould for Ductility


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Type of test The objectives of tests on road construction materials




Flash and Fire Point Test (AASHTO T48-84)
• To determine at what temperature the bitumen start to flast and catch fire. This more
toward the safety at the plant. The Cleveland open cup method is normally used.




































Apparatus for Flash and Fire Point Test


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Type of test The objectives of tests on road construction materials




Viscosity (AASHTO T 202-84)
• To determine the resistance to flow of a bitumen







































Apparatus for Viscosity Test

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Type of test The objectives of tests on road construction materials




Loss on Heating (AASHTO T 47-83)
• To determine the loss of weight due to heat. Sample weight 50 gram is placed in a
rotating oven at 163C for 5 hours. The weight of loss is calculated after testing




































Loss on Heating Test Equipment


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Explain the objectives and characteristics
AC Mix
of asphaltic concrete mix



• Asphalt Concrete is the asphalt mix in place on the road including levelling and surface
courses during and after spreading and compacting. This work shall consist of furnishing,
placing, shaping and compacting asphaltic concrete binder course and/or wearing
course on a prepared and accepted bituminous or bitumen primed pavement course,
and shall include the careful and thorough cleaning of surfaces which are to be covered
without receiving a bituminous tack coat.



Different between Asphalt vs Bitumen


Asphalt Bitumen


American European

Thailand Malaysia


Asphalt / Asphalt Cement (AC) Bitumen


Hot Mix = AC + Aggregate Premix = Bitumen + Aggregate

Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) / Asphaltic Asphalt Concrete

Concrete / Asphalt Concrete



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Explain the objectives and characteristics
AC Mix
of asphaltic concrete mix



The design of an asphalt concrete mixture includes the selection of the best blend of
aggregates and the optimum asphalt content to provide a material that meets the required
specifications as economically as possible.


The objectives of asphaltic concrete mix design is to produce an asphaltic concrete mix by
proportionating various components so as to have:

• Sufficient asphalt to ensure a durable pavement
• Sufficient stability under traffic loads

• Sufficient air voids
– Upper limit to prevent excessive environmental damage

– Lower limit to allow room for initial densification due to traffic
• Sufficient workability


















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Civil Engineering Department | DCC3113 : Highway & Traffic Engineering



Explain the objectives and characteristics
AC Mix
of asphaltic concrete mix



An asphalt concrete mixture must be designed, produced and placed in order to obtain
the following desirable mix properties:


• Stability - is its ability to resist shoving and rutting under loads (traffic).
• Durability - it is the resistance against abrasion and weathering. Impermeability -
Impermeability is the resistance of an asphalt pavement to the passage of air and
water into or through it.
• Workability – it is measure of ease with which a bituminous mix can be laid and
compacted. This property is a function of the aggregate grading, shape of particles,
texture of particles, type of bitumen used, and bitumen content.
• Flexibility – this property of the mix measures the capability of the surface in bending,
without shearing and cracking.

• Fatigue Resistance - is the pavement’s resistance to repeated bending under wheel
loads (traffic).
• Skid Resistance - Skid resistance is the ability of an asphalt surface to minimize skidding
or slipping of vehicle tires, particularly when wet.












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Civil Engineering Department | DCC3113 : Highway & Traffic Engineering



Design the concrete mix of materials
AC Mix
in road and highway construction



• Design objectives : Develop an economical blend of aggregates and asphalt that meet
design requirements

• The two most common traditional methods for making and evaluating trial mixes have
been:
i. The Marshall method : use impact hammer
ii. The Hveem method : use kneading compactor

iii. New method (Superpave gyratory) : use gyratory compactor to simulate field

compaction, able to accommodate large size aggregate (Developed by the Strategic
Highway Research Program (SHRP) )





















The Hveem method Superpave gyratory


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Civil Engineering Department | DCC3113 : Highway & Traffic Engineering



Design of asphaltic concrete mix
AC Mix
using Marshall Mix Design Method



• Developed by Bruce Marshall for the Mississippi Highway Department in the late 30’s and
was refined by the US Army Corps of Engineers in the 1940s and 1950s.

• OBJECTIVE : To determine the optimum bitumen content in the mix wearing course and
binder course in designing the pavement structural of flexible pavement


• Procedures

















Plotting test results
Marshall Mix Design and determination
Method Aggregate Sample preparation Density Marshall stability of optimum
evaluation determination and flow test
Procedures bitumen content
(OBC)






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Civil Engineering Department | DCC3113 : Highway & Traffic Engineering





AC Mix




i. Determine aggregate physical properties, i.e toughness and abrasion, durability and
abrasion, cleanliness and particle shape
ii. If the aggregate is acceptable according to the step no (i), then performed other

required tests : gradation, specific gravity and absorption
iii. Perform blending calculations to achieve the mix design gradation. Often, aggregates
from more than one source or stockpile are used to obtain the final aggregate
gradation used in a mix design. Trial blends of these different gradations are usually
calculated until an acceptable final mix design gradation is achieved





























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Civil Engineering Department | DCC3113 : Highway & Traffic Engineering





AC Mix




i. For each laboratory design mix gradation, four specimens shall prepared for each
bitumen content with the range given in Table 3.1 at increments of 0.5 percent, in
accordance with ASTM D1159 using 75 blows/face compaction standard.

ii. All bitumen contents shall be in percentage by weight of the total mix

Table 3.1: Design Bitumen Contents
Source : Jabatan Kerja Raya, STANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR ROADWORKS, JKR/SPJ/2008-S4, 2008 (page 27)

AC 10 - Wearing Course 5.0 - 7.0%


AC 14 - Wearing Course 4.0 - 6.0 %


AC 28 - Binder Course 3.5 - 5.5%



















Aggregate Mixing Specimen
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