564 Part 5 Implementing Global Marketing Strategies
He considered raising his purchase prices to try to move things along faster. But before he
was able to make such a concession, the Japanese quickly agreed on the other five products
in just three days. This particular businessperson was, by his own admission, lucky in his
first encounter with Japanese bargainers.
This American businessperson’s near-blunder reflects more than just a difference in
decision-making style. To Americans, a business negotiation is a problem-solving activity,
the best deal for both parties being the solution. To a Japanese businessperson, a busi-
ness negotiation is a time to develop a business relationship with the goal of long-term
mutual benefit. The economic issues are the context, not the content, of the talks. Thus,
settling any one issue really is not that important. Such details will take care of themselves
once a viable, harmonious business relationship is established. And, as happened in the
case of our retail goods buyer, once the relationship was established—signaled by the first
agreement—the other “details” were settled quickly.
American bargainers should anticipate such a holistic approach and be prepared to dis-
cuss all issues simultaneously and in an apparently haphazard order. Progress in the talks
should not be measured by how many issues have been settled. Rather, Americans must try
to gauge the quality of the business relationship. Important signals of progress can be the
following:
• Higher-level foreigners being included in the discussions.
• Questions beginning to focus on specific areas of the deal.
• A softening of attitudes and positions on some of the issues—“Let us take some time
to study this issue.”
• At the negotiation table, increased talk among themselves in their own language,
which may often mean they’re trying to decide something.
• Increased bargaining and use of the lower-level, informal, and other channels of
communication.
Implications for Managers and Negotiators Considering all the potential problems in
cross-cultural negotiations, particularly when you mix managers from relationship-oriented
cultures with those from information-oriented ones, it is a wonder that any international
business gets done at all. Obviously, the economic imperatives of global trade make much
of it happen despite the potential pitfalls. But an appreciation of cultural differences can lead
to even better international commercial transactions—it is not just business deals but highly
profitable business relationships that are the real goal of international business negotiations.
Four steps lead to more efficient and effective international business negotiations. They
are as follows: (1) selection of the appropriate negotiation team;28 (2) management of
preliminaries, including training, preparations, and manipulation of negotiation settings;
(3) management of the process of negotiations, that is, what happens at the negotiation table;
and (4) appropriate follow-up procedures and practices. Each is discussed in this section.
Negotiation Teams One reason for global business successes is the large numbers of skillful international
negotiators. These are the managers who have lived in foreign countries and speak foreign
LO6 languages. In many cases, they are immigrants to the United States or those who have been
Important factors in immersed in foreign cultures in other capacities (Peace Corps volunteers and Mormon
selecting a negotiation missionaries are common examples). More business schools are beginning to reempha-
team size language training and visits abroad. Indeed, it is interesting to note that the original
Harvard Business School catalog of 1908–1909 listed courses in German, French, and
Spanish correspondence within its curriculum.
The selection criteria for international marketing and sales personnel previously de-
tailed in Chapter 17 are applicable in selecting negotiators as well. Traits such as maturity,
28C. Leonidou, Constantine S. Katsikeas, and John Hadjimarcou, “Building Successful Export Business
Relationships,” Journal of International Marketing, January 1, 2002, pp. 96–101.
Women can get the job done. Chapter 19 Negotiating with International Customers, Partners, and Regulators 565
Here U.S. Secretary of State
Hillary Clinton meets with emotional stability, breadth of knowledge, optimism, flexibility, empathy, and stamina are
German Chancellor Andrea all important, not only for marketing executives involved in international negotiations but
Merkel. also for the technical experts who often accompany and support them. In studies conducted
at Ford Motor Company and AT&T, three additional traits were found to be important
predictors of negotiator success with international clients and partners: willingness to use
team assistance, listening skills, and influence at headquarters.
Willingness to use team assistance is particularly important for American negotiators. Be-
cause of a cultural heritage of independence and individualism, Americans often make the
mistake of going it alone against greater numbers of foreigners. One American sitting across
the negotiation table from three or four Chinese negotiators is unfortunately an all too com-
mon sight. The number of brains in the room does make a difference. Moreover, business ne-
gotiations are social processes, and the social reality is that a larger number of nodding heads
can exercise greater influence than even the best arguments. It is also much easier to gather
detailed information when teams are negotiating rather than individuals. For example, the
Japanese are quite good at bringing along junior executives for the dual purposes of careful
note taking and training via observation. Compensation schemes that overly emphasize indi-
vidual performance can also get in the way of team negotiating—a negotiation team requires
a split commission, which many Americans naturally eschew. Finally, negotiators may have to
request the accompaniment of senior executives to better match up with client’s and partner’s
negotiation teams. Particularly in relationship-oriented cultures, rank speaks quite loudly in
both persuasion and the demonstration of interest in the business relationship.
The single most important activity of negotiations is listening. The negotiator’s primary job
is collecting information with the goal of enhancing creativity. This goal may mean assigning
one team member the sole responsibility of taking careful notes and not worrying about speak-
ing during the meetings. It may also mean that knowing the language of clients and partners
will be crucial for the most complete understanding of their needs and preferences. The impor-
tance of listening skills in international business negotiations cannot be overstated.
Bringing along a senior executive is important because influ-
ence at headquarters is crucial to success. Indeed, many experienced
international negotiators argue that half the negotiation is with head-
quarters. The representatives’ lament goes something like this: “The
better I understand my customer, the tougher time I have with headquar-
ters.” Of course, this misery associated with boundary-spanning roles
is precisely why international negotiators and sales executives make so
much money.
Finally, it is also important to reiterate a point made in Chapter 5:
Gender should not be used as a selection criterion for international
negotiation teams, despite the great differences in the roles of women
across cultures. Even in countries where women do not participate in
management, American female negotiators are treated as foreigners
first. For obvious reasons it may not be appropriate for female manag-
ers to participate in some forms of business entertainment—common
baths in locker rooms at Japanese golf course clubhouses, for example.
However, it is still important for female executives to establish personal
rapport at restaurants and other informal settings. Indeed, one expert on
cross-gender communication suggests that women may actually have
some advantages in international negotiations:
In general, women are more comfortable talking one-on-one. The situation of speaking up
in a meeting is a lot closer to boys’ experience of using language to establish their position
in a large group than it is to girls’ experience of using language to maintain intimacy. That’s
something that can be exploited. Don’t wait for the meeting; try to make your point in advance,
one-to-one. This is what the Japanese do, and in many ways American women’s style is a lot
closer to the Japanese style than to American men’s.29
29Deborah Tannen, You Just Don’t Understand: Men and Women in Conversation (New York: William
Morrow, 1990).
566 Part 5 Implementing Global Marketing Strategies
Negotiation Many companies in the United States provide employees with negotiations training.30 For
Preliminaries example, through his training programs, Chester Karrass31 has taught more people (some
400,000) to negotiate than any other purveyor of the service32—notice his ads in almost all
LO7 in-flight magazines of domestic U.S. air carriers. However, very few companies provide
How to prepare for training for negotiations with managers from other countries. Even more surprising is the
international negotiations lack of cultural content in the training of the government’s diplomats. Instead, in most
schools of diplomacy the curricula cover language skills, social and diplomatic skills, and
knowledge specific to the diplomatic profession, including diplomatic history and interna-
tional relations, law, economics, politics, international organizations, and foreign policies.
Cultural differences in negotiation and communication styles are seldom considered.
Things are different at Ford Motor Company. Ford does more business with Japanese
companies than any other firm. Ford owns 33 percent of Mazda, it built a successful mini-
van with Nissan, and it buys and sells component parts and completed cars from and to
Japanese companies. But perhaps the best measure of Ford’s Japanese business is the 8,000
or so U.S.-to-Japan round-trip airline tickets the company buys annually. Ford has made
a large investment in training its managers with Japanese responsibilities. Over 2,000 of
its executives have attended a three-day program on Japanese history and culture and the
company’s Japanese business strategies. Furthermore, more than 1,000 Ford managers who
work face-to-face with Japanese have attended a three-day program entitled “Managing
Negotiations: Japan” (MNJ).The MNJ program includes negotiation simulations with video-
tape feedback, lectures with cultural differences demonstrated via videotapes of Japanese–
American interactions, and rehearsals of upcoming negotiations. The company also
conducts similar programs on Korea and the People’s Republic of China.
In addition to MNJ, the broader Japan training efforts at Ford must be credited for Ford’s
successes in Japan. Certainly, MNJ alumni can be seen exercising influence across and up
the ranks regarding Japanese relationships. But the organizational awareness of the cultural
dimensions of the Japanese business system was quickly raised as well by its broader,
three-day program on Japanese business strategies. Remember the story about the Russians
in Nice? Two critical events took place. First, the Solar Turbines negotiators diagnosed the
problem. Second, and equally important, their California superiors appreciated the problem
and approved the investments in time and money to outwait the Russians. So it is that the
Ford programs have targeted not only the negotiators working directly with the Japanese
but also their managers, who spend most of their time in the company’s Detroit headquar-
ters. Negotiators need information specific to the cultures in which they work. Just as criti-
cal, their managers back in the United States need a basic awareness of and appreciation for
the importance of culture in international business so that they will be more amenable to
the “odd-sounding” recommendations coming from their people in Moscow, Rio, or Tokyo.
Any experienced business negotiator will tell you that there is never enough time to
get ready. Given the time constraints of international negotiations, preparations must be
accomplished efficiently—the homework must be done before the bargaining begins. We
recommend the following checklist to ensure proper preparation and planning for interna-
tional negotiations:
1. Assessment of the situation and the people
2. Facts to confirm during the negotiation
30The Harvard Program on Negotiations provides a range of negotiations courses (http://www.pon.harvard
.edu). Also, negotiations courses are the most popular in MBA programs around the country; see Leigh
Thompson and Geoffrey J. Leonardelli, “Why Negotiation Is the Most Popular Business Course,” Ivey
Business Journal (Online), July/August 2004, p. 1.
31See Karrass’s Web site for information regarding his programs: http://www.karrass.com. A key portal
with information on negotiations in 50 different countries and links to several associated Web sites is http://
www.GlobalNegotiationResources.com.
32Lee Edison provides an interesting description of what he calls “The Negotiation Industry,” in an article he
wrote for Across the Board 37, no. 4 (April 2000), pp. 14–20. Other commentators on training for international
business negotiators include Yeang Soo Ching, “Putting a Human Face on Globalization,” New Straits Times,
January 16, 2000, p. 10; A. J. Vogl, “Negotiation: The Advanced Course,” Across the Board, April 1, 2000,
p. 21; and R. V. Veera, “MIT Preparing Students for New Millennium,” New Straits Times, July 21, 2002, p. 5.
Chapter 19 Negotiating with International Customers, Partners, and Regulators 567
Through his books and training 3. Agenda
courses, Chester Karrass has
taught more people to negotiate 4. Best alternative to a negotiated agreement (BATNA)33
than anyone else in the world.
His firm offers seminars in dozens 5. Concession strategies
of countries and advertises in in-
flight magazines, here in Spanish. 6. Team assignments
Preparation and planning skill is at the top of almost ev-
eryone’s list of negotiator traits, yet it seems many Ameri-
cans are still planning strategies during over-ocean flights
when they should be trying to rest. Quick wits are important
in business negotiations, and arduous travel schedules and
jet lag dull even the sharpest minds. Obviously, information
about the other side’s goals and preferences should be sought
ahead of time. Also important are clear directions from head-
quarters and detailed information about market conditions.
No matter how thorough the preliminary research, nego-
tiators should always make a list of key facts to reconfirm
at the negotiation table. Information gathered about foreign
customers and markets almost always includes errors, and
things can change during those long airline flights. Next,
anticipate that managers from other cultures may put less
emphasis on a detailed agenda, but having one to propose
still makes sense and helps organize the meetings.
The most important idea in Getting to Yes is the no-
tion of the best alternative to a negotiated agreement
(BATNA).34 This notion is how power in negotiations is best
measured. Even the smallest companies can possess great
power in negotiations if they have many good alternatives
and their large-company counterparts do not. It is also im-
portant to plan out and write down concession strategies.
Concessions can often snowball, and writing them down ahead of time helps negotiators
keep them under control.
Finally, specific team assignments should be made clear—who handles technical details,
who takes notes, who plays the tough guy, who does most of the talking for the group, and
so forth. Also, in relationship-oriented cultures, the selection of intermediaries and the
seniority of negotiators will be crucial considerations.
At least seven aspects of the negotiation setting should be manipulated ahead of time if
possible:
1. Location
2. Physical arrangements
3. Number of parties
4. Number of participants
5. Audiences (news media, competitors, fellow vendors, etc.)
6. Communications channels
7. Time limits
Location speaks loudly about power relations. Traveling to a negotiating counterpart’s
home turf is a big disadvantage, and not just because of the costs of travel in money and
fatigue. A neutral location may be preferred—indeed, many trans-Pacific business negotia-
tions are conducted in Hawaii. The weather and golf are nice, and the jet lag is about equal.
Location is also an important consideration because it may determine legal jurisdiction if
33The most instructive story we have ever seen regarding how to build one’s BATNA is found in Daniel Michael,
“In Clandestine World of Airplane Contracts, An Inside Look at a Deal,” The Wall Street Journal, March 10,
2003, p. A1. It is a must-read for anyone interested in the topic of international business negotiations.
34Fisher, Ury, and Patton, Getting to Yes.
568 Part 5 Implementing Global Marketing Strategies
Different negotiation settings have different advantages and disadvantages. Of course, teleconferencing saves money, but meetings tend
to be rushed. Golf course negotiations are perhaps the most leisurely, but thoughtful responses are more likely as golfers can consider
reactions to statements made at the tee as they chase down their errant shots. E-mail also allows for thoughtful reactions in a similar way.
Here an executive “negotiates” a putt at China’s first golf course, the Chuan Shan Hot Spring Golf Club.
disputes arise. If you must travel to your negotiating counterpart’s city, then a useful tactic
is to invite clients or partners to work in a meeting room at your hotel. You can certainly get
more done if they are away from the distractions of their offices.
Physical arrangements can affect cooperativeness in subtle ways. In high-context cultures,
the physical arrangements of rooms can be quite a source of embarrassment and irritation
if handled improperly. To the detriment of their foreign business relationships, Americans
tend to be casual about such arrangements. Furthermore, views about who should attend
negotiations vary across cultures. Americans tend to want to get everyone together to “ham-
mer out an agreement” even if opinions and positions are divergent. Japanese prefer to talk
to everyone separately, then, once everyone agrees, to schedule inclusive meetings. Russians
tend toward a cumulative approach, meeting with one party and reaching an agreement, then
both parties calling on a third party, and so on. In addition, the importance of not being out-
numbered in international business negotiations has already been mentioned.
Audiences can have crucial influences on negotiation processes. Purchasing executives
at PetroBras, the Brazilian national oil company, are well known for putting competitive
bidders in rooms adjacent to one another to increase competitive pressures on both ven-
dors. Likewise, news leaks to the press played a crucial role in pushing along the negotia-
tions between General Motors and Toyota regarding a joint venture production agreement.
As electronic media become more available, efficient, and sometimes necessary (e.g.,
the war in Iraq or the SARS outbreak mentioned in Chapter 17), more business can be
conducted without face-to-face communication. However, Americans should recognize
that their counterparts in many other countries do not necessarily share their attraction to
the Internet35 and teleconferencing.36 Indeed, recent research has shown that when using
e-mail, trust is harder to build.37 Additionally, businesspeople in Hong Kong tend to negoti-
ate more competitively when using e-mail than in face-to-face settings.38 A conversation
35Jan M. Uljn, Andreas Lincke, andYunus Karakaya, “Non-Face-to-Face International Business Negotiation:
How Is National Culture Reflected in This Medium,” IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication
44, no. 2 (June 2001), pp. 126–37.
36Tim Ambler and Chris Styles, The Silk Road to International Marketing (London: Financial Times and
Prentice Hall, 2000).
37Charles E. Naquin and Gaylen D. Paulson, “Online Bargaining and Interpersonal Trust,” Journal of
Applied Psychology 88, no. 1 (2003), pp. 113–20.
38Guang Yang, “The Impact of Computer-Mediated Communication on the Processes and Outcomes
of Buyer–Seller Negotiations,” unpublished doctoral dissertation, Merage School of Business, University
of California, Irvine, 2003.
Chapter 19 Negotiating with International Customers, Partners, and Regulators 569
The Digital Impact on International
CROSSING BORDERS 19.2 Negotiations
All in all, e-commerce is good for global marketing. It al- but by personal contact between executives on both
lows domestic firms to internationalize more quickly and sides. The success of the Procter & Gamble–Walmart
at less cost. It allows international firms to communicate relationship rests with the personal relationships and
internally and externally with greater efficiency. Fax re- interactions between P&G’s key account team and
placed telex, which, in turn, replaced the telegram. But Walmart’s buyers. Although non-Thais can learn a great
e-mail is only partly replacing mail, fax, and phone. It is deal about Thailand from the Internet, they can never
better seen as a different, more informal medium than really understand Thai customers, the way they do
fax and more convenient than phone. For networking business, and their feelings toward products unless they
purposes, e-mail is easily copied and relayed, though interact directly. Understanding culture requires personal
excess should be avoided. Many of us have learned to experiential learning, the wellspring of social information.
screen out e-mails addressed to multiple recipients.
Sources: Reprinted with permission from Tim Ambler and Chris Styles,
Above all, e-mail can nurture, but not create, the The Silk Road to International Marketing (London: Financial Times and
long-term relationships so crucial to international market- Prentice Hall, 2000); Guang Yang, The Impact of Computer Mediated
ing. The decision by Boeing to enter into an automated Communication on the Process and Outcomes of Buyer–Seller
relationship with Dell was made not by two machines Negotiations, unpublished doctoral dissertation, Merage School of
Business, University of California, Irvine, 2003.
over a long dinner may actually be the most efficient way to communicate with clients and
partners in places like Mexico, Malaysia, and China.
Finally, it is important to manipulate time limits. Recall the example about the Russians
and Americans in Nice. The patience of the home office may be indispensable, and major
differences in time orientation should be planned for when business negotiations are con-
ducted in most other countries.
At the Negotiation The most difficult aspect of international business negotiations is the actual conduct of the face-
Table to-face meeting. Assuming that the best representatives have been chosen, and assuming those
representatives are well prepared and that situational factors have been manipulated in one’s
LO8 favor, things can still go sour at the negotiation table. Obviously, if these other preliminaries
Managing all aspects of have not been managed properly, things will go wrong during the meetings. Even with great
the negotiation process care and attention to preliminary details, managing the dynamics of the negotiation process is
almost always the greatest challenge facing Americans seeking to do business in other countries.
Going into a business negotiation, most people have expectations about the “proper” or
normal process of such a meeting, the ritual, so to speak.39 Based on these expectations,
progress is measured and appropriate bargaining strategies are selected. That is, things
may be done differently in the latter stages of a negotiation than they were in the earlier.
Higher-risk strategies may be employed to conclude talks—as in the final two minutes of a
close soccer match. But all such decisions about strategy are made relative to perceptions
of progress through an expected course of events.
Differences in the expectations held by parties from different cultures are one of the
major difficulties in any international business negotiation. Before these differences are
discussed, however, it is important to point out similarities. Everywhere around the world
we have found that business negotiations proceed through four stages:
1. Nontask sounding
2. Task-related exchange of information
3. Persuasion
4. Concessions and agreement
39Sometimes these expectations are referred to as “the spirit of the deal” or the “social contract.” See
Ron S. Fortgang, David A. Lax, and James K. Sebenius, “Negotiating the Spirit of the Deal,” Harvard
Business Review, January–February 2003, pp. 66–74.
570 Part 5 Implementing Global Marketing Strategies
Exhibit 19.4
Summary of Japanese, American, and Chinese Business Negotiation Styles
Category Japanese Americans Chinese
Language Americans have less time Often Chinese negotiators will
Most Japanese executives
understand English, though to formulate answers understand at least some
interpreters are often used. and observe Japanese English, but will prefer an
nonverbal responses interpreter.
Nonverbal behaviors The Japanese interpersonal because of a lack of
Values communication style knowledge of Japanese. Similar in quantities to
includes less eye contact, American businesspeople Americans in most respects,
fewer negative facial tend to “fill” silent yet difficult to read.
expressions, and more periods with arguments or
periods of silence. concessions. Relationship-oriented, guanxi,
and face are key, looking
Indirectness and face saving Speaking one’s mind is for a “way” to compromise,
are important. Vertical important; buyer–seller truth is secondary.
buyer–seller relationships, relationships are horizontal.
with sellers depending on Long, expensive, formal,
goodwill of buyers (amae), Very short periods are typical. intermediaries are key.
is typical.
Information is given briefly Indirectness, explanations first,
Four Stages of Business Negotiations and directly. “Fair” first intermediaries.
offers are more typical.
1. Nontask sounding Considerable time and Questions, competing offers,
expense devoted to such The most important step: delays.
2. Task-related efforts is the practice in Minds are changed at the
exchange of Japan. negotiation table, and Holistic approach, revisiting
information aggressive persuasive closed issues, goal is long-
The most important step: tactics are often used. term relationship. Progress
3. Persuasion High first offers with long is difficult to measure for
explanations and in-depth Concessions and Americans.
4. Concessions and clarifications. commitments are made
agreement throughout—a sequential
Persuasion is accomplished approach to decision
primarily behind the making.
scenes. Vertical status
relations dictate bargaining
outcomes.
Concessions are made
only toward the end of
negotiations—a holistic
approach to decision
making. Progress is difficult
to measure for Americans.
Sources: N. Mark Lam and John L. Graham, China Now, Doing Business in the World’s Most Dynamic Market (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007); James Day
Hodgson, Yoshihiro Sano, and John L. Graham, Doing Business with the New Japan (Boulder, CO: Rowman & Littlefield, 2008).
The first stage, nontask sounding, includes all those activities that might be described as
establishing rapport or getting to know one another, but it does not include information related
to the “business” of the meeting. The information exchanged in the second stage of business
negotiations regards the parties’ needs and preferences. The third stage, persuasion, involves
the parties’ attempts to modify one another’s needs and preferences through the use of various
persuasive tactics. The final stage of business negotiations involves the consummation of an
agreement, which is often the summation of a series of concessions or smaller agreements.
Despite the consistency of this process across diverse cultures, the content and duration of the
four stages differ substantially. For example, Exhibit 19.4 details procedural differences in Japan,
the United States, and China as well as differences in language, nonverbal behavior, and values.
Nontask Sounding. Americans always discuss topics other than business at the
negotiation table (e.g., the weather, family, sports, politics, business conditions in general)
Chapter 19 Negotiating with International Customers, Partners, and Regulators 571
but not for long. Usually the discussion is moved to the specific business at hand after 5 to
10 minutes. Such preliminary talk, known as nontask sounding, is much more than just
friendly or polite; it helps negotiators learn how the other side feels that particular day.
During nontask sounding, one can determine if a client’s attention is focused on business
or distracted by other matters, personal or professional.
Learning about a client’s background and interests also provides important cues about
appropriate communication styles. To the extent that people’s backgrounds are similar,
communication can be more efficient. Engineers can use technical jargon when talking
to other engineers. Sports enthusiasts can use sports analogies. Those with children can
compare the cash drain of “putting a kid through college,” and so on.
During these initial stages of conversation, judgments, too, are made about the “kind”
of person(s) with whom one is dealing: Can this person be trusted?40 Will he be reliable?
How much power does she have in her organization? All such judgments are made before
business discussions ever begin.
These preliminary nontask discussions have a definite purpose. Although most people
are often unaware of it, such time almost always is used to size up one’s clients. Depending
on the results of this process, proposals and arguments are formed using different jargon
and analogies. Or if clients are distracted by other personal matters or if the other people
seem untrustworthy, the decision may be to discuss no business at all. This assessment
sounds like a lot to accomplish in 5 to 10 minutes, but that’s how long it usually takes in the
information-oriented United States. Such is not the case in relationship-oriented countries
like China or Brazil; the goals of the nontask sounding are identical, but the time spent is
much, much longer. Instead of five minutes, it might take five meetings.
In the United States, firms resort to the legal system and their lawyers when they’ve made
a bad deal because of a mistake in sizing up a customer or vendor. In most other countries,
the legal system cannot be depended upon for such purposes. Instead, executives in places
like Korea and Egypt spend substantial time and effort in nontask sounding so that problems
do not develop later. Americans need to reconsider, from the foreigner’s perspective, the
importance of this first stage of negotiations if they hope to succeed in Seoul or Cairo.
Task-Related Exchange of Information. Only when nontask sounding is
complete and a trusting personal relationship is established should business be introduced.
American executives are advised to let foreign counterparts decide when such substantive
negotiations should begin, that is, to let them bring up business.
A task-related information exchange implies a two-way communication process.
However, observations suggest that when Americans meet executives from some cultures
across the negotiation table, the information flow is unidirectional. Japanese, Chinese, and
Russian negotiators all appear to ask “thousands” of questions and give little feedback. The
barrage of questions severely tests American negotiators’ patience, and the lack of feed-
back causes them great anxiety. Both can add up to much longer stays in these countries,
which means higher travel expenses.
Certainly an excellent negotiation tactic is to “drain” information from one’s negotiation
counterparts. But the oft-reported behaviors of Chinese, Japanese, and Russians may not nec-
essarily represent a sophisticated negotiation ploy. Indeed, reference to Exhibit 19.2 provides
some hints that differences in conversational styles—silent periods occurred more frequently in
negotiations in all three cultures—may be part of the explanation. Indeed, in careful studies of
conversational patterns of Americans negotiating with Japanese, the Americans seem to fill the
silent periods and do most of the talking. These results suggest that American negotiators must
take special care to keep their mouths shut and let foreign counterparts give them information.
Exchanging information across language barriers can be quite difficult as well. Most of us
understand about 80 to 90 percent of what our same-culture spouses or roommates say—that
40Trust is a key negotiation concept that is receiving growing attention in diverse areas. See Alaka N.
Rao, Jone L. Pearce, and Katherine Xin, “Governments, Reciprocal Exchange, and Trust among Business
Associates,” Journal of International Business Studies 36, no. 1 (2005), pp. 104–18; on the chemical basis
of trust, see Michael Kosfeld, Markus Heinrichs, Paul J. Zak, Urs Fischbacher, and Ernst Fehr, “Oxytocin
Increases Trust in Humans,” Nature 435 (June 2005), pp. 673–76.
572 Part 5 Implementing Global Marketing Strategies
CROSSING BORDERS 19.3 Fishing for Business in Brazil
How important is nontask sounding? Consider this de- the United States, the American started to try to
scription about an American banker’s meeting in Brazil, crank the Brazilian back in. The first signal was the
as recounted by an observer: long look at his watch, then the interruption, “Per-
haps we can get back to the new services we have
Introductions were made. The talk began with the to offer.”
usual “How do you like Rio?” questions—Have you
been to Ipanema, Copacabana, Corcovado, etc.? The Brazilian did get reeled back into the sub-
There was also talk about the flight down from New ject of the sale for a couple of minutes, but then
York. After about five minutes of this chatting, the the reel started to sing again. This time he went
senior American quite conspicuously glanced at from efficient banking transactions to the nuances
his watch, and then asked his client what he knew of the Brazilian financial system to the Brazilian
about the bank’s new services. economy. Pretty soon we were all talking about the
world economy and making predictions about the
“A little,” responded the Brazilian. The senior U.S. presidential elections.
American whipped a brochure out of his briefcase,
opened it on the desk in front of the client, and Another look at his Rolex, and the American
began his sales pitch. started this little “sport fishing” ritual all over
again. From my perspective (I wasn’t investing
After about three minutes of “fewer forms, time and money toward the success of this activ-
electronic transfers, and reducing accounts receiv- ity), this all seemed pretty funny. Every time the
ables,” the Brazilian jumped back in, “Yes, that American VP looked at his watch during the next
should make us more competitive . . . and com- 45 minutes, I had to bite my cheeks to keep from
petition is important here in Brazil. In fact, have laughing out loud. He never did get to page two
you been following the World Cup fútbol (soccer) of his brochure. The Brazilian just wasn’t interested
matches recently? Great games.” And so the reel in talking business with someone he didn’t know
began to whir, paying out that monofilament line, pretty well.
right there in that hot high-rise office.
Source: William Hernandez Requejo and John L. Graham, Global
After a few minutes’ dissertation on the local Negotiation: The New Rules (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008).
fútbol teams, Pélé, and why fútbol isn’t popular in
means 10 to 20 percent is misunderstood or misheard. That latter percentage goes up dramati-
cally when someone is speaking a second language, no matter the fluency levels or length of
acquaintance. And when the second language capability is limited, entire conversations may
be totally misunderstood. Using multiple communication channels during presentations—
writing, exhibits, speaking, repetition—works to minimize the inevitable errors.
In many cultures, negative feedback is very difficult to obtain. In high-context cultures
such as Mexico and Japan, speakers are reluctant to voice objections lest they damage the
all-important personal relationships. Some languages themselves are by nature indirect and
indefinite. English is relatively clear, but translations from languages like Japanese can leave
much to be understood. In more collectivistic cultures like China, negotiators may be reluc-
tant to speak for the decision-making group they represent, or they may not even know how
the group feels about a particular proposal. All such problems suggest the importance of
having natives of customer countries on your negotiation team and of spending extra time
in business and informal entertainment settings trying to understand better the information
provided by foreign clients and partners. Conversely, low-context German executives often
complain that American presentations include too much “fluff ”—they are interested in copi-
ous information only, not the hyperbole and hedges so common in American speech. Nega-
tive feedback from Germans can seem brutally frank to higher-context Americans.
A final point of potential conflict in information exchange has to do with first of-
fers. Price padding varies across cultures, and Americans’ first offers tend to come in
relatively close to what they really want. “A million dollars is the goal, let’s start at
$1.2 million” seems about right to most Americans. Implicit in such a first offer is the
hope that things will get done quickly. Americans do not expect to move far from first
offers. Negotiators in many other countries do not share the goal of finishing quickly,
Chapter 19 Negotiating with International Customers, Partners, and Regulators 573
You want him on your side! however. In places like China, Brazil, or Spain, the expectation is for a relatively longer
Banana salespeople such as this period of haggling, and first offers are more aggressive to reflect these expectations. “If
fellow in Agra, India, are known the goal is 1 million, we better start at 2,” makes sense there. Americans react to such
worldwide for their negotiation aggressive first offers in one of two ways: They either laugh or get angry. And when
skills—they’re hawking a foreign counterparts’ second offers reflect deep discounts, Americans’ ire increases.
perishable product that shows
the wear. In Japan they even have A good example of this problem regards an American CEO shopping for a European
a negotiation strategy named plant site. When he selected a $20 million plot in Ireland, the Spanish real estate developer
for them: Outrageously high first he had visited earlier called wondering why the American had not asked for a lower price for
offers are derogated as “banana the Madrid site before choosing Dublin. He told the Spaniard that his first offer “wasn’t even
no tataki uri,” the banana sale in the ballpark.” He wasn’t laughing when the Spaniard then offered to beat the Irish price. In
approach. fact, the American executive was quite angry. A potentially good deal was forgone because
of different expectations about first offers. Yes, numbers were exchanged, but information
was not. Aggressive first offers made by foreigners should be met with questions, not anger.
Persuasion. In Japan, a clear separation does not exist between task-related informa-
tion exchange and persuasion. The two stages tend to blend together as each side defines
and refines its needs and preferences. Much time is spent in the task-related exchange
of information, leaving little to “argue” about during the persuasion stage. Conversely,
Americans tend to lay their cards on the table and hurry through the information exchange
to persuasion. After all, the persuasion is the heart of the matter. Why hold a meeting un-
less someone’s mind is to be changed?
A key aspect of sales training in the
United States is “handling objections.”
So the goal in information exchange
among Americans is to quickly get
those objections out in the open so they
can be handled.
This handling can mean providing
clients with more information. It can also
mean getting mean. As suggested by Ex-
hibit 19.2, Americans make threats and
issue warnings in negotiations. They do
not use such tactics often, but negotia-
tors in many other cultures use such tac-
tics even less frequently and in different
circumstances. For example, notice how
infrequently the Mexicans and English-
speaking Canadians used threats and
warnings in the simulated negotiations.
Others have found Filipino and Chinese
negotiators to use a less aggressive approach than Americans.41 Indeed, in Thailand or China,
the use of such aggressive negotiation tactics can result in the loss of face and the destruc-
tion of important personal relationships. Such tough tactics may be used in Japan but by
buyers only and usually only in informal circumstances—not at the formal negotiation table.
Americans also get angry during negotiations and express emotions that may be completely
inappropriate in foreign countries. Such emotional outbursts may be seen as infantile or even
barbaric behavior in places like Hong Kong and Bangkok.
The most powerful persuasive tactic is actually asking more questions. Foreign counter-
parts can be politely asked to explain why they must have delivery in two months or why they
must have a 10 percent discount. Chester Karrass, in his still useful book The Negotiation
Game,42 suggests that it is “smart to be a little dumb” in business negotiations. Repeat ques-
tions; for example, “I didn’t completely understand what you meant—can you please explain
41X. Michael Song, Jinhong Xie, and Barbara Dyer, “Antecedents and Consequences of Marketing
Managers’ Conflict Handling Procedures,” Journal of Marketing 64 (January 2000), pp. 50–66; Alma
Mintu-Wimsatt and Julie B. Gassenheimer, “The Moderating Effects of Cultural Context in Buyer–Seller
Negotiation,” Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 20, no. 1 (Winter 2000), pp. 1–9.
42Chester Karrass, The Negotiation Game (New York: Crowell, 1970).
574 Part 5 Implementing Global Marketing Strategies
After Negotiations that again?” If clients or potential business partners have good answers, then perhaps a com-
promise on the issue is best. Often, however, under close and repeated scrutiny, their answers
LO9 are not very good. When their weak position is exposed, they are obliged to concede. Ques-
The importance tions can elicit key information, the most powerful yet passive persuasive device. Indeed, the
of follow-up use of questions is a favored Japanese tactic, one they use with great effect on Americans.
communications and
procedures Third parties and informal channels of communication are the indispensable media of
persuasion in many countries, particularly the more relationship-oriented ones. Meetings
Tung Chee Hwa, at the time Chief in restaurants or meetings with references and mutual friends who originally provided
Executive of the Hong Kong introductions may be used to handle difficult problems with partners in other countries.
Special Administrative Region, The value of such informal settings and trusted intermediaries is greatest when problems
consummated the deal with the are emotion laden. They provide a means for simultaneously delivering difficult messages
Mouse for Asia’s new Walt Disney and saving face. Although American managers may eschew such “behind the scenes” ap-
World, which opened in 2005. proaches, they are standard practice in many countries.
Concessions and Agreement. Comments made previously about the
importance of writing down concession-making strategies and understanding differences
in decision-making styles—sequential versus holistic—are pertinent here. Americans
often make concessions early, expecting foreign counterparts to reciprocate. However, in
many cultures no concessions are made until the end of the negotiations. Americans often
get frustrated and express anger when foreign clients and partners are simply following a
different approach to concession making, one that can also work quite well when both sides
understand what is going on.
Contracts between American firms are often longer than 100 pages and include carefully
worded clauses regarding every aspect of the agreement. American lawyers go to great lengths
to protect their companies against all circumstances, contingencies, and actions of the other
party. The best contracts are written so tightly that the other party would not think of going to
court to challenge any provision. The American adversarial system requires such contracts.
In most other countries, particularly the relationship-oriented ones, legal systems are
not depended upon to settle disputes. Indeed, the term disputes does not reflect how a
business relationship should work. Each side should be concerned about mutual benefits
of the relationship and therefore should consider the interests of the other. Consequently,
in places like Japan written contracts are very short—two to three pages—are purposely
loosely written, and primarily contain comments on principles of the relationship. From the
Japanese point of view, the American emphasis on tight contracts is tantamount to planning
the divorce before the wedding.
In other relationship-oriented countries, such as China, con-
tracts are more a description of what business partners view
their respective responsibilities to be. For complicated business
relationships, they may be quite long and detailed. However,
their purpose is different from the American understanding.
When circumstances change, then responsibilities must also be
adjusted, despite the provisions of the signed contract. The no-
tion of enforcing a contract in China makes little sense.
Informality being a way of life in the United States, even
the largest contracts between companies are often sent through
the mail for signature. In America, ceremony is considered
a waste of time and money. But when a major agreement is
reached with foreign companies, their executives may expect
a formal signing ceremony involving CEOs of the respective
companies. American companies are wise to accommodate
such expectations.
Finally, follow-up communications are an important part of business negotiations with
partners and clients from most foreign countries. Particularly in high-context cultures,
where personal relationships are crucial, high-level executives must stay in touch with their
counterparts. Letters, pictures, and mutual visits remain important long after contracts are
signed. Indeed, warm relationships at the top often prove to be the best medicine for any
problems that may arise in the future.
Chapter 19 Negotiating with International Customers, Partners, and Regulators 575
Creative International Negotiations Getting to “yes” sometimes isn’t good enough. Perhaps
LO10 the most famous negotiation parable involves an argument over an orange. The most obvi-
ous approach was to simply cut it in half, each person getting a fair share. But when the
The basics of creative negotiators began talking to each other, exchanging information about their interests, a bet-
international negotiations ter solution to the problem became obvious: The person who wanted the orange for juice
for breakfast took that part, and the person wanting the rind for making marmalade took
that part. Both sides ended up with more. Neither agreement is particularly creative, but the
parable of the orange becomes a story about creativity when both parties decide to cooper-
ate to plant more orange trees. In a similar way, Boeing buys composite plastic wings for
its new 787 Dreamliner, designed and manufactured by Japanese suppliers, and then sells
the completed 787s back to Japanese airlines, all with a nice subsidy from the Japanese
government. This type of agreement is what we mean by creativity in negotiations.
At business schools these days, we are beginning to learn a lot about creative processes.
Courses are being offered and dissertations being proffered with “innovation” as the key buzz
word, both at academic conferences and in corporate boardrooms. The more we hear about
innovation and creative processes, the more we are beginning to appreciate that the Japanese
approach to international business negotiations, by nature, uses many of the techniques com-
monly emphasized in any discussion of creative processes. Indeed, there appears to be a deeply
fundamental explanation for why the Japanese have been able to build such a successful society,
despite their lack of natural resources and relative isolation. Japanese society has its own ob-
stacles to creativity—hierarchy and collectivism are two. But, they have developed a negotiation
style that in many ways obviates such disadvantages. The procedures we advocate herein coin-
cide nicely with an approach to international negotiations that comes naturally to the Japanese.
We also must give credit to the luminaries in field who have long advocated creativity
in negotiations. Howard Raiffa and his colleagues recommend:
. . . the teams should think and plan together informally and do some joint brainstorming,
which can be thought of as “dialoguing” or “prenegotiating.” The two sides make no tradeoffs,
commitments, or arguments about how to divide the pie at this early stage.43
Roger Fisher and William Ury title their Chapter 4 in Getting to Yes44 “Invent[ing] Options
for Mutual Gain.” David Lax and James Sebenius, in their important new book, 3D-
Negotiations,45 go past getting to yes and talk about “creative agreements” and “great
agreements.” Our goal here is to push these ideas to the forefront in thinking about business
negotiations. The field generally is still stuck in the past, talking about “making deals” and
“solving problems.” Even the use of terms like “win–win” expose the vestiges of the old
competitive thinking. Our point is that a business negotiation is not something that can be
won or lost, and the competitive metaphor limits creativity. The problem-solving metaphor
does as well. Accept only creative outcomes!
The ideas listed in Exhibit 19.5 can be used in all stages of international business nego-
tiations: planning, execution, and follow-up. Application of principles of creativity will be
practically and overtly appropriate in at least three points in your negotiations. We noted
Howard Raiffa’s suggestion that they be used in pre-negotiation meetings; we also advo-
cate their use when impasses are reached. For example, in the negotiations regarding the
multi-billion dollar Rio Urubamba natural gas project in Peru, the involved firms and en-
vironmentalist groups reached what at the time seemed to be an irreconcilable difference:
Roads and a huge pipeline through the pristine forest would be an ecological disaster. The
creative solution? Think of the remote gas field as an offshore platform, run the pipeline
underground, build no roads, and fly in personnel and equipment as needed.
After negotiators have “gotten to yes,” a scheduled review of the agreement may ac-
tually get your business relationship past “yes” to truly creative outcomes. Perhaps you
schedule such a review six months after implementation of the agreement has begun. But
the point is that time must be set aside for a creative discussion of how to improve on the
43Howard Raiffa with John Richardson and David Metcalfe, Negotiation Analysis (Cambridge, MA:
Belknap, 2002), p. 196.
44Fisher, Ury, and Patton, Getting to Yes.
45David J. Lax and James K. Sebenius, 3D Negotiations (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2006).
576 Part 5 Implementing Global Marketing Strategies
Exhibit 19.5
10 Ways to Generate More Ideas in International Negotiations
1. Establish common goals of what this “collaboration” short time—10 minutes—on each point during which
would create. A more workable deal? Some both sides offer “crazy” suggestions. Use techniques
common long-term goals? A closer partnership? of improvisation. Neither side should be offended by
crazy ideas. No one should criticize. Explain that by
2. Establish the rules of engagement. The purpose exploring crazy ideas, better ideas are often generated.
of the exercise is to resolve differences in creative
ways that work better for both parties. All ideas are 8. Sleep on it.* This tactic enables the unconscious
possibilities, and research shows that combining to work on the problems and gives people time to
ideas from different cultures can result in better collect opinions before meeting again the next day.
outcomes than those from a single culture. Other kinds of breaks, like for coffee, are also helpful.
3. Trust is key and difficult to establish in many cultures. 9. Doing this process over several sessions allows
Certain techniques might speed that process a both sides to feel that progress is being made and
little—being offsite, for example. Establishing physical actually generates better and more polished ideas
proximity unconsciously signals intimacy. that both sides can invest in.
4. Add diversity (gender, culture, extroverts, different 10. It is the process of creating something together,
work specialties, experts, outsiders) to the group. rather than the specific proposals, that creates
bonding around a shared task and establishes new
5. Use storytelling. This method helps establish ways of working together. Each side feels honored,
both who you are and what point of view you are and Americans can feel that something is being
bringing to this collaboration. accomplished.
6. Work in small groups. Add physical movement. Tell * The overnight part of #8 is particularly important. Anthropologist and
the participants to relax, play, sing, have fun, and consumer expert Clotaire Rapaille46 suggests that the transitions between
accept silence as okay. wakefulness and sleep can act as a kind of “whack on the side of the head” that
allows new kinds of thinking, “calming their brainwaves, getting them to that
7. Work holistically and using visuals. If, for example, tranquil point just before sleep.” By the way, we heartily recommend his book,
there are three sticking points on which neither side is The Culture Code, as a key to understanding cultural differences in behavior.
happy, agree to work on those points by spending a
Source: Reprinted with permission of Chief Idea Officer, IdeaWorks Consulting, Newport Beach, CA.
business relationship. The emphasis of such a session should always be putting new ideas
on the table—answers to the question, “What haven’t we thought of?”
Conclusions Despite the litany of potential pitfalls facing international negotiators, things are getting
better. The stereotypes of American managers as “innocents abroad” or cowboys are be-
coming less accurate. Likewise, we hope it is obvious that the stereotypes of the reticent
Japanese or the pushy Brazilian evinced in the chapter may no longer hold so true. Experi-
ence levels are going up worldwide, and individual personalities are important. So you can
find talkative Japanese, quiet Brazilians, and effective American negotiators. But culture
still does, and always will, count. We hope that it is fast becoming the natural behavior of
American managers to take culture into account.
English author Rudyard Kipling said some one hundred years ago: “Oh, East is East,
and West is West, and never the twain shall meet.” Since then most have imbued his words
with an undeserved pessimism. Some even wrongly say he was wrong.47 The problem is
that not many have bothered to read his entire poem, The Ballad of East and West:
Oh, East is East, and West is West, and never the twain shall meet,
Till Earth and Sky stand presently at God’s great Judgment Seat;
But there is neither East nor West, border, nor breed, nor birth,
When two strong men stand face to face, though they come from the ends of the earth!
The poem can stand some editing for these more modern times. It should include the
other directions—North is North and South is South. And the last line properly should read,
“When two strong people stand face to face.” But Kipling’s positive sentiment remains.
46Clotaire Rapaille, The Culture Code (New York: Broadway, 2006), p. 8.
47Michael Elliot, “Killing off Kipling,” Newsweek, December 29, 1977, pp. 52–55.
Chapter 19 Negotiating with International Customers, Partners, and Regulators 577
Differences between countries and cultures, no matter how difficult, can be worked out
when people talk to each other in face-to-face settings. Kipling rightly places the respon-
sibility for international cooperation not on companies or governments but instead directly
on the shoulders of individual managers, present and future, like you. Work hard!
Summary
Because styles of business negotiations vary substantially around to match foreign negotiation teams in both numbers and seniority.
the world, it is important to take cultural differences into account The importance of cross-cultural training and investments in care-
when meeting clients, customers, and business partners across ful preparations cannot be overstated. Situational factors such as
the international negotiation table. In addition to cultural factors, the location for meetings and the time allowed must also be care-
negotiators’ personalities and backgrounds also influence their fully considered and managed.
behavior. Great care should be taken to get to know the individu-
als who represent client and customer companies. Cultural stereo- All around the world, business negotiations involve four steps:
types can be quite misleading. nontask sounding, task-related information exchange, persuasion,
and concessions and agreement. The time spent on each step can
Four kinds of problems frequently arise during international vary considerably from country to country. Americans spend little
business negotiations—problems at the levels of language, nonver- time on nontask sounding or getting to know foreign counterparts.
bal behaviors, values, and thinking and decision-making processes. Particularly in relationship-oriented cultures, it is important to let
Foreign-language skills are an essential tool of the international ne- the customers bring up business when they feel comfortable with
gotiator. Nonverbal behaviors vary dramatically across cultures, and the personal relationship. Task-related information goes quickly
because their influence is often below our level of awareness, prob- in the United States as well. In other countries, such as Japan, the
lems at this level can be serious. Whereas most Americans value most time is spent on the second stage, and careful understandings
objectivity, competitiveness, equality, and punctuality, many foreign of partners are the focus. Persuasion is the most important part of
executives may not. As for thinking and decision making, Western negotiations from the American perspective. Aggressive persuasive
business executives tend to address complex negotiations by breaking tactics (threats and warnings) are used frequently. Such persuasive
deals down into smaller issues and settling them sequentially; in many tactics, though they may work well in some cultures, will cause
Eastern cultures, a more holistic approach is used in discussions. serious problems in others. Because Americans tend to be deal
oriented, more care will have to be taken in follow-up communica-
Much care must be taken in selecting negotiation teams to rep- tions with foreign clients and partners who put more emphasis on
resent companies in meetings with foreigners. Listening skills, in- long-term business relationships. Finally, a new emphasis is being
fluence at headquarters, and a willingness to use team assistance put in creative negotiation processes in international commerce.
are important negotiator traits. Americans should be careful to try
Key Terms
Stereotypes Nontask sounding Task-related Creativity in
Best alternative to a negotiated information exchange negotiations
agreement (BATNA)
Questions
1. Define the key terms listed above. 9. What are the most important considerations in selecting a ne-
gotiation team? Give examples.
2. Why can cultural stereotypes be dangerous? Give some examples.
10. What kinds of training are most useful for international busi-
3. List three ways that culture influences negotiation behavior. ness negotiators?
4. Describe the kinds of problems that usually come up during 11. Name three aspects of negotiation situations that might be ma-
international business negotiations. nipulated before talks begin. Suggest how this manipulation
might be done.
5. Why are foreign-language skills important for international
negotiators? 12. Explain why Americans spend so little time on nontask sound-
ing and Brazilians so much.
6. Describe three cultural differences in nonverbal behaviors and
explain how they might cause problems in international busi- 13. Why is it difficult to get negative feedback from counterparts
ness negotiations. in many foreign countries? Give examples.
7. Why is time an important consideration in international busi- 14. Why won’t getting mad work in Mexico or Japan?
ness negotiations?
15. Why are questions the most useful persuasive tactic?
8. What can be different about how a Japanese manager might
address a complex negotiation compared with an American 16. What is the parable of the orange, and how does it relate to
negotiator? international negotiations?
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PART SIX
Country Notebook
THE COUNTRY NOTEBOOK—A GUIDE FOR
DEVELOPING A MARKETING PLAN
THE COUNTRY NOTEBOOK OUTLINE
Cultural Analysis
Economic Analysis
Market Audit and Competitive Market Analysis
Preliminary Marketing Plan
580 Part 6 Supplementary Material
The first stage in the planning process is a preliminary country In each guideline, specific points must be adapted to reflect a
analysis. The marketer needs basic information to evaluate a coun- company’s products and/or services. The decision as to the appro-
try market’s potential, identify problems that would eliminate a priateness of specific data and the depth of coverage depends on
country from further consideration, identify aspects of the coun- company objectives, product characteristics, and the country mar-
try’s environment that need further study, evaluate the components ket. Some points in the guidelines are unimportant for some coun-
of the marketing mix for possible adaptation, and develop a stra- tries or some products and should be ignored. Preceding chapters
tegic marketing plan. One further use of the information collected of this book provide specific content suggestions for the topics in
in the preliminary analysis is as a basis for a country notebook. each guideline.
Many companies, large and small, have a country notebook I. CULTURAL ANALYSIS
for each country in which they do business. The country notebook
contains information a marketer should be aware of when making The data suggested in the cultural analysis include information
decisions involving a specific country market. As new informa- that helps the marketer make market planning decisions. However,
tion is collected, the country notebook is continually updated by its application extends beyond product and market analysis to
the country or product manager. Whenever a marketing decision being an important source of information for someone interested
is made involving a country, the country notebook is the first data- in understanding business customs and other important cultural
base consulted. New-product introductions, changes in advertising features of the country.
programs, and other marketing program decisions begin with the
country notebook. It also serves as a quick introduction for new The information in this analysis must be more than a collection
personnel assuming responsibility for a country market. of facts. Whoever is responsible for the preparation of this mate-
rial should attempt to interpret the meaning of cultural information.
This section presents four separate guidelines for collection That is, how does the information help in understanding the effect
and analysis of market data and preparation of a country notebook: on the market? For example, the fact that almost all the popula-
(1) guideline for cultural analysis, (2) guideline for economic tions of Italy and Mexico are Catholic is an interesting statistic but
analysis, (3) guideline for market audit and competitive analysis, not nearly as useful as understanding the effect of Catholicism on
and (4) guideline for preliminary marketing plan. These guidelines values, beliefs, and other aspects of market behavior. Furthermore,
suggest the kinds of information a marketer can gather to enhance even though both countries are predominantly Catholic, the influ-
planning. ence of their individual and unique interpretation and practice of
Catholicism can result in important differences in market behavior.
The points in each of the guidelines are general. They are de-
signed to provide direction to areas to explore for relevant data.
Guideline I. Introduction
Include short profiles of the company, the product to be exported, and the
country with which you wish to trade.
II. Brief discussion of the country’s relevant history
III. Geographical setting
A. Location
B. Climate
C. Topography
IV. Social institutions
A. Family
1. The nuclear family
2. The extended family
3. Dynamics of the family
a. Parental roles
b. Marriage and courtship
4. Female/male roles (changing or static?)
B. Education
1. The role of education in society
a. Primary education (quality, levels of development, etc.)
b. Secondary education (quality, levels of development, etc.)
c. Higher education (quality, levels of development, etc.)
2. Literacy rates
C. Political system
1. Political structure
2. Political parties
3. Stability of government
4. Special taxes
5. Role of local government
Country Notebook A Guide For Developing A Marketing Plan 581
D. Legal system
1. Organization of the judiciary system
2. Code, common, socialist, or Islamic-law country?
3. Participation in patents, trademarks, and other conventions
E. Social organizations
1. Group behavior
2. Social classes
3. Clubs, other organizations
4. Race, ethnicity, and subcultures
F. Business customs and practices
V. Religion and aesthetics
A. Religion and other belief systems
1. Orthodox doctrines and structures
2. Relationship with the people
3. Which religions are prominent?
4. Membership of each religion
5. Any powerful or influential cults?
B. Aesthetics
1. Visual arts (fine arts, plastics, graphics, public art, colors, etc.)
2. Music
3. Drama, ballet, and other performing arts
4. Folklore and relevant symbols
VI. Living conditions
A. Diet and nutrition
1. Meat and vegetable consumption rates
2. Typical meals
3. Malnutrition rates
4. Foods available
B. Housing
1. Types of housing available
2. Do most people own or rent?
3. Do most people live in one-family dwellings or with other families?
C. Clothing
1. National dress
2. Types of clothing worn at work
D. Recreation, sports, and other leisure activities
1. Types available and in demand
2. Percentage of income spent on such activities
E. Social security
F. Healthcare
VII. Language
A. Official language(s)
B. Spoken versus written language(s)
C. Dialects
VIII. Executive summary
After completing all of the other sections, prepare a two-page (maximum length)
summary of the major points and place it at the front of the report. The purpose
of an executive summary is to give the reader a brief glance at the critical points
of your report. Those aspects of the culture a reader should know to do business
in the country but would not be expected to know or would find different based
on his or her SRC should be included in this summary.
IX. Sources of information
X. Appendixes
582 Part 6 Supplementary Material
II. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS guideline: general economic data that serve as a basis for an evalu-
ation of the economic soundness of a country, and information
The reader may find the data collected for the economic analysis on channels of distribution and media availability. As mentioned
guideline are more straightforward than for the cultural analysis previously, the guideline focuses only on broad categories of data
guideline. There are two broad categories of information in this and must be adapted to particular company and product needs.
Guideline I. Introduction
II. Population
A. Total
1. Growth rates
2. Number of live births
3. Birthrates
B. Distribution of population
1. Age
2. Sex
3. Geographic areas (urban, suburban, and rural density and concentration)
4. Migration rates and patterns
5. Ethnic groups
III. Economic statistics and activity
A. Gross national product (GNP or GDP)
1. Total
2. Rate of growth (real GNP or GDP)
B. Personal income per capita
C. Average family income
D. Distribution of wealth
1. Income classes
2. Proportion of the population in each class
3. Is the distribution distorted?
E. Minerals and resources
F. Surface transportation
1. Modes
2. Availability
3. Usage rates
4. Ports
G. Communication systems
1. Types
2. Availability
3. Usage rates
H. Working conditions
1. Employer–employee relations
2. Employee participation
3. Salaries and benefits
I. Principal industries
1. What proportion of the GNP does each industry contribute?
2. Ratio of private to publicly owned industries
J. Foreign investment
1. Opportunities?
2. Which industries?
K. International trade statistics
1. Major exports
a. Dollar value
b. Trends
2. Major imports
a. Dollar value
b. Trends
Country Notebook A Guide For Developing A Marketing Plan 583
3. Balance-of-payments situation
a. Surplus or deficit?
b. Recent trends
4. Exchange rates
a. Single or multiple exchange rates?
b. Current rate of exchange
c. Trends
L. Trade restrictions
1. Embargoes
2. Quotas
3. Import taxes
4. Tariffs
5. Licensing
6. Customs duties
M. Extent of economic activity not included in cash income activities
1. Countertrades
a. Products generally offered for countertrading
b. Types of countertrades requested (barter, counterpurchase, etc.)
2. Foreign aid received
N. Labor force
1. Size
2. Unemployment rates
O. Inflation rates
IV. Developments in science and technology
A. Current technology available (computers, machinery, tools, etc.)
B. Percentage of GNP invested in research and development
C. Technological skills of the labor force and general population
V. Channels of distribution (macro analysis)
This section reports data on all channel middlemen available within the market.
Later, you will select a specific channel as part of your distribution strategy.
A. Retailers
1. Number of retailers
2. Typical size of retail outlets
3. Customary markup for various classes of goods
4. Methods of operation (cash/credit)
5. Scale of operation (large/small)
6. Role of chain stores, department stores, and specialty shops
B. Wholesale middlemen
1. Number and size
2. Customary markup for various classes of goods
3. Method of operation (cash/credit)
C. Import/export agents
D. Warehousing
E. Penetration of urban and rural markets
VI. Media
This section reports data on all media available within the country or market.
Later, you will select specific media as part of the promotional mix and strategy.
A. Availability of media
B. Costs
1. Television
2. Radio
3. Print
4. Internet
5. Other media (cinema, outdoor, etc.)
C. Agency assistance
584 Part 6 Supplementary Material
D. Coverage of various media
E. Percentage of population reached by each medium
VII. Executive summary
After completing the research for this report, prepare a two-page (maximum)
summary of the major economic points and place it at the front
VIII. Sources of information
IX. Appendixes
III. MARKET AUDIT AND product or brand in a specific country market. Information in this
COMPETITIVE MARKET ANALYSIS guideline provides an estimate of market potential and an evaluation
of the strengths and weaknesses of competitive marketing efforts.
Of the guidelines presented, this is the most product or brand spe- The data generated in this step are used to determine the extent of
cific. Information in the other guidelines is general in nature, fo- adaptation of the company’s marketing mix necessary for successful
cusing on product categories, whereas data in this guideline are market entry and to develop the final step, the action plan.
brand specific and are used to determine competitive market con-
ditions and market potential. The detailed information needed to complete this guideline is
not necessarily available without conducting a thorough market-
Two different components of the planning process are reflected ing research investigation. Thus another purpose of this part of the
in this guideline. Information in Parts I and II, Cultural Analysis country notebook is to identify the correct questions to ask in a
and Economic Analysis, serve as the basis for an evaluation of the formal market study.
Guideline I. Introduction
II. The product
A. Evaluate the product as an innovation as it is perceived by the intended
market
1. Relative advantage
2. Compatibility
3. Complexity
4. Trialability
5. Observability
B. Major problems and resistances to product acceptance based on the
preceding evaluation
III. The market
A. Describe the market(s) in which the product is to be sold
1. Geographical region(s)
2. Forms of transportation and communication available in that (those)
region(s)
3. Consumer buying habits
a. Product-use patterns
b. Product feature preferences
c. Shopping habits
4. Distribution of the product
a. Typical retail outlets
b. Product sales by other middlemen
5. Advertising and promotion
a. Advertising media usually used to reach your target market(s)
b. Sales promotions customarily used (sampling, coupons, etc.)
6. Pricing strategy
a. Customary markups
b. Types of discounts available
B. Compare and contrast your product and the competition’s product(s)
1. Competitors’ product(s)
a. Brand name
b. Features
c. Package
2. Competitors’ prices
Country Notebook A Guide For Developing A Marketing Plan 585
3. Competitors’ promotion and advertising methods
4. Competitors’ distribution channels
C. Market size
1. Estimated industry sales for the planning year
2. Estimated sales for your company for the planning year
D. Government participation in the marketplace
1. Agencies that can help you
2. Regulations you must follow
IV. Executive summary
Based on your analysis of the market, briefly summarize (two-page maximum)
the major problems and opportunities requiring attention in your marketing mix,
and place the summary at the front of the report.
V. Sources of information
VI. Appendixes
IV. PRELIMINARY MARKETING PLAN maximum sales and profits are presented here. The action plan re-
flects, in your judgment, the most effective means of marketing
Information gathered in Guidelines I through III serves as the your product in a country market. Budgets, expected profits and
basis for developing a marketing plan for your product or brand losses, and additional resources necessary to implement the pro-
in a target market. How the problems and opportunities that sur- posed plan are also presented.
faced in the preceding steps are overcome or exploited to produce
Guideline I. The marketing plan
A. Marketing objectives
1. Target market(s) (specific description of the market)
2. Sales forecast years 1-5
3. Profit forecast years 1-5
4. Market penetration and coverage
B. SWOT Analysis
1. Strengths
2. Weaknesses
3. Opportunities
4. Threats
C. Product adaptation or modification—Using the product component model as
your guide, indicate how your product can be adapted for the market.
1. Core component
2. Packaging component
3. Support services component
D. Promotion mix
1. Advertising
a. Objectives
b. Media mix
c. Message
d. Costs
2. Sales promotions
a. Objectives
b. Coupons
c. Premiums
d. Costs
3. Personal selling
4. Other promotional methods
E. Distribution: From origin to destination
1. Port selection
a. Origin port
b. Destination port
586 Part 6 Supplementary Material
2. Mode selection: Advantages/disadvantages of each mode
a. Railroads
b. Air carriers
c. Ocean carriers
d. Motor carriers
3. Packing
a. Marking and labeling regulations
b. Containerization
c. Costs
4. Documentation required
a. Bill of lading
b. Dock receipt
c. Air bill
d. Commercial invoice
e. Pro forma invoice
f. Shipper’s export declaration
g. Statement of origin
h. Special documentation
5. Insurance claims
6. Freight forwarder. If your company does not have a transportation or
traffic management department, then consider using a freight forwarder.
There are distinct advantages and disadvantages to hiring one.
F. Channels of distribution (micro analysis). This section presents details about
the specific types of distribution in your marketing plan.
1. Retailers
a. Type and number of retail stores
b. Retail markups for products in each type of retail store
c. Methods of operation for each type (cash/credit)
d. Scale of operation for each type (small/large)
2. Wholesale middlemen
a. Type and number of wholesale middlemen
b. Markup for class of products by each type
c. Methods of operation for each type (cash/credit)
d. Scale of operation (small/large)
3. Import/export agents
4. Warehousing
a. Type
b. Location
G. Price determination
1. Cost of the shipment of goods
2. Transportation costs
3. Handling expenses
a. Pier charges
b. Wharfage fees
c. Loading and unloading charges
4. Insurance costs
5. Customs duties
6. Import taxes and value-added tax
7. Wholesale and retail markups and discounts
8. Company’s gross margins
9. Retail price
H. Terms of sale
1. EX works, FOB, FAS, C&F, CIF
2. Advantages/disadvantages of each
Country Notebook A Guide For Developing A Marketing Plan 587
I. Methods of payment
1. Cash in advance
2. Open accounts
3. Consignment sales
4. Sight, time, or date drafts
5. Letters of credit
II. Pro forma financial statements and budgets
A. Marketing budget
1. Selling expense
2. Advertising/promotion expense
3. Distribution expense
4. Product cost
5. Other costs
B. Pro forma annual profit and loss statement (first year through fifth year)
III. Resource requirements
A. Finances
B. Personnel
C. Production capacity
IV. Executive summary
After completing the research for this report, prepare a two-page (maximum)
summary of the major points of your successful marketing plan, and place it at
the front of the report.
V. Sources of information
VI. Appendixes
The intricacies of international operations and the complexity of the
environment within which the international marketer must operate create an
extraordinary demand for information. When operating in foreign markets,
the need for thorough information as a substitute for uninformed opinion is
equally important as it is in domestic marketing. Sources of information needed
to develop the country notebook and answer other marketing questions are
discussed in Chapter 8 and its appendix.
Summary
Market-oriented firms build strategic market plans around com- also changes periodically and from country to country; and the
pany objectives, markets, and the competitive environment. Plan- competitive, governmental, and economic parameters affecting
ning for marketing can be complicated even for one country, but market planning are in a constant state of flux. These variations
when a company is doing business internationally, the problems require international marketing executives to be especially flexible
are multiplied. Company objectives may vary from market to mar- and creative in their approach to strategic marketing planning.
ket and from time to time; the structure of international markets
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GLOSSARY
a barter The direct exchange of goods between two parties in
a transaction. See compensation deals; counterpurchase;
administered pricing The attempt to establish prices for an countertrade
entire market through the cooperation of competitors, through
national, state, or local governments, or by international agree- BATNA Acronym for “best alternative to a negotiated agree-
ment. Its legality differs from country to country and from time to ment,” a notion discussed in Getting to Yes, by Fisher, Ury, and
time. Patton.
advanced pricing agreement (APA) An agreement made be- BEMs Big emerging markets; used to describe the core group
tween a company and the Internal Revenue Service covering of populous nations that will account for much of the growth in
transfer pricing methods used by the company. Without such an world trade among developing and newly industrialized countries.
agreement, if the IRS charges the company with underreporting
income through its transactions with affiliates, the burden of proof bills of exchange A form of international commercial payment
that a transfer price was fair rests with the company. drawn by sellers on foreign buyers; in transactions based on bills
of exchange, the seller assumes all risk until the actual dollars are
aesthetics Philosophically, the creation and appreciation of received, making them riskier for the seller than letters of credit.
beauty; collectively, the arts, including folklore, music, drama,
and dance. bottom-of-the-pyramid markets (BOPM) These consist of the
4 billion people around the world with incomes of $1,200 or less
AFTA ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) per capita. They are not necessarily defined by national borders,
Free Trade Area; a multinational trade group that evolved from but are rather pockets of poverty particularly concentrated in south
ASEAN. See APEC; ASEAN؉3 Asia and sub-Sahara Africa.
agent middlemen In an international transaction, intermediar- bribery The use of funds, usually illegally, to influence deci-
ies who represent the principal (home manufacturer/marketer) sions made by public employees and government officials. Such
rather than themselves; agent middlemen work on commis- payments often range into the millions of dollars in international
sion and arrange for sales in the foreign country but do not commerce.
take title to the merchandise. See home-country middlemen;
merchant-middlemen c
Amsterdam Treaty See Treaty of Amsterdam capital account The portion of a balance of payments statement
that shows a record of direct investment, portfolio investment, and
analogy A method of market estimation that assumes that short-term capital movements to and from countries.
demand for a product develops in much the same way in all coun-
tries as comparable economic development occurs in each country. cartel An arrangement in which various companies producing
similar products or services work together to control markets for
APEC The Asian-Pacific Economic Cooperation; a forum that the goods and services they produce. The Organization of Petro-
meets annually to discuss regional economic development. See leum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is the best known international
AFTA; ASEAN؉3 cartel.
arbitration A procedure, used as an alternative to litigation, in
which parties in a dispute may select a disinterested third party or client followers Companies, often providers of services, that fol-
parties as referee to determine the merits of the case and make a low companies that first moved into a foreign market; for example,
judgment that both parties agree to honor. an American insurance company setting up in Mexico to serve a
U.S. auto company that had previously opened a factory there.
ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations A multi-
national regional trade group including Brunei, Cambodia, code law A legal system based on an all-inclusive system of
Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, written rules, or codes, of law; generally divided into three sepa-
Thailand, and Vietnam. rate codes: commercial, civil, and criminal. In the United States,
Louisiana is the one state to use code law. See common law
ASEAN؉3 A forum for ministers of the Association of Southeast
Asian Nations plus ministers from China, Japan, and South Korea. Commerce Control List (CCL) A directory, organized by a series
See AFTA; APEC of Export Control Classification Numbers, that indicates U.S.
rules for the exportability of items. Exporters must use the list to
b determine if there are end-use restrictions on certain items, such
as uses in nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons, and deter-
back translation The process in which a document, such as a mine if a product has a dual use—that is, both in commercial and
questionnaire, or phrase is translated from one language to another restricted applications. See Export Administration Regulations
and then translated by a second party into the original language.
Back translations can be used to verify that the first translation, as Commerce Country Chart (CCC) A directory of information
of a marketing slogan, has the intended meeting for the targeted that a U.S. exporter needs to consult, along with the Commerce
audience. See decentering; parallel translation Control List, to determine if the exporter needs a license to
export or reexport a product to a particular destination. See
balance of payments The system of accounts that records a Export Control Classification Number
nation’s international financial transactions.
common law The body of law based on tradition, past practices,
balance of trade The difference in value over a period of time and legal precedents set by courts through interpretations of stat-
between a country’s imports and exports. utes, legal legislation, and past rulings. Common law, which is
589
590 Glossary
used in all states in the United States except Louisiana, uses past cultural congruence A marketing strategy in which products are
decisions to interpret statutes and apply them to present situations. marketed in a way similar to the marketing of products already
Also known as English law. See code law in the market in a manner as congruent as possible with existing
cultural norms.
common market An agreement that eliminates all tariffs and
other restrictions on internal trade, adopts a set of common exter- cultural elective See elective
nal tariffs, and removes all restrictions on the free flow of capital
and labor among member nations. cultural exclusive See exclusive
compensation deals Transactions that involve payment in both cultural imperative See imperative
goods and cash. See barter; counterpurchase; countertrade
cultural sensitivity An awareness of the nuances of culture so
complementary marketing The process by which companies that a culture can be viewed objectively, evaluated, and appreci-
with excess marketing capacity in different countries or with a ated; an important part of foreign marketing.
desire for a broader product line take on additional lines for inter-
national distribution; commonly called piggybacking. cultural values The system of beliefs and customs held by a
population in a given culture. A book by Geert Hofstede describes
conciliation A nonbinding agreement between parties to resolve a study of 66 nations and divides the cultural values of those na-
disputes by asking a third party to mediate differences. Also tions into four primary dimensions: the Individualized/Collectiv-
known as mediation. See arbitration; litigation ism Index, the Power Distance Index, the Uncertainty Avoidance
Index, and the Masculinity/Femininity Index (which is not consid-
confiscation The seizing of a company’s assets without payment. ered as useful as the other three).
Prominent examples involving U.S. companies occurred in Cuba
and Iran. See domestication; expropriation culture The human-made part of human environment—the sum
total of knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and any
Confusion Philosophy The 2,500-year-old teachings of Chinese other capabilities and habits acquired by humans as members of
philosopher, Confucius, still strongly influence cultures in East society.
Asia today. Primary among his teachings were a deep respect for
elders, rulers, and husbands. current account The portion of a balance of payments state-
ment that shows a record of all merchandise exports, imports, and
controllable elements The aspects of trade over which a com- services, plus unilateral transfers of funds.
pany has control and influence; they include marketing decisions
covering product, price, promotion, distribution, research, and customs-privileged facilities Areas, as in international transac-
advertising. See uncontrollable elements tions, where goods can be imported for storage and/or processing
with tariffs and quota limits postponed until the products leave the
corporate planning The formulation of long-term, generalized designated areas. See foreign-trade zones
goals for an enterprise as a whole. See strategic planning;
tactical planning customs union A stage in economic cooperation that benefits
from a free trade area’s reduced or eliminated internal tariffs and
counterpurchase A type of countertrade in which a seller re- adds a common external tariff on products imported from coun-
ceives payment in cash but agrees in a contract to buy goods from tries outside the union. See common market; political union
the buyer for the total monetary amount involved in the first trans-
action or for a set percentage of that amount; also known as offset cybersquatters Persons or businesses that buy, usually for a
trade. See barter; compensation deals nominal fee, and register as Web site names descriptive nouns,
celebrity names, variations on company trademarks, geographic
countertrade A type of transaction in which goods are imported and ethnic group names, and pharmaceutical and other descrip-
and sold by a company from a country in exchange for the right tors and then hold them until they can be sold at an inflated price.
or ability to manufacture and/or sell goods in that country. Coun- Sometimes called CSQ.
tertrade can substitute for cash entirely or partially and is used ex-
tensively in trade between U.S. firms and the former Soviet bloc, d
along with other emerging markets. See barter; compensation
deals; counterpurchase dealers The middlemen selling industrial goods or durable
goods directly to customers; their actions are the last steps in the
countervailing duty A fee that may, under World Trade distribution channel.
Organization rules, be imposed on foreign goods benefiting from
subsidies, whether in production, export, or transportation; may decentering A method of translation, a variation on back trans-
be applied in conjunction with minimum access volume, which lation, that is a successive process of translation and retranslation
restricts the amount of goods a country will import. of a document, such as a questionnaire, each time by a different
translator. The two original-language versions are then compared,
creativity in negotiations The use of creative processes such and if there are differences, the process is repeated until the sec-
as joint brainstorming in informal side-bar negotiations. This ond original-language version is the same as the first. See parallel
assumes a collaborative approach to negotiations rather than a translation
competitive one, and assumes long-term, mutually beneficial com-
mercial and personal relationships are the goal of the negotiation. derived demand Demand that is dependent on another source; it
can be fundamental to the success of efforts to sell capital equip-
cultural borrowing The phenomenon by which societies learn ment and big-ticket industrial services.
from other cultures’ ways and borrow ideas to solve problems or
improve conditions. diffusion (of innovations) The adoption or spread of products
across markets by increasing numbers of consumers.
Glossary 591
direct exporting The type of exporting in which a company sells Representatives. That is, more populous countries have more
to a customer in another country. See indirect exporting representatives.
distribution channels The various routes through which market- exclusive A business custom (as in a foreign country) in which
ers must negotiate their goods to deliver them to the consumer. an outsider must not participate. See elective; imperative
Distribution channel structures range from those with little de-
veloped marketing infrastructure, as found in many emerging exclusive distribution A practice in which a company restricts
markets, to those with a highly complex, multilayered systems, as which retailers can carry its product; often used by companies to
found in Japan. Consideration for channel structure involves “the maintain high retail margins, to maintain the exclusive-quality
six Cs”: cost, capital, control, coverage, character, and continuity. image of a product, and to encourage retailers to provide extra
service to customers.
distribution process The physical handling of goods, the pas-
sage of ownership (title), and—especially important from a mar- expatriate A person living away from his or her own country. In
keting viewpoint—the buying and selling negotiations between international sales, expatriates from the selling company’s home
the producers and middlemen and between middlemen and cus- country may be the best choice for the sales force when products
tomers. See distribution structure are highly technical or when selling requires an extensive knowl-
edge of the company and its product line. See local nationals
distribution structure The system, present in every country’s
market, through which goods pass from producer to user; within expert opinion A method of market estimation in which experts
the structure are a variety of middlemen. See distribution process are polled for their opinions about market size and growth rates;
used particularly in foreign countries that are new to the marketer.
domestication A process by which a host country gradually
transfers foreign investments to national control and ownership Export Administration Regulations (EAR) A set of rules issued
through a series of government decrees mandating local owner- by the U.S. Department of Commerce, designed to alleviate many
ship and greater national involvement in company management. of the problems and confusions of exporting; they are intended to
See confiscation; expropriation speed up the process of granting export licenses by concentrating
license control on a list of specific items, most of which involve
domestic environment uncontrollables Factors in a company’s national security. Exporters must ensure that their trade activities
home country over which the company has little or no control or do not violate the provisions of EAR. See Commerce Control
influence. They include political and legal forces, the economic List; Export Control Classification Number
climate, level of technology, competitive forces, and economic
forces. See uncontrollable elements Export Control Classification Number (ECCN) Under the provi-
sions of the U.S. Export Administration Regulations (EAR), a
dumping An export practice, generally prohibited by laws and classification number that a U.S. exporter must select for an item to be
subject to penalties and fines, defined by some as the selling of exported; the number corresponds to a description in the Commerce
products in foreign markets below the cost of production and by Control List, which indicates the exportability of the item.
others as the selling of products at below the prices of the same
goods in the home market. export documents The various items of documentation for an
international transaction, as required by the exporting government,
e by established procedures of foreign trade, and, in some cases, by
the importing government.
economic development Generally, an increase in national
production that results in an increase in average per capita gross export management company (EMC) An important middle-
domestic product. man for firms with relatively small international volume or those
unwilling to involve their own personnel in the international func-
economic dualism The coexistence of modern and traditional tion. These EMCs range in size from 1 person upward to 100 and
sectors within an economy, especially as found in less-developed handle about 10 percent of the manufactured goods exported.
countries. Typically, the EMC becomes an integral part of the marketing
operations of its client companies. Working under the names of
ELAIN Export License Application and Information Network; the manufacturers, the EMC functions as a low-cost, independent
an electronic service that enables authorized exporters to submit marketing department with direct responsibility to the parent firm.
license applications via the Internet for all commodities except The working relationship is so close that customers are often un-
supercomputers and to all free-world destinations. See ERIC; aware they are not dealing directly with the export department of
SNAP; STELA the company.
elective A business custom (as in a foreign country) to which export regulations Restrictions placed by countries on the sell-
adaptation is helpful but not necessary. See exclusive; imperative ing of goods abroad; among reasons they may be imposed are to
conserve scarce goods for home consumption and to control the
EMU The Economic and Monetary Union; formed by the Maas- flow of strategic goods actual or potential enemies. See import
tricht Treaty, which also formed the European Union. regulations
ERIC Electronic Request for Item Classification; a supplemen- Export Trading Company (ETC) Act An act allowing producers
tary service to ELAIN that allows an exporter to submit commod- of similar products in the United States to form an export trading
ity classification requests via the Internet to the Bureau of Export company; the act created a more favorable environment for the
administration. See SNAP; STELA formation of joint export ventures, in part by removing antitrust
disincentives to trade activities.
European Parliament The legislative body of the
European Union, similar in concept to the U.S. House of
592 Glossary
expropriation The seizure of an investment by a government treaty and subsequent meetings have produced agreements signifi-
in which some reimbursement is made to the investment owner; cantly reducing tariffs.
often the seized investment becomes nationalized. See confisca-
tion; domestication global awareness A frame of reference, important to the success
of a businessperson, that embodies tolerance of cultural differ-
f ences and knowledge of cultures, history, world market potential,
and global economic, social, and political trends.
factual knowledge A type of knowledge or understanding of a
foreign culture that encompasses different meanings of color, dif- global brand The worldwide use of a name, term, sign, symbol
ferent tastes, and other traits of a culture that a marketer can study, (visual or auditory), design, or a combination thereof to identify
anticipate, and absorb. See interpretive knowledge goods or services of a seller and to differentiate them from those
of competitors.
FCPA Foreign Corrupt Practices Act. The act prohibits U.S. busi-
nesses from paying bribes to officials or foreign governments, openly global marketing The performance of business activities designed
or using middlemen as conduits for a bribe when the U.S. official to plan, price, promote, and direct the flow of a company’s goods
knows that the middleman’s payment will be used for a bribe. and services to consumers or users in more than one nation for a
profit. The most profound difference between global and domestic
foreign environment uncontrollables Factors in the foreign marketing involves the orientation of the company toward markets
market over which a business operating in its home country has and planning activities around the world.
little or no control or influence. They include political and legal
forces, economic climate, geography and infrastructure, level of global marketing concept A perspective encompassing an
technology, structure of distribution, and level of technology. See entire set of country markets, whether the home market and one
domestic environment uncontrollables other country or the home market and 100 other countries, and
viewing them as a unit, identifying groups of prospective buyers
foreign-trade zones (FTZs) Regions or ports that act as holding with similar needs as a global market segment, and developing a
areas for goods before quotas or customs duties are applied. In the market plan that strives for standardization wherever it is effective
United States, more than 150 FTZs allow companies to land im- in cost and cultural terms.
ported goods for storage or various processing such as cleaning or
packaging before the goods are officially brought into the United global orientation A means of operating by which a company
States or reexported to another country. See customs-privileged acts as if all the company’s markets in a company’s scope of op-
facilities erations (including the domestic market) were approachable as a
single global market, with the company standardizing the market-
forfaiting A financing technique that may be used in an ing mix where culturally feasible and cost effective.
international transaction in which the seller makes a one-time
arrangement with a bank or other financial institution to take over green marketing Consideration and concern for the environ-
responsibility for collecting the account receivable. mental consequences of product formulation, marketing, manu-
facturing, and packaging.
Four Asian Tigers Refers to Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, and
South Korea as they fast achieved affluence in the 1980s and 90s. green-house gas emissions These are gases resulting primar-
ily from the use of fossil fuels that tend to trap heat in the earth’s
franchising A form of licensing in which a company (the atmosphere and are causal factors in global climate change. The
franchiser) provides a standard package of products, systems, and main problem compounds are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous
management services to the franchisee, which in foreign markets oxide, and fluorinated gases.
has market knowledge. Franchising permits flexibility in dealing
with local market conditions while providing the parent firm with h
a degree of control.
home-country middlemen In international transactions, the
free trade area (FTA) A type of regional cooperation that intermediaries, located in the producer’s home country, who provide
involves an agreement between two or more countries to reduce or marketing services from a domestic base; also known as domestic
eliminate customs duties and nontariff trade barriers among partner middlemen. Home-country middlemen offer advantages for compa-
countries while members maintain individual tariff schedules for nies with small international sales volume or for those inexperienced
external countries. An FTA requires more cooperation than the in international trade. See agent middlemen; merchant middlemen
arrangement known as the regional cooperation for development.
homologation A term used to describe changes in a product that
full-cost pricing A method of pricing based on the view that are mandated by local standards for product and service quality.
no unit of a similar product is different from any other unit of a
similar product and that each unit must bear its full share of the i
total fixed and variable cost, whether sold in the home market or
abroad. See skimming; variable-cost pricing IMF The International Monetary Fund. A global institution that,
along with the World Bank Group, was created to assist nations in
g becoming and remaining economically viable.
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade; a trade agree- imperative A business custom (as in a foreign country) that
ment signed by the United States and 22 other countries shortly must be recognized and accommodated. See elective; exclusive
after World War II. The original agreement provided a process
to reduce tariffs and created an agency to patrol world trade; the import jobbers In international transactions, business entities
that purchase goods directly from the manufacturer and sell to
wholesalers and retailers and to industrial customers.
Glossary 593
import regulations Restrictions placed by countries on the sale of Designed to protect small retailers from large intruders into
goods from outside markets; among the reasons they are imposed their markets, the law required that any store larger than 5,382
are to protect health, conserve foreign exchange, serve as eco- square feet (500 square meters) must have approval from the
nomic reprisals, protect home industry, and provide revenue from prefecture government to be “built, expanded, stay open later in
tariffs. Exporters to markets under such regulations may have to go the evening, or change the days of the month they must remain
through various steps to comply with them. See export regulations closed.” All proposals for new “large” stores were first judged by
the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI). Then, if
indirect exporting The type of exporting in which a company all local retailers unanimously agreed to the plan, it was swiftly
sells to a buyer (an importer or distributor) in the home country; approved. However, without approval at the prefecture level, the
the buyer in turn exports the product. plan was returned for clarification and modification, a process
that could take several years (10 years was not unheard of ) for
infrastructure The collective assortment of capital goods that approval.
serve the activities of many industries and support production and
marketing. Large-Scale Retail Store Location Act A regulatory act in Japan,
implemented under pressure from the United States in 2000; it
innovation An idea perceived as new by a group of people; when replaced the protective Large-Scale Retail Store Law and relaxed
applied to a product, an innovation may be something completely restrictions on the opening of large retailers near small shops and
new or something that is perceived as new in a given country or abolished the mandate on the number of days a store must be
culture. See product diffusion closed.
integrated marketing communications (IMCs) The collective letters of credit Financing devices that, when opened by a buyer
arrangement of efforts and methods to sell a product or service, of goods, allow the seller to draw a draft against the bank issuing
including advertising, sales promotions, trade shows, personal the credit and receive dollars by presenting proper shipping docu-
selling, direct selling, and public relations. ment. Except for cash in advance, letters of credit afford the seller
the greatest degree of protection. See bills of exchange
international marketing The performance of business activities
designed to plan, price, promote, and direct the flow of a com- licensing A contractual means by which a company grants pat-
pany’s goods and services to consumers or users in more than one ent rights, trademark rights, and the rights to use technology to
nation for a profit. another company, often in a foreign market; a favored strategy of
international marketing research The form of marketing small and medium-sized companies seeking a foothold in foreign
research involving two additional considerations: (1) the need to markets without making large capital outlays. See franchising
communicate information across national boundaries, and (2) the
challenge of applying established marketing techniques in the linguistic distance The measure of difference between lan-
different environments of foreign markets, some of which may be guages; an important factor in determining the amount of trade
strange or vexing milieus for the marketer. between nations.
interpretive knowledge An ability to understand and to appreci- litigation The process in which a dispute between parties is
ate fully the nuances of different cultural traits and patterns. See contested in a formal judicial setting; commonly instigated by a
factual knowledge lawsuit asserting one party’s version of the facts.
Islamic law The Shari’ah; the legal system based on an interpreta- local nationals Persons living in their home country; historically
tion of the Koran. Islamic law encompasses religious duties and ob- the persons preferred by expatriate managers to form the sales
ligations as well as the secular aspect of law regulating human acts. force. Local nationals are more knowledgeable about a country’s
Among its provisions is a prohibition of the payment of interest. business structure than an expatriate would be, and they are gener-
ally less expensive to field and maintain.
ISO 9000s A series of international industrial standards (ISO
9000–9004) originally designed by the International Organization logistics management A total systems approach to management
for Standardization to meet the need for product quality assurances of the distribution process that includes all activities involved in
in purchasing agreements. physically moving raw material, in-process inventory, and finished
goods inventory from the point of origin to the point of use or
j consumption.
joint venture A partnership of two or more participating compa- lubrication The use of funds to expedite actions of public em-
nies that join forces to create a separate legal entity. See strategic ployees and government officials. The payments made to minor
international alliance officials may or may not be illegal and are usually of inconsequen-
tial amounts.
justice or fairness One of three principles of ethics (the others
are utilitarian ethics and rights of the parties); it tests an action m
by asking if the action respects the canons of justice or fairness to
all parties involved. Maastricht Treaty Treaty signed by 12 nations of the European
Community creating the European Union.
l
Manifest Destiny The notion that Americans were a chosen
Large-Scale Retail Store Law In Japan competition from large people ordained by God to create a model society; it was accepted
retail stores has been almost totally controlled by Daitenho—the as the basis for U.S. policy during much of the 19th and 20th
Large-Scale Retail Store Law (and its more recent incarnations). centuries as the nation expanded its territory.
594 Glossary
maquiladoras Also known as in-bond companies or twin plants, improves all aspects of doing business within North America.
a type of customs-privileged facility that originated in Mexico in By eliminating trade and investment barriers among Canada, the
the 1970s and provided U.S. companies with a favorable means to United States, and Mexico, it created one of the largest and richest
use low-cost Mexican labor. They operated through an agreement markets in the world.
with the Mexican government allowing U.S. companies to import
parts and materials into Mexico without import taxes, provided the nationalism An intense feeling of national pride and unity; an
finished products are reexported to the United States or another awakening of a nation’s people to pride in their country. National-
country. See customs-privileged facilities ism can take on an antiforeign business bias.
marketing research The systematic gathering, recording, and NGOs Large advocacy organizations, usually not-for-profit,
analyzing of data to provide information useful in marketing deci- often multinational, and run by citizens rather than companies
sion making. See international marketing research or governments. Prominent examples are Green Peace, Amnesty
International, and the Red Cross.
Marxist-socialist tenets The set of views in which law is subor-
dinate to prevailing economic conditions. Marxist-socialist tenets NICs Newly industrialized countries; countries that are experi-
influenced the legal systems of Russia and other republics of the encing rapid economic expansion and industrialization.
former Soviet Union, as well as China, forcing these nations to
revamp their commercial legal code as they become involved in noise The term for an impairment to communications process
trade with non-Marxist countries. comprising external influences, such as competitive advertising,
other sales personnel, and confusion at the “receiving end.”
merchant middlemen In international transactions, the inter- Noise can disrupt any step of the communications process and is
mediaries, located in the foreign market, who take title to the frequently beyond the control of the sender or the receiver.
home-country manufacturer’s goods and sell on their own account. nontariff barriers Restrictions, other than tariffs, placed by
Manufacturers using merchant middlemen have less control over countries on imported products; they may include quality stan-
the distribution process than those using agent middlemen. See dards, sanitary and health standards, quotas, embargoes, boycotts,
home-country middlemen and antidumping penalties.
Mercosur An evolving South American union, also called the nontask sounding The part of the negotiation process in which
Southern Cone Free Trade Area, formed in 1991 with the goal of conversation covers topics other than the business at hand; non-
creating a common market and customs union among the par- task sounding is commonly a preliminary phase and precedes
ticipating countries. The original signers were Argentina, Brazil, task-related information exchange.
Paraguay, and Uruguay; Bolivia and Chile later signed agreements
with Mercosur. o
merge-in-transit A distribution method in which goods shipped open account In U.S. domestic trade, the typical payment pro-
from several supply locations are consolidated into one final cus- cedure for established customers, in which the goods are delivered
tomer delivery point while they are in transit and then shipped as a and the customer is billed on an end-of-the-month basis.
unit to the customer.
Opium Wars Two wars fought between China and Britain over
Monroe Doctrine A cornerstone of U.S. foreign policy as enun- the British run opium trade in China during the middle 1800s.
ciated by President James Monroe, it proclaimed three basic dicta: The British navy attacked Chinese ports in retribution for a
no further European colonization in the New World, abstention Chinese ban on the drug, and the Treaty of Nanjing signed in
of the United States from European political affairs, and non- 1842 allowed greater European access to Chinese ports generally,
intervention of European governments in the governments of the a resumption of the opium trade, and ceding of Hong Kong to
Western Hemisphere. See Roosevelt Corollary British control
M-time Monochromatic time; describing a view of time, typical orderly market agreements (OMAs) Agreements, similar to
of most North Americans, Swiss, Germans, and Scandinavians, as quotas, between an importing country and an exporting country
something that is linear and can be saved, wasted, spent, and lost. for a restriction on the volume of exports. Also known as volun-
M-time cultures tend to concentrate on one thing at a time and tary export restraints.
value promptness. See P-time
p
multicultural research Inquiry, analysis, and study of countries
and cultures that takes into account differences in language, eco- parallel imports International transactions in which importers
nomic structure, social structure, behavior, and attitude patterns. buy products from distributors in one country and sell them in an-
Different methods of research may have varying reliability in other to distributors that are not part of the manufacturer’s regular
different countries. distribution system.
multinational market regions The groups of countries that seek parallel translation A method of translation in which two
mutual economic benefit from reducing interregional tariffs and translators are used to make a back translation; the results are
barriers to trade. compared, differences are discussed, and the most appropriate
translation is used. The method addresses the use of common
n idioms in the languages being translated. See decentering
NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement. NAFTA is a penetration pricing policy A low price policy directed at
comprehensive trade agreement that addresses, and in many cases gaining market share from competitors.
Glossary 595
physical distribution system The overall network for the more important than holding to schedules. P-time is characterized
physical movement of goods, including plants and warehousing, by the simultaneous occurrence of many things. See M-time
transportation mode, inventory quantities, and packaging.
public relations (PR) The effort made by companies to create
planned change A marketing strategy in which a company positive relationships with the popular press and general media
deliberately sets out to change those aspects of a foreign culture and to communicate messages to their publics, including custom-
resistant to predetermined marketing goals. See unplanned change ers, the general public, and government regulators.
political union A fully integrated form of regional co-operation purchase price parity (PPP) GDP at PPP corrects GDP for dif-
that involves complete political and economic integration, ferentials across countries in the costs of consumer purchases. The
either voluntary or enforced; the most notable example was PPP correction allows for direct comparisons of the overall well-
the now disbanded Council for Mutual Economic Assistance being of consumers across countries.
(COMECON), a centrally controlled group of countries organized
by the Soviet Union. q
predatory pricing A practice by which a foreign producer inten- quality The essential character of something, such as a good or
tionally sells its products in another country for less than the cost service; defined in two dimensions: market-perceived quality and
of production to undermine the competition and take control of performance quality. Consumer perception of a product’s quality
the market. often has more to do with market-perceived quality than perfor-
mance quality.
price escalation The pricing disparity in which goods are priced
higher in a foreign market than in the home market; caused by the quotas Specific unit or dollar limits applied to a particular type of
added costs involved in exporting products from one country to good by the country into which the good is imported. See tariff
another.
r
price–quality relationship The balance between a product’s price
and how well the product performs. Often the price–quality of a relationship marketing The aspect of marketing products that
product is ideal if it meets basic expectations and no more, allow- depends on long-term associations with customers; an important
ing it to be priced competitively. factor in business-to-business contexts and especially important
in most international markets, where culture dictates strong ties
primary data Data collected, as in market research, specifically between people and companies.
for a particular research project. See secondary data
principle of justice or fairness See justice or fairness repatriation The process of bringing a local national back to his/
principle of rights of the parties See rights of the parties her home country after an assignment abroad.
principle of utilitarian ethics See utilitarian ethics
research process The process of obtaining information; it
prior use versus registration The principle, as observed in the should begin with a definition of the research problem and estab-
United States and other common-law nations, that ownership of lishment of objectives, and proceed with an orderly approach to
intellectual property rights usually goes to whoever can establish the collection and analysis of data.
first use. reserves account The portion of a balance-of-trade statement
product buyback agreement A type of countertrade in which that shows a record of exports and imports of gold, increases
the sale involves goods or services that produce other goods or or decreases in foreign exchange, and increases or decreases in
services—that is, production plant, production equipment, or liabilities to foreign banks.
technology.
rights of the parties One of three principles of ethics (the
Product Component Model A tool for characterizing how a others are utilitarian ethics and justice or fairness); it tests an
product may be adapted to a new market by separating the prod- action by asking if the action respects the rights of the individuals
uct’s many dimensions into three components: support services, involved.
packaging, and core component.
product diffusion The process by which product innovation Roosevelt Corollary An extension of U.S. policy applied to the
spreads; successful product diffusion may depend on the ability Monroe Doctrine by President Theodore Roosevelt, stating that
to communicate relevant product information and new product the United States would not only prohibit non-American interven-
attributes. tion in Latin American affairs but would also police Latin America
and guarantee that all Latin American nations would meet their
protectionism The use by nations of legal barriers, exchange international obligations. See Monroe Doctrine
barriers, and psychological barriers to restrain entry of goods from
other countries. rural/urban migration As countries develop industrial huge
numbers of agricultural workers move to cities causing major
PSAs Political and social activists. PSAs are individuals who difficulties in urban infrastructure capacity and big city slums
participate in efforts to change the practices and behaviors of around the world.
corporations and governments, with tactics that can range from
peaceful protest to terrorism. s
P-time Polychromatic time; a view of time, as held in “high con- sales promotion Marketing activities that stimulate consumer
text” cultures, in which the completion of a human transaction is purchases and improve retailer or middlemen effectiveness and
cooperation.
596 Glossary
secondary data Data collected by an agency or individual other and the long- and short-term goals of a company. See corporate
than the one conducting research; often useful in market research. planning; tactical planning
See primary data
subornation The giving of large sums of money—frequently not
self-reference criterion (SRC) An unconscious reference to one’s fully accounted for—designed to entice an official to commit an
own cultural values, experience, and knowledge as a basis for a illegal act on behalf of the one offering the money.
decision.
sustainable development An approach toward economic growth
separation allowances Payment of overseas premiums to em- that has been described (by Joke Waller-Hunter) as a cooperative
ployees who take on short-term foreign assignments and travel effort among businesses, environmentalists, and others to seek
without their families; allowances generally compensate for all growth with “wise resource management, equitable distribution of
excess expenses and any tax differential. benefits, and reduction of negative efforts on people and the envi-
ronment from the process of economic growth.”
silent language Term used by Edward T. Hall for the non-spoken
and symbolic meanings of time, space, things, friendships, and t
agreements, and how they vary across cultures; from Hall’s article
“The Silent Language of Business.” tactical planning A type of planning that pertains to specific
actions and to the allocation of resources used to implement
Single European Act An agreement, ratified in 1987, designed strategic planning goals in specific markets; also known as market
to remove all barriers to trade and to make the European Commu- planning; generally conducted at the local level. See corporate
nity a single internal market. planning; strategic planning
skimming A method of pricing, generally used for foreign mar- Taiping Rebellion The most costly civil war in human history in
kets, in which a company seeks to reach a segment of the market China during 1851–1964. Some estimates have the death toll at
that is relatively price insensitive and thus willing to pay a pre- between 20–40 million.
mium price for the value received; may be used to sell a new or
innovative product to maximize profits until a competitor forces a tariff A fee or tax that countries impose on imported goods,
lower price. See full-cost pricing; variable-cost pricing often to protect a country’s markets from intrusion from foreign
countries. See nontariff barriers; quotas
SNAP Simplified Network Application Process; an electronic
service offered by the U.S. Department of Commerce as an al- task-related information exchange The point in the negotiation
ternative to paper license submissions that enables an exporter process at which nontask communication, or nontask sounding,
to submit export and reexport applications, high-performance is completed and substantial negotiations begin.
computer notices, and commodity classification requests via the
Internet. See ELAIN; ERIC; STELA TCNs Third-country nationals; expatriates from one country
working for a foreign company in a third country. See expatriate;
social institutions The methods and systems, including family, local nationals
religion, school, the media, government, and corporations, that
affect the ways in which people relate to one another, teach accept- terms of sale The set of rules and costs applying to a transac-
able behavior to succeeding generations, and govern themselves. tion, covering such categories as price, freight, and insurance. In
international trade, terms of sale often sound similar to those in
sovereignty The powers exercised by a state in relation to other domestic commerce but generally have different meanings. Also
countries, as well as the supreme powers of a state as exercised known as trade terms.
over its own inhabitants.
The Greater China Refers to both the People’s Republic of
special drawing rights (SDRs) A means of monetary measure- China (PRC or Mainland China) and the Republic of China
ment that represents an average base of value derived from the (Taiwan). Both political units divided in 1949, and claim the other
value of a group of major currencies. Known as “paper gold,” it is as their territory.
used by the IMF to report most monetary statistics in a unit more
reliable than a single currency, such as dollars. trading companies Business entities that accumulate, transport,
and distribute goods from many countries.
stage of economic development A classification describing
the (stage of) maturity and sophistication of a nation’s economy transfer pricing The pricing of goods transferred from a compa-
as it evolves over time. The best known model, by Walt Rostow, ny’s operations or sales units in one country to its units elsewhere;
describes five stages, starting with the traditional society and also known as intracompany pricing. In transfer pricing, prices
finally reaching the age of high mass consumption. may be adjusted to enhance the ultimate profit of the company as
a whole.
STELA System for Tracking Export License Applications; an
automated voice response system for exporters that enables license Treaty of Amsterdam Treaty, concluded in 1997, that
applicants to track the status of their license and classification addressed issues left undone by the Maastricht Treaty and
applications with U.S. authorities. See ELAIN; ERIC; SNAP identified priority measures necessary to bring a single market in
Europe fully into effect and to lay a solid foundation for both a
strategic international alliance (SIA) A business relationship single currency and an enlargement of the European Union into
established by two or more companies to cooperate out of mutual central and eastern Europe. See Single European Act
need and to share risk in achieving a common objective.
triangulation A term borrowed from naval charting meaning
strategic planning A type of planning conducted at the highest using at least three differing measures of the same concept
levels of management, dealing with products, capital, and research to verify the accuracy of any one method. For example, regarding
Glossary 597
forecast of demand separate opinions of experts, sales representa- v
tives, and quantitative economic analyses might be compared.
variable-cost pricing A method of pricing goods in foreign
24-Hour Rule A U.S. requirement, part of the Cargo and markets in which a company is concerned only with the marginal
Container Security Initiative, mandating that sea carriers and or incremental costs of producing goods for sale in those markets.
NVOCCs (Non-Vessel Operating Common Carriers) provide U.S. Firms using variable-cost pricing take the view that foreign sales
Customs with detailed descriptions (manifests) of the contents of are bonus sales. See full-cost pricing; skimming
containers bound for the United States 24 hours before a container
is loaded on board a vessel. VERS See voluntary export restraints
u voluntary export restraints (VERS) Agreements, similar to
quotas, between an importing country and an exporting country
uncontrollable elements Factors in the business environment for a restriction on the volume of exports. Also known as orderly
over which the international marketer has no control or influence; market agreements (OMAs).
may include competition, legal restraints, government controls,
weather, consumer preferences and behavior, and political events. w
See controllable elements
work councils In Europe, work councils (that is, internal labor
United States–Canada Free Trade Agreement An agreement, union committees) are very much involved in setting rules about
known as CFTA, between the United States and Canada designed compensation and other human resources policies companywide,
to eliminate all trade barriers between the two nations. even for sales people. In Austria and Germany, for example, work
councils not only codetermine compensation plans, but also must
unplanned change A marketing strategy in which a company approve them before implementation.
introduces a product into a market without a plan to influence the
way the market’s culture responds to or resists the company’s mar- World Trade Organization See WTO
keting message. See planned change
WTO World Trade Organization. The organization formed in
utilitarian ethics One of three principles of ethics (the others are 1994 that encompasses the GATT structure and extends it to
rights of the parties and justice or fairness); it tests an action new areas that had not been adequately covered previously. The
by asking if it optimizes the “common good” or benefits of all WTO adjudicates trade disputes. All member countries have equal
constituencies. representation.
CREDITS
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Shepherd Conservation Society; p. 174: © Carolyn Cole; p. 175,
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p. 6: AP Photo/Str; p. 8, p. 10, p. 15 (left): © John Graham;
p. 15 (right): © Neil Thomas/Africa Media Online; p. 23 (top): Chapter 7
© Robyn Beck/AFP/Getty; p. 23 (bottom left): © John Graham;
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(top left): Photo by Rick Loomis, Los Angeles Times. Copyright
Chapter 2 2005, Los Angeles Times. Reprinted with permission.; p. 199
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Opener, p. 29 (left): AP Photo/The Gazette, Cliff Jette; p. 29 Christian Schwetz; p. 202: AP Photo/Ng Han Guan; p. 205 (top
(right): © Allstarphotos/Newscom.com; p. 40 (top): © John left), p. 205 (top right): © John Graham; p. 205 (middle): AP
Graham; p. 41 (bottom left): © Sharon Hoogstraten; p. 41 (bottom Photo/Pat Roque; p. 205 (bottom): AP Photo/Jayanta Saha; p. 207:
right): AP Photo/Conn. Attorney General; p. 43: © John Graham; © AFP/Getty; p. 215: © Roger Ressmeyer/Corbis.
p. 44: © Tom McHugh/Photo Researchers, Inc; p. 48: “Globaliza-
tion” by Gifford Myers, Altadena, CA, 2001.; p. 49 (top): © Mike Chapter 8
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Opener, p. 220 (left): AP Photo/Greg Baker; p. 220 (right): © Jim
Chapter 3 Watson/AFP/Getty; p. 229: © Brian Lee/Corbis; p. 232 (both):
© John Graham; p. 233: © Cary Wolinsky; p. 240 (left), p. 240
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Chapter 4 Monica Rueda; p. 263 (right), p. 271: © John Graham.
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AP Photo/Tsugufumi Matsumoto, File; p. 101 (Van Gogh’s Potato
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McNally/Getty. Sherwin Crasto; p. 315 (left): © Ruth Fremson /The New York
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(bottom): © John Graham; p. 146 (top): © Phillippe Lopez/AFP/ Drew; p. 343 (all), p. 347 (left), p. 347 (right), p. 350: © John
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Chapter 6 Chapter 13
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598
Credits 599
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The Image Works.
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© Tom Purslow/Manchester United via Getty; p. 469 (bottom Orlowski/Getty; p. 567: Copyrighted and used by permission
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p. 486–487 (both): © John Graham; p. 489 (top left): AP/Wide
NAME INDEX
Page numbers followed by n refer to notes. Balabanis, George, 388n Bobina, Mariya, 150n
Balasubramanian, Sridhar, 428n Bodur, Muzaffer, 150n
Aaker, David A., 385n Ball, Deborah, 109n Bodzin, Steven, 168n
Aaker, Jennifer L., 112n, 117n, 467n, 475n Banderas, Antonio, 146 Boekmann, Alan, 151
Abdullah, King of Jordan, 380 Bannon, Lisa, 145n, 453n Boggs, David J., 490n
Abkowitz, Alyssa, 22n Banon, Lisa, 125n Bolino, Mark C., 513n
Abley, Mark, 518n Barboza, David, 303n, 429n Bolivar, Simón, 64
Acito, Frank, 332n Bardon, Jeffrey Q., 352n Bond, Michael Harris, 109n, 506n
Adams, Mike, 377 Bardsher, Keith, 304n Bond, Paul, 535n
Adetoun, Bolanle, 150n Barkema, Harry G., 19n, 344n, 345n Bono, 469
Adler, Nancy J., 143n, 554n Barnes, Brooks, 386n Boone, James, 380n
Agarwal, Sanjeev, 341n Barrasa, Angel, 150n Boonstra, Jaap J., 506n
Aguilera, Ruth V., 339n Barrett, Nigel J., 236n Booth, William, 185n
Ah Kheng Kau, 388n Barrinuevo, Alexi, 71n Borden, Jeff, 412n
Ahluwalia, Rohini, 475n Barta, Patrick, 74n, 397n Borzo, Jeannette, 411n
Ajami, Fouad, 176n Barzilay, (Judge) Judith M., 535 Boscariol, John W., 185n
Albaum, Gerald, 355n Basu, Sudita, 220n Bovard, James, 36n
Alden, Dana L., 233n, 385n Bate, Roger, 199n Bove, Jose, 7
Alexander, Nicholas, 426n Batra, Rajeev, 385n Boyacigiller, Nakiye A., 339n, 515n
Allan, Graham, 264 Batson, Andrew, 408n Bradsher, Keith, 67n, 270n, 304n, 306n, 552n
Allen, Michael W., 116n Bauerlein, Mark, 555n Brannen, Mary Yoko, 354n
Allred, Brent B., 373n Bauers, Sandy, 67n Branson, Richard, 378
Almond, Phil, 211n Baum, Caroline, 42n Brat, Ilan, 397n, 398n
Alpert, Frank, 230n, 422n Baumgartner, Hans, 233n Bremmer, Brian, 164n
Altaras, Selin, 384n Beamish, Paul W., 356n Brencic, Maja Makovec, 335n
Alum, Ian, 257 Bearden, William O., 355n Bressman, Henrik, 354n
Amador, Manuel, 53 Beck, Ernest, 424n Brett, Jeanne M., 552n, 559n, 563n
Ambler, Tim, 568n, 569n Beckham, David, 469 Brewer, Geoffrey, 507n
Amine, Lys S., 389n Beechler, Schon, 339n, 515n Brewer, Thomas L., 114n, 398n
Ammar, Essam, 440 Beerens, Marie, 535n Bridson, Kerrie., 339n
Anderson, Beverlee B., 139n Begley, Sharon, 68n, 473n Briley, Donnel A., 117n, 118n
Anderson, Erin, 509n Begley, Thomas M., 132n Brislin, Richard, 118n
Anderson, Eugene W., 361n, 406n Begum, Delora, 314 Brock, David M., 513n
Anderson, Nicola, 473n Behfar, Kristin, 563n Brockner, Joel, 563n
Andrews, J. C., 233n Beibei Dong, 355n Broderick, Amanda J., 234n, 335n
Andrews, Michelle, 106n Belderbos, Rene A., 352n, 498n Brodowsky, Glen H., 139n
Andriani, Pierpaolo, 237n Belk, Russell W., 388n, 457n, 462n Broekemier, Greg M., 144n
Andruss, Paula Lyon, 472n Belkin, Liuba Y., 144n, 515n Bronnenberg, Bart J., 387n
Anita, Kersi D., 526n Bell, Alexander Graham, 62, 67 Brouthers, Keith D., 345n
Annan, Kofi, 380 Bell, Simon, 121n Brouthers, Lance Eliot, 345n
Ansari, Paradis, 144n, 515n Bellman, Eric, 310n Brown, Donald E., 102, 102n
Ansfield, Jonathan, 306n Bello, Daniel C., 553n Brown, James R., 341n
Anterasian, Cathy, 152n, 398n Benedetto, Anthony Di, 368n Brown, Philip, 541n
Appert, Nicolas, 63 Benedict XVI, Pope, 146 Brundtland, Gro Harlem, 491
Apud, Salvador, 515n Benito, Gabriel. R. G., 340n Bruton, Garry D., 332n
Areddy, James T., 206n, 359n, 498n, 518n Bennett, Jeff, 152n Bryan-Low, Cassell, 403n
Armstrong, David, 254n Berg, Peter T. van den, 150n Bryant, Barbara Everitt, 361n, 406n
Arndt, Michael, 264n, 372n, 425n Bergen, Mark E., 526n Buatsi, Seth N., 141n
Arnold, Mark J., 389n Berlusconi, Silvio, 160 Buchan, Nancy R., 119n, 562n
Arnould, Eric J., 96n, 315n, 316n, 384n Berman, Paul Schiff, 190n Buchholz, Todd G., 27n
Arnst, Catherine, 380n Berns, Sjors, 148n Buckley, Peter J., 332n, 336n
Arregle, Jean-Luc, 356n Beutin, Nikolas, 401n Bufalini, Sam, 472n
Asbell, Bernard, 105n Bhabwati, Jagdish, 4n Buffett, Warren, 331
Askegaard, Soren, 334n Bhagat, Rabi S., 119n Bulkeley, William M., 312n
Asmussen, Christian Geisler, 20n Bhardwaj, Vertica, 385n Bunau-Varilla, Philippe Jean, 53
Aston, Adam, 70n Biederman, Patricia Ward, 39n Bunkley, Nick, 364n
Ataman, M. Berk, 387n Bird, Matthew, 521n Burbridge, John, Jr., 147n
Auger, James, 213n Birkinshaw, Julian, 354n Burkink, Timothy J., 4n, 288n
Aulakh, Preet S., 347n Bisoux, Tricia, 23n Burroughs, James E., 230n
Axxin, Catherine N., 241n Biswas, Somdutta, 475n Burrows, Peter, 393n, 523n
Aybar, Bulent, 354n Bjorkman, Ingmar, 355n Buruma, Ian, 306n
Azevedo, Jose Sergio Gabrielli de, 70n Blackstone, Brian, 31n Bush, George W., 60n, 161, 165, 200, 267
Blair, Edward, 475n Bustillo, Miguel, 424n
Baack, Sally A., 512n Blair, Tony, 403 Byrnes, Nanette, 499n
Bacon, Francis, 60 Blakeney, Roger N., 242n Byron, Ellyn, 425n
Bae Yeong-ho, 119 Blasius, Jorg, 35n
Bagozzi, Richard P., 503n, 505n Block, Lauren, 97n Calantone, Roger J., 237n, 425n
Bailey, Thomas A., 29n Block, Robert, 179n Campbell, Nigel, 554n
Bajaj, Vikas, 270n, 304n Block, Steven A., 165n Campion, Michael A., 512n
Bakalar, Nicholoas, 103n
Baker, Ted, 133n
600
Name Index 601
Cancelada, Gregory, 192n Clinton, Hillary, 565 De Mello, Gustavo E., 114n
Cannon, Joseph P., 344n Cloninger, Peggy A., 334n Demick, Barbara, 170n, 306n
Cantwell, John, 336n Cloodt, Danielle, 196n, 349n Dempsey, Judy, 288n, 304n
Cao, A. D., 38n Cohen, Adam, 27n Deng Xiaoping, 323
Capar, N., 337n Cohen, Lizabeth, 29n Dent, Harry, 74n
Cape, Kevin, 517n Cohen, Noam, 294n Deshpandé, Rohit, 372n
Capell, Kerry, 425n Cole, Melissa, 448n Desiraju, Ramarao, 251n, 526n
Carey, John, 35n Collier, Paul, 276n Deutsch, Claudia H., 398n
Carlson, Chester, 69 Colling, Trevor, 211n Dev, Chekitan S., 341n
Carraher, Shawn M., 513n Collins, John, 395n Devinney, Timothy M., 353n
Castle, Stephen, 279n Collinson, Simon, 339n Devolin, Michael, 472n
Castro, Fidel, 171 Colton, Deborah A., 242n Dhanarah, Charles, 427n
Cavusgil, S. Tamer, 19n, 194n, 228n, 334n, 352n, Columbus, Christopher, 58 Dhar, Sanjay K., 387n
Conde, Carlos H., 318n Dharwadkar, Ravi, 134n
355n, 412n, 496n, 522n, 526n Confucius, 118, 133 Diamantopoulos, Adamantios, 241n, 344n, 388n
Cayla, Julien, 304n, 384n Contractor, Farok J., 562n Diamond, Jared, 104, 104n, 275, 276n, 278n,
Cerdin, Jean-Luc, 515n Contreras, Joseph, 59n
Cestre, Ghislaine, 387n Cook, John E., 199n 370n, 372n
Chakrabarti, Rajesh, 354n Cooksey, Ray W., 387n Dias, Bartolomeu, 58
Chan, Jackie, 199 Cooper, D., 285n Díaz, Porfírio, 57
Chan, Kimmy Wa, 503n Copeland, Michael, 552n Di Benedetto, Anthony, 368n
Chandawarkar, Rahul, 348n Correa, Rafael, 261 Dickaut, John, 220n
Chandler, Jennifer D., 115n, 148n, 179n, 250n, Corredoira, C. R. (Bob), 340n Dickerson, Marla, 168n
Corredoira, Rafael A., 439n Dikova, Desislava, 354n
278n, 340n Cort, Kathryn T., 147n Dillon, Sam, 518n
Chandrashekaran, Murali, 356n Cortés, Hernán, 58 DiRenzo, Cassandra E., 147n
Chandy, Rajesh, 372n, 373n Cote, Joseph A., 388n Dmofte, Claudiu V., 385n
Chang, Andrea, 125n Coughlan, Anne T., 509n Doh, Johathan P., 174n
Chang, Anita, 67n, 399n Coulter, Robin, 111n, 384n Doherty, Anne Marie, 426n
Chang, Arlene, 348n Coviello, Nicole E., 19n, 344n Dolan, Matthew, 311n, 534n
Changhui Zhou, 352n, 353n, 368n Covrig, Vincentiu, 152n Dong, Lily, 384n
Chang Zhang, 194n Cox, R., 398n Donghua Chen, 500n
Chao, Loretta, 470n Cox, Simon, 254 Dong Ki Kim, 554n
Chao, Mike C. H., 336n, 389n Craig, C. Samuel, 111n, 222n, 232n Donovan, Kevin, 472
Charny, Ben, 81n Crocitto, Madeline M., 513n Donthu, Naveen, 109n
Chattopadhyay, Amitava, 531n Crockett, Roger O., 393n Dorfman, Peter W., 110n, 142n, 150n
Chau, Patrick Y. K., 448n Croson, Rachel T. S., 562n Dos Santos, Sergio, 486, 487n
Chau, Roy Y. J., 153n, 496n Cross, Adam R., 332n Douglas, Susan P., 20n, 102n, 111n, 222n,
Chavez, Hugo, 61, 168 Cuervo-Cazurra, Alvaro, 148n
Chelminski, Piotr, 111n Cullen, John B., 144n 232n, 420n
Chen, Haipen (Allan), 117n Cummings, Chip, 4n, 543n Doukas, John A., 9n
Chen, Shih-Fen S., 13n Cusack, Robert, 39 Dove, Timothy, 159n
Cheng, Jonathan, 326n, 354n Cyrus the Great, 163 Dreazen, Yochi J., 215n, 324n
Cheng-chen Lin, 150n Dresser, N., 224n
Cheng Han-cheng, 133 Daikwan Kim, 242n Driffield, Nigel, 336n
Chenting Su, 439n Dakhli, Mourad, 242n Drogendijk, Rian, 19n, 344n
Cheosakul, Adith, 506n Danis, Wade M., 338n Drucker, Peter F., 129, 129n, 220n
Chiaburu, Dan S., 338n Darling, Juanita, 54n Duarte, Roberto Gonzalez, 150n
Chi-Chu Tschang, 448n Darrigrand, Maritxu, 23 Dube, Jean-Pierre, 387n, 522n
Chi Kin (Bennett) Yim, 503n Darvasula, S., 233n Duncan, Robert, 122n
Ching Ming Lau, 332n Das, Jayoti, 147n Dunlap-Hinkler, Denise, 349n
Chintagunta, Pradeep K., 251n, 526n Dastidar, Protiti, 19n, 337n Dunning, John H., 339n
Chirac, Jacques, 380 Dau-lin Hsu, 133n Dupont, Luc, 266
Chi-Sum Wong, 500n Davidow, Moshe, 388n Durden, Geoffrey R., 241n
Chiung-Hui Tseng, 19n Davila, Anabella, 107n, 508n Dutta, Shantanu, 526n
Chmielewski, Dawn, 201n, 291n Dawes, Philip L., 153n, 503n Dvorak, Phred, 362n
Choe Sang-Hun, 119n Dawson, John, 425n Dwyer, Robert F., 356n
Chong, Florence, 43n Dayla, Julien, 366n Dwyer, Sean, 237n, 369n
Chonko, Lawrence B., 511n Dean, Cornelia, 40n Dyer, Barbara, 573n
Choon Ling Sia, 443n Dean, Jason, 354n Dzuvichu, Rosemary R., 150n
Chow, Clement S. F., 385n Debbarma, Sukhendu, 150n
Chozick, Amy, 119n, 424n DeBlij, Harm J., 63n Earley, P. Christopher, 110n, 515n
Christensen, Glenn L., 381n DeCarlo, James E., 506n Earnest, Leslie, 22n
Chun Hui, 559n DeCarlo, Thomas E., 506n Echikson, William D., 95n
Chun Zhang, 522n, 526n Decorse, Christopher R., 102n Eckhardt, Giana M., 304n, 366n
Cichelli, David J., 509n, 510n De Jong, Martijin G., 233n Eden, Lorraine, 150n, 522n
Clancy, Tom, 448 Dekimpe, Marnik G., 257, 369n, 390n, Edison, Lee, 566n
Clark, Don, 208n Edison, Thomas Alva, 62, 67
Clark, Irvine, III, 144n 424n, 460n Edwards, Ron, 344n
Clark, William C., 69n Delaney, Kevin J., 62n Edwards, Steven M., 478n
Clegg, L. Jeremy, 332n Deleersnyder, Barbara, 390n, 460n Egri, Carolyn P., 144n
Cleveland, Mark, 121n Delios, Andrew, 408n Eid, Riyand, 412n
Clifford, Mark L., 225n Delmas, Magali, 404n Einhorn, Bruce, 195n, 399n, 400n, 425n, 448n
Clifford, Stephanie, 393n De Lollis, Barbar, 448n Eisenhower, Dwight D., 172
Clinton, Bill, 171 Ekeledo, Ikechi, 348n, 376n
602 Name Index
Ekman, Paul, 559 Foss, Nicoli Juul, 241n Gonzales, Alberto, 199
Elango, B., 332n Foubert, Bram, 234n Goodman, Peter S., 161n
Elbeltagi, Ibrahim, 412n Fowler, Geoffrey A., 206n, 472n Gopalakrishnan, Srinath, 410n
Elberse, Anita, 370n Fox, Jean-Paul, 233n Gopinath, Mahesh, 374n
Eliashberg, Jehoshua, 370n Fox, Vicente, 162, 380 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 289
Elizabeth I, 59 Fragoso, Marco, 264 Grachev, Mikhail, 150n
Ellingwood, Ken, 140n Francis, June, 385n Graen, George, 134n
Ellion, Andrew J., 469n Francis Ferdinand, Archduke, 68 Graham, Jefferson, 201n
Elliot, Michael, 576n Frangos, Alex, 308n Graham, John L., 4n, 9n, 27n, 55n, 56n, 74n, 79n,
Ellis, Paul D., 141n Franklin, Benjamin, 61
Ellsworth, Brian, 61n Franklin, Daniel, 181n 102n, 107n, 112n, 114n, 115n, 125n, 133n,
El-Rashidi, Yasmine, 375n Fratianni, Michele, 277n, 296n 137n–139n, 144n, 148n, 152n, 153n, 161n,
Elvira, Marta M., 107n, 508n Freeman, Susan, 19n, 344n 164n, 171n, 173n, 179n, 199n, 200n, 214n,
Endresen, Iver, 442n French, Howard W., 195n 228n, 230n, 242n, 250n, 276n, 278n, 317n,
Engardio, Pete, 42n Friedland, Jonathan, 521n 326n, 340n, 398n, 422n, 498n, 504n, 506n,
Engels, Friedrich, 65 Friedman, Ray, 561n 507n, 512n, 541n, 551n, 552, 552n, 555n,
Ennew, Christine T., 206n Friedman, Thomas L., 4n, 161n, 276n, 557n–559n, 562n, 570n, 572n
Enright, Michael J., 333n Grande, Amar, 23n
Erdem, Tulin, 384n, 390n 348n, 372n Grant, Jeremy, 204n
Erez, Miriam, 119n Fritz, Ben, 206n Grant, Ulysses S., 57
Erixon, Fredrik, 36n Frost, Tony S., 353n Grbac, Bruno, 4n, 288n
Esteban, A. Gabriel, 554n Fu, Isabel S. F., 385n Green, Alan, 458
Esterl, Mike, 349n Fujita, Masataka, 339n Greenberg, Ilan, 186n
Etgar, Michael, 424n Fukuyama, Francis, 104n, 163n Greene, William H., 111n
Etzel, Michael J., 141n Fulton, Robert, 63 Greenley, Gordon E., 234n, 335n
Evangelista, Felicitas, 355n Fung, Victor K., 332n Gregory, Gary, 442n
Evans, Jody, 339n, 441n Fung, William K., 332n Grether, E. T., 398n
Evcimen, Idil, 150n Fu-Tang Chen, 436n Grewal, Rajdeep, 134n, 356n
Evenko, Leonid I., 554n Griffith, David A., 13n, 194n, 237n, 339n, 340n,
Everdingen, Yvonne van, 369n Galinsky, Adam D., 512n 351n, 425n, 441n, 496n
Ewing, Jack, 254, 270n Gamerman, Ellen, 518n Grinstein, Amir, 71n
Gande, Amar, 336n Grone, Florian, 332n
Fairclough, Gordon, 251n, 472n Gannon, Martin J., 116, 116n Grotius, Hugo, 60
Fan, Maureen, 75n Gao, Gerald Young, 372n Grove, Andrew, 393
Fan, Terence, 19n Garcia-Villoria, Alberto, 497n Gruley, Bryan, 398n
Fang, Eric, 349n Garfield, Bob, 477, 477n Gu, Flora Fang, 153n, 305n, 355n, 561n
Fang, Eric (Er), 352n Garza Carranza, Maria Teresa de la, 144n Guang Yang, 138n, 568n, 569n
Fang, Tony, 559n Gaski, John F., 141n Guha, Krishna, 47n
Fang Wu, 228n Gassenheimer, Julie B., 573n Guijun Zhuang, 439n, 505n
Farley, John U., 242n, 372n, 384n, 406n Gates, Bill, 119, 200, 220 Gulyani, Sumila, 262n
Farrell, Carlyle, 441n Gauthier-Villars, David, 134n, 287n Guoqun Fu, 386n
Fathi, Nazila, 295n Gavino, Jacinto C., Jr., 505n Gupta, Richa, 116n
Fattar, Hassan M., 113n Gavlen, Morten, 442n Gupta, Vipin, 110n, 150n
Fehr, Ernst, 571n Gedajlovic, Eric, 133n Gupta-Mukherjee, Swasti, 354n
Felix, Reto, 141n Gekko, Gordon, 131 Gurhan-Canli, Zeynep, 389n
Ferner, Anthony, 211n Geng Cui, 353n, 387n, 475n Guthery, Dennis, 344n
Fernhaber, Stephanie A., 340n Genghis Khan, 55 Guynn, Jessica, 456n
Ferrer, Laia, 497n Gentleman, Amelia, 199n, 204n Guzman, Francisco, 384n
Fevrier, Merici, 385n George, Bill, 79
Fey, Carl F., 355n Georgoff, David M., 236n Ha, Young-Won, 372n
Fialka, John J., 221n Gertner, David, 344n Hadarcou, John, 345n
Ficici, Aysun, 354n Gertner, Rosane K., 344n Hadjimarcou, John, 564n
Fields, George, 480n Geyskens, Inge, 388n, 443n Haefner, James E., 388n
Filatotchev, Igor, 332n Ghanem, Salma, 490n Hagedoorn, John, 196n, 349n
Finkel, Michael, 107n Ghauri, Pervez, 352n, 552n, 559n Haifa Sun, 559n
Firoz, Nadeem M., 376n Ghemawat, Panjak, 333n Haiyang Li, 353n
Fischbacher, Urs, 571n Ghosh, Sugata, 188n Hakim, Zakki P., 540n
Fischer, Karin, 379n Gibney, Frank, 309 Haksin Chan, 111n, 381n
Fischer, Ronald, 134n Gibson, Cristina B., 110n, 116n, 119n Hale, Baroness of Richmond, 27
Fisher, Robert J., 526n Gibson, Richard, 5n Hall, Clare, 276n
Fisher, Roger, 561n, 567n, 575, 575n Gielens, Katrijn, 257, 424n Hall, Edward T., 102, 102n, 114, 114n, 120, 135, 136,
Fisman, Raymond, 39n Gilbert, Brett Anitra, 340n
Fleishman, Jeffrey, 440n Gilly, Mary C., 495n, 498n, 514n 136n, 137, 139, 563n
Flores, Ricardo G., 339n Giridharadas, Anand, 75n, 425n Hall, Kenji, 219n, 455n
Foer, Jonathan Safran, 99n Gladwell, Malcolm, 242n Hallagan, William, 19n
Fogel, Kathy, 132n Glassman, Myron, 374n Hamed, Ali, 440
Fok, Dennis, 369n Glionna, John M., 175n Hamilton, Gary G., 133n
Ford, Henry, 68 Goering, Laurie, 516n Hamlin, Kevin, 306n
Forelle, Charles, 208n Goerzen, Anthony, 408n Hamm, Steve, 195n
Fornell, Claes, 361n, 406n Gold, Russell, 4n, 543n Hammond, Allen, 262n
Forsgren, Mats, 427n Golder, Peter N., 109n Ha Mok-min, 119
Forster, Nick, 495n Gomen, Rudinger, 285 Han, Sam, 131n
Forsythe, Michael, 306n Goncalo, Jack A., 372n Hanges, Paul J., 110n, 142n
Fortgang, Ron S., 569n Gong Ming Qian, 127n, 503n Hannibal, 66
Gongming Qian, 337n, 340n, 351n Hannigan, W. J., 3n
Hannon, Paul, 287n
Name Index 603
Harold II, 54 Houser, Dave G., 58n Jones, Victoria, 476n
Harrison, Lawrence E., 99n Houston, Rika, 113, 148n, 153n Jordan, Miriam, 64n, 314n
Harrison, Lawrence I., 154n Howell, Jon P., 142n, 150n, 506n Jose, Kristen San, 367n
Hart, Stuart L., 333n Hpostaken, Brigitee, 373n Judge, Paul C., 393n
Hartog, Deanne N. Den, 150n Hsee, Christopher K., 522n Julian, Craig C., 441n
Harvey, Michael G., 351n Hsu, Maxwell, 237n, 369n Junfeng Zhang, 368n
Harzing, Anne-Wil, 242n Hueiting Tsai, 345n Jun Liu, 150n
Hashai, Niron, 336n Huffstutter, P. J., 267n Junse Zhang, 78n
Hassan, Ahmad, 513n Hu Jintao, 200
Hauser, John R., 362n Hult, G. Tomas M., 378n Kabasakal, Hayat, 150n
Hawes, Jon M., 352n Hung, Kineta H., 153n, 305n, 462n, 561n Kakkos, Nikolaos, 344n
Hayes, Andrew F., 406n Huntington, Samuel P., 99n, 154n, 176, 176n Kaku, Shisei, 319n
Healey, Jon, 199n Hussain, Mahmood, 475n Kalliny, Morris, 490n
Hean Tat Keh, 381n Hussein, Saddam, 72, 171 Kambara, Kenneth M., 495n, 514n
Hebert, Louis, 356n Hutchinson, Karise, 426n Kam-hon Lee, 127n, 351n, 503n, 554n
Hecht, Gary, 220n Hutzschenreuter, Thomas, 332n, 339n, 340n Kamins, Michael, 230n, 422n
Heerde, Harald J. van, 387n Hwang, Suein L., 559n Kamprad, Ingvar, 337
Heijltjes, Marielle G., 498n Hyeong Min Kim, 200n Kan, Ozgur B., 9n
Heijwegen, Tim, 345n Hyeon Jeong Park, 355n Kandemir, Destan, 378n
Heinrichs, Markus, 571n Kane, Yukari Iwatani, 377n
Helm, Burt, 70n, 383n Ihlwan, Moon, 5n Kang, Tony, 131n
Henden, Rebecca Angeles, 552n Im, Subim, 372n Kanga Kong, 46n
Hendon, Donald W., 552n Imada, Toshie, 320n Kanso, Ali, 462n
Heneidy, Mohamed, 375 Inada, Miho, 142n Kanter, Rosabeth Moss, 521n
Hennigan, W. J., 406n Inagaki, Kana, 187n Kapferer, Jean-Noel, 385n
Henry I, 55 Ingram, Paul, 153n, 496n Karakaya, Yunus, 568n
Henry the Navigator, 57 Isabella, Lynn A., 350n, 351n Karavdic, Munib, 442n
Henry VIII, 58 Ishii, Keiko, 320n Kari, Juhani, 552
Herbig, Paul, 552n Ito, Komaki, 109n Karrass, Chester, 566, 566n, 567, 573, 573n
Herbst, Moira, 312n Iwatani, Yukari, 338n Katahira, Hotaka, 480n
Herche, Joel, 355n Katib, Mark, 377
Herk, Hester van, 381n Jackman, Hugh, 536 Katsikeas, Constantine S., 364n, 553n, 564n
Hersch, Lis, 352n Jacob, Robin Lord Justice, 27 Katz, Lothar, 552n
Herskovitz, Melvin, 102n Jacobs, Andrew, 14n Kaufman, Lutz, 421n
Hesseldahl, Arik, 396n Jacobucci, Dawn, 509n Keillor, Bruce D., 378n
Hewett, Kelly, 355n Jaesung Cha, 361n, 406n Keller, Kevin A., 384n
Higashide, Hiro, 506n Jain, Subash C., 442n Keller, Kevin Lane, 360n
Higgins, Andrew, 502n James, LeBron, 206 Kellner, Tomas, 27n
Hill, Grant, 457 Jap, Sandy D., 339n Kennedy, David M., 29n
Hillman, Amy J., 150n, 181n Jargon, Julie, 348n, 364n Kennedy, Jeff, 506n
Hinck, Wolfgang, 141n Javers, Eamon, 151n Kennedy, John F., 57
Hindley, Brian, 36n Javidan, Mansour, 110n Kenny, Timothy, 527n
Hitt, Michael A., 353n Jayachandran, Satish, 242n Kenworthy, Thomas P., 355n
Ho, J. R., 306n Jayarman, Narayanan, 354n Kern, Mary C., 563n
Ho, Patricia Jiayi, 306n Jefferson, Thomas, 63, 171 Khamenei, Ayatollah Ali, 165
Hoang Khai, 362 Jenner, Steve, 118n Khan, Shafiq, 447n
Hodge, Robert W., 97n Jentzsch, Andreas, 421n Khanna, Tarun, 55n, 333n
Hodge, Sheida, 552n Jiang, Marshall S., 347n Khare, Adwiat, 384n
Hodgson, James Day, 27n, 38n, 54, 55n, 102, 102n, Jiang Feng, 552n Kharti, Naresh, 132n
Jianglei Zou, 352n Khatif, Jamal al, 144n
112n, 125n, 137n, 144n, 242n, 551n, 552n, Jiangtian Chen, 115n Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah, 165
559n, 570n Ji Li, 340n Kiedaisch, Ingo, 344n
Hoegl, Martin, 144n Jing Li, 352n, 368n Kiley, David, 332n
Hoenig, Scott, 242n, 368n Jinhong Xie, 573n Kim, Daekwan, 18n, 515n
Hoffman, Magnus, 364n Jin Sun, 381n Kim, Keysuk, 422n
Hofstede, Frenkel ter, 112, 112n Joachimsthaler, Erich, 385n Kim-Shyan Fam, 559n
Hofstede, Geert, 102n, 109, 109n, 110, 110n, 111, Jobs, Steven, 220, 338 Kim Soon Ang, 384n
126n, 130, 130n, 153n, 157n, 226, 562, 562n Johanson, Jan, 427n King, Niel, Jr., 4n, 535n, 543n
Holancova, Denisa, 475n Johansson, Johny K., 385n, 497n Kinon, Cristina, 22n
Holdsworth, David K., 389n John, Deborah Roedder, 386n Kinston, Jeff, 242n
Holm, Ulf, 427n John, King of England, 55 Kipling, Rudyard, 39, 576, 577
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 27 Johnson, Eric J., 562n Kirkman, Bradley L., 110n
Holstein, William J., 262n Johnson, Ian, 38n Kirkpatrick, David, 393n
Holt, Douglas B., 105n, 120n, 384n Johnson, James P., 515n, 560n Kitayama, Shinobu, 320n
Holtbrugge, Dirk, 354n Johnson, Jean L., 242n Kjeldgaard, Dannie, 334n
Holton, Richard H., 554n Johnson, John, Jr., 378n Klein, Jill Gabrielle, 387n, 388n
Holzmuller, Hartmut H., 241n Johnson, Joseph, 340n, 345n Knight, Gary A., 18n, 515n
Homburg, Christian, 344n, 401n Johnson, Michael D., 361n, 406n Knight, John G., 389n
Hongxin Zhao, 354n Johnston, Eric, 362n Koch, Henning, 285
Hong Xiuquan, 55, 56 Johnston, Megan, 287 Koh Chin Ling, 73n
Hoogh, Annebel H. B de, 150n Jolibert, Alain, 554n Konrad, Edvard, 150n
Hoorn, Andre van, 226n Jones, Charisse, 453n Konrad, Waleca, 380n
Hopkins, Raymond A., 388n Jones, Geoffrey, 55n Koopman, P. L., 150n
Hou, Lizzy, 419 Jones, Marian V., 19n Koopman, Paul, 506n
House, Robert J., 110, 110n, 150n
604 Name Index
Kopalle, Praveen K., 406n Lee, Don Y., 46n, 153n, 194n, 206n, 503n, 522n Magnier, Mark, 202n
Koppel, Nathan, 408n Lee, Jane Lanhee, 371n Magnusson, Peter, 513n
Korneliussen, Tor, 35n Lee, Matthew K., 443n Maheswaran, Durariraj, 389n
Kosfeld, Michael, 571n Lee, Ruby P., 242n Maitland, Elizabeth, 19n, 340n
Kotabe, Masaaki, 234n, 334n, 337n, 349n, 408n Leeflang, Peter S. H., 460n Makino, Shige, 408n
Kotkin, Joel, 517n Lee Li, 337n, 340n Malhotra, Naresh K., 340n
Kotkin, Stephen, 250n LeFraniere, Sharon, 201n Maltby, Emily, 16n, 126n
Kotler, Philip, 360n Lehman, Donald R., 242n, 384n Mannix, Elizabeth A., 563n
Koveos, Peter E., 226n Leibowitz, Lewis E., 537n Mansell, Angela, 134n
Kozak, John, 179n Leigh, Thomas W., 556n Manusson, Peter, 490n
Kramer, Andrew E., 286n Lemmens, Aurelie, 206n Mao Zedong, 69, 323
Kramer, Thomas, 97n Lenartowicz, Tomasz, 428n, 515n, 560n Mapes, Glynn, 517n
Kranenburg, Hans van, 196n, 349n Lenin, Vladimir, 68, 437 Maradona, Diego Armando, 470, 493
Krasner, Stephen D., 160n Leonardelli, Geoffrey J., 566n Marburber, John H., III, 380
Kraul, Chris, 256n Leonidou, Leonidas C., 333n, 564n Marchetti, Michele, 497n, 510n, 511n
Kraus, Clifford, 9n Leow, Jason, 251n Marconi, Guglielmo, 67
Krihna, Aradhna, 475n Lepak, David P., 513n Maria Theresa, 61
Kripalani, Manjeet, 552n Le Poole, Samfrits, 553n Marinova, Sophia V., 513n
Krohmer, Harley, 344n Lerman, Dawn, 473n Marklein, Mary Beth, 517n
Kshetri, Nir, 345n Leung, Kwok, 443n Markoff, John, 338n, 523n
Kuada, John, 141n Levine, Robert, 139n, 140n Marquez, Rafael, 220
Kublai Khan, 56 Levy, Orly, 339n, 515n Martin, Drew, 468n
Kuen-yung Jone, 150n Lewicki, Roy J., 552n, 553n, 562n Martin, Nancy M., 161n, 171n
Kuester, Sabine, 401n Li, Caroline Bingxin, 527n Martin, Ruth, 242n
Kulish, Nicholas, 287n Li, Julie Juan, 251n, 527n Martinez, Boris, 150n
Kumar, Archana, 385n Li, Stella Yiyan, 462n Martinez, Carlos Ruy, 511n
Kumar, Rajesh, 555n, 559n Lihong Qian, 408n Martinez, Jennifer, 49n
Kundu, Sumit K., 345n Lilien, Gary L., 398n Martinsen, Joel, 323n
Kunieda, Mika Kondo, 141 Lim, Kai H., 443n Marx, Karl, 65
Kurtenbach, Elaine, 43n Lim, Lewis K. S., 332n Maseland, Robbert, 226n
Kuster, Ines, 336n Lin, C. Y., 554n Massey, Anne P., 448n
Kuykendall, Lavonne, 480n Lincke, Andreas, 568n Mather, Damien W., 389n
Kwok, Chuck C. Y., 149n Linebaugh, Kate, 152n, 563n Matlack, Carol, 42n
Kwok, Leung, 110n, 119n, 563n Ling Chen, 559n Mattioli, Dana, 236n
Kwong Chan, 522n, 526n Linhui Tang, 226n Mavondo, Felix T., 441n
Kwon Jung, 388n Linton, Ralph, 120n Mazzetti, Mark, 177n
Liptak, Adam, 443n McClelland, David C., 134n
La, Vinh Q., 409n Litterer, Joseph A., 553n McCullough, James, 19n
Lacassagne, Marie-Francoise, 506n Liu, Leigh Anne, 561n McDermott, Gerald A., 439n
Lacey, Marci, 164n Liu, Sandra S., 496n McDougall, Patricia P., 340n
La Ferle, Carrie, 478n Liu Li, 536n McHugh, Tom, 44n
LaFraniere, Sharon, 15n Livingstone, David, 65 McKay, Betsy, 470n
Lages, Carmen, 344n Lloyd, Mary Ellen, 453n McKelvey, Bill, 237n
Lages, Cristiana Raquel, 344n LLwin, May O., 475n McKenna, Barrie, 524n
Lages, Luis Filipe, 339n, 344n, 496n Loe, Terry W., 511n McKinley, James C., Jr., 250n
Lahart, Justin, 9n Lorange, Peter, 562n McLane, Daisann, 111n
Lai, Mengkuan, 475n Louis XI, 57 McMahon, Colin, 337n
Laidler-Kylander, Nathalie, 175n Louis XV, 61 McNally, Regina C., 412n, 496n
Lakshman, Nandini, 254 Love, James H., 336n McNeill, David, 310n, 500n
Lalwani, Ashok K., 475n Lowe, Kevin B., 110n McWilliams, Gary, 393n, 441n
Lam, Agnes, 7n Loyka, Jeffrey J., 342n Medvedev, Dmitry, 160
Lam, Desmond, 111n, 485n Lu, Vinh Nhat, 441n Mehta, Ravi, 469n
Lam, Janet P. Y., 385n Lubatkin, Michael, 133n Meilich, Ofer, 139n
Lam, N. Mark, 56n, 133n, 153n, 164n, 199n, 200n, Lubetzky, Daniel, 3 Meissner, Hans-Gunther, 554n
Lublin, Joann S., 236n Mela, Carl F., 387n
214n, 326n, 327n, 541n, 552n, 559n, 570n Luna, David, 115n, 473n Mellers, Barbar, 111n
Lam, Simon S. K., 503n Luo, Yadong, 257, 332n Menghinello, Stefan, 336n
Lamey, Lien, 390n Lwin, May O., 475n Menn, Joseph, 202n
Lamont, Bruce T., 354n Lyles, Marjorie A., 222n, 338n, 349n, 352n Menon, Ajay, 401n
Landers, Peter, 363n Lynn, Jonathan, 27n Menon, Jayant, 46n
Landler, Mark, 151n, 195n, 295n, 362n Lysonski, S., 233n Merkel, Angela, 128, 565
Lane, Nikala, 496n Merrilees, Bill, 454n
Lane, Peter J., 552n Mabey, Christopher, 513n Merz, Michael A., 233n
Lang, Jack, 9 MacAvoy, Thomas C., 350n, 351n Mesak, Hani, 237n, 369n
Lang, Rainhart, 150n MacDonald, Alistair, 35n Metcalfe, David, 575n
Langhe, Bart de, 115n Macdonald, Godfrey, Lord, 116 Meucci, Antonio, 62
Laroche, Michael, 121n, 473n Macias, Greg, 458 Meulenberg, Matthew T. G., 387n
Laszlo, Tihany, 13n Macmillan, Palgrave, 552n Meunier, Claude, 266
LaVallee, Andrew, 522n MacNab, Bren, 118n Meyer, Klaus E., 306n
Law, Kenneth S., 500n Macquin, Anne, 500n Meyerson, Bruce, 14n
Lax, David A., 569n, 575, 575n Maddux, William W., 512n Mezias, John M., 515n
Lazarova, Mila B., 515n Madonna, 37 Michaels, Daniel, 499n, 567n
Lea, Robert, 65n Maetz, Carl P., Jr., 513n Michaels, Philip, 338n
Leach, Peter T., 38n Magellan, 58 Midgley, David F., 353n
Lee, Alvin, 111n, 485n
Name Index 605
Milbank, Dana, 37n Neuman, Johanna, 177n Pastor, Refael, 497n
Mill, John Stuart, 65 Newburry, William, 144n Paswan, Audhesh K., 384n
Miller, Arthur, 501 Newton, Isaac, 60 Patterson, Paul G., 346n, 409n
Miller, Chip, 234n Ng, Lilian, 152n Pattnaik, Chinmay, 332n
Miller, Elizabeth G., 468n Ng, Loretta, 73n Patton, Bruce, 561n, 567n, 575n
Miller, John W., 46n, 297n Ng, Sharon, 117n, 386n Paul, Alan, 513n
Miller, Terry, 164n Nguyen, Hoang Thuy, 242n Paul, Donna L., 257, 354n
Millman, Joel, 74n Nguyen, Tho D., 236n Paul, Pallab, 144n
Minton, John W., 552n, 553n, 562n Nicholas, Stephen, 19n, 340n Paulson, Gaylen D., 568n
Mintu-Wimsatt, Alma, 573n Nickerson, Colin, 472n Pearce, Jone L., 127n, 351n, 571n
Mishra, Harsh A., 349n Niederhaus, Sharon G., 79n Pearmain, Thomas, 48n
Mitchell, Jason, 541n Niesta, Daniela, 469n Pedersen, Torben, 222n, 241n, 339n
Mitra, Debanjan, 109n Nijssen, Edwin J., 381n, 420n Pee Beng Ling, 475n
Mittal, Vikas, 111n Ning Rong Liu, 384n Peerenboom, Randy, 186n
Mizerski, Richard, 111n, 485n Nisan, Udi, 71n Peircy, Nigel, 496n
Moen, Oystein, 442n Nisbett, Richard E., 103n, 117, 118, 118n, 153n, 563n Pélé, 572
Moffett, Sebastian, 162n Nixon, Ron, 469n Pellegrini, Ekin K., 132n
Mohr, Alexander T., 354n Nobel, Robert, 354n Peñaloza, Lisa, 495n, 514n
Mohr, Jakki J., 315n, 316n Nonaka, Ikujiro, 497n Peng, Mike W., 222n
Moltenbrey, Karen, 365n Nooderhaven, Niels, 242n Peng, T. K., 150n
Money, R. Bruce, 152n, 227n, 228n, 398n, 498n, Noriega, Jaime L., 475n Pepper, Steven, 264
Noriega, Manuel, 61 Peracchio, Laura A., 115n, 473n
504n, 506n, 507n, 512n, 552n Norris, Michael W., 496n Perlmutter, Howard V., 20n
Monga, Alokparna Basu, 386n Nossiter, Adam, 291n Perón, Juan, 61
Monnier, Arnaud, 116n Nunn, Dana, 542n Perry, Commodore, 56
Monroe, James, 59, 64 Nye, Carolyn White, 472n Perry, Matthew C., 66
Montezuma, 57, 58 Persson, Mats, 285
Montgomery, David M., 379n Obadia, Claude, 355n Petersen, Bent, 222n, 340n
Montiel, Ivan, 404n Obama, Barack, 41, 160, 161 Peterson, Mark F., 354n
Montoya-Weiss, Mitzi, 448n O’Brien, Kevin J., 297n Pfanner, Eric, 284n
Moon, Byeong-Joon, 442n Ochoa, Labastida, 162 Phan, A., 365n
Moran, Robert T., 552n Ockova, Alena, 554n Phan, Phillip, 19n
Moreno, Jenalia, 32n, 264n O’Connor, Ashling, 552n Philips, Tom, 239n
Morgeson, Frederick P., 512n Oddou, Gary, 242n Picker, David, 130n
Morris, Michael W., 153n Odekerken-Schroder, Gaby, 381n Piebalgs, Andris, 290
Morwitz, Vick, 526n Odhiambo, Allan, 38n Pierson, David, 165n, 206n, 306n, 420n, 456n
Mosakowski, Elaine, 515n O’Donnell, Kathleen, 475n Piesse, Jennifer, 332n
Mosher, Diane, 76n Ogawa, Naohiro, 97n Ping Ping Fu, 150n, 506n
Movondo, Felix T., 339n Oh, Changho, 422n Ping Zheng, 332n
Mudambi, Ram, 241n Oh, Chan Hoon, 277n, 296n Pogue, David, 410n
Mueller, Rene Dentiste, 234n, 335n O’Keefe, Robert, 448n Polachek, Solomon W., 276n
Mueun Bae, 345n Okiror, Ben, 76n Pollay, Richard W., 206n
Muhammad II, 57 Oliver, Christine, 352n Polo, Marco, 55
Mukjhopadhyay, Kausiki, 144n Omidyar, Pierre, 95 Poon, Patrick, 355n
Mulanovich, Sofia, 458 Onishi, Norimitsu, 142n Poon, Terence, 34n
Mun, Thomas, 58 Onstad, Eric, 543n Popper, Karl R., 173n
Munley, Almarie E., 150n Onzo, Naoto, 230n, 422n Pornpitakpan, Chanthika, 388n
Munoz, Lorenzo, 199n Orth, Ulrich R., 475n Porter, Eduardo, 267n
Mura, Kayoko, 142 Osborne, Andrew, 290n Porter, Michael E., 108n
Murdick, Robert G., 236n Osegowitsch, Thomas, 340n Powers, Thomas L., 342n, 388n
Murphy, Brian, 355n Osland, Joyce S., 242n Powpaka, Samart, 381n
Murray, Janet Y., 336n, 349n, 408n Oster, Shai, 69 Prabhu, Jaideep, 372n, 373n
Myers, Gifford, 48 Ouellet, Jean-Francois, 102n Prahalad, C. K., 262n, 314, 314n, 366n
Myers, Matthew B., 351n, 441n Oxelheim, Lars, 133n Prestowitz, Clyde V., 507n
Ozanne, Julie L., 516n Price, Elizabeth, 31n
Nachum, Lilach, 354n Ozsomer, Aysegul, 384n Price, Linda A., 384n
Nader, Ralph, 70 Prieto, Leonel, 150n, 506n
Nadolska, Anna, 345n Paarlberg, Robert L., 204n Puck, Jonas F., 354n
Naim, Moises, 5n Paghunathan, V. K., 75n Punnett, B. J., 553n
Nair, Harsikesh, 251n Palmeri, Christopher, 453n Puntoni, Stefano, 115n
Nakamura, Masao, 338 Palmisano, Sam, 507 Putin, Vladimir, 290
Nakata, Cheryl, 372n Papadopoulos, Nicolas, 121n Puzzanghera, Jim, 206n
Nakos, George, 345n Papalexandris, Nancy, 150n
Nan Zhou, 387n, 439n Pappu, Ravi, 387n Qaddafi, Muammar el, 166n
Napoleon, 63, 64 Parboteeah, Praveen, 144n Qimei Chen, 242n
Naquin, Charles E., 568n Parente, Ronaldo, 349n Quelch, John A., 175n, 382n
Narasimhan, Om, 373n Paris, Lori D., 142n Quesnay, Francois, 61
Narisetti, Raju, 521n Park, Heungsooa, 372n Quester, Pascale G., 387n
Nasimento, Maria de Fatima, 502 Park, Walter G., 373n Quigley, Narda, 150n
Navarra, Pietro, 241n Parker, Philip, 104, 104n, 364n, 369n Quill, Kate, 502n
Neburry, William, 515n Parmar, Arundhati, 476n Quinn, Barry, 426n
Nelson, Emily, 424n Parvatiyar, Atul, 412n
Nelson, Richard Alan, 462n Pasa, Selda, 506n Rabino, Samuel, 332n
Nelson, Teresa, 420n Passariello, Christina, 425n Rachman-Moore, Dalia, 424n
Netemeyer, R. G., 233n
606 Name Index
Raiffa, Howard, 575n Rutowski, Anne Francoise, 555n Sheer, Vivian C., 559n
Rajasekar, James, 150n Ruvio, Ayalla, 335n, 388n Shenkar, Oded, 513n, 553n
Rajendran, S., 312n Rybina, Liza, 234n Sheridan, Mary Beth, 185n
Ralston, David A., 144n Sheth, Jagdish, 412n
Ramamurti, Ravi, 306n Saatcioglu, Bige, 516n Shi, Linda H., 412n, 496n
Raman, Anand P., 385n Sahib, Padma Roa, 354n Shichun Xu, 355n
Ramaswamy, Jenny, 320n Sakano, Tokoaki, 422n Shih-Fen Chen, 390n
Ramburuth, Prem, 144n Sakano, Tomoaki, 230n Shiller, Robert J., 237n
Ramesh, Randeep, 312m Sakuraba, Mitsuru, 219 Shimp, Terrance A., 388n, 472n
Ramstad, Evan, 153n, 221n, 441n Salk, Jane E., 349n Shin, Shung J., 512n
Randoy, Trond, 133n Salmen, Lawrence F., 262n Shirouzu, Norihiko, 563n
Rangaswamy, Arvind, 398n Salter, Stephen, 131n Shi Zhang, 230n, 385n
Rao, Akshay R., 117n, 571n Saltmarsh, Matthew, 284n Shoaming Zou, 334n, 412n, 442n
Rao, Alaka N., 127n, 351n Samiee, Saeed, 271n, 388n Shoham, Amir, 513n
Rapaille, Clotaire, 371n, 576n Samli, A. Coskun, 385n Shoham, Aviv, 335n, 388n
Reardon, James, 234n Sammartino, Andre, 340n Shook, David, 180n
Redding, Gordon, 152n Samovar, Larry A., 224n Shorris, Earl, 501n
Reed, Stanley, 73n, 287n, 295n, 304n Samuelson, Robert J., 543n Shu-Chen Chi, 561n
Reed, Susan E., 180n Sanchanta, Mariko, 310n, 349n Siegel, Donald S., 150n
Regalado, Antonio, 261n Sanchez, Marcela, 60n Siekman, Philip, 395n
Reid, T. R., 105n Sandell, S., 365n Siemens, Werner, 66
Reiman, Martin, 333n Sanders, Peter, 518n Sie Tin Lau, 152n
Rembrandt van Rijn, 101 Sang Lee, 95n Siew Meng Leong, 388n
Renko, Natasa, 4n, 288n Sano, Yoshihiro, 27n, 55n, 102n, 112n, 125n, 137n, Silva, Garcia, 496n
Requejo, William Hernandez, 4n, 552n, 555n, 557n, Simester, Duncan I., 362n
144n, 242n, 551n, 552n, 559n, 570n Simmet, Heike, 241n
558n, 562n, 572n Sarvary, Miklos, 369n, 542n Simmons, C., 541n
Resnick, Rosalind, 37n Sasseen, Jane, 36n Simmons, Lee C., 526n
Reus, Taco H., 354n Sato, Yoshinobu, 422n Simons, Craig, 166n
Rhee, Robert J., 146n Saunders, David M., 552n, 553n, 562n Simpson, Bart, 502
Ricardo, David, 64 Saunders, John, 386n Simpson, Cam, 114n
Ricart, Joan Enric, 333n Scandura, Terri A., 132n, 515n Sin, Leo Y. M., 111n, 141n
Rice-Osley, Mark, 49n Scchexayder, C. J., 54n Singh, Jasjit, 354n
Richard II, 56 Schell, Jonathan, 173n, 276n Singh, Jatinder J., 144n
Richardson, John, 575n Schenzler, Christoph, 23n, 336n Singh, Val, 142n, 143n
Richburg, Keith B., 303n Scheper-Hughes, Nancy, 204n, 380n Sinkovics, Rudolf R., 228n
Richter, John C., 210 Schick, David G., 509n Sinkula, James M., 241n
Riliang Qu, 386n Schilke, Oliver, 333n Sirmon, David G., 552n
Rilian Qu, 206n Schindler, Robert M., 526n, 541n Siscovick, Ilene C., 513n
Rindfleisch, Aric, 230n Schine, Eric, 194n Sithole, Isaya Muriwo, 291n
Ringberg, Torsten, 115n, 381n Schiopu, Andreea Fortuna, 345n Sivakumar, K., 348n
Rivoli, Pietra, 315, 315n Schmitt, Bernd H., 230n, 385n Skarlicki, Daniel P., 563n
Roath, Anthony S., 228n Schrage, Burkhard N., 165n Skarmeas, Dionysis, 553n
Roberts, Dexter, 304n, 372n Schroder, Bill, 344n Skaugen, Grace Rekstan, 142
Robson, Matthew J., 364n Schuiling, Isabelle, 385n Skirius, John, 57n
Rodriguez, Edel, 254 Schultz, Clifford J., II, 288n Slater, Kelly, 458
Rodriguez, Francisco Gil, 150n Schultz, Clifford J., III, 4n Slim, Carlos, 261
Rodriguez, Peter, 150n, 522n Schultz, Don E., 236n Smith, Adam, 61, 62, 64, 104, 131, 131n, 152
Rody, Raymond C., 506n Schumacher, Michael, 469 Smith, Craig S., 429n
Rogers, Everett M., 122n, 369, 369n Schuster, Camille, 139n, 552n Smith, David, 344n
Rohrabacher, Dana, 380 Schwartz, Nelson D., 398n Smith, Ethan, 194n, 359n
Rohwedder, Cecilie, 35n, 204n, 227n Schwarz, Theodore, 554n Smith, Geri, 315n
Roman, Sergio, 503n, 505n Scupin, Raymond, 102n Smith, Jeremy, 159n
Romero, Simon, 168n Searcey, Dionne, 563n Smith, Karen H., 388n
Ronkainen, Ilkka A., 385n Sebenius, James K., 553n, 569n, 575, 575n Smith, Patrick, 5n
Roosevelt, Theodore, 53, 60 Segalla, Michael, 505n Smith, Paul M., 410n
Rose, Elizabeth L., 19n, 340n Segers, Frank, 375n Smith, Peter B., 110n
Rosenbloom, Alfred, 388n Sell, Susan, 196n Smith, Timothy, 410n
Rosenthal, Elisabeth, 22n Selleck, Tom, 470 Snedden, Steve, 219
Rosenzweig, Mark R., 78n Sen, Sankar, 200n Soares, Marcelo, 256n
Rosman, Katherine, 515n Senbet, Lemma W., 23n, 336n Sokal, Robert R., 115n
Ross, Rich, 386 Seokhwa Yun, 513n Solberg, Carl Arthur, 333n, 439n, 522n
Rostow, Walt W., 399, 399n Servan-Schreiber, J. J., 30, 30n Soman, Dilip, 531n
Roth, Martin S., 472n Seshadri, Srivatsa, 144n Song, Lynda Jiwen, 500n
Rouzies, Dominique, 500n, 505n, 509n Seung Ho Park, 251n Song, X. Michael, 573n
Roy, Abhijit, 105n, 144n Shah, Neil, 560n Sood, Ashish, 369n
Roy, Jean-Paul, 352n Shakespeare, William, 59 Soo Jiuan Tan, 388n
Rugman, Alan M., 114n, 334n, 339n, 340n, 398n Shankland, Ben, 77n Sorrell, Sir Martin, 477
Ruhlen, Merrit, 115n Shaoming Zou, 349n, 352n, 355n, 496n Sotomayor, Sonia, 27
Ruiz, Salvador, 503n, 505n Shaomin Li, 251n Souchon, Anne L., 241n
Runtian Jing, 139n Shapiro, Jon M., 516n Southan, Benjamin, 249, 249n
Runzo, Joseph, 161n, 171n Sharma, Atul, 412n Sowers, Carol, 58n
Rusetski, Alexander, 332n Sharma, Subhash, 388n Speck, Sandra K. Smith, 105n
Russell, Craig J., 13n, 340n Shaw, Joy C., 165n Spekman, Robert E., 350n, 351n
Rust, Roland T., 362n Shay, Jeffrey P., 512n
Name Index 607
Srinivas, Ekkirala S., 506n Thomas, V. M., 150n Voll, Johannes C., 340n
Srinivasan, Rajiv, 398n Thompson, Craig J., 96n Voss, Hinrich, 332n
Srivastava, Mehul, 311n, 312n Thompson, Ginger, 1701n
Stalin, Joseph, 282 Thompson, Leigh, 566n Wagih, Abdel Wahab, 440
Stamborski, Al, 192n Thurow, Lester, 152, 152n, 153 Waheeduzzaman, A. N. M., 237n
Stark, Anna, 559n Tian, Kelly, 384n Wakabayashi, Mitsuru, 134n
Staw, Barry M., 372n Tihany, Laszlo, 340n Wakefield, Kirk, 511n
Steenkamp, Jan-Benedict E. M., 112n, 233n, Timmons, Heather, 476n Waldman, David A., 150n
Timmor, Yaron, 332n Walker, Marcus, 204n, 287n
385n, 387n, 388n, 390n, 424n, Timur Lang, 56 Wallace, Bruce, 5n
443n, 460n Ting-I Tsai, 46n Waller, David S., 559n
Steensma, H. Kevin, 352n Ting-Jui Chou, 436n Walls, Jan, 385n
Stephenson, George, 64 Tinsley, Catherine H., 559n Walters, Peter G. P., 271n
Stevenson, Mark, 264n Tjosvold, Dean, 559n Wan, Lisa C., 111n, 381n
Stewart, Christopher S., 295n Tokusei, Ken, 219 Wan, William P., 181n
Stewart, Jon, 119 Tor Ching Li, 75n Wang Hong, 39
Steyrer, Johannes, 150n Townsend, Janell D., 352n Wann-Yih Wu, 475n
Stojanovic, Jovan, 179 Towry, Kristy, 220n Ward, Andrew, 204n
Stone, Brad, 474n Toyama, Kentaro, 80n, 485n Warden, Clyde A., 475n
Story, Louise, 161n Toyoda, Akio, 363, 456 Warren, David, 403n
Stottinger, Barbara, 522n Triandis, Harry C., 110n Washburn, Nathan, 150n
Strange, Roger, 332n Tripathi, Smita, 348n Wassel, David, 517n
Strebel, Judi, 111n Trotsky, Leon, 68 Wasti, Syeda Arzu, 500n
Stremerch, Stefan, 237n Tsang, Alex, 505n Wasti, Syeda Nazli, 500n
Stremersch, Stefan, 206n, 369n Tsang, Eric W. K., 132n Way, Danny, 459
Stripp, William G., 552n Tsang-Sing Chan, 387n Waymire, Gregory, 220n
Strizhakova, Yuliya, 384n Tse, David K., 153n, 251n, 372n, 561n Wayne, John, 553
Strout, Erin, 507n, 510n Tse, Elizabeth, 326 Wearden, Graeme, 331n
Styles, Chris, 346n, 352n, 409n, 496n, Tseng, Gerry, 486, 487n Weber, Max, 126, 126n, 134n
568n, 569n Tsurushima, Takuo, 95 Wedel, Michel, 112n
Stynes, Tess, 337n Tucker, Kevin, 497 Weeks, William A., 511n
Subramaniam, Raj, 249 Tung, Rosalie, 102n, 332n Wei, Nasha, 22
Suk-Ching Ho, 425n Tung Chee Hwa, 574 Wei-Na Lee, 478n
Sullivan, Elisabeth A., 469n Tyler, Wat, 56 Weisberger, Bernard A., 54n
Sullivan, Sherry E., 513n Weisman, Steven R., 165n
Sully de Luque, Mary, 110n, 150n Ulijn, Jan M., 555n, 568n Weiss, Stephen E., 553n
Summers, John O., 556n Urban II, Pope, 54 Weitz, Barton A., 505n
Swaidan, Ziad, 334n Ury, William, 561n, 567n, 575, 575n Weitzel, Utz, 148n
Swait, Joffre, 384n Ustuner, Tuba, 105n, 120n Welch, Lawrence S., 340n
Swan, Joseph, 62 Usunier, Jean-Claude, 387n, 552n Wen Jiabao, 127
Swee Hoon Ang, 388n Wenyu Dou, 439n
Vaaler, Paul M., 165n Wernerfelt, Birger, 362n
Tachikawa, Tomoyuki, 310n Vachani, Sushil, 174n Wertenbrouch, Klaus, 531n
Tadesse, Solomon, 149n Vaile, R. L., 398n Wessel, David, 259n
Taewon Suh, 345n, 354n, 388n Valenzuela, Ana, 111n, 384n, 390n West, Joel, 115n
Tagliabue, John, 7n, 408n Van de Gucht, Linda M., 424n Westjohn, Stanford A., 408n, 490n
Tai-Kuang Peng, 506n Van der Lans, Ralf, 384n White, Gregory L., 290n
Takemura, Kosuke, 320n Van Gogh, Vincent, 101 White, J. Chris, 355n, 412n, 496n
Takeuchi, Riki, 513n Van Osselaer, Stijin M. J., 115n White, Joseph B., 361n, 363n
Talukdar, Debabrata, 262n Varman, Rohit, 388n White, Ronald D., 4n
Tang, Esther P. Y., 385n Vatikiotis, Michael, 169n Whitehouse, Mark, 35n
Tang, Sara, 554n Veera, R. V., 566n Wilcox, Keith, 200n
Tannen, Deborah, 565n Veeraraghavan, Rajeesh, 80n, 485n Wilderom, Celeste P. M., 150n
Tansuhaj, Patriya, 19n Veldkamp, Bernard P., 233n Wilke, John R., 544n
Tanure, Betania, 150n Venaik, Sunil, 353n Wilkinson, Ian, 412n
Tarquinio, J. Alex, 426n Vence, Deborah L., 385n Wilkinson, Timothy J., 352n
Tashiro, Hiroko, 219n Venkatesan, M., 139n Wilkinson, Tracy, 288n
Tata, Jasmine, 506n Venkatraman, Meera, 420n Williams, David B., 404n
Tavassoli, Nader T., 475n Verbeke, Alain, 340n, 355n Williams, Patti, 112n, 475n
Tavernise, Sabrina, 162n Verbeke, Willem, 503n, 505n Williamson, Nicholas C., 345n
Tavossoli, Nader T., 364n Verleigh, Peeter W. J., 387n, 388n William the Conqueror, 54
Taylor, Charles R., 355n, 462n Verrier, Richard, 359n Wind, Yoram (Jerry), 20n, 332n, 480n
Taylor, Edward, 538n Victoria, Queen, 64 Wines, Michael, 201n
Taylor, Sully, 339n, 515n Vida, Irena, 234n, 355n Winfield, Nick, 62n
Teegen, Hildy, 174n Vila, Natalia, 336n Winfrey, Oprah, 469
Tellis, Gerard J., 121n, 237n, 340n, Virant, Vesna, 335n Wingfield, Nick, 338n
Viswanathan, Madhu, 315n Wing-Gar Cheng, 425n
369n, 372n Vitell, Scott J., 144n Winterich, Karen Page, 111n
Teng, Lefa, 473n Vitello, Paul, 118n Witkowski, Terrance H., 251n
Tenywa, Gerald, 76n Vitzthum, Carlta, 125n, 145n, 453n Witt, Michael A., 152n
Terjesen, Siri, 142n, 143n Vizjak, Andrej, 290 Witteloostuijn, Arjen van, 354n
Theirry, Henk, 150n Vliert, Evert van de, 104n Woellert, Lorraine, 186n
Theodosiou, Marios, 333n Vogl, A. J., 566n Wong, Edward, 314n
Thomas, Andrew R., 352n Voldberda, Henk W., 339n Wong, Ho Yin, 454n
Thomas, Jacquelyn S., 333n
Thomas, Manoj, 526n
608 Name Index
Wong, Nancy, 230n Yamazaki, Tomoko, 109n Yung-Chih Lien, 332n
Wood, Donald F., 449n Yan Zhang, 353n, 522n Yunxia Zhu, 555n
Woods, Tiger, 469 Yaprak, Attila, 522n Yuschenko, Viktor, 290
Woodside, Arch G., 468n Yardley, Jim, 68n
Woody, Todd, 306n Ya-Ru Chen, 563n Zabarenko, Deborah, 213n
Wooster, Rossitza B., 257, 354n Yasodhar, Naga, 80n, 485n Zaboj, Pavel, 523
Worm, Verner, 559n Ye, Juliet, 443n Zaheer, Akbar, 127n, 351n
Wortham, Jenna, 488n Yeang Soo Ching, 566n Zaheer, Srilata, 127n, 351n
Worthen, Ben, 7n Yeniyurt, Sengun, 352n Zaidman, Nurit, 553n
Worthley, Reg, 118n Yigang Pan, 347n, 372n Zairi, Mohammed, 412n
Wrage, Alexandra, 151 Yi He, 233n Zak, Paul J., 571n
Wright, Allan D., 64n Yih Hwai Lee, 384n, 475n Zaltman, Gerald, 122n, 220n, 231n
Wright, Orville, 67 Yi-jung Chen, 150n Zamiska, Nicholas, 78n
Wright, Tom, 45n Yim, Chi Kin (Bennett), Zander, Lena, 23n, 354n
Wrong, Michela, 162n Zander, Udo, 23n, 354n
Wylie, Bob, 497 305n, 372n Zedillo, Ernesto, 60–61, 162
Wymbs, Cliff, 354n Yin, Eden, 121n, 237n, 345n, 369n Zelller-Bruhn, Mary E., 116n
Ying Ho, 127n, 351n, 503n Zhang, Xin, 419
Xiaoyan Yang, 475n Ying Zhao, 390n Zhengming Qian, 337n, 340n
Xiin Liu, 332n Yinlong Zhang, 111n, 384n Zhilin Yang, 384n, 439n
Xin, Katherine, 127n, 351n, 571n Yiu, Daphne W., 332n Zhilong Tian, 559n
Xin Zhao, 457n Yi-Zheng Shi, 496n Zhou, Joe Nan, 349n
Xu, Linda, 420 Yong Keun Yoo, 131n Zhou, Kevin Zheng, 251n, 341n
Xuehua, Wang, 384n Yoo, Boonghee, 109n Zhu, Rui (Juliet), 469n
Xueming Luo, 496n Yorkston, Eric, 114n Zhu Hong, 323
Young, J. T., 78n Zif, Jehiel, 332n
Yadong Luo, 149n, 190n, 352n, 354n Young, Louise, 412n Zimmerman, Ann, 334n
Yakabuski, Konrad, 266n Youn-Kyun Kim, 385n Ziobro, Paul, 337n
Yakova, Nevena, 339n Yu, Julie H., 127n, 351n, 355n, 503n Zuohao Chun Zhang, 355n
Yalcinkaya, Goksel, 237n, 425n Yukl, Gary, 506n Zuzanex, Jiri, 365n
Yalin, Bai, 419 Yu Li, 457 Zworykin, Vladimir, 68
Yung, Katherine, 151n, 204n, 270n
SUBJECT INDEX
Abercrombie & Fitch, 219 Aiwa, 528 market metrics and, 316–318
Acer, 397 ALADI. See Latin American Integration Association post-World War II, 29
Achievement, 135 trade associations in, 318–320
Adaptation (LAIA) trade shows and, 409
Alcohol consumption, 109 Vietnam and, 313–314
cultural electives and, 128–129 Alibaba, 354 Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN),
cultural exclusives and, 129 Alien Claims Act, 212
cultural imperatives and, 127–128 Alien status, of foreign business, 14 277, 318–320
degree of, 127 Al-Jazeera, 482 AT&T, 523, 565
e-commerce and, 448 Alps, 66 Austria, 204, 206
to environmental differences, 16 Alternative-fuel cars, 370–371 Authority, management styles and, 132–133
overview of, 126–127 Aluminum Company of America (Alcoa), 336 AVG Letter of Credit Management LLC, 546
of products, 366–368, 373–377 Amazon.com, 346, 426 Avon Products Inc., 251, 425
requirements and, 363–364 American Airlines, 349, 379 AvtoVaz, 117
standardization vs., 332–334, 394–395 The American Challenge (Servan-Schreiber), 30 Azerbaijan, 290
Adidas, 525 American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI), 406
Administered pricing American Free Trade Area (AFTA), 32 Back translation, 232
cartels and, 542–544 American Society for Quality Control, 406 Balance of payments, 33–35
explanation of, 542 Amnesty International, 175 Balance-of-payments statement, 33–34
government-influenced, 544 Amsterdam Treaty, 282, 283 Ballad of East and West (Kipling), 576
Administrative costs, 529 Amway Corporation, 39, 251, 425, 428, 429 Baltic States, 288, 289
Ad valorem duties, 529 Analogy, 237–239 Bangladesh, 164, 314
Advertisers Ancient Greece, 134, 163 Barney’s New York, 8
in China, 461 Anderson Worldwide, 227 Barriers to entry
in Russia, 461 Angola, 171
top global, 460 Anheuser-Busch (AB), 192 for consumer services, 380
Advertising. See also Media planning/analysis Animosity, targeted, 167 cultural barriers as, 381–382
to children, 204 Antiboycott law, 211 data flow restrictions as, 381, 409
communication process and, 467–471 Antibribery law, 209 intellectual property protection as, 381
comparative, 471 Anticapitalist protesters, 48–50 protectionism as, 380–381
cultural diversity and, 475–476 Antidumping penalties, 41–42, 46 Barter, 539–540
expenditures on, 457, 460 Antiglobalization protests, 48–50 Barter houses, 540
international control of, 491–492 Antisweatshop campaign, 49 Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary
legal issues related to, 471–473 Antitrust laws, 208, 210–211
linguistic limitations of, 473–475 Apple Computer, 10, 171, 338, 374, 385, 397, 523 Movement of Hazardous Wastes, 161
literacy and, 468, 475 Arab Common Market, 294 BATNA. See Best alternative to a negotiated
media limitations and, 476 Arab Emirates, 411
media planning and, 477–485, 488–489 Arab Free Trade Area, 294 agreement (BATNA)
product and cost limitations of, 477 Arab League, 211 Bayer, 224
radio, 473, 479, 481 Arab world. See also Islam; Muslims Beijing Automobile Works Group, 425
strategy and goals of, 462–463, 467 Beijing Conciliation Center, 191
taxes on, 473 boycott of Israel, 171 Beijing Toronto International Hospital, 380
television, 204, 472–473, 478, 479, 481–483 business rituals in, 128 Belarus, 290
trends in global, 457, 460–461 business styles in, 138–139 Belgium, 206
word-of-mouth, 484–485 gift giving in, 112 Beliefs, 116–117
Advertising agencies, 489–490 high-context culture in, 153 BEMs. See Big emerging markets (BEMs)
Advertising campaigns pilgrimages in, 113 Benetton, 431
execution of, 489–491 Aravind Eye Care System, 315 Ben & Jerry’s Ice Cream, 8
steps in, 461–462 Arbitration, 191, 193 Berg Electronics, 267
Aeroflot, 462 Archer Daniels Midland Company, 543–544 Best alternative to a negotiated agreement
Aesthetics, 115–116 ARCO, 9
Affiliation, 135 Argentina (BATNA), 567
Afghanistan, 4, 171, 213, 294 economic development in, 251, 270 Best Western International, 348
Africa. See also specific countries Mercosur and, 269 Big emerging markets (BEMs). See also Developing
economic development in, 32, 292, 294 Arial Global Reach, 377
multinational market development activities in, Aristocracy, 163 countries; Emerging markets
Armenia, 290 characteristics of, 262–263
291–293 ASEAN. See Association of Southeast Asian Nations in Latin America, 263–271
political climate in, 162–163 South Africa as, 293
post-World War II, 29 (ASEAN) Billboards, 477, 478, 488–489
African Union, 292–293 ASEAN+3, 319, 320 Bills of exchange, 546–547
African Virtual University, 293–294 ASEAN Free Trade Area, 318, 319 Bimbo, 8, 9
After-sale services, 406–408 ASEAN Vision 2020, 319 Birth control, 105
Agency for International Development (AID), 28, 182 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), 32, Birthrates, 97
Agent middlemen, 430, 437 Black & Decker Manufacturing Company, 336
Agent’s fees, 149–150 277, 320 Blizzard Entertainment, 201
Aging population, 76–78 Asia Pacific Region. See also specific countries Blocked currency, 40
Agricultural subsidies, 42 Bloomingdale’s, 483
AIDS. See HIV/AIDS bottom-of-the-pyramid markets and, 314–316 Blue Cross, 408
Airbus Industrie, 3, 167, 353, 411 economic growth in, 32, 293, 304, 400, 401 Blue Diamond Growers Association, 463
Air conditioner market, 21 financial crisis of 1997–1998 in, 320 BMW, 7–9
Aircraft industry, 3, 398, 401, 411 Four Asian Tigers in, 303 Boeing, 3–5, 10, 151, 153, 167, 353, 398, 411, 575
Airline industry, 4, 361 Greater China and, 304–308, 320–328 Bolivia, 164, 269
India and, 311–312 Book of Songs, 107
Japan and, 308–310 Bosch-Siemens, 63
management styles in, 132 Boston Tea Party, 54
Bottom-of-the-pyramid markets (BOPMs), 314–316
609
610 Subject Index
Boycotts, 39–40, 211 Business-to-consumer (B2C) marketing, 360. Chile, 254, 269
Brand names See also Products and services China
importance of, 384 Buyer panels, 235 administrative divisions in, 321
international marketing and, 9 Buztronics Inc., 33 advertising in, 472, 492
protection of, 194 (See also Intellectual property air conditioner market in, 21
Cadbury, 331 antidumping penalties on, 41
rights) Cake mixes, 367–369 Beijing-Tianjin region in, 324–325, 327–328
Brands Call centers, 377 belief system in, 116–117
Calvin Klein, 49, 525 boycott of Canada, 39
county-of-origin effect and, 387–389 Campbell’s Soup Company, 303, 376, 532 bribery in, 210
global, 382–383, 385–386 Canada business customs in, 127
in international markets, 382–390 competition from, 5
list of top, 382–383 Chinese boycott of, 39 Cox Report and, 214
national, 387 economy in, 264 cultural values in, 112–113, 133
private, 390 metric system and, 403 currency value in, 161
Brazil NAFTA and, 8, 9, 263–268, 271 dialects in, 322, 323
business customs in, 127 negotiating style in, 560–561 distribution channels in, 421
consumer products in, 17 pharmaceutical purchases from, 424 diversity within, 305, 320–328
diaper prices in, 521 product comparison law in, 204, 206 economic data reports from, 224–225
economic growth in, 32, 251–253, 270 trade with, 28 economic growth in, 32, 189, 251, 304–305
labeling requirements in, 376 trade with Cuba, 185 electronics market in, 528
Mercosur and, 269 Canon, 13 energy consumption in, 73
military tank exports from, 376–377 Capital account, 33 ethnic Koreans in, 324
negotiating style in, 560, 572 Capitalism feng shui and, 117
perception of time in, 139 communitarian, 152 financial services in, 379
piracy rates in, 195 individualistic, 152 foreign investments in, 179–180, 303
product marketing in, 374 spread of, 28–29 free trade between Taiwan and, 46
trade with, 36 CARE, 175 gender imbalance in, 78, 107
Bribery. See also Corruption Caribbean Community and Common Market gift giving in, 112
agent’s fees and, 149–150 Hong Kong and, 306–307, 328
in China, 210 (CARICOM), 268, 271 housing designs in, 22
in collectivistic and high power distance Caribbean Free Trade Association, 271 information technology in, 305–306
Carlsberg, 174 intellectual property rights in, 195, 197–199
countries, 148 Carnation, 7 Internet issues in, 201
cultural context of, 149 Carrefour, 420, 425, 426, 521 investments in developing economies, 32
extortion and, 149 Carrier, 207 Japanese influence in, 323, 324
Foreign Corrupt Practices Act and, 43, 149–150, Cartels, 542–544 joint ventures in, 178, 352
Cartier, 524–525 legal system in, 13, 186, 189–190, 305
209, 210 Cash in advance, 547 manufacturing in, 270, 325, 400
in India, 312 Caste system, 105 marketing laws in, 204, 206
political payoffs as, 181 Caterpillar Tractor Company, 171, 227, 385 marketing opportunities in, 328
subornation and lubrication and, 149 CCTV (China), 478 marketing research in, 227
Western focus on, 146–149 Celadon Trucking Services, 267 natural gas from Iran in, 170
Bridgestone/Firestone Tires, 456 Cell phones. See Mobile phones negotiating style in, 327–328, 559, 570, 572
British Commonwealth, 280 Celtel, 15 northeastern, 322–324, 327
British Petroleum, 9 CEMEX, 9, 168, 315 Opium War and, 55
Brugel, 374 Center for Combating Unfair Competition Panama Canal Zone and, 54
Budêjovicky Budvar N.P., 192 Pearl River Delta in, 325–326, 328
Budweiser, 8 (Germany), 207 piracy and counterfeiting in, 195, 196, 200
Bulgaria, 286, 288 Center for International Business Education and political reform in, 164
Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS), 212, 215 pollution issues and, 68–70
Burger King, 8, 178, 455 Research (Michigan State University), 245 population growth in, 75
Burkas, 109 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 164, 244 pricing strategies in, 541
Burma, 212 Centralized organizations, 356–357 product homologation in, 364
Burroughs Corporation, 501 Cereal Partners Worldwide, 350 product packaging in, 374–375
Business ethics CFE, 265 public relations in, 457
bribery and, 146–150 Change, 121–122, 429. See also Cultural change; quotas in, 38
corruption and, 144–145 railroads in, 395
Corruption Perception Index and, 147 Innovation refrigerator makers in, 361
culture and, 152–153 Channels of distribution. See also International refund policies in, 429
environmental protection and, 69–70 rural areas in, 326–327
extortion and, 149 marketing channels Russian influence in, 324
Foreign Corrupt Practices Act and, 43, capital requirements for, 436 Shanghai and Yangtze River Delta in, 325, 328
character and, 436–437 Taiping Rebellion and, 55–56
149–150, 210 continuity and, 437–438 Taiwan and, 307–308, 328
principles of, 151 control and, 436 television in, 478, 481
social responsibility and, 150–151 cost and, 435 Three Gorges Dam, 67, 68
Business services coverage and, 436 Tibet and, 305
after-sale, 406–408 management of, 438–441 top advertisers in, 461
revenue from, 406 selection of, 435 trade with, 28, 54, 55, 304, 305
types of, 408–409 Channels-of-distribution structure. See also work hours in, 135
Business Software Alliance, 195 World Trade Organization and, 12, 45–46, 167,
Business-to-business markets International marketing channels
business services and, 406–409 explanation of, 421 303, 305
demand in, 395–401 import-oriented, 421–422 China Telcom, 307
on Internet, 441, 442 in Japan, 422–424
quality and global standards and, 401–406 trends in, 424–427
relationship marketing and, 412 The Chaos Scenario (Garfield), 477
trade shows and, 409–411 Chevrolet, 364
Chief America, 8
Children, television advertising to, 204
Subject Index 611
Chiquita Brands International, 159 efficiency and, 131 Cox Report (1999), 214
Chivas USA, 8 organizing for global, 355–357 Cracker Jack, 41
Chrysler Corporation, 473 parallel imports and, 523–526 Croatia, 164, 286
Church’s Chicken, 8 quality and, 360–361 Cross-cultural analysis, 18
Cisco Systems, 180, 407, 412, 441, 442 sales force and, 496 CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) Europe, 151
CITGO, 8 Competitive market analysis, 584–585 Cuba
Citibank, 10, 212, 385, 540 Complementary marketing, 433
CitiGroup, 10 Computers, 177, 397. See also Technology trade sanctions on, 170, 171, 185
C-Itoh, 350 Computer software, 195. See also Technology trade shows and, 410
Civil law, 186 Concessions, 574 Cultural analysis, 580–581
Clean float, 47 Conciliation, 191 Cultural borrowing, 119–120
Client followers, 408 Conference Board, 9, 352, 514 Cultural causation theory, 310
Climate Confiscation, 168 Cultural change
Confucian philosophy, 56 cultural borrowing and, 119–120
effects of, 63–64 Consortia, 352–353 explanation of, 118–119
map of world, 86–87 Consumer behavior family size and, 96–97
product accommodations for, 364, 402 cultural values and, 98–99, 111–113 planned and unplanned, 122
Climate change, 161 trends in, 5 resistance to, 121–122
CNN, 482 Consumers, country stereotypes held by, 388–389 Cultural conditioning, 16
Coach, 197 Consumption Cultural congruence, 122
Coca-Cola Company, 10, 13, 14–15, 22, 104, 166, in Americas, 260 Cultural differences
culture and, 98–99 adaptation and, 381–382
169, 212, 332–333, 366, 376, 384, 385, 436, national comparisons of, 99, 299 adjustments to, 15–16
454, 469, 470, 477, 516, 518, 525, 539 Consumption patterns advertising and, 475–476
Code law in Asia Pacific region, 318 affirmative acceptance and, 126
explanation of, 186–188 in Europe/Africa/Middle East region, 299 in communication of bad news, 242
in Japan, 193 Continental Can Company, 178 decision making and, 132–133
Colgate-Palmolive, 259, 299, 470, 471, 517 Contracts economic unions and, 278
Collectivism, 109–111, 132, 148 arbitration clauses in, 193 in European Union, 278
Colombia, 46, 60, 269, 439–440 common vs. code law and, 188 expatriate awareness of, 515–516
Colonialism, 104, 163 e-commerce and, 203 in family size, 75
Columbia Pictures, 8 jurisdictional clauses in, 190 in health care, 224
Commerce Control List (CCL), 215 Contractual agreements in investment strategies, 95
Commercial law. See also Legal environment explanation of, 346 labor-management relations and, 152
antitrust laws and, 208 franchising as, 347–349 marketing and understanding, 103
within countries, 203–208 licensing as, 347 negotiation behavior and, 140–141, 553, 554–564
dispute resolution and, 191, 193–194 Controllable elements, 12 in perceptions of time, 16, 139–140
green marketing and, 207–208 Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of in perceptions of women in management,
jurisdiction issues in, 190
marketing laws and, 204, 206–207 Foreign Arbitral Awards, 193 141–144
Commercial News USA, 348 Copyrights, 196. See also Intellectual property rights in personal space, 16–17
Common law, 186–188 Core components, of products, 377–378 product components and, 373–375
Common market, 279 Corporate planning, 338 in responses to marketing research, 228–229
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), 280, Corporate social responsibility, 151 sales force motivation and, 18, 506–508
289–291, 401, 409 Corporate sponsorships, 456–457 sales force training and, 505–506
Commonwealth of nations, 280 Corporations, as social institutions, 109 self-reference criterion and, 16–18
Communication process Corruption. See also Bribery; Business ethics sensitivity and tolerance and, 18, 118
advertising and, 467–471 in view of bribery, 149
cultural diversity and, 475–476 attempts to curb, 147 Cultural electives, 128–129
legal constraints and, 471–473 in India, 312 Cultural exclusives, 129
linguistic limitations and, 473–475 international rankings of, 147–149 Cultural imperatives, 127–128
media limitations and, 476 overview of, 144–145 Cultural nationalism, 165
production and cost limitation and, 477 Corruption Perception Index (CPI), 147–148, 153 Cultural values
Communications. See also Language issues Costa Rica, 267–269 affiliation and social acceptance and, 135
blackouts in, 14 Costco, 9, 425, 431 birth control and, 105
culture and, 114–115 Council for Mutual Economic Assistance business practices and, 126
elements of, 135–136 consumer behavior and, 98–99, 111–113
face-to-face, 136–137, 552 (COMECON), 279 dimensions of, 109–110
high- or low-context culture and, 136–137 Council of Ministers (EU), 284 gift giving and, 112
Internet, 137–138 Counterfeiting, 194–196 individualism/collectivism index and, 109–111,
map of global, 90 Countertrade
motivation and, 507–508 132, 148, 153
nontask sounding and, 570–571 explanation of, 539–540 language and, 115
word-of-mouth, 111 Internet and, 540–541 masculinity/femininity index and, 110
Communism, 28, 104, 189, 401 problems related to, 540 personal life and, 134–135
Communist Party of China, 305 Countervailing duty, 537–538 power and achievement and, 135
Communitarian capitalism, 152 Country notebook power distance index and, 109, 111, 132, 153
Compadre, 127, 128 cultural analysis in, 580–581 security and mobility and, 134
Comparative advertising, 471 economic analysis in, 582–584 uncertainty avoidance index and, 110, 111
Compensation plans market audit and competitive market analysis in, Culture
for expatriates, 508 beliefs and, 116–117
global comparisons of, 509 584–585 birthrate and, 97
for global sales force, 508–511 overview of, 580 consumption patterns and, 98
global vs. local, 509 preliminary marketing plan in, 585–587 corporations and, 108–109
Competition Country-of-origin effect (COE) definitions of, 102–103
culture and, 152–153 explanation of, 387 dynamic nature of, 118–119
global brands and, 387–389 e-commerce and, 443, 448
Country stereotypes, 388–389
Covisint, 426
612 Subject Index
Culture—Cont. Department of Agriculture, U.S., 538 economic growth in, 32
education and, 108 Department of Commerce, U.S., 182, 212, 226, overview of, 288
effects of, 96–97 privatization in, 401
families and, 107 244–246, 250, 328, 362, 403, 404, 438 trade shows and, 409–411
geography and, 103–104 Department of Defense, U.S., 411 East Germany, 177
government and, 108–109 Department of Justice, U.S., 211 East India Company, 55
healthcare systems and, 106 Department of State, U.S., 175–176 Eastman Kodak, 12–13, 477
high- and low-context, 136–137, 153 Derived demand, 398 eBay, 95, 201, 426, 484
history and, 54, 62, 104 Deutsche Telekom, 523 Ecolabeling, 364
knowledge of, 18 Developing countries. See also Emerging markets; e-commerce
management style and, 126, 129–131 adaptation and, 448
media and, 108 specific countries culture and, 443, 448
overview of, 96 big emerging markets in, 262–263 delivery options and, 448
pervasive impact of, 96–99 categories of, 251–252 in European Union, 202–203
political economy and, 104 demand in, 259–262 explanation of, 441
products and, 366–373 economic development in, 250–251 impact on traditional retailing of, 426
relationship-oriented vs. information-oriented, 154 growth factors in, 253–254 local contact and, 448
religion and, 107–108 information technology in, 255 payment and, 448
rituals and, 113–114 infrastructure in, 256 promotion and, 448
similar-but-different aspect of, 120–121 in Latin America, 263–272 taxation of, 202–203
social institutions and, 105 marketing in, 257–259, 271–272 in United States, 442
strategic thinking and, 152–153 objectives of, 255 Economic analysis, 582–584
symbols and, 114–116 Diagnostic Products Corporation (DPC), 210 Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), 285–286
technology and, 105 Diamond cartel, 543 Economic boom of 1990s, 3
thought processes and, 117–118 Dictatorship, 163 Economic Community of West African States
Diffusion, of innovation, 369–372
Culture Matters (Harrison and Huntington), 154 Direct exporting, 345 (ECOWAS), 291
Currency values, 531–532 Direct foreign investment, 267, 353–354 Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO), 294
Current account, 33–34 Direct mail advertising, 483 Economic development
Customs administration, 265 Direct marketing, 428–429
Customs union, 279 Directory of American Firms Operating in Foreign big emerging markets and, 262–272
Cybercrime, 177 demand and, 259–262
Cyberlaw Countries, 246 environmental protection and, 70–71
Directory of United States Importers and United explanation of, 251
in China, 189 factors of, 253–254
contract validity and, 203 States Exporters, 246 foreign investment and, 168
domain names and cybersquatters and, 201–202 Direct sales, 346 information technology and, 255
jurisdiction of disputes and, 203 Dirty float, 47 infrastructure and, 256
overview of, 201 Disney, 7, 222–223, 334, 360, 431, 453, 478 Internet and, 255
tax collection and, 202–203 Disneyland, 275, 359 in late 1990s to present, 32
Cybersquatters (CSQs), 201–202 Distance from English scores, 156–157 literary rate and, 108
Cyberterrorism, 177 Distribution channel systems, 257 marketing development and, 250–251, 257–259,
Czech Republic, 128, 177, 189, 192, 251, 288, 428, 479 Distribution patterns. See also International
271–272
Dabur India, 353 marketing channels natural resources and, 74
DaimlerChrysler, 426, 442 overview of, 427 objectives of, 255
Daitenho, 423 in retailing, 428–430 post-World War II, 29
Dams, 67 Distribution structure. See also International stages of, 251–253, 399
Dannon, 463 in twentieth century, 28–32
Data marketing channels in twenty-first century, 28
explanation of, 421 Economic nationalism, 165–166
primary, 226–233 import-oriented, 421–422 Economic risks
secondary, 223–226, 245–247 Japanese, 422–424 exchange controls and, 168–169
transborder flow of, 381, 409 trends in, 424–427, 496 import restrictions and, 169
Death of a Salesman (Miller), 501 Docks de France, 425 labor problems and, 170
De Beers Company, 543 Doha Round, 46 local-content laws and, 169
Decentering, 232–233 Dole Food Company, 159 price controls and, 169
Decentralized organizations, 356–357 Dollar drafts, 547 tax controls and, 169
Decision making Domestication Economics and Statistics Administration (Department
cultural differences and, 132–133 explanation of, 168
sharing in, 130 planned, 181 of Commerce), 244
Decoding, 467, 470–471 Domestic environment, 12–13 Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU), 246
Deflation, 530 Domestic middlemen. See Home-country middlemen Ecuador, 42, 269
Delhaize, 425 Dominican Republic, 60, 267–269 Eddie Bauer, 426
Delivery options, e-commerce, 448 Dominican Republic–Central American Free Trade Education
Dell Computer, 137, 333, 346, 426, 441
Delphi, 252 Agreement (DR-CAFTA), 267–269 government influence on, 109
Delta Airlines, 349 Domino’s Pizza, 348 as social institution, 108
Demand DPC (Tianjin) Ltd., 210 technology and emphasis on, 399
in business-to-business markets, 395–401 DR-CAFTA. See Dominican Republic–Central Efficiency, competition and, 131
derived, 398 Egalitarianism, 115
in developing countries, 259–262 American Free Trade Agreement Egypt, 171, 294, 440
technology and, 399–401 (DR-CAFTA) El Corte Inglés, 425–426
volatility of, 399 Dual-purpose technology, 213 Electrolux, 363
Democracy, 104, 146, 163 Dubai, 295 Electronic Request for Item Classification
Demographics. See Population Due process of law, 15
Denmark, 132, 204 Dumping, 41–42, 46, 537–538 (ERIC), 216
Dun & Bradstreet, 438 Elle, 481
El Niño, 86
East African Community (EAC), 291 El Salvador, 267–269
Eastern Europe. See also specific countries
collection of market data from, 224
Subject Index 613
e-mail, 137, 138. See also Internet European Coal and Steel Community, 275, 283 Exports/exporting. See also Trade; Trade barriers
e-mail marketing lists, 235 European Commission, 203, 204, 284, 364, 381 categories of U.S., 394, 395
Embargoes, 39–40 European Common Market, 280, 282 cost of, 529
Embedded research, 235 European Community, 30, 263 direct and indirect, 345
Embraer, 252 European Court of Justice (ECJ), 282, 284, 285 as market-entry strategy, 345–346
Emerging markets European Economic Area, 280, 282 restrictions on, 39, 212–213
European Economic Community (EEC), 276, 279, 280 of technology, 394
big, 262–263 European Free Trade Area (EFTA), 280, 281
Caribbean Community and Common Market European Parliament, 6, 284–285 Export Trading Company Act (ETC) Act, 433
European Patent Convention (EPC), 198 Export Yellow Pages, 246
agreement and, 268, 271 European School of Management, 517 Expropriation, 62, 168
categories of, 251–252 European Union (EU) Extortion, 149
demand in, 259–262 Extraterritoriality of U.S. laws, 211–212
economic development in, 32, 250–251 agriculture and monetary issues in, 277–278 Exxon, 12
growth factors in, 253–254 antitrust laws in, 208
information technology in, 255 cartels and, 544 Face-to-face communication, 136–137, 552
infrastructure and development in, 256 cultural differences among members of, 120, 278 Fairness, 151
in Latin America, 269–271 cyberlaw and, 203 Families
marketing development in, 257–259, 271–272 declaration of, 285
mobile phones in, 14, 15 e-commerce in, 202–203 in China, 78
North American Free Trade Agreement and, economic and monetary union and, 285–286 expatriate, 515
environmental protection and, 69 size of, 96–97
263–267, 271 establishment of, 275, 276, 279, 280 as social institutions, 105, 107
objectives of, 255 expansion of, 6, 286–288 Family planning, 75, 105
Southern Cone Free Trade Agreement and, 269 function of, 277, 280, 296 Farmer’s Friend, 488
United States–Central American Free Trade green marketing in, 207–208 Fascism, 104
industrial product standards and, 403 Fear, targeted, 167
Agreement–Dominican Republic Free Trade institutions of, 284–285 Fedders, 21
Agreement and, 267–269 intellectual property rights in, 198 Fedders Xinle, 21
Encarta, 62 Internet regulation in, 473 Federal Emergency Management Agency
Encoding, 467, 468, 470 local-content requirement in, 169
Encyclopedia Britannica, 249 marketing laws and, 206–207 (FEMA), 435
Encyclopedia of Global Industries, 246 membership statistics for, 281 Federal Trade Commission, 204
Endangered species, 39 Mercosur and, 269 FedEx, 249, 427
Energy consumption, world, 71–73 metric system and, 404, 405 Feedback, in communication process, 468, 470
Energy Group, 8 product bans by, 178 Feng shui, 117
English Channel, 65 Product Liability Directive, 405 Ferragamo, 388
English language quotas in, 38 Fertility rates, 74, 97, 109
as business language, 518 sovereignty and, 160 Fidelity Investments, 95, 122
Internet communication and, 137 tax policies of, 225 Field surveys, 230
variations in, 120, 553 trade issues with, 32, 46, 159 Finland, 204
Enron, 4, 95 transportation network in, 450 Firestone tires, 7, 8
Entrepreneurship, 253 Turkey and, 6 First Opium War, 55
Environmental issues World Trade Organization and, 45 Fisher Price, 267
concerns related to, 67–69 Excelcia Foods, 353 Fishing industry, 7
in foreign markets, 15–16 Exchange controls, 168–169 Floating exchange rates, 47
green marketing and, 207–208, 364–365 Exchange rates Fluor Corp., 151, 398
social responsibility and ethics of, 69–70 floating, 47 Ford Motor Company, 8, 10, 332, 336, 353, 375, 426,
Equities markets, 95 fluctuations in, 530–532
ESPN, 482, 483 Exclusive distribution, 524–525 442, 463, 496, 565, 566
Estée Lauder Companies, 285 Expatriates. See also Foreign assignments Forecasting, political risk, 178–180
Estonia, 289 compensation systems for, 508 Foreign assignments. See also Expatriates
Ethics. See Business ethics cost of, 500, 512
Ethnic violence, 288 cultural awareness in, 515–516 commitment to, 498–499
Ethnocentrism early return rate of, 513–514 expatriate repatriation following, 514–515
country-of-origin effects and, 388 explanation of, 498 overcoming reluctance to accept, 512–513
effects of, 17 foreign language skills of, 518–519 reducing rate of early returns from, 513–514
explanation of, 16 recruitment of, 498–499 Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (1977), 43, 149–150,
eTrade Finance Platform (ETFP), 546 reluctance to accept foreign assignments and,
e-trading, 95, 111 209, 210, 506
Euro, 286, 299 512–513 Foreign-country middlemen, 434
EuroDisney, 297, 359 repatriation of, 508, 514–515 Foreign Credit Insurance Association (FCIA), 182
Euromonitor International, 245 on sales force, 496, 497 Foreign environment
EuroPacific Ltd., 219 virtual, 499
Europe. See also specific countries women as, 142 elements of, 13–15
advertising constraints in, 471–473, 491 Expert opinion, 236–238 uncontrollables in, 13
aging population in, 77, 78 Export Administration Regulations (EAR), 212, 215 Foreign exchange, 40
agricultural subsidies in, 42 Export Control Classification Number (ECCN), 215 Foreign investment
compensation plans in, 509 Exporters Encyclopedia, 246 direct, 267, 353–354
economic unification of, 120 Export-Import Bank (Ex-Im Bank), 182, 245 government policies to encourage, 182
gift giving in, 112 Export License Application and Information Network NAFTA and, 265, 267
Marshall Plan for, 28–29 risk reduction and, 180–181
multinational market groups in, 280–284 (ELAIN), 216 sovereignty and, 161
post-World War II, 28, 262–263, 275 Export licenses Foreign policy
private brands in, 390 international marketing and, 12–13
promotion of corporate social responsibility in, 151 procedure to acquire, 216 Monroe Doctrine and, 59–60
retailers in, 425–426 regulations for, 212–213 Foreign Policy, 161, 178
work counsels in, 509 Export management companies (EMCs), 431–432 Foreign sales corporations (FSCs), 434
Foreign trade zones (FTZs), 536–537
Forfaiting, 547
Formality, 138–139
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