4. Ascertain the “length” of steel reinforcing bars that will be ordered
and use the appropriate column. Perform the computation of the
formula indicated in the appropriate cell;
5. Sum up the figures (only 1 figure for square, 2 for rectangles) in the
column of the chosen length of rebar. Indicate the total at the last
row. This figure represents the total number of lengths (pieces) of
rebars of that particular length needed for the fabrication of footing
bars.
o Vertical Rebars for Columns. Computations for vertical steel reinforcement
bars for columns requirements are done as shown in the following example:
Vertical bars of columns
ESTIMATING PROCEDURES SAMPLE CALCULATION
Only one typical design:
1. Study the Foundation Plan and find No. of columns: 12
out the number of columns to be
erected. Classify or group columns Size of Rebar : 12mm
by the same length or design.
No of bars per col. : 4 pcs
2. From the details of columns,
determine the number and the sizes Height of typical col : 4.20 m
of the vertical bars used in each
grouping of columns. Adjusted length of the vertical
bars : 4.20 + 0.30 m
3. Determine the length of a typical = 4.50 m
column in each groupings by
computing the distance between the Vertical bars length : 4.50 m x
bottom of the footing, to the top of No. of vertical bars : 4/col
the highest beam or girder supported Total length / col : 18.0 m
by the column
Total length / col : 18.0 m x
4. Calculate the length of each vertical
bar by adding to the height of the No. of columns : 12 cols
column the factor found in the table
below Total length of rebar : 216.0 m
5. Compute the total length of all the Total length of rebar : 216.0 m
bars in each column by multiplying
the adjusted length of the vertical bar add: 10% : 21.6 m
by the number of vertical bars in
each column Final length Rqmt : 237.6 m
6. Compute the total length of bars for Adjudged economical lengnth
all the columns by multiplying the
total length of bars per column by the
number of colums
7. Provide a safe percentage for
wastage: e.g. 10% of total length.
8. Determine most economical length
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of steel bar to procure; determine the of rebar : 6m
number of pieces to be ordered for
the vertical bars of the columns. Total number required:
Round off decimals to the next
higher whole number. 237.6m / 6 = 39.6 pieces
Rounded off to = 40 pieces of
12mm reinforcement bars of
6m length.
As indicated in the opening paragraph of this section, in many instances,
the ends of bars would be bent or terminate in hooks. For Column vertical
bars, bends are needed to fasten the vertical bars to the footing bars below,
and to the beams or girders on top. As a rule, the following allowances are
added on to the length of bars to provide additional lengths for these bends:
Size (Diam) of Allowance for Bends
Bar
+ 0.30 m
12 mm (1/2”) + 0.35 m
16 mm (5/8”) + 0.45 m
20 mm (3/4”) + 0.55 m
25 mm (1.0”)
o Steel ties of column vertical bars. Computations for steel reinforcement
bars requirements for steel ties of vertical bars are done as shown in the
following example:
Steel ties of vertical bars:
ESTIMATING PROCEDURES SAMPLE CALCULATION
Only one typical design:
1. Study the Foundation Plan and find No. of columns : 10 columns
out the number of columns to be Size of columns : 0.2m x 0.3m
erected. Classify or group columns
by size of column and size of ties to Height of typical col : 3.80 m
be used.
Steel bar size : 10mm
2. Compute for the height of the column Spacing bet ties: 0.20 m
starting from the top of the footing up
to the bottom of the beam or girder. Height of column : 3.80 m
Divide by spacing : 0.20 m
3. Determine the sizes of the steel bars Number of Ties : 19 ties
to be used and the specified spacing
between ties. Ties per column : 19 ties
4. Compute for the number of ties for x number of columns : 10 cols
each column by dividing the height of
the column by the spacing between
ties. Round off decimals to next
higher whole number.
5. Compute for the total number of ties
for all the columns
Total No. of Ties : 190 ties
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6. Determine appropriate length of Recommended length of rebar
rebars needed to fabricate a single
tie (provide overlaps) to fabricate a tie for a 0.20m
7. Determine most economical length by 0.30m column: 0.928 m
of steel bar to procure; determine the
number of pieces needed for the Chosen standard length of
ties.
Determining the number of ties that rebar: 6m
can be fabricated from the desired
standard length of rebar. Divide by: tie length: 0.928m
8. Determine the number of No. of ties pe length: 6 ties
reinforcement steel bars needed for
the ties of the vertical bars. Round per length of 6 meters
off decimals to next higher whole
number. No of ties needed :190 ties
Number of ties/length: 6 ties
Number of lengths of 10mm of
6m long rebars : 31.66 Round
off to : 32 lengths
o Steel reinforcing bars for hollow block walls. The task of estimating the
amount of rebars needed to reinforce hollow block walls invariably involves
the following:
Overall height of wall – the total height of a wall which also includes
the foundation footing, concrete floor, and roof beams and girders.
Net height of wall – the height of the concrete hollow block wall
excluding its footing, concrete floor, and roof beams and girders.
Overall length of wall - the horizontal measurement of wall, including
the concrete columns integrally built with it.
Net length of wall – the clear distance between the columns framing
the concrete hollow block wall.
Spacing of horizontal bars – the specified center-to-center (COC)
distance between horizontal bars in the concrete hollow block wall.
Spacing of vertical bars - the specified center-to-center (COC)
distance between vertical bars in the concrete hollow block wall.
Full length bar – refers to the whole piece of steel bar as it is sold by
the hardware dealer or supplier.
o Horizontal and vertical bars in hollow block walls. The amount of horizontal
and vertical bars needed to reinforce a concrete hollow block wall can be
determined through the following procedures:
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Horizontal Bars: SAMPLE CALCULATION
Net height of wall : 3.2 m
ESTIMATING PROCEDURES Horizontal bar spacing: 0.8m
No. of Horizontal bars : 4 pcs
1. Divide the net height of the concrete
hollow block wall by the specified No. of horizontal bars : 4 pcs
horizontal bar spacing (usually 0.8m)
to the number of horizontal bars Overall wall length : 8.3m
required.
(Round off decimals to next higher Total length of bars : 33.2m
whole number.)
Total length of bars : 33.2m
2. Multiply the number of horizontal
bars by the overall length of the wall Multiplied by 1.1 : 36.5m
to get the overall length of the bars.
Chosen standard length: 7.6m
3. Provide 10% allowance by
multiplying the total length by 1.10. Tot length+Allowance : 36.5m
4. Determine the most economical Divide by std length : 7.6m
standard length of steel
reinforcement bars. Then divide the Est. lengths needed : 4.8 pcs
total length of bars with allowances
by the standard length chosen. Rounded off to : 5 pcs.
(Round off decimals to next higher
whole number.)
Vertical Bars: SAMPLE CALCULATION
ESTIMATING PROCEDURES Net height of wall : 4.4 m
1. Divide the net length of the concrete Horizontal bar spacing: 0.8m
hollow block wall by the specified
vertical bar spacing (usually 0.8m) to No. of Horizontal bars : 5.5 pcs
the number of vertical bars required.
Round off decimals to next higher Round off to : 6 pcs.
whole number.
No. of horizontal bars : 6 pcs
2. Multiply the number of vertical bars
by the overall height of the wall to Overall wall height : 3.7m
get the overall length of the bars.
Total length of bars : 22.2m
3. Provide 10% allowance by
multiplying the total length by 1.10. Total length of bars : 22.2m
4. Determine the most economical Multiplied by 1.1 : 24.4m
standard length of steel
reinforcement bars. Then divide the Chosen standard length: 9.1m
total length of bars with allowances
by the standard length chosen. Tot length+Allowance : 24.4m
5. Round off decimals to next higher Divide by std length : 9.1m
whole number.
Est. lengths needed : 2.7 pcs
Rounded off to : 3 pcs.
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o Concrete continuous footing. Continuous concrete footings are used for
walls, fences, and the like, constructed out of concrete, concrete hollow
blocks adobe stones, bricks, and other masonry materials. They must be
reinforced with longitudinal and transverse bars: the longitudinal bars are
laid parallel to the direction of the wall or fence, while the transverse bars
are placed perpendicular to them.
o Longitudinal and transverse bars. To estimate the amount of rebars needed
as longitudinal and transverse bars to reinforce concrete continuous footing,
follow the following procedures:
Longitudinal Bars:
ESTIMATING PROCEDURES SAMPLE CALCULATION
1. Multiply the total length of the footing
Tot length of footing : 28.2 m
(including spaces occupied by
columns) by the specified number of # of longitudinal bars: 3 pcs
longitudinal bars.
2. Divide by the standard length of Total length of longitudinal
rebars chosen as the most
economical. bars : 84.6m
3. Provide 20% allowance by Total length : 84.6m
multiplying the total length by 1.20.
Round of decimals to next higher Divide by std length : 6m
whole number.
Total pieces of standard 6m
rebars : 14.1 pcs
Total pieces of bars : 14.1 pcs
Multiplied by 1.2 : 16.9 pcs
Rounded off to : 17 pcs of
standard lengths of 6m
Transverse Bars: SAMPLE CALCULATION
ESTIMATING PROCEDURES Tot length of footing : 28.2 m
1. Divide the total length of the footing Spacing of bars : 0.3m
by the specified spacing of
transverse bars (normally 0.3m) to Total number of longitudinal
get the total number of transverse
bars. bars : 94 bars
2. Determine the length of transverse Chosen std length : 6m
bars and determine also the most
economical standard length of rebar Divide by: Length
(least wastage).
Determine number of longitudinal of Transverse : 0.6m
bars that can be produced out of the
chosen standard length of rebar. Total pieces of standard 6m
3. Determine the total number of the rebars : 10 pcs
chosen standard length of steel bar
needed. Round off decimals to the Longitudinal bars : 94 bars
next higher whole number. Divided by:
Pieces per Std length: 10 pcs
Needed Std length : 9.4 pcs
Rounded off to : 10 pcs
of standard lengths of 6m
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Form Typical Footing
Form Concrete Column & Footing
COMPUTING FOR LUMBER AND BOARDS
Lumber constitutes a very significant component of the overall construction cost. For this
reason, estimates should be done very thoroughly and accurately.
In preparing the bill of materials, the specie of lumber and its finish should be specified.
Lumber may be rough or processed/planed:
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Rough lumber consists of wood pieces with rough surfaces as they come
from the sawmill. These are normally used for framings to be covered by
other finishing materials, such as in truss members, ceiling joists and
hangers, studs for double partitions, etc. Rough lumber is represented in
detail drawings with crossed line drawn over its cross-section.
Processed lumber are sold with 2 or more sides already planed and ready
to be used for components that would be exposed to view. S2S, S3S, and
S4S are standard notations denoting that a lumber piece is planed smooth
on its 2, 3, and 4 sides, respectively. Processed lumber is represented in
detail drawings with stylized annual rings or grains on its cross-section.
Here are some of the prevailing practices in the lumber industry:
1. The lumber industry still uses the English system. Lengths are measured in feet,
and dimensions of wood are normally in inches;
2. the volume of wood requirement is measured in Board Feet;
3. The standard lengths of lumber offered in the market is in the multiples of 2 feet:
4’, 6’, 8’, 10’, 12, etc.
• Computing Lumber in Board Feet. Upon determination of the number, sizes,
and lengths of lumber requirements, a conversion to lumber’s standard unit of
measurement of Board Feet is necessary inasmuch as suppliers often quote
lumber on this basis.
A board foot is equivalent to the nominal volume of a board having the following
dimensions: 12” wide, 12” long, and 1” thick. This is equivalent to 144 cubic inches
(in3). Thus, a piece of wood with a measurement of 2”x2” and length of 8’ (or 96”)
would have a volume of 384 in3: 2 x 2 x 96. Dividing this volume of 384 in3 by 144
in3 would indicate that this particular piece of wood is 2.66 board feet.
• Estimating Materials for Wood Howe Truss. The standard parts of a wood
Howe truss are the following:
o Top Chords – These are the inclined members that form the upper edge of
the truss.
o Bottom Chords - These are the horizontal members of the lower edge of the
truss. Oftentimes, two pieces use used in “sandwich” especially when loads
are heavy and the span long. But in shorter spans and loads are light, one
bottom chord may also be used.
o King Post – The biggest and the longest among the vertical members
connected to the apex of the top chords and the bottom chords is referred to
as the king post.
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o Collar Beams or Plates – The two horizontal members at the peak of the
truss that hold together the upper ends of the top chords and the king post
are called the collar beams or plates.
o Web Members – These are the vertical and diagonal parts of the truss that
are connected to the top and bottom chords to form the triangular patterns.
The web members are also referred to as the “struts” for the vertical
members, and the “diagonals” for the inclined web members.
o Wood Connectors - These are the short pieces of blocks that serve to join
the web members to the top chords. The lower portions of the web
members are often sandwiched between the two bottom chords.
The specifications for all the components of the truss are normally indicated in
Detail Drawings of the Roof Plan. The number of trusses is also indicated.
Computing for lumber requirement is therefore easier done from drawings: using
either computations of lengths, or the use of scale rulers, or both as a means of
double-checking the results of estimates. Computations of materials for trusses
normally involve lengths of right triangles. For this reason, working knowledge of
the Pythagorean Theorem is essential.
o Pythagorean Theorem (PT). This is the geometric proposition formulated
by Pythagoras stating that the square of the longest side (hypotenuse) of a
right triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the two other sides.
Where the hypotenuse is labeled C and the two other sides A and B, the
theory says that: C2 = A2 + B2. The manipulation of this basic formula
would allow us to determine the length of any side if the lengths of the two
other sides are known:
When C is unknown, C2 = A2 + B2;
When B is unknown, B2 = C2 – A2;
When A is unknown, A2 = C2 - B2.
Sample Computations. Based on the drawings and specifications, the
lengths of some members of the truss are computed as follows:
Truss Part Computation of Length
Bottom Chord
Given as 5m; requirement is therefore:
King Post
2 pcs of 5m length of 2” x 6” lumber
Top Chord
Given as 1.5m, requirement is therefore:
1 pc of 1.5m length of 2” x 5” lumber
The data on the lengths of the Bottom chord and
King post will now allow us to compute for the partial
length of the top chord (C), where: it is the square
root of the sum of the squares of the half the length
of the bottom and the square of the length of the king
post:
C2 = 2.52 + 1.52
or C2 = 6.25 + 2.25
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or C2 = 8.5
Or C = 2.91 m
Add: length outside triangle: 0.7m. Therefore, the
length of a top chord is 3.61 meters (2.91+0.7) of
2”x8” lumber (2”x8” is specified in drawings).
Converted to English Measure:
3.61m x 39.37 = 142.12in or 11’ 101/8”
Next higher even ft= 12feet = 144in
Board feet = 10.0 bdft
i.e. [(2” x 5” x 144”) / 144in3]
Trusses are secured atop ceiling beams and normally are spaced 5 meters apart.
Trusses are secured together by lumber with set specifications that:
o Wind bracings that crisscrosses from the apex of one truss to the center of
the bottom chord of the other; and,
o In some cases, horizontal binds that connects the apexes of the trusses.
• Estimating for Rafters, Purlins, Fascia Boards, and Cleats. These roofing
components are specified in the drawings and are best estimated by actual count
and with the use of scale rulers. Remember the following rules in estimating for
these materials:
1. Convert the metric measures (meters) indicated in the plans to
English measure units (feet and inches). Multiply meters by 39.37 to
get the equivalent inches. There are 12 inches in 1 foot.
2. Lumber are sold at lengths of multiples of 2 feet. Round off lumber
lengths to the next higher length of multiples of 2 ft. : e.g. 12’, 14’,
16’, 18’, etc.
3. Convert the dimensions of lumber to board feet. Multiply the
dimensions of the lumber (2” x 3” = 6 in2) . Then multiply the product
by its length in inches (e.g. 6 in2 x 120” = 720 in3). When this
second product is divided by 144 in3, the resultant figure is the
equivalent in board feet.
o Rafters. Rafters are roof parts that run parallel to the top chords of trusses.
They are normally of the same length as the top chords. These are set
perpendicularly against the beams and they run up to the height of the
apexes of trusses. Rafters are uniformly spaced between trusses at around
1.2 meters apart. They are held together by purlins.
o Purlins. Purlins are roof parts that are fastened atop and perpendicular
against the rafters and trusses. They are normally spaced uniformly (e.g.
0.7m apart) with the length of the roofing materials as a primary
consideration. The roofing materials are fastened to the purlins.
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o Fascia Boards. These are fairly wide lumber used in the edges of roofs to
fasten together the ends of trusses and rafters, and likewise the ends of the
purlins.
o Cleats. These are short pieces of lumber that are used to fasten purlins
atop the rafters and the top chords of trusses.
• Estimating Materials for Ceiling Joists. Ceiling joists are usually spaced at 2
feet apart, and uses 2” x 2” lumber crisscrossed as longitudinal joists (representing
the longer span) and the transverse ceiling joists. Ceiling boards are supported
by, and are fastened to, the ceiling joists. As a example, the materials for the
transverse joists are computed as:
Transverse Joists: SAMPLE CALCULATION
Ceiling Length(M) : 9m
ESTIMATING PROCEDURES M-E Conv multiplier : 39.37
Ceiling Length (E) : 354.3”
1. Determine the longer length of the
ceiling. Convert the metric length(M) Ceiling Length (E) : 354.3”
to English (E) measure (inches) by Divide by: Spacing : 24”
using the multiplier 39.37. Number of Joists : 14.76 pcs
2. Divide the ceiling length by the Number of Joists : 14.76
specified spacing between joists.
Unless otherwise specified, this is Add: 1 pc : +1
assumed to be 24 inches (24”).
Total # of Joists : 15.76 pcs
3. Add one joist to fill in the starting
point (zero position). Rounded off to : 16 pcs
Round off decimals to the next
higher whole number. Joist Length (M) : 5.75m
4. Determine specs of transverse joists: M-E Conv multiplier : 39.37
Length: 5.75m; convert to in/ft
Drawing specs: 2” x 2” Joist Length (E) : 226.4”
Compute for total Board Feet.
Conv to Even Ft : 20 ft
(240”)
Bd ft per joist : 6.66 bdft
i.e.[(2” x 2” x 240”) / 144in3]
Total Transverse Joists:
16 pcs of 20ft x 2” x 2”
Total Board ft : 106.56 bdft.
i.e. (6.66 bdft/joist x 16 joists)
• Estimating Materials for Wall studs. Wall stud are usually spaced at 2 feet
apart, and uses 2” x 2” lumber crisscrossed as horizontal and vertical studs. Wall
boards are fastened against these studs, either on one side only, or on both sides.
The manner of estimating the lumber requirement for wall studs are the same as
that for computing the ceiling joists. Please refer to the previous example on
ceiling joists.
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• Estimating Boards for Ceiling and Partition Boards. Ceiling and partition
boards come in standard sizes and in different thicknesses. To compute for the
number of ceiling or partition boards that are needed, follow these example:
Ceiling and Partition Board
ESTIMATING PROCEDURES SAMPLE CALCULATION
1. Determine the dimensions of the Dimension of board: 4’ x 8’
Area of Board : 32 ft2
preferred board. Compute for the
area of that particular board. Dimension of ceiling:
2. Determine the area of the ceiling or 5.75m x 9.0m
of the wall. Convert to English
measure and provide an allowance Converted to English measure:
of 10% (x 39.37) - 226.4” x 354.3”
3. Divide the total area of the ceiling or or 18.9’ x 29.5’
wall by the standard area of the Ceiling area = 557.55 ft2
board. Round off decimals to the Add 10% Allow = 613.3 ft2
next higher whole number. Area of ceiling : 613.3 ft2
Divide by:
Area of Board : 32 ft2
Number of Boards: 19.16 pcs
Rounded off to : 20 pcs
of chosen 4’ x 8’ boards
COMPUTING FOR ROOFING MATERIALS
Roofs are constructed with the primary function of providing the building occupants
protection from the natural elements. Corrugated galvanized iron, aluminum, fiberglass,
long span pre-painted steel and cement asbestos sheets are some of the more popular
roofing materials. Based on the spans of the rafters, trusses, and purlins, the most
suitable measurements of roofing panels are chosen and indicated in the Drawing Plans.
• Computing for G.I. Roofing Sheets. The standard lengths of G.I. sheets range
from 1.8m (6’) to 3.6m (12’). The standard width of these sheets is 32”. When
these are laid on the roof, laps are provided for: 4” (0.1m) on the sides, and 10” to
12” (0.25m to .30m) at the ends depending on the slope of the roof. The table
below shows the effective area coverage for the more popular dimensions of G.I.
roofing materials:
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Std Size of Effective Measurement Effective
Cor G.I. Sheets Coverage
Width Length
32” x 6’ 11.67 ft2
32” x 7’ 28” 60” 14.00 ft2
32” x 8’ 16.33 ft2
32” x 9’ 28” 72” 18.67 ft2
32” x 10’ 21.00 ft2
32” x 11’ 28” 84” 23.33 ft2
32” x 12’ 25.67 ft2
28” 96”
28” 108”
28” 120”
28” 132”
The length of the roofing materials may one or a combination of 2 standard
lengths. The number of roofing sheets needed for a particular roof is computed as
shown in this example:
ESTIMATING PROCEDURES SAMPLE CALCULATION
1. Determine the lengths of roofing
The span of one roof slope
materials specified in the plan for
one column of sheets. Determine from ridge to fascia is 228” and
their respective numbers.
is covered by 3 sheets:
2. Determine the width of the roof.
Compute the number of columns of 2 pcs 8’ length, and
28” (representing one set of roofing
sheets). Round off decimals to next 1 pc 6’ length
higher whole number
Width of the Roof: 36 ft or
3. Determine the number of each
length of sheet by multiplying the 432”
number of columns by the number of
each type of sheet per column: Divide by: cols of 28” each
No. of columns : 15.42 cols
Rounded off to : 16 cols
No. of 8’ sheet/col : 2 pcs
X No of Cols : 16 cols
Total 8’ sheets : 32 pcs
No. of 6’ sheet/col : 1 pc
X No of cols : 16 cols
Total 6’ sheets : 16 pcs
• Estimating for Plain GI Ridge Rolls, Gutters, and Flashings. These roofing
components are specified in the drawings and are best estimated by actual count
and with the use of scale rulers. These materials are also available in different
lengths: from 6 feet to 12 feet, following the standard lengths of plain G.I. sheets.
o Ridge rolls. These are G.I. plain sheets formed to serve as covering of the
apex of the roof where the upper ends of corrugated G.I. sheets meet.
o Gutters. These are G.I. plain sheets formed to serve as as collection
receptable of water flowing down the incline of the roof.
o Flashings. These are G.I. plain sheets formed to serve a shield at both
sides of the sloping roof to prevent leakage of rainwater to the sides.
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INFORMATION SHEET # 2-3
THE BILL OF MATERIALS AND SUMMARY COST ESTIMATES
After computing and determining the various materials needed for the construction of the
facilities, the data should be organized and presented in a Bill of Materials form which
includes a summary of cost estimates for materials, labor, and other construction
expenses.
The Bill of Materials may be prepared using several pages. Different pages may be used
for the different phases or aspects of construction: Foundation works, Floorings, Concrete
Columns and Beams, Walls and Partitions, etc. The Bill of Materials may also be
presented by area (e.g. Office, Stockroom, Laboratory, etc.) with subheadings on
masonry, woodworks, electrical, etc. T
1. Description of Materials. The first column of the Bill of Materials provides
descriptions of the materials needed. To the extent possible, all specifications,
including brand names and the like, should be indicated. Where necessary,
pictures or illustrations should be included, and dimensions and specifications duly
stated.
2. Quantity. The second column if for the number of pieces, volume, etc. of the
materials needed.
3. Unit. The third column indicates the appropriate units of measure by which they
are sold are used and shown in this column.
4. Unit Cost. The fourth column refers to the current selling price per indicated unit
of measure of the materials. If prevailing costs is not yet available, this column
may be left blank, and may be filled after a canvass of material prices have been
made.
5. Total Cost. The fifth and last column is the product of the quantity multiplied by
the unit cost.
Project Title :
Owners :
Location :
Description of Materials Quantity Unit Unit Total
Cost Cost
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The last page of the bill of materials contains a summary of the different Bills of Materials
for the different phases or aspects of construction. An estimate of the cost of labor is
likewise indicated. An acceptable allowance for contingencies and price adjustments is
also indicated.
SUMMARY COST ESTIMATES FOR MATERIALS, LABOR, AND OTHER
CONSTRUCTION EXPENSES
PARTICULARS Sub-Total 1 Sub-Total 2 Totals
A. Estimated Cost of Materials xxxxx
1. Foundation, Columns, etc.
2. Floor Framing xxxxx
3. Roof framings xxxxx
4. Roofing Materials xxxxx
5. Plumbing Pipes and Fittings xxxxx
6. Plumbing fixtures, etc. xxxxx
7. Ceilings, partitions, etc. xxxxx
8. Electrical Materials xxxxx
9. Doors, windows, etc. xxxxx
xxxxx
10. Painting materials xxxxx
11. Miscellaneous materials xxxxx
B. Estimated Cost of Labor xxxxx
C. Contingency Provision xxxxx
Estimated Total Direct Cost xxxxx
D. Contractor’s Fees xxxxx
E. Contractor’s Tax xxxxx
Estimated Total Project Cost xxxxx
When the construction is planned to be contracted out, provisions for Contractor’s Profit
and Contractor’s Tax is also included. The summation of this page is the total estimated
construction cost for the hatchery.
COMPUTING FOR AREAS AND VOLUMES
In estimating bills of materials, one must know how to compute for areas and volumes:
areas of flat surfaces, and volumes of solid masses which may represent parts of the
structure for which quantities of materials are to be estimated.
• Basics in Computation. The following mensurations are observed:
Linear units. Lines are measured in linear units like: millimeters,
centimeters, meters, etc.
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Areas. The area of a surface is given in square units such as:
square millimeters (mm2), square centimeters (cm2), or square
meters (m2).
Volumes. Volumes of solids are expressed in cubic units such as:
cubic millimeter (cc3), cubic centimeter (cm3), or cubic meter (m3).
• Computing for Areas. Below are the formulae for computing areas of figures one
would normally encounter in estimating bills of materials:
o Square or rectangle - The area of a rectangle is computed by multiplying
the length by the width:
A= L x W
Example: where : L= 4.5 meters
and : W= 3.0 meters
Area = Lx W
or Area = 3.0m
or Area = 4.5m x
13.5 m2
By definition, square is an object having equal sides. Hence its length is
equal to its width. One can therefore use the formula for rectangle and
have the same figure for the length and width, or, simply multiplying the
length of its side by itself (squaring it).
Example: where: given a square with 40cm sides
Area = Lx W
or Area = 40cm
or Area = 40cm x
1,600 cm2
Another way of computing area of this example is:
A = L2
Area = 402 40cm
or Area =
or Area = 40cm x
1,600 cm2
o Triangles. In whatever form of triangle (i.e. right, oblique, isosceles, or
obtuse) two dimensions are essential in determining the area: the base and
the height. The height is defined as the length of line from the apex
dropped perpendicularly to the base of the triangle. The area of a triangle is
computed with the following formula:
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A = ½ x (B x h)
Example:
where a given triangle with:
B = 10 cm
h = 6 cm
Area = ½x (B x H)
or Area =
or Area = ½x (10m x 6m)
or Area = 60m2
½x
30 cm2
o Circles. The area of circles is computed using the formula: pi (with a
rounded-off fixed numerical value of 3.14) multiplied by the square of the
radius of the circle:
A = pi x r2
Example: where a circle with:
R = 3m
Area = pi x 32
or Area =
or Area = 3.14 x (3m x 3m)
or Area = 9m2
3.14 x
28.26 m2
o Ring. The area of a ring is computed by deducting the area of a circle
formed by the inner circumference of the ring from the area of a circle
formed by the outer circumference of the ring:
A = (pi x R2) - (pi x r2)
Example: where a ring has:
R = 3m
And r = 2m
Area = (pi x R2) - (pi x r2)
Or Area =
Or Area = [3.14 x (3mx3m)] - [3.14 x (2mx2m)]
Or Area =
Or Area = [3.14 x 9m2] - [3.14 x 4m2]
[ 28.26m2 ] - [ 12.56m2 ]
15.7 m2
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• Computing for Volumes. Hereunder are the ways of computing volumes of three
(3) dimensional objects:
o Rectangular block or cube. The volume of a rectangular block is computed
by multiplying the linear length of its Length by its Depth and by its Height:
By definition, square is an object having equal sides. Hence its length is
equal to its width. One can therefore use the formula for rectangle and
have the same figure for the length and width, or, simply multiplying the
length of its side by itself (squaring it).
V= L x Dx H
Example: A rectangular block with the following dimensions:
L = 5m
D = 3m
H = 1.2 m
V = Lx Dx H
or V = 3m x 1.2m
or V = 5m x
18 m3
By definition, a cube is an object having equal sides. Hence its length is
equal to its depth and its height. One can therefore use the formula for
rectangular objects and have the same figure for the length and width, or,
simply cubing its length (i.e. multiplying its length by itself twice).
Example: A cube with L = 5m
V = Lx Dx H
or V = 5m x 5m
or V = 5m x
125 m3
Another way of computing the volume of this cube is:
V = L3
or V = 53
or V = 125 m3
o Cylinders. The volume of cylinders is computed by multiplying the square of
its radius by pi and its height:
V = pi x r2 x H
Example: A cylinder with the following dimensions:
r = 2m
H = 6m
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Vol = pi x r2 x H
or Vol = 6m
or Vol = 3.14 x (2m x 2m) x 6m
or Vol =
3.14 x 4m2 x
75.36 m3
o Cones. The volume of cones is computed by multiplying the square of the
radius of its base, by 1/3 of pi, and it height:
V = 1/3 pi x r2 x H
Example: A cone with the following dimensions:
R = 4m
H = 8m
Vol = 1/3pi x r2 x H
or Vol =
or Vol = [(1/3)x3.14] x [4m x 4m] x 8m
or Vol =
1.047 x 16m2 x 8m
134.016 m3
o Pyramids. The volume of pyramids is computed multiplying the area of its
base by 1/3 and its height:
V = L2 x 1/3 x H
Example: A pyramid with a base with:
L = 4m
H = 5m
Vol = L2 x 1/3 x H
5m
or Vol = (4mx4m) x 1/3 x 5m
or Vol = 16m2 x 1/3 x
or Vol = 26.64 m3
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JOB SHEET # 2-1
Title Identification and selection of materials based on the
plan
Purpose To enable the participants to gain and demonstrate
knowledge on selecting and calculating materials for
the construction of hatchery
Equipment, Tools and Materials Calculator, Canvass sheet, Paper and pen, Phone
Precautions directory, Telephone, List of Construction Materials
Make sure that you have preliminary calculations of the
site plan and proposed structures before computing for
areas and volumes of construction materials required.
Procedures:
Based on the plan you produced in the Job sheet # 1-1, perform the following. Your result
will be submitted to your facilitator as part of the evidence plan:
STEP #1. COMPUTING FOR AREAS AND VOLUMES
• Computing for Areas. Below are the formulae for computing areas of figures one
would normally encounter in estimating bills of materials:
o Square or rectangle - The area of a rectangle is computed by multiplying
the length by the width:
A= L x W
Example: where : L = 4.5 meters
and : W = 3.0 meters
Area = L x W
or Area = 4.5m x 3.0m
or Area = 13.5 m2
By definition, square is an object having equal sides. Hence its length is
equal to its width. One can therefore use the formula for rectangle and
have the same figure for the length and width, or, simply multiplying the
length of its side by itself (squaring it).
Example: where: given a square with 40cm sides
Area = L x W
or Area = 40cm x 40cm
or Area = 1,600 cm2
• Computing for Volumes. Hereunder are the ways of computing volumes of three
(3) dimensional objects:
o Rectangular block or cube. The volume of a rectangular block is computed
by multiplying the linear length of its Length by its Depth and by its Height:
By definition, square is an object having equal sides. Hence its length is
equal to its width. One can therefore use the formula for rectangle and
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have the same figure for the length and width, or, simply multiplying the
length of its side by itself (squaring it).
V= L x Dx H
Example: A rectangular block with the following dimensions:
L = 5m
D = 3m
H = 1.2 m
V = Lx Dx H
or V = 3m x 1.2m
or V = 5m x
18 m3
By definition, a cube is an object having equal sides. Hence its length is
equal to its depth and its height. One can therefore use the formula for
rectangular objects and have the same figure for the length and width, or,
simply cubing its length (i.e. multiplying its length by itself twice).
Example: A cube with L = 5m
V= L x Dx H
or V = 5m x 5m x 5m
or V = 125 m3
Another way of computing the volume of this cube is:
V = L3
or V = 53
or V = 125 m3
o Cylinders. The volume of cylinders is computed by multiplying the square of
its radius by pi and its height: H
V = pi x r2 x
Example: A cylinder with the following dimensions:
r = 2m
H = 6m
Vol = pi x r2 x H
or Vol = 3.14 x (2m x 2m) x 6m
or Vol = 6m
or Vol = 3.14 x 4m2 x
75.36 m3
o Cones. The volume of cones is computed by multiplying the square of the
radius of its base, by 1/3 of pi, and it height:
V = 1/3 pi x r2 x H
Example: A cone with the following dimensions:
R = 4m
H= 8m r2 x H
Vol = 1/3pi x
or Vol = [(1/3)x3.14] x [4m x 4m] x 8m
or Vol =
or Vol = 1.047 x 16m2 x 8m
134.016 m3
o Pyramids. The volume of pyramids is computed multiplying the area of its
base by 1/3 and its height: 1/3 x H
V = L2 x
Example: A pyramid with a base with:
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L = 4m
H= 5m 1/3 x H
Vol = L2 x 5m
5m
or Vol = (4mx4m) x 1/3 x
or Vol = 16m2 x 1/3 x
or Vol = 26.64 m3
STEP #2. COMPUTING FOR CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
CEMENT
o Concrete is a mixture of cement paste, fine and coarse aggregates. The
cement paste consists of cement and water which bind the fine and coarse
aggregates. The fine aggregate is normally natural sand, and the coarse
aggregate is crushed rock or durable and strong qualities. When the
mixture has sufficiently set, it takes on the characteristics of hard stone.
Class of Strength After Cement Bags Sand m3 per Gravel m3 per
Concrete 28 days per m3 conc m3 conc m3 conc
Class AA 0.42 0.84
Class A 3000-4000 psi 10.46 0.42 0.84
Class B 2500-3000 psi 7.85
Class C 1500-2000 psi 0.44 0.87
Class D 500-1000 psi 6.49 0.44 0.89
5.49 0.45 0.91
< 500 psi 4.82
To use the table above, follow these procedures:
--Compute for the volume of concrete in cubic meters, based on the plans and
drawings;
--Add 10% to the computed volume of concrete as allowance for wastage. The
inclusion of this 10% allowance will produce the total estimate concrete volume (C/V);
--Ascertain the “class” of concrete mixture specified for a particular job. This should be
indicated in the working plans and drawings; and
--Compute for the required number of bags of cement and cubic meters of sand and
gravel by multiplying the resultant C/V in no. 2 above with the appropriate multipliers
indicated along the appropriate class of concrete. Round off decimals to the next higher
whole number.
STEEL REINFORCING BARS
Steel reinforcing bars are incorporated in concrete and other masonry members to
prevent cracking of the latter when tension, compression, and other forces or loads
exceed the strength of the concrete or masonry. Among different types and designs, the
round bar is mostly used in concrete construction. Round bars may be plain or deformed.
Deformed bars have lugs on their surface to provide increased bond between concrete
and steel and prevent slippage. In many instances, the ends of bars would be bent or
terminate in hooks.
Reinforcing bars are classified into 3 grades (ASTM): Grade 60- high tensile, Grade 40 –
intermediate, and Grade 33 – Structural grade. They come in 5 standard lengths: 6
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meters (20’), 7.6 meters (25’), 9.1 meters (30’), 10.6 meters (35’), and 12.1 meters (40’).
Below are the most commonly used round steel bars in simple construction:
Bar Designation English Size Metric Size (Diam)
(Diam)
No. 2 1/4” 8 mm
No. 3 3/8” 10 mm
No. 4 1/2” 12 mm
No. 5 5/8” 16 mm
No. 6 3/4” 20 mm
No. 7 1” 25 mm
• Reinforcement Bars for Concrete Slab (flooring). Specifications and spacings
of reinforcement bars for concrete slabs are indicated in the Plans. The size of the
bar depends on the estimated load the flooring is supposed to carry. The spacing
is likewise related to the load. But as a rule, the spacing between bars should not
exceed five times the thickness of the slab. Therefore if the slab is 0.15m thick,
the reinforcement bars cannot be spaced more than 0.75m apart. Below is an
example to compute for the rebars needed in a concrete slab works:
ESTIMATING PROCEDURES SAMPLE CALCULATION
Determine the dimensions of the Dimension of concrete slab:
concrete slab. The rebars that are Longer side : 9m
parallel to the longer side are Shorter side : 6m
referred to as longitudinal bars, Depth : 0.15m
while those that are parallel to the
shorter side are referred to as the No of bars specified : 9 bars
transverse bars.
Compute for longitudinal bars by Length of bars : 9m
counting the bars specified, and
determining the length of rebar that Use 9.1m long standard rebars
would be most economical, or
would produce the least wastage. Requirement : 9 pcs of
Compute for transverse bars by
counting the bars specified, and 9.1m rebars
determining the length of rebar that
would be most economical, or would No of bars specified : 13 bars
produce the least wastage.
Length of bars : 6m
Use 6.0m long standard rebars
Requirement : 13 pcs of
6.0m rebars
LUMBER AND BOARDS
Lumber constitutes a very significant component of the overall construction cost. For this
reason, estimates should be done very thoroughly and accurately.
In preparing the bill of materials, the specie of lumber and its finish should be specified.
Lumber may be rough or processed/planed:
Rough lumber consists of wood pieces with rough surfaces as they come
from the sawmill. These are normally used for framings to be covered by
other finishing materials, such as in truss members, ceiling joists and
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hangers, studs for double partitions, etc. Rough lumber is represented in
detail drawings with crossed line drawn over its cross-section.
Processed lumber are sold with 2 or more sides already planed and ready
to be used for components that would be exposed to view. S2S, S3S, and
S4S are standard notations denoting that a lumber piece is planed smooth
on its 2, 3, and 4 sides, respectively. Processed lumber is represented in
detail drawings with stylized annual rings or grains on its cross-section.
• Computing Lumber in Board Feet. Upon determination of the number, sizes,
and lengths of lumber requirements, a conversion to lumber’s standard unit of
measurement of Board Feet is necessary inasmuch as suppliers often quote
lumber on this basis.
A board foot is equivalent to the nominal volume of a board having the following
dimensions: 12” wide, 12” long, and 1” thick. This is equivalent to 144 cubic inches
(in3). Thus, a piece of wood with a measurement of 2”x2” and length of 8’ (or 96”)
would have a volume of 384 in3: 2 x 2 x 96. Dividing this volume of 384 in3 by 144
in3 would indicate that this particular piece of wood is 2.66 board feet.
ROOFING MATERIALS
Roofs are constructed with the primary function of providing the building occupants
protection from the natural elements. Corrugated galvanized iron, aluminum, fiberglass,
long span pre-painted steel and cement asbestos sheets are some of the more popular
roofing materials. Based on the spans of the rafters, trusses, and purlins, the most
suitable measurements of roofing panels are chosen and indicated in the Drawing Plans.
• Computing for G.I. Roofing Sheets. The standard lengths of G.I. sheets range
from 1.8m (6’) to 3.6m (12’). The standard width of these sheets is 32”. When
these are laid on the roof, laps are provided for: 4” (0.1m) on the sides, and 10” to
12” (0.25m to .30m) at the ends depending on the slope of the roof. The table
below shows the effective area coverage for the more popular dimensions of G.I.
roofing materials:
Std Size of Effective Measurement Effective
Cor G.I. Sheets Coverage
Width Length
32” x 6’ 11.67 ft2
32” x 7’ 28” 60” 14.00 ft2
32” x 8’ 16.33 ft2
32” x 9’ 28” 72” 18.67 ft2
32” x 10’ 21.00 ft2
32” x 11’ 28” 84” 23.33 ft2
32” x 12’ 25.67 ft2
28” 96”
28” 108”
28” 120”
28” 132”
The length of the roofing materials may one or a combination of 2 standard
lengths. The number of roofing sheets needed for a particular roof is computed as
shown in this example:
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ESTIMATING PROCEDURES SAMPLE CALCULATION
Determine the lengths of roofing
materials specified in the plan for one The span of one roof slope
column of sheets. Determine their
respective numbers. from ridge to fascia is 228” and
Determine the width of the roof. is covered by 3 sheets:
Compute the number of columns of 28”
(representing one set of roofing sheets). 2 pcs 8’ length, and
Round off decimals to next higher whole
number 1 pc 6’ length
Determine the number of each length of
sheet by multiplying the number of Width of the Roof: 36 ft or
columns by the number of each type of
sheet per column: 432”
Divide by: cols of 28” each
No. of columns : 15.42 cols
Rounded off to : 16 cols
No. of 8’ sheet/col : 2 pcs
X No of Cols : 16 cols
Total 8’ sheets : 32 pcs
No. of 6’ sheet/col : 1 pc
X No of cols : 16 cols
Total 6’ sheets : 16 pcs
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SELF CHECK #2-1
1. Show how to prepare the Bill of Materials and the Summary Cost Estimates.
2. Discuss the process of computing for cement, sand, gravel and fill requirements.
3. Discuss the basic formula in computing for areas and volumes.
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ANSWER KEY #2-1
1. Discuss the basic formula in computing for areas and volumes.
Answer:
• Computing for Areas. Below are the formulae for computing areas of figures one
would normally encounter in estimating bills of materials:
o Square or rectangle - The area of a rectangle is computed by multiplying
the length by the width:
A= L x W
Example: where : L= 4.5 meters
and : W= 3.0 meters
Area = L x W
or Area = 4.5m x 3.0m
or Area = 13.5 m2
By definition, square is an object having equal sides. Hence its length is
equal to its width. One can therefore use the formula for rectangle and
have the same figure for the length and width, or, simply multiplying the
length of its side by itself (squaring it).
Example: where: given a square with 40cm sides
Area = L x W
or Area = 40cm x 40cm
or Area = 1,600 cm2
• Computing for Volumes. Hereunder are the ways of computing volumes of three
(3) dimensional objects:
o Rectangular block or cube. The volume of a rectangular block is computed
by multiplying the linear length of its Length by its Depth and by its Height:
By definition, square is an object having equal sides. Hence its length is
equal to its width. One can therefore use the formula for rectangle and
have the same figure for the length and width, or, simply multiplying the
length of its side by itself (squaring it).
V = L x Dx H
Example: A rectangular block with the following dimensions:
L = 5m
D = 3m
H = 1.2 m
V = Lx Dx H
or V = 3m x 1.2m
or V = 5m x
18 m3
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By definition, a cube is an object having equal sides. Hence its length is
equal to its depth and its height. One can therefore use the formula for
rectangular objects and have the same figure for the length and width, or,
simply cubing its length (i.e. multiplying its length by itself twice).
Example: A cube with L = 5m
V= L x Dx H
or V = 5m x 5m x 5m
or V = 125 m3
Another way of computing the volume of this cube is:
V = L3
or V = 53
or V = 125 m3
o Cylinders. The volume of cylinders is computed by multiplying the square of
its radius by pi and its height:
V = pi x r2 x H
Example: A cylinder with the following dimensions:
r = 2m
H = 6m
Vol = pi x r2 x H
or Vol = 6m
or Vol = 3.14 x (2m x 2m) x 6m
or Vol =
3.14 x 4m2 x
75.36 m3
o Cones. The volume of cones is computed by multiplying the square of the
radius of its base, by 1/3 of pi, and it height:
V = 1/3 pi x r2 x H
Example: A cone with the following dimensions:
R = 4m
H = 8m
Vol = 1/3pi x r2 x H
or Vol =
or Vol = [(1/3)x3.14] x [4m x 4m] x 8m
or Vol =
1.047 x 16m2 x 8m
134.016 m3
o Pyramids. The volume of pyramids is computed multiplying the area of its
base by 1/3 and its height: 1/3 x H
V = L2 x
Example: A pyramid with a base with:
L = 4m
H = 5m
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Vol = L2 x 1/3 x H
5m
or Vol = (4mx4m) x 1/3 x 5m
or Vol = 16m2 x 1/3 x
or Vol = 26.64 m3
2. Discuss the process of computing for cement, sand, gravel and fill
requirements.
Answer:
COMPUTING FOR CEMENT, SAND, GRAVEL, AND FILL
o Concrete is a mixture of cement paste, fine and coarse aggregates. The
cement paste consists of cement and water which bind the fine and coarse
aggregates. The fine aggregate is normally natural sand, and the coarse
aggregate is crushed rock or durable and strong qualities. When the
mixture has sufficiently set, it takes on the characteristics of hard stone.
Class of Strength After Cement Bags Sand m3 per Gravel m3 per
Concrete 28 days per m3 conc m3 conc m3 conc
Class AA 3000-4000 psi 10.46 0.42 0.84
Class A 2500-3000 psi 7.85 0.42 0.84
Class B 1500-2000 psi 6.49 0.44 0.87
Class C 500-1000 psi 5.49 0.44 0.89
Class D 4.82 0.45 0.91
< 500 psi
Varying combinations of amounts of cement, sand, and gravel in a given volume of
concrete result in different strengths of mixture. The table above should be used as
reference for the determining the appropriate type of concrete and in determining the
amount of cement, sand, and gravel is needed for each mixture for every cubic meter of
concrete:
To use the table above, follow these procedures:
a. Compute for the volume of concrete in cubic meters, based on the plans and
drawings;
b. Add 10% to the computed volume of concrete as allowance for wastage. The
inclusion of this 10% allowance will produce the total estimate concrete volume
(C/V);
c. Ascertain the “class” of concrete mixture specified for a particular job. This should
be indicated in the working plans and drawings;
Compute for the required number of bags of cement and cubic meters of sand and gravel
by multiplying the resultant C/V in no. 2 above with the appropriate multipliers indicated
along the appropriate class of concrete. Round off decimals to the next higher whole
number.
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3. Show how to prepare the Bill of Materials and the Summary Cost Estimates.
Answer:
The Bill of Materials may also be presented by area (e.g. Office, Stockroom, Laboratory,
etc.) with subheadings on masonry, woodworks, electrical, etc. T
• Description of Materials. The first column of the Bill of Materials provides
descriptions of the materials needed. To the extent possible, all specifications,
including brand names and the like, should be indicated. Where necessary,
pictures or illustrations should be included, and dimensions and specifications duly
stated.
• Quantity. The second column if for the number of pieces, volume, etc. of the
materials needed.
• Unit. The third column indicates the appropriate units of measure by which they
are sold are used and shown in this column.
• Unit Cost. The fourth column refers to the current selling price per indicated unit
of measure of the materials. If prevailing costs is not yet available, this column
may be left blank, and may be filled after a canvass of material prices have been
made.
• Total Cost. The fifth and last column is the product of the quantity multiplied by
the unit cost.
Project Title :
Owners :
Location :
Description of Materials Quantity Unit Unit Total
Cost Cost
The last page of the bill of materials contains a summary of the different Bills of Materials
for the different phases or aspects of construction. An estimate of the cost of labor is
likewise indicated. An acceptable allowance for contingencies and price adjustments is
also indicated.
SUMMARY COST ESTIMATES FOR MATERIALS, LABOR, AND OTHER
CONSTRUCTION EXPENSES
PARTICULARS Sub-Total 1 Sub-Total 2 Totals
A. Estimated Cost of Materials xxxxx
1. Foundation, Columns, etc.
xxxxx
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2. Floor Framing xxxxx
3. Roof framings xxxxx
4. Roofing Materials xxxxx
5. Plumbing Pipes and Fittings xxxxx
6. Plumbing fixtures, etc. xxxxx
7. Ceilings, partitions, etc. xxxxx
8. Electrical Materials xxxxx
9. Doors, windows, etc. xxxxx
10. Painting materials xxxxx
11. Miscellaneous materials xxxxx
B. Estimated Cost of Labor xxxxx
C. Contingency Provision xxxxx
Estimated Total Direct Cost xxxxx
D. Contractor’s Fees xxxxx
E. Contractor’s Tax xxxxx
Estimated Total Project Cost xxxxx
When the construction is planned to be contracted out, provisions for Contractor’s Profit
and Contractor’s Tax is also included. The summation of this page is the total estimated
construction cost for the hatchery.
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QUALIFICATION : AQUACULTURE NC III
UNIT OF COMPETENCY
MODULE TITLE : OPERATE MARINE FINFISH HATCHERY
LEARNING OUTCOME #3 : Designing, Lay-outing, and Construction of a Marine
Finfish hatchery
: Construct hatchery facilities
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
1. Lay-out plan is interpreted
2. Appropriate construction materials, supplies and equipment are prepared
3. Procedures in hatchery facilities construction are explained and demonstrated
RESOURCES Tools and Instruments Supplies and Materials
Equipment and Facilities
1. Mixer 1. Gravel
2. Nails
3. Cement
4. Tie wire
REFERENCES
De la Pena, M. R., Fermin, A. C., and Lojera, D. P. 1995. The use of brackishwater
cladoceran, Diaphanosoma celebenesis (Stingelin), as partial replacement for
Artemia in the hatchery rearing of sea bass, Lates Calcarifer (Bloch) fry.
Presented at the Fourth Asian Fisheries Forum: Beijing, China; 16-20 October
1995.
Dhert, P., Duray, M. Lavens, P. and Sorgeloos, P. 1990. Optimized feeding strategies in
the larviculture of the asian sea bass (Lates Calcarifer). In: Hirano, R., and Hanyo,
I. (eds) The Second Asian Fisheries Forum: Proceedings of the Second Asian
Fisheries Forum; 17-22 April 1989; Tokyo, Japan. Pp. 319-323.
Doi, M. M., bin, Hj., Nawi, N., Razali bin Nik Lah and bin Talib, Z. 1991. Artificial
propagation of the grouper Epinephelus suillus at the marine hatchery in Tanjong
Demong, Tereggana, Malaysia Dept. of Fishery, Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia.
41pp.
Code No. Designing, Lay-outing and Constructing of a Date: Date Page #
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Duray, M. and Juario, J. V. 1988. Broodstock Management and Seed Production of the
rabbitfish, Siganus guttatus (bloch) and sea bass, Lates Calcarifer (Bloch). In:
Juario, J. V. and Benitez, L. V. (eds) Perspective in Aquaculture Development in
Southeast Asia and Japan: Proceedings of the Seminar on Aquaculture
Development in Southeast Asian, 8-12 September 1987, SEAFDEC/AQD, Iloilo
City, Philippines, pp. 195-210.
Guanzon, Nicolas G, de Castro-Mallare, Teresa R & Lorque, Felizardo M (2004)
Polyculture of milkfish Chanos chanos (Forsskal) and the red seaweed
Gracilariopsis bailinae (Zhang et Xia) in brackish water earthen ponds.
Aquaculture Research 35 (5), 423-431.
Kungvankij, P., Tiro, L. B., Pudadera, B. J., and Potestas, I. O. 1988. Biology and culture
of sea bass (Lates Calcarifer). NACA Training Manual Series No. 3, Reprinted by
SEAFDEC/AQD, Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines. 70pp.
National Institute of Coastal Aquaculture. 1986. Technical manual for seed production of
sea bass. March 1986. Kao Seng, Songkhla, Thailand. 49pp.
Ruangpanit, N., Bunliptanon, P., Pechmanee, T., Arkayanont, P. and Vanakovat, J. 1986.
Popagation of grouper, Epinephelus malabaricus at National Institute of Coastal
Aquaculture, Songkhla, Technical Paper No. 5/1988, National Institute of Coastal
Aquaculture, Songkhla, Thailand. 16pp.
Sakares, V. and Sukbanaung, S. 1987. Experimental on net cage culture of grouper
Epinephelus tauvina using different stocking density. In: Proceeding of meeting
on “Reconsidering or results of research on grouper propagation at National
Institute of Coastal Aquaculture, Songkhla 23-25February 1987, pp. 165-177.
Sumagaysay, N. S., Hilomen-Garcia, G. V., and Garcia, L. M. B. 1999. Growth and
production of deformed and non-deformed hatchery-bred milkfish (chanos chanos)
in brackishwater ponds. The Israeli Journal of Aquaculture – Bamidgeh 51 (3):
106-113
Sumagaysay, N.; Baliao, D.; Rodriguez, E.; Coloso, R.M.; Lückstädt, C.:
AQD recommends semi-intensive milkfish culture.
In: SEAFDEC Asian Aquaculture, Band 20, Heft 2, 1998, S. 28-29
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Learning Outcome # 3: Construct hatchery facilities
LEARNING ACTIVITIES SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS
1. Read and study carefully the Read on the these information to gain
information: knowledge on constructing the tilapia
hatchery facilities.
• Information sheet # 3-1: “Managing .
the construction”
Please refer to Job Sheet #3-1 for more
• Information sheet # 3-2: details and follow the instructions.
“Construction materials, supplies
and equipment, uses and
specifications”
• Information sheet # 3-3: “Personal
safety practices in hatchery facilities
construction”
• Information sheet # 3-4: “Basic
carpentry”
• Information sheet # 3-5:”Basic
masonry”
2. Perform Job sheet # 3-1: “Hands-on
activities on constructing a marine
finfish hatchery”
3. Answer Self-Check # 3-1. Read Self-Check # 3-1 questions and
write down your answers.
4. Check your answers. Refer to Answer Key # 3-1 and check if
you got the right answers.
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INFORMATION SHEET # 3-1
MANAGING THE CONSTRUCTION
• Pre-Construction Activities. The initial move to get the construction under way
is for the Project Manager to convene a pre-construction forum to gather and
analyze all relevant documents (e.g. Construction Plans, Site Plan, etc.) and
information (e.g. owner’s preferences, resources availability, etc.) for the purpose
of determining:
o Construction Timetable. A review has to be undertaken to determine the
logical construction sequence. The optimum time for each construction
phase is estimated by carefully analyzing all the activities needed to be
performed. Since construction time is also highly influenced by the number
of workers assigned to the task, an iterative procedure with manpower
planning is essential. The end product of this exercise is a time-series chart
where the different phases of construction are laid out in time-based logical
and sequential order. Time “floats” are normally built into the estimates to
reckon with possible delays due to uncertainties. The construction
timetable will provide:
The earliest and latest project completion dates;
The earliest and latest start and finish of each construction phase;
and,
The logical sequence or inter-dependence of the various construction
phases.
o Manpower Requirement. Based on the Construction Timetable, and its
assumptions on manpower levels, the need for different skills and trades
and actual number of craftsmen are plotted in the construction timetable for
each of the different construction phases. A Manpower Plan showing the
following information is developed:
The numbers and skills of workers needed for specified durations of
time, and for specific construction phases;
A contingency factor is often reflected to indicate the additional
number of workers that will be needed if work duration is needed to
be hastened or compressed.
Manpower costs are determined based on prevailing industry and
market rates.
o Materials and Equipment Requirements and Deadlines. Based likewise on
the Construction Timetable, all the materials and equipment rentals or
acquisitions are determined. Ordering and shipping time should never be
underestimated. In essence, the Materials and Equipment Plan that must
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be developed must provide for many contingencies: orders must be initiated
early, and back-up suppliers identified, etc., to ensure that materials and
equipment are there when needed! While there is temptation to procure all
materials at the same time to avoid problems in delivery delays, problems
attendant to materials storage, safety from destruction or pilferage, and
financial cash flow burdens, dictates a safe and economical balance
between periodic big-bulk purchases and small-quantity just-in-time
purchases.
o Financial Requirements. The financial implications of the Manpower Plan
and the Materials and Equipment Plan are summarized in a Financial Plan
which is comprised of:
The total cost of the construction project: divided by phase, type of
activity, and nature of expenditure; and,
Cash Flows that signal the amounts of financial resources at specific
time intervals needed to support the on-going construction.
o Management Team. To oversee all these plans, a construction
management team is formed. The Project Manager is identified, as well as
the Project Engineer, and all other key construction staff: Logistics Officer,
Safety Officer, Field Supervisor, Foreman, etc. Their specific roles, duties
and responsibilities are determined. The chain of command is clearly
established.
o Use of Contractors. Unless the construction is very small or limited,
construction jobs are usually contracted out to qualified contractors for two
(2) major reasons:
They have access to a ready pool of skills and crafts which otherwise
will normally create big problems if the construction is managed in-
house; and,
They are more technically qualified and competent to assure
availability of technical know-how to ensure quality control in
construction.
One of the principal duties, therefore, of the management team is to
conduct a selection process for the most qualified and most cost-effective
contractor.
• Implementation Stage. Even with a contractor, management has to effectively
intervene in the following manner:
o Work Monitoring. Progress of the work has to be monitored regularly.
Actual accomplishments must be plotted against the Construction
Timetable. Delays must be analyzed whether:
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They can be accommodated by the “slacks” or buffer time estimates;
or
They will cause delays in the completion of the whole project.
Risks of project delays must be given serious attention. How will it impact
on costs? How will it adversely affect operations and the overall financial
targets of the project?
o Site Management. While the contractor is responsible for getting the
construction jobs done, it is the responsibility of management to ensure that
safety, discipline, and order is maintained at the job site.
o Financial Management. Definitely, financial management is a principal
concern of management. The project must be accomplished within budget.
Wastages must be minimized. Cost-effectiveness must be promoted by
improving processes and procedures in construction.
o Procurement and Materials Management. Contractor services are normally
limited to the provision of services. The procurement, stocking, and
issuance of materials and equipment are usually retained by management.
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INFORMATION SHEET # 3-2
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS, SUPPLIES AND EQUIPMENT, USES AND
SPECIFICATIONS
In construction projects, the importance of getting the right materials delivered by
suppliers to the site on time cannot be taken for granted. The absence of a minor item or
low-value material can stop the whole construction process. So, in general, the following
major factors affecting logistics are carefully managed:
Quality of the materials;
Quantity of the materials;
Time of Delivery; and
Price of the materials.
The management of these factors are usually entrusted to a logistics man. To perform
the job, this person is expected to:
Know and maintain records showing the materials (and their possible
substitutes), sources of supply, prices, procurement and delivery lead-times,
and normal quantities that are readily available;
Maintain record of all purchases, withdrawals, defects, rejected items, etc.
Assess the feasibility of simplifying the specification, or standardizing them
to facilitate construction, application, and also procurement; and,
Place orders with suppliers and negotiate for on-time deliveries and
possible extension of credit.
Gather and analyze price quotations and fluctuations;
• Inventory Control. Part of the function of the logistics person is to ensure the
installation and maintenance of an effective Inventory Control. Operated normally
on a First-In First-out basis (FIFO), an efficient Inventory Control must be able to
provide all the materials on time, at the right quantity, and in the right quality.
Aside from current requirements, adequate buffer stocks are maintained as safety
insurance against shortages in the market. Be that as it may, inventory levels are,
however, kept in a safe level that balances the value of having buffer stocks on
one hand, and, on the other hand, the opportunity costs that a high level of
inventory normally incurred in over-stocking.
• Warehouse Management. An important aspect in Materials Management is
warehouse management. This concerns the safekeeping of all materials and
equipment. For ease in operations, different materials are stored/ stacked in an
orderly and organized manner. They are also properly protected from loss,
deterioration, or damage.
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INFORMATION SHEET # 3-3
PERSONAL SAFETY PRACTICES IN HATCHERY FACILITIES CONSTRUCTION
Organizations need to institute and maintain a program of policies, procedures, and
practices to protect employees and laborers from, and help them recognize, job-related
safety and health hazards. The safety program should include procedures for the
identification, evaluation, and prevention or control of workplace hazards, specific job
hazards, and potential hazards that may arise. An effective safety program will include
the following four main elements:
¾ Management Commitment - The most successful company safety program
includes a clear statement of policy by the owner, management support of safety
policies and procedures, and employee involvement in the structure and operation
of the program.
¾ Worksite Analysis - An effective company safety program sets forth procedures to
analyze the jobsite and identify existing hazards and conditions and operations in
which changes might occur to create new hazards.
¾ Hazard Prevention and Control - An effective safety program establishes
procedures to correct or control present or potential hazards on the jobsite.
¾ Safety and Health Training - Training is an essential component of an effective
company safety program. The complexity of training depends on the size and
complexity of the worksite as well as the characteristics of the hazards and
potential hazards at the site.
Both management and the employees have major roles in ensuring safety in the
workplace:
Management has responsibility to:
• Keep the workplace free from hazards;
• Inform employees of how to protect themselves against hazards that cannot
be controlled; and to
• Conduct regular jobsite safety inspections;
• Have someone trained in first aid on side if there are no emergency
response facilities nearby.
On the other hand, the employees also have the following responsibilities:
• Follow all safety rules
• Wear and take care of personal protective equipment
• Make sure all safety features for tools and equipment are functioning
properly
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• Don't let your work put another worker in danger
• Replace damaged or dull hand tools immediately
• Avoid horseplay, practical jokes, or other activities that create a hazard
• Don't use drugs or alcohol on the job
• Report any unsafe work practice and any injury or accident to your
supervisor
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
Workers must use personal protective equipment, but it is not a substitute for taking
safety measures. Workers still need to avoid hazards.
• Head Protection
o Workers must wear hard hats when overhead, falling, or flying hazards exist
or when danger of electrical shock is present.
o Inspect hard hats routinely for dents, cracks, or deterioration.
o If a hard hat has taken a heavy blow or electrical shock, you must replace it
even when you detect no visible damage.
o Maintain hard hats in good condition; do not drill; clean with strong
detergents or solvents; paint; or store them in extreme temperatures.
• Eye and Face Protection
o Workers must wear safety glasses or face shields for welding, cutting,
nailing (including pneumatic), or when working with concrete and/or harmful
chemicals.
o Eye and face protectors are designed for particular hazards so be sure to
select the type to match the hazard.
o Replace poorly fitting or damaged safety glasses.
• Foot Protection
o Residential construction workers must wear shoes or boots with slip-
resistant and puncture-resistant soles (to prevent slipping and puncture
wounds).
o Safety-toed shoes are recommended to prevent crushed toes when working
with heavy rolling equipment or falling objects.
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• Hand Protection
o High-quality gloves can prevent injury.
o Gloves should fit snugly.
o Glove gauntlets should be taped for working with fiberglass materials.
o Workers should always wear the right gloves for the job (for example,
heavy-duty rubber for concrete work, welding gloves for welding).
• Fall Protection
o Use a safety harness system for fall protection.
o Use body belts only as positioning devices—not for fall protection.
GENERAL SAFETY PRACTICES AT JOBSITE
• Housekeeping and Access at Site
o Keep all walkways and stairways clear of trash/debris and other materials
such as tools and supplies to prevent tripping.
o Keep boxes, scrap lumber and other materials picked up. Put them in a
dumpster or trash/debris area to prevent fire and tripping hazards.
o Provide enough light for workers to see and to prevent accidents.
• Stairways and Ladders
o Install permanent or temporary guardrails on stairs before stairs are used
for general access between levels to prevent someone from falling or
stepping off edges.
o Do not store materials on stairways that are used for general access
between levels.
o Keep hazardous projections such as protruding nails, large splinters, etc.
out of the stairs, treads or handrails.
o Correct any slippery conditions on stairways before they are used.
o Keep manufactured and job-made ladders in good condition and free of
defects.
o Inspect ladders before use for broken rungs or other defects so falls don't
happen. Discard or repair defective ladders.
o Secure ladders near the top or at the bottom to prevent them from slipping
and causing falls.
o When you can't tie the ladder off, be sure the ladder is on a stable and level
surface so it cannot be knocked over or the bottom of it kicked out.
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o Place ladders at the proper angle (1 foot out from the base for every 4 feet
of vertical rise).
o Extend ladders at least 3 feet above the landing to provide a handhold or for
balance when getting on and off the ladder from other surfaces.
o Do not set up a ladder near passageways or high traffic areas where it
could be knocked over.
o Use ladders only for what they were made and not as a platform, runway, or
as scaffold planks.
o Always face the ladder and maintain 3 points of contact when climbing a
ladder.
• Scaffolds and Other Work Platforms
General:
o Provide safe access to get on and off scaffolds and work platforms safely.
Use ladders safely (see Stairways and Ladders).
o Keep scaffolds and work platforms free of debris. Keep tools and materials
as neat as possible on scaffolds and platforms. These practices will help
prevent materials from falling and workers from tripping.
o Erect scaffolds on firm and level foundations.
o Finished floors will normally support the load for a scaffold or work platform
and provide a stable base.
o Place scaffold legs on firm footing and secure from movement or tipping,
especially surfaces on dirt or similar surfaces.
o Erect and dismantle scaffolds only under the supervision of a competent
person.
o Each scaffold must be capable of supporting its own weight and 4 times the
maximum intended load.
o The competent person must inspect scaffolds before each use.
o Use manufactured base plates or mud sills made of hardwood or equivalent
to level or stabilize the footings. Don't use blocks, bricks, or pieces of
lumber.
o Strictly observe the following “DO NOTS” :
DO NOT use damaged parts that affect the strength of the scaffold.
DO NOT allow employees to work on scaffolds when they are feeling
weak, sick, or dizzy.
DO NOT work from any part of the scaffold other than the platform.
DO NOT alter the scaffold.
DO NOT move a scaffold horizontally while workers are on it, unless
it is a mobile scaffold and the proper procedures are followed.
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DO NOT allow employees to work on scaffolds covered with snow,
ice, or other slippery materials.
DO NOT erect, use, alter, or move scaffolds within 10 feet of
overhead power lines.
DO NOT use shore or lean-to scaffolds.
DO NOT swing loads near or on scaffolds unless you use a tag line.
DO NOT work on scaffolds in bad weather or high winds unless the
competent person decides that doing so is safe.
DO NOT use ladders, boxes, barrels, or other makeshift contraptions
to raise your work height.
DO NOT let extra material build up on the platforms.
DO NOT put more weight on a scaffold than it is designed to hold.
Planking
o Fully plank a scaffold to provide a full work platform or use manufactured
decking. The platform decking and/or scaffold planks must be scaffold
grade and must not have any visible defects.
o Keep the front edge of the platform within 14 inches of the face of the work.
o Extend planks or decking material at least 6 inches over the edges or cleat
them to prevent movement. The work platform or planks must not extend
more than 12 inches beyond the end supports to prevent tipping when
workers are stepping or working.
o Be sure that manufactured scaffold planks are the proper size and that the
end hooks are attached to the scaffold frame.
Scaffold Guardrails
o Guard scaffold platforms that are more than 10 feet above the ground or
floor surface with a standard guardrail. If guardrails are not practical, use
other fall protection devices such as safety harnesses and lanyards.
o Place the top-rail approximately 42 inches above the work platform or
planking with a mid-rail about half that high at 21 inches.
o Install toe boards when other workers are below the scaffold.
• Fall Protection
Floor and Wall Openings
o Install guardrails around openings in floors and across openings in walls
when the fall distance is 6 feet or more. Be sure the top rails can withstand
a 200-lb load.
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o Construct guardrails with a top rail approximately 42 inches high with a mid-
rail about half that high at 21 inches.
o Install toe boards when other workers are to be below the work area.
o Cover floor openings larger than 2x2 inches with material to safely support
the working load.
Alternatives
o Use other fall protection systems such as slide guards, roof anchors or
alternative safe work practices when a guardrail system cannot be used.
o Wear proper slip-resistant shoes or footwear to lessen slipping hazards.
o Train workers in safe work practices before performing work on foundation
walls, roofs, trusses, or before they perform exterior wall erections and floor
installations.
Work on Roofs
o Inspect for and remove frost and other slipping hazards before getting onto
roof surfaces.
o Cover and secure all skylights and openings, or install guardrails to keep
workers from falling through the openings.
o When the roof pitch is over 4:12 and up to 6:12, install slide guards along
the roof eave after the first 3 rows of roofing material.
o When the pitch exceeds a 6:12 pitch, install slide guards along the roof
eave after the first 3 rows of roofing material are installed and again every 8
feet up the roof.
o Use a safety harness system with a solid anchor point on steep roofs with a
pitch greater than 8:12 or if the ground-to-eave height exceeds 25 feet.
o Stop roofing operations when storms, high winds or other adverse weather
conditions create unsafe conditions.
o Remove or properly guard any impalement hazards.
o Wear shoes with slip-resistant soles.
• Excavations and Trenching
General
o Find the location of all underground utilities by contacting the local utility
locating service before digging.
o Keep workers away from digging equipment and never allow workers in an
excavation when equipment is in use.
o Keep workers from getting between equipment in use and other obstacles
and machinery that can cause crushing hazards.
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o Keep equipment and the excavated dirt (spoils pile) back 2 feet from the
edge of the excavation.
o Have a competent person conduct daily inspections and correct any
hazards before workers enter a trench or excavation.
o Provide workers a way to get into and out of a trench or excavation such as
ladders and ramps. They must be within 25 feet of the worker.
o For excavations and utility trenches over 5 feet deep, use shoring, shields
(trench boxes), benching, or slope back the sides. Unless soil analysis has
been completed, the earth's slope must be at least 1½ feet horizontal to 1
vertical.
o Keep water out of trenches with a pump or drainage system, and inspect
the area for soil movement and potential cave-ins.
o Keep drivers in the cab and workers away from dump trucks when dirt and
other debris are being loaded into them. Don't allow workers under any load
and train them to stay clear of the backs of vehicles.
• Foundations
o After the foundation walls are constructed, take special precautions to
prevent injury from cave-ins in the area between the excavation wall and the
foundation wall.
o The depth of the foundation/basement trench cannot exceed 7½ feet deep
unless you provide other cave-in protection.
o Keep the horizontal width of the foundation trench at least 2 feet wide. Make
sure no work activity vibrates the soil while workers are in the trench.
o Plan the foundation trench work to minimize the number of workers in the
trench and the length of time they spend there.
o Inspect the trench regularly for changes in the stability of the earth (water,
cracks, vibrations, spoils pile). Stop work if any potential for cave-in
develops and fix the problem before work starts again.
• Tools and Equipment
o Maintain all hand tools and equipment in a safe condition and check them
regularly for defects. Remove broken or damaged tools and equipment from
the jobsite.
o Follow the manufacturer's requirements for safe use of all tools.
o Use double insulated tools, or ensure that the tools are grounded.
o Equip all power saws (circular, table, etc.) with blade guards.
o Make sure guards are in place before using power saws. Don't use power
saws with the guard tied or wedged open.
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o Turn off saws before leaving them unattended.
o Raise or lower tools by their handles, not by their cords.
o Don't use wrenches when the jaws are sprung to the point of slippage.
Replace them.
o Don't use impact tools with mushroomed heads. Replace them.
o Keep wooden handles free of splinters or cracks and be sure the handles
stay tight in the tool.
o Workers using powder-activated tools must receive proper training prior to
using the tools.
o Always be sure that hose connections are secure when using pneumatic
tools.
o Never leave cartridges for pneumatic or powder-actuated tools unattended.
Keep equipment in a safe place, according to the manufacturer's
instructions.
o Require proper eye protection for workers.
• Vehicles and Mobile Equipment
o Train workers to stay clear of backing and turning vehicles and equipment
with rotating cabs.
o Be sure that all off-road equipment used on site is equipped with rollover
protection (ROPS).
o Maintain back-up alarms for equipment with limited rear view or use
someone to help guide them back.
o Be sure that all vehicles have fully operational braking systems and brake
lights.
o Use seat belts when transporting workers in motor and construction
vehicles.
o Maintain at least a 10-foot clearance from overhead power lines when
operating equipment.
o Block up the raised bed when inspecting or repairing dump trucks.
o Know the rated capacity of the crane and use accordingly.
o Ensure the stability of the crane.
o Use a tag line to control materials moved by a crane.
o Verify experience or provide training to crane and heavy equipment
operators.
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• Electrical
o Prohibit work on new and existing energized (hot) electrical circuits until all
power is shut off and a positive Lockout/Tagout System is in place.
o Don't use frayed or worn electrical cords or cables.
o Use only 3-wire type extension cords designed for hard or junior hard
service. (Look for any of the following letters imprinted on the casing: S,
ST, SO, STO, SJ, SJT, SJO, SJTO.)
o Maintain all electrical tools and equipment in safe condition and check
regularly for defects.
o Remove broken or damaged tools and equipment from the jobsite.
o Protect all temporary power (including extension cords) with ground fault
circuit interrupters (GFCIs). Plug into a GFCI-protected temporary power
pole, a GFCI protected generator, or use a GFCI extension cord to protect
against shocks.
o Don't bypass any protective system or device designed to protect
employees from contact with electrical current.
o Locate and identify overhead electrical power lines. Make sure that ladders,
scaffolds, equipment or materials never come within 10 feet of electrical
power lines.
• Fire Prevention
o Provide fire extinguishers near all welding, soldering, or other sources of
ignition.
o Keep fire extinguishers easy to see and reach in case of an emergency.
o Provide one fire extinguisher within 100 feet of employees for each 3,000
square feet of building.
o Don't store flammable or combustible materials in areas used for stairways
or exists.
o Avoid spraying of paint, solvents, or other types of flammable materials in
rooms with poor ventilation. Build-up of fumes and vapors can cause
explosions or fires.
o Store gasoline and other flammable liquids in a safety can outdoors or in an
approved storage facility.
o Don't store LP gas tanks inside buildings.
o Keep temporary heaters at least 6 feet away from any LP gas container.
o Ensure that leaks or spills of flammable or combustible materials are
cleaned up promptly.
Code No. Designing, Lay-outing and Constructing of a Date: Date Page #
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INFORMATION SHEET # 3-4
BASIC CARPENTRY
• Basic Tools. Among the very basic tools in carpentry works are the following:
o Circular Saw. This portable power-tool workhorse makes straight and angle
cuts as well as large pocket cuts -- all more quickly and accurately than you
could do by hand. Specialty blades are designed for ripping and
crosscutting lumber and cutting plywood. A saw with a 6 1/2-inch blade
capacity will handle most jobs; get a 7 1/2-inch saw to make angle cuts in
stock as thick as 2x4s.
o Cordless Drill. This battery-powered drill frees you to work in places beyond
reach of a power cord. Buy one that operates on at least 9.6 volts, and get
an extra battery pack so you won't interrupt your project waiting for your drill
to recharge.
o Electric Drill. This corded or battery-powered tool not only drills holes, but
with the proper attachments, also drives fasteners, cuts holes, sands, and
does a variety of other tasks. Although battery units are convenient, they
may not hold a large enough charge for a major building project. A spare
battery can help overcome this drawback.
o Jigsaw. Known in years past as a saber saw, this portable tool is a jack-of-
all-trades. Its variable-speed reciprocating blade makes straight, angled,
curved, and hole cuts in lumber and sheet goods.
• Measuring and Leveling. There's a good reason why the first rule of carpentry is,
"Measure twice, cut once." Small mistakes add up, producing sloppy results. If you
don't catch the error, you may throw the whole deck out of whack and have to
dismantle it and rebuild.
All carpentry projects require that you understand how to establish level
references. The art of finding level isn't just for the purpose of creating flat
surfaces; it is also necessary for ensuring accurate measurements. A tape
measure works only along two dimensions. If you are not measuring along a level
surface, the measurement is compromised. For example, if you lay out your deck
by measuring from the house along a sloping yard, rather than along a level plane,
you could wind up with dimensions several inches, or even several feet, wrong.
o Using a tape measure. The hook at the end of a tape measure slides back
and forth slightly to compensate for its own thickness. This means that
whether you hook the tape on a board end for an outside measurement or
push it against a flat surface for an inside measurement, the reading is still
accurate. The first few inches of many tape measures are divided into 1/32-
inch increments for detailed measurements.
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o Extending the level with a board. To establish level between posts, place a
carpenter's level on the edge of a straight board. Sight down the board to
make sure it is straight. If necessary, use tape to keep the level centered on
the board. With a carpenter's level, you know you have a level surface when
the bubble in the horizontal vial centers between the two lines.
o Using a water level for large spans. Used properly, a water level is an
unerringly accurate tool for finding level. Although not necessary on smaller
decks, it may be indispensable for large decks or for checking level around
corners. You can make a water level with plastic tubing filled with water, or
you can buy a commercial model like the one shown.
o Estimating with a line level. Inexpensive line levels are handy for making
rough estimates, but they are not as accurate as a carpenter's level or a
water level. Clip the level on a mason's line, then adjust the line until the
level's bubble is centered. The line must be as taut as possible, and there
should be little if any wind affecting the mason's line.
• Squaring, Plumbing, and Leveling. Most carpentry projects - from making
simple shelves to building walls - require that you square the work. Check for
square at every stage of your work: corners, uprights, and board ends.
Making sure that work is plumb and level is equally important. Walls, cabinets,
doors-nearly every permanent installation-must be plumb (perpendicular to the
earth) and level (parallel to the earth). Don't assume existing walls or floors are
square, level, or plumb. Most often they are not because of imperfect construction
or settling that has taken place over the years. Techniques shown in this section
will help you keep your carpentry projects straight and true.
o Checking board ends for square. All your careful measuring will be wasted
if you start with a piece of lumber that is not square--one edge will be longer
than the other. Check the board end by holding a combination square with
the body or handle firmly against a factory edge. If the end isn't square,
mark a square line and trim the board.
o Using a combination square. With this tool you can easily check for either
45- or 90-degree angles. Also, by sliding the blade, you can check depths.
This tool can go out of square if it is dropped, so check it once in a while
against a square factory edge (such as the corner of a sheet of plywood).
o Using a framing square. For larger jobs, use a framing square. Lay the
square up against two members where they meet. If the tongue and the
blade of the square rest neatly against the members, the sides are
perpendicular. Or, place the square on the outside. Again, if the square
touches the members at all points, the unit is square. When using a framing
square for measuring, be sure to read the correct scale--inside or outside.
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o Using the 3-4-5 method. For large projects, test if a corner is square by
using geometry. You don't need to remember the Pythagorean theorem.
Just remember "3-4-5." On one side, mark a point 3 feet from the corner.
On the other side, mark a point 4 feet from the corner. If the distance
between the two marks is exactly 5 feet, it is square. For extra large
projects, use multiples such as 6-8-10 or 9-12-15.
o As a double check, measure the length of the diagonals. If the project is
square, the distance between two opposite corners (marked A in the
drawing above) will equal the distance between the other two corners (B).
o Checking for plumb. To see if a piece is perfectly vertical--plumb--hold a
level against one face of the vertical surface and look at the air bubble in the
level's lower glass vial. If it rests between the two guide marks, the piece is
plumb.
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10/24/ 2004 10/20/ 2005
INFORMATION SHEET # 3-5
BASIC MASONRY
• Common Tools. Here are some common tools used in masonry works:
o Wheelbarrow. This multipurpose tool consists of a bin with flared sides,
supported by a single wheel in the front and two leg supports in back. Rear-
mounted handles make it easy to raise the back of a loaded wheelbarrow to
push and steer it.
o Mortar Box. When you don't have to transport your material, this large tub
with flared sides is an alternative to using a wheelbarrow for mixing
concrete, mortar, plaster, and the like.
o Brick Trowel. Available in a variety of blade sizes, brick trowels are all-
purpose masonry tools, equally adept at mixing mortar, placing it, and doing
rudimentary trimming of mortar joints.
o Brick Set. Wider than a masonry chisel, this thick, heavy cold chisel is
designed to cut and form masonry and stone materials when struck with a
baby sledgehammer.
o Darby. Like the wood float and the bull float, a darby is a long, handled
platform used to compact and smooth newly poured concrete.
o Mason's Line. Mason's line is a strong cord that resists sagging and
stretching. It's used for laying out and leveling a variety of structures, from
concrete footings and slabs to brick patios and retaining walls.
o Spade. This garden tool's squared-off blade makes it suitable for general
digging as well as squaring up excavations for landscaping projects.
o Square-Blade Shovel. Besides handling general digging tasks, a square-
blade shovel also comes in handy for moving sand and wet concrete.
• Preparing Sites for Wall Footings. Because the weight of a concrete slab is
distributed over many square feet, it usually does not need footings. Slabs "float"
(ride up and down) 1 to 2 inches as the ground freezes and thaws. But a footing is
required to support a wall of any sort (a dry stone wall is one of the few
exceptions). A footing spreads the weight so the wall doesn't sink, so it's usually
twice the width of the structure it supports. The footing must extend below the frost
line to avoid damage from frost heave. Check local codes to see how deep the
footing must be.
Code No. Designing, Lay-outing and Constructing of a Date: Date Page #
Marine Finfish Hatchery Developed Revised: 99
10/24/ 2004 10/20/ 2005
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