COM2301_E-Portfolio_Salmane(1)

e-Portfolio

A deliverable submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for COM 2301 “Professional
Communication” by Dr. A. Agnaou at Al Akhawayn
University in Ifrane, Morocco.

OUSSAMA SALMANE

Spring 2018

Contents

Job Ad .............................................................................................................................................................................3
Overview ..................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Responsibilities ...........................................................................................................................................................3
Qualifications .............................................................................................................................................................. 4

Job Description ...............................................................................................................................................................5
Cover Letter in English for Job AD ..................................................................................................................................6
Cover Letter in Arabic for a Master Program .................................................................................................................7
Curriculam Vitaes............................................................................................................................................................8

English Curriculum Vitae.............................................................................................................................................8
French Curriculum Vitae.............................................................................................................................................9
Arabic Curriculum Vitae............................................................................................................................................11
Recommendation Letters .............................................................................................................................................13
First Recommendation Letter...................................................................................................................................13
Second Recommendation Letter ..............................................................................................................................14
Third Recommendation Letter .................................................................................................................................15
Artifacts ........................................................................................................................................................................16
President List Certificate...........................................................................................................................................16
Acceptance Letter.....................................................................................................................................................17
Certificate of Completion .........................................................................................................................................18
Transcript .................................................................................................................................................................. 19
A Papers....................................................................................................................................................................22

Paper I...................................................................................................................................................................22
Paper II..................................................................................................................................................................29
Paper III.................................................................................................................................................................36

Job Ad

Overview
American Institutes for Research (AIR) is a U.S. based not-for-profit company specializing

in education programming, educational assessment, and other social policy issues. AIR’s
International Development Program seeks to enhance the capacity of people in developing
countries to improve their quality of life through education and social development. We have
worked in collaboration with local and international stakeholders in more than 80 countries over the
past three decades. We seek to ensure children’s equitable access to all levels of education, improve
the quality and relevance of education, and empower individuals, communities, and institutions as
agents of social and behavioral change.

Responsibilities
The Research Assistant will work with the Principal Investigator to perform a variety of

tasks including, but not limited to, cleaning and analyzing data, supporting field-based evaluation
work, data analysis and interpretation, and support in writing of analytical reports, journal articles,
and other dissemination efforts.
Eligibility: Moroccan nationals are encouraged to apply.
This position is contingent on funding.

Qualifications

• Bachelor’s degree or higher in sociology, anthropology, education, or related field with relevant experience in
ethnographic research, Master’s degree preferred
• 3 or more years of experience working in development, preferably education or another social sector, preferably
conducting qualitative research
• Experience conducting site visits, key informant interviews, focus group discussions
• Knowledge of qualitative data analysis software such as NVivo or ATLAS.ti
• Strong qualitative, analytical, and writing skills
• Candidates speaking Arabic in addition to English preferred
*LI-AS1

Please note, each section of the application is required in order for you to be considered for
this opportunity. If you do not complete the required screening questions, or if you close your
browser before completing each section of the application, your application will not be submitted for
this position.

American Institutes for Research is an equal employment opportunity/affirmative action
employer committed to excellence through diversity. Minorities, women, individuals with disabilities
and veterans are encouraged to apply.

American Institutes for Research’s commitment to Diversity goes beyond legal compliance to
its full integration in our strategy, operations and work environment. Diversity is valued and
Inclusion is reflected in all efforts to recruit, develop, and engage the diverse staff needed to
accomplish our mission. ACCESSIBILITY NOTICE: If you need a reasonable accommodation for
any part of the employment process due to a physical or mental disability, please send an email to
Erica Nicholson at [email protected] or call 202.403.5846.

*Source: https://jobs-airdc.icims.com/jobs/10624/research-assistant---morocco/job?mode=job
&iisn=Glassdoor&iis=Glassdoor&mobile=false&width=900&height=500&bga=true&needsRedirect=false&ja
n1offset=60&jun1offset=60

Job Description

“Research assistants perform much of the hands-on, investigative work behind scientific and
medical advancements, government policy making, and new discoveries in the arts, humanities, and other
disciplines. They assist scientists, economists, historians, and many other types of professional researchers
by conducting literature searches, obtaining statistics, observing animals and other subjects, and then
comparing data, writing reports, and handling other related responsibilities.” (Driscoll, 2013)

Research assistant usually involves field work as part of the job. In order for the fieldwork to be
effective, research assistants need to be familiar with the environment where the fieldwork is undergoing.
Research assistant’s roles depend on the type of work but as mentioned above, a research assistant has to
be polyvalent. Among the requirements to be a research assistant, we find a specialized bachelor degree,
familiarity with languages, and polyvalence in terms of the work he/she can achieve.

Reference
Driscoll, S. (2013). Research Assistant. Salem Press Encyclopedia

Cover Letter in English for Job AD

Villa 16, Hay el Mounalak 2
10150 CYM, Rabat
Morocco
(212)662316030
[email protected]

1st April, 2018
American Institute for Research
1000 Thomas Jefferson Street, NW
Washington, D.C. 20007

Dear Mr/Mrs,

I am pleased to be writing you today regarding my application for the research assistant position in
Morocco advertised on Glassdoor. I believe that my qualifications suit the position making me an ideal
candidate for the position.

I am willing to graduate this upcoming summer with a bachelor degree of arts in international relations and
a minor in business administration. Besides this, I have an experience of two months’ internship in the
Moroccan parliament. I am a hard-working, calm and totally professional person. During my academic
cursus, I had many research project on different topics and regions of Morocco. I was totally dedicated in
these various research projects which boosted up my familiarity with the Moroccan context. I have also a
deep statistical and business knowledge. These combination of skills will allow me to achieve the tasks
assigned to a research assistant. My curiosity to know more and do things perfectly are essential virtues.

Please find attached, a copy of my resume and artifacts. Also, you are free to visit my LinkedIn profile for
more details. If you have any inquiries, please let me know by an email to [email protected]. I
am also available for a phone/video interview anytime it suits you.

Looking forward to hearing from you,
Sincerely yours,

Oussama Salmane

‫‪Cover Letter in Arabic for a Master Program‬‬

‫الرباط ‪ 22‬مارس ‪2018‬‬ ‫سلمان اسامة‬
‫فيلا ‪ 16‬المنطلق حي الفتح ح ي الرباط‬
‫عميدة جامعة‬ ‫الهاتف ‪0662316030 :‬‬

‫السيدة دونا مانسيني‬ ‫الى‬

‫الموضوع ‪ :‬طلب التسجيل بسلك الماستر التحليل السياسي‪.‬‬

‫لي الشرف ان اتقدم الى سيادتكم الموقرة بطلبي هدا راجيا منكم قبول تسجيلي بسلك الماستر شعبة التحليل السياسي برسم السنة الجامعية ‪. 2019/2018‬‬

‫انهي الى علمكم اني طالب بجامعة الاخوين شعبة الدراسات الدولية ‪ ،‬حاصل على شهادة البكالوريا شعبة علوم فيزيائية بميزة حسن جدا ‪ ،‬وقد استفدت في‬
‫اطار التبادل الدولي من تكوين مهم في جامعة هاڢيرفورد بالولايات المتحدة الامريكية ‪ ،‬هدا التكوين مكنني من تعميق تكويني وكسب مؤهلات عالية في‬
‫المجال السياسي الدي اتابع فيه تخصصي‪ ،‬ولقد كانت فرصة للتعرف والتكيف مع نوع مختلف من التكوين والتقرب من الثقافة الامريكية مع انسجامي‬
‫وامتثالي الكلي للقوانين الجاري بها العمل داخل ر الجامعة و اثير انتباهكم انني لم اكن عرضة لأي مواجهة او الاحساس باي نوع من انواع التميز‬
‫العنصري‪.‬‬

‫و تجدر الاشارة انني استفدت من فترة تدريب في البرلمان المغربي وكانت فرصة استثنائية للتعرف عن قريب عن كيفية عقد المعاهدات و التواصل مع‬
‫مختلف الوفود و قد ساعدني على دلك اتقاني لعدة لغات‪ .‬وقد حظيت بتشجيع خاص من طرف المشرف على التدريب ودلك لانسجامي و تواصلي الكبير مع‬

‫نضام العمل ‪،‬كما كلفت بالمساعدة في تحضير مختلف الميزانيات و ساعدني على دلك مهارتي في هدا المجال تخصصي الثانوي في الرياضيات وادارة‬
‫الاعمال‪.‬‬

‫و سأبقى رهن اشارتكم من اجل اي توضيح او اضافة‪ ،‬و في انتظار جوابكم ‪ ،‬تفضلوا سيدتي بقبول اسمى عبارات التقدير و الاحترام ‪.‬‬

‫توقيع سلمان اسامة‬ ‫المرفقات‪:‬‬
‫نسخة من السيرة الذاتية‬

Curriculam Vitaes

English Curriculum Vitae

French Curriculum Vitae

Oussama Salmane

Villa 16, Hay El Mountalak 2,Hay el Fath, CYM, Rabat
+212 662316030

[email protected]

Formation

Haverford College Philadelphia, USA

Semestre d’échange Sept. 2016- Dec. 2016
o Sciences politique et administration des affaires. Karlsruhe, Allemagne
Karlshochschule International University

Session d’été Juillet 2016

o Relations internationales. Ifrane, Maroc
Al Akhawayn University Jan. 2015 – Présent

o Études internationales Kenitra, Maroc
o Spécialisation : Relations Internationales. Sept. 2014 - Dec. 2014
o Minor : Administration des affaires.
o Moyenne Cumulative : 3.74
Ecole Nationale de Commerce et de Gestion

o Etudes en commerce et gestion

Lycée Belbachir Rabat, Morocco
Sept. 2013 – Juin 2014
o Baccalauréat option SVT.
Activités Professionnelles

o Préparation des documents requis pour Visa Schengen dans une agence publique a Nador et traduction des
documents.

o Stage au sein du Parlement Marocain.

ACTIVITÉS EXTRA-CURRICULAIRES ET ASSOCIATIVES

o Participation in Ftour du Coeur Rabat au cours de Ramadan 2012 et 2013.

PRIX

o President list, printemps 2015
o Dean’s list , automne 2015 et printemps 2016

COMPETENCES

Langues :
o Arabe : Langue Maternelles
o Français : Couramment
o Anglais : Couramment
o Espagnol : Débutant

Compétences informatiques :
o Expert en Microsoft Office: Word, Excel, PowerPoint
o Python
o SPSS

INTÉRÊTS

o Voyager
o Musique
o Lire
o Commerce

‫‪Arabic Curriculum Vitae‬‬

‫أسامة سلمان‬

‫فيلا ‪ 16‬المنطلق حي الفتح ح ي م الرباط‬

‫‪+212 662316030‬‬

‫‪[email protected]‬‬

‫البيانات الشخصية‬

‫الاسم ‪ /‬أسامة سلمان‬
‫العنوان ‪ /‬فيلا ‪ 16‬المنطلق حي الفتح ح ي م الرباط‬

‫‪+212 662316030‬‬
‫‪[email protected]‬‬

‫المؤهل الدراسي‬

‫بكالوريا علوم الحياة و الأرض بمدرسة بلباشير‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫جامعة الأخوين (معدل‪: )4\3.74 :‬بكالوريوس الفنون في الدراسات الدولية وقاصر في إدارة الأعمال‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫‪‬‬
‫جامعة هافرفورد بالولايات المتحدة الأمريكية‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫جامعة كارلشوكشول الدولية في ألمانيا‪.‬‬

‫المهارات‬

‫‪ ‬الحاسب الالي ‪:‬‬

‫‪ .i‬التعــامل مع برامـج الحـاسب الألي ( ‪ )Power point، Excel ،Word‬ـــ إجادة تامة‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫‪ .ii‬التعـامل مع الــ البرمجة بيتون‪(Python).‬‬

‫‪ .iii‬التعـامل مع حزمة إحصائية للعلوم الاجتماعية‪( SPSS).‬‬

‫اللغات ‪:‬‬

‫اللغة العربية ـــ اللغة الأم‪.‬‬ ‫‪.i‬‬
‫اللغة الانجليزية ـــ إجادة تامة‪.‬‬ ‫‪.ii‬‬
‫اللغة الفرنسية ـــ إجادة تامة‪.‬‬ ‫‪.iii‬‬

‫اللغة الإسبانية ـــ مبتدئ‪.‬‬ ‫‪.iv‬‬

‫الخبرات‬

‫‪ ‬فترة تدريب في البرلمان المغربي‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬إعداد الوثائق المطلوبة لصالح فيزا شنغن في وكالة عامة بالناظور وترجمة الوثائق‪.‬‬

‫الأنشطة التعاونية‬

‫‪ ‬مشاركة في فطور من القلب خلال رمضان ‪ 2012‬و ‪.2013‬‬

‫‪ ‬الهوايات ‪:‬‬

‫‪ ‬القراءة‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬السفر‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬الموسيقى‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬تجارة‪.‬‬

‫‪Template retrieved from: http://www.getfreecv.com/arabic-resume-g1/‬‬

Recommendation Letters

First Recommendation Letter

Ifrane, Morocco, 03.24.2018

To whomever it may concern,

I had the pleasure of teaching Oussama Salmane in his course of Macroeconomics at AUI. Oussama
impressed me with his ability to be articulate about difficult concepts, his sensitivity to the nuances within
business and his passion for learning in depth concepts that were not familiar. Oussama is a good student,
original person and he has my highest recommendation as a student.

Throughout the term, Oussama was an active participant in our discussions, and he always supported his
peers. His personality allows him to work well with others in a team setting, as he always respects others'
opinions even when they differ from his own. Throughout the weeks, Oussama demonstrated this openness
to and empathy for the opinions, feelings, and perspectives of others, along with shrewed powers of
observation, all qualities that makes him outstanding as a student.

He was always a hard worker, responsible and reliable in each last task.

I am certain that Oussama is going to continue to do great and creative things in his future. I highly
recommend her for any endeavors he chooses to pursue. He is talented, caring, intuitive, dedicated, and
focused in his pursuits. Oussama consistently seeks out constructive feedback so he can improve his skills.
He is truly a stand-out individual who will impress everyone he meets being always polite, but firm in his
struggles. Please feel free to contact me if you have any questions at [email protected].

Sincerely,

Comlanvi Martin Konou, PhD

Assistant Professor of Economics & Quantitative Methods at Al Akhawayn University of Ifrane - Morocco

Second Recommendation Letter

Ifrane,
March 27th, 2018

To Whom It May Concern

I am pleased to recommend Oussama Salmane, who was a student in my Microeconomics class
during the fall 2015. Oussama Salmane is a studious and serious student.

Oussama is a person that is showing a great willingness and eagerness to learn new things and to
improve the ones he already got. In my class, Oussama was always trying to challenge himself. He
showed a high skill of hardworking, team working and critical thinking.

As you can tell, I think very highly of this young man and recommend him without reservations for
a Master program or any other endeavors he chooses to pursue. Please let me know if you have any
further questions about this outstanding young man.

Sincerely
Dr. Rhizlane Hammoud
SBA Faculty
AUI
[email protected]

Third Recommendation Letter

To Whom It May Concern:

It is with great pleasure that I write on behalf of Oussama Salmane. I got to know Oussama through a social
statistics course at Al Akhawayn University in Morocco. This class is known to be a tough obstacle for many
students, and yet Oussama was able to perform above and beyond expectations. Perhaps this is to be expected in
hindsight, as Oussama’s overall GPA is 3.72, which is above average for his Moroccan counterparts. He also speaks
four languages: Moroccan Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic, French, and English. He also has taken a semester of
Spanish at the university level.

Since our time together in the class, I have had the opportunity to get to know Oussama outside of the classroom.
Besides being an ideal student he has shown great initiative in leadership within the Al Akhawayn University
community. He has done an internship in the Moroccan parliament. Outside of Al Akhawayn University, Oussama
has been involved in volunteering with two local NGOs in Rabat, one called Ftour du Coeur which does outreach to
various activities during Ramadan, and one called Croissant Rouge Marocain which teaches English to children.

Oussama is well prepared to move abroad in order to participate in the Master’s program. He has travelled for
studies before. He participated in a semester exchange program in the USA at Haverford College, focusing on
political science and accounting. He also did a summer abroad at Karlshochschule Summer Academy in Germany.
Oussama has also travelled to different parts of the European continent. Through these travels he has found his
passion for experiencing new cultures. In addition, it has strengthened hid already pre-existing skills. Namely: he
is serious, committed, extremely open-minded, hard-working, motivated, determined, and ambitious.

The Master’s program would greatly assist in helping Oussama pursue his future career goals which he has
articulated on numerous occasions. After he graduates he plans to pursue a PhD in Political Analysis. After he
finishes his PhD he hopes to return to Morocco in order to work start a Moroccan Agency.

If I were to be in charge of a Master’s program, Oussama would be a student that I would hire or accept
immediately. His traits, skills, and passion are unmatched by his Moroccan counterparts. I have every confidence
that he would succeed tremendously in the program.

Matthew Lehnert
Lecturer of Statistics and Quantitative Methods
Al Akhawayn University
[email protected]

Artifacts

President List Certificate

Certificate given to students for scoring straight at least 4 A’s in their classes.

Acceptance Letter

Acceptance letter to the Haverford College for the Fall 2016 for an exchange semester. Haverford College figures
among the top 9 Liberal Arts Colleges in the United States of America.

Certificate of Completion

Certification of completion of a summer abroad in the Karlshoschschule Summer Academy in Germany.

Transcript





A Papers
Paper I

Literature Review of Terrorism (Transnational)
Oussama Salmane
Dr. Eric Ross

Al Akhawayn University in Ifrane
School of Humanities and Social Sciences

Research Methods (SSC 3303)
03/10/2017

Grade of the Paper: A
Final grade in the class: A-

Before 9/11, the world was not concerned about terrorism and its forms. Hours after the attacks on
the World Trade Center, terrorism became the concern of many international organizations and states. The
fight against terrorism started since then, but it will take time to understand the nature of this fight.
Throughout history, scholars following different school of thoughts tackled this issue and its nature. In the
end of the day, no one succeeded in explaining the change happening in our world and the causes of
terrorism. What triggered this huge concern is not only the attacks on the world center but rather the
succession of terrorist attacks that happened in the beginning of the 21st century. “ Terrorism is old as war,
but only with the attacks of September 2001 in New York and Washington, March 2004 in Madrid, and
July 2005 in London did it become a central concern of governments in the rich countries” (Keefer and
Loayza, 2008, p. 1). The concern in this literature review is to investigate the origin of the term and its
evolution path.
Etymology of the term “Terrorism”:

“The modern use of the term terrorist seems to come from actions of the radicalized mob in the
French Revolution of the late 18th century, whose use of violent excesses in separating those loyal to the
French crown from those loyal to the French state invoked mass panic. George Washington was part of a
terror campaign against Native Americans as a commander in the French and Indian Wars. General
William Sherman’s complete devastation of Georgia in the American Civil War could also be considered
part of an organized terror campaign.” (Hickey, 2003, p. 467). This shows that the term terrorism is way
older than the 21st century. Therefore, there are authors who date the use of terrorism to the early 16th
century. Philip Bobbitt argues in his book “Terror and Consent” that “the princely states of the
Renaissance, the first modern states, created a distinctive form of terrorism. The consolidation of the state

from its feudal and oligarchical origins drove Italian city groups like the fuorisciti to attack civilians as a
political reaction to exclusion from power. The most important terrorists, however, were those drawn from
the very forces the new states were compelled to employ to protect themselves. When the technology of
warfare made feudal knight pathetically vulnerable, the mercenaries to which princely states turned were
often liable to take their tactics of terror and turn them against innocent civilians in order to achieve the
respectable war aim of enriching themselves and tormenting those religious sects they despised.” (2009, p.
27)

Definition of terrorism:

The world itself is causing terror within the international community, as there is a wide range of
definitions to terrorism. “Post-9/11, the discourse around the need to reach a single international
comprehensive definition has arguably been contained predominantly within the academic circles.”
(Grozdanova, 2014, p. 312). Terrorism does certainly exist, but there is a huge controversy on what it does
means and what factors have to be included in its definition. “The term ‘terrorism’, as it appears in public
discourse, may be contested and to some extent unclear in its scope and application”(Hondgson & Tadros,
2013, p. 497). Kushner in the “Encyclopedia of terrorism” says that “most definitions of terrorism hinge on
three factors: the method (violence), the target (civilian or government), and the purpose (to instill fear and
force political or social change).” (2003, p. 359)

Peterson and Burns argue in their book “Terrorism: Documentary and a Reference Guide” that “the
inclusion of “violence or the threat of violence” is not enough to define terrorism. Another component of
the definition is the target. Many are in agreement that the targets must be random so that people will be
terrorized-that is, people will fear they may become the next victim. But some terrorist groups always aim
at the same sorts of targets, such as settlements and military bases…another factor is whether the targets
must be civilian. Violence against noncombatants-civilian targets is often used as a yardstick to measure
whether can be called terrorism.” (2005, p. 12) Because terrorism is vague and can take many forms such
as transnational terrorism that is defined in “Terror and Consent” as “represented by al Qaeda and its
associated groups, has the potential to undermine the integrity and value of the state itself, destroying the
domestic contract of the state by undermining its ability to protect its citizens from direct attack. This form
of terrorism is a threat to the sovereignty and the legitimacy of the state itself.” (Bobbitt, 2009, p. 4) The
other form of terrorism is domestic terrorism but it “may be a driver of transnational terrorism. The two
kinds of terrorism may also be interrelated if innovations adopted by the terrorists or the authorities for one
kind of terrorism influence these entities for the other type of terrorism.” (Enders, Sandler, Gaibulloev,
2011, p.321)

International organizations also had their word to say in terms of defining ‘terrorism’, “League of
Nations Convention (1937): ‘All criminal acts directed against a State and intended or calculated to create
a state of terror in the minds of particular persons or a groups of persons or the general public’. UN
Resolution Language (1999): (1) Strongly condemns all acts, methods and practices of terrorism as
criminal and unjustifiable, wherever and by whomsoever committed; (2) Reiterates that criminal acts
intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular
persons for political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a
political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or other nature that may be invoked to justify
them.” (Peterson & Burns, 2005, p. 10)

Because terrorism is strongly related with politics, Grant Wardlaw’s defines the majors
characteristics of political terrorism as : “Political terrorism is the use, or threat of use, of violence by an
individual or a group, whether acting for or in opposition to established authority, when such action is
designed to create extreme anxiety and/or fear-inducing effects in a target group larger than the immediate
victims with the purpose of coercing that group into acceding to the political demands of the perpetrators.”
(Anderson & Sloan, 2002, p. 3).

Other authors felt the need to differentiate between different types of terrorism witnesses during
these last decades. This differentiation allows some authors to give a wide if note complete definition of
terrorism by defining its different types. For many, there are two types of terrorism: International terrorism
and domestic terrorism. International terrorism is also referred to as transnational terrorism and
multinational terrorism as it is seen as a transnational organized crime. “International Terrorism- a
fundamental distinction is often made between domestic, or territorial, terrorism and international
terrorism: Domestic terrorism is limited to given countries or regions are usually part of an internal
insurgency or revolutionary war. International terrorism is non territorial in that it is not limited to any one
region…Some key characteristics of international terrorism include the following: 1) It is a form of
psychological warfare intended to create reactions on the part of its audience…2) It is a form of
communication. Besides communicating terror, such acts are forms of armed propaganda that force a
captive audience to listen to political demand and threats…3) It is also a form of criminality but not ‘mere
criminality’…4) International Terrorism is really a form of protracted warfare being carried out for
political aims, often with the sponsorship of hostile governments.” (Anderson & Sloan, 2002, p. 479-481)

References to terrorism were given starting the 1950s in national legislations of major countries
such as the UK and the US. “The earliest references to terrorism in national legislation are found in
legislation giving legal effect to the Geneva Conventions and, incidentally, to the conventions’ prohibitions
on “terrorism.” The conventions did not, however, include a definition of the term terrorism, and the
earliest statutory definition appears to be the United Kingdom’s definition in section 28(1) of the North-ern
Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1973 (UK, c 53), enacted in response to the upsurge of violence in

Northern Ireland…The earliest reference to terrorism in US federal legislation occurs in the Foreign
Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 (FISA), permitting surveillance for the purposes of investigations
into “international terrorism,” for which it offers a definition that has proved resilient.” (Douglas, 2014, p.
48)
Language of Terrorism:

“This discussion illustrates how language, knowledge, and power, utilized in national security
discourse have incorporated terrorism through a specific, highly controlled ‘regime of truth’. This ‘regime
of truth’ is a fabricated reality based one the workings and interests of those who constitute and articulate
the ‘truth’… Terrorism is constructed and reconstructed within specific uses of language, and that language
is utilized to ensure that the meaning assigned to terrorism fall within the domain of security-meanings that
allow the continued domination of national security discourse in how terrorism is dealt with and responded
to.” (Campos II, 2007, p. 121)

“Given the intense focus of the state on the legitimate use and control of power, knowledge, and
force, terrorism is viewed as a direct assault, a direct confrontation to existing states’ authority. The
challenge of terrorism is constructed as a legitimate threat that enables practices of the state to manage the
use and deployment of righteous violence.” (Campos II, 2007, p. 90)

“Other English words have come from the ancient lexicon of terrorism. The term “ thug was taken
from “Thugee”, the name of a secret sect in India that also employed terrorism as part of its ritual worship
of Kali, the Hindu goddess of destruction”. (Anderson & Sloan, 2002, p.7)

After all use of terrorism in languages remains defragmented because the language is a tool that
allows us to provide a wide variety of definitions. “Terrorism is constructed and re-constructed within
specific uses of language. The language of security and threat is used to ensure that the meanings assigned
to terrorism fall within the domain of national security discourse- meanings that allow the continued
domination of discourse in how terrorism is understood, dealt with, and responded to.” (Campos II, 2007,
p. 11)

History of Terrorism:

“The genesis of modern terrorism took place during the French Revolution and the reaction that
followed it.” (Anderson & Sloan, 2002, p. 7) Therefore, “the resort to terrorism as an instrument of
revolutionary transformation was more fully developed in Imperial Russia… The use of terrorism as a
weapon of propaganda and communication was further developed during this period by the follower of
anarchism… The reign of terror pioneered by the French revolution was expanded with murderous
efficiency by Stalin through the massive purges and show trials of the 1920s and 1930s.” (Anderson &
Sloan, 2002, p.8) It is until the 1960s that terrorism took its contemporary form.

Even though terrorism became relevant in the 1960s, it became significantly relevant after the 9/11
attacks. “Terrorism has high relevancy and has a history dating back into the nineteenth century. Moreover,
there is rich international scholarship from many different academic disciplines. While in the 1990s some
fifty books per year appeared with the word terrorism in the title, between 2002 and 2008 these numbers
rose to some 300 per year” (Shraut & Weinhauer, 2014, p. 8).

Theories of terrorism:

It is obvious that there is the lack of a consensus on defining terrorism; however, there is an
absolute agreement on discriminating terrorism. “The number of internationally adopted conventions
dealing to some extent with terrorism is a clear indication of the common agreement on which activities
might be deemed terrorist and thus prohibited by the relevant legal instruments.” (Grozdanova, 2014, p.
308)

Because Terrorism is biased and usually associated to Islam, there is the urge to investigate the so-
called ‘Djihadist Islam’. “Jihad, including the use of force in the cause of Allah, is an integral part of
Islamic faith. Ever since the inception of Islam, about fourteen hundred years ago, Muslims have engaged
in jihad to defend themselves against external aggression, to overthrow internal tyrants, to re-conquer lost
lands, and to restore fundamental Islamic values ignored or set aside under secular regimes”. (Khan, 2006,
p. 177). The reputation of Islam being associated with terrorism is because of some states that followed the
Islamic law. Khan follows in his book: “Accordingly, Muslim men and women are under a ‘legal’
obligation to engage in jihad. It is important to bear in mind that Islamic jurisprudence does not adopt the
positivist distinction between law and morality… Some Islamic countries have formally adopted the Quran
as the most superior source of legal norms and any legislation incompatible with the principles of the
Quran is void ab initio.” (2006, p. 178)

There is also another view towards terrorism and this is related to the economic field. “The
economic analysis of terrorist behavior has occasionally drawn upon prospect theory concepts such as loss
aversion and has not fully worked ‘prospect values’ associated with different terrorist choices and the
implications of those values for the outcomes of the terrorist decision-making process” (Philips & Pohl,
2014, p. 140)

The relevant theory that was associated with terrorism is the one President Bush have chosen to
apply and it is known as “the Bush Doctrine”. “If the transformation of the Bush prioritization of, and key
agenda items within, foreign policy owed the cleared and most direct debt to 9/11, however, notable
fragments of the post-9/11 Bush approach were clearly identifiable long before the attacks…the tilt of US
policy towards a more unilateral approach was initiated in January, not September, 2001…First, the
American two-party system has, since the end of the 1960s, witnessed a steady but inexorable polarization
that has exerted a profound influence on foreign policy… Seconds, the cold’s war end has lessened still

further the American public’s interest in international affair, but this had not altered the nature of its view
on military interventions…Third, to the extent that 9/11 represented a grievous failure of epic dimensions
in established US policy”. (Buckley & Singh, 2006, p. 16). Following the US doctrine against terrorism,
George Friedman says: “The war than began on September 11, 2001 might be called the Fourth Global
War, the US-Jihadist War, the US-AL Qaeda War, or the US-Islamist war. Some would argue that it isn’t a
war at all but an isolated act of terrorism that has been manufactured into a war. Nothing tells us more
about the extraordinarily ambiguous and divisive nature of the war than the fact that three years into it, we
do not even have a name for it.” (2004, ix)

Conclusion:

All this information given was based on an investigation of sources taken from the Al Akhawayn
University library. This combination of information gives you an idea about how the concept of terrorism
emerged and to what extend did it affect the world. The only lack of information is to find a general
definition of terrorism or the international terrorism. From my personal point of view, I define it as the act
of terror that targets a society to meet a political agenda. It is obvious that terrorism is not issued from
religion. Often associated with Islam, it is just a misinformation that aims to target the Muslim world. The
question that is raised: If terrorism consequences are obvious, why does the world still struggle to
extinguish it once for all? Maybe it serves personal purposes for a minority, maybe it is just a storyline that
we are given to forget other domestic issues. One thing is sure; terrorism has to end before it ends the
world.

Reference
Anderson, S. K., & Sloan, S. (2009). Historical Dictionary of Terrorism (3 edition). Lanham, Md: Scarecrow

Press.
Bobbitt, P. (2009). Terror and consent: the wars for the twenty-first century (1st American ed). London:

Penguin.
Buckley, M., & Singh, R. (Eds.). (2006). The Bush doctrine and the war on terrorism: global responses, global

consequences. London ; New York: Routledge.
Burns, V., Peterson, K. D., & Kallstrom, J. K. (2005). Terrorism: a documentary and reference guide.

Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press.
Campos, J. H. (2007). The state and terrorism: national security and the mobilization of power. Aldershot,

Hants, England ; Burlington, VT: Ashgate.
Douglas, R. (Ed.). (2014). What Is Terrorism? In Law, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Terrorism (pp. 46–61).

University of Michigan Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1gk08gq.8
Enders, W., Sandler, T., & Gaibulloev, K. (2011). Domestic versus transnational terrorism: Data,

decomposition, and dynamics. Journal of Peace Research, 48(3), 319–337.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343311398926
Friedman, G. (2004). America’s Secret War: Inside The Hidden Worldwide Struggle Between America And Its
Enemies. New York: Doubleday Books.
Grozdanova, R. (2014). “Terrorism” – Too Elusive a Term for an International Legal Definition? Netherlands
International Law Review (Cambridge University Press), 61(3), 305–334.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0165070X14001351
Hickey, E. W. (2003). Encyclopedia of Murder and Violent Crime. Thousand Oaks, Clif: SAGE Publications,
Inc.
Hodgson, J. S., & Tadros, V. (2013). The Impossibility of Defining Terrorism. New Criminal Law Review: An
International and Interdisciplinary Journal, 16(3), 494–526. https://doi.org/10.1525/nclr.2013.16.3.494
Keefer, P., & Loayza, N. (Eds.). (2008). Terrorism, economic development, and political openness. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Khan, L. A. (2006). A Theory of International Terrorism : Understanding Islamic Militancy. Leiden: Brill.
Kushner, H. W. (2003). Encyclopedia of Terrorism. Thousand Oaks, Calif: SAGE Publications, Inc.
Phillips, P. J., & Pohl, G. (2014). Prospect Theory and Terrorist Choice. Journal of Applied Economics, 17(1),
139–160.
Schraut, S., & Weinhauer, K. (2014). Terrorism, Gender, and History – Introduction. Historical Social Research
/ Historische Sozialforschung, 39(3 (149)), 7–45.

Paper II

The Affinity Turf
Oussama Salmane
Dr. Nancy G. Hottel-Burkhart
Al Akhawayn University in Ifrane
School of Humanities and Social Sciences
Critical Thinking &Written Communication (ENG 2301/01)

04/11/2017
Grade of the paper: A
Final grade in the class: A+

When it comes to society, science and religion play major roles in defining it. Actually, science and
religion constitute strong pillars on which society can choose to rely on. If a society chooses science over
religion, it is likely to be seen as a secular country. A secular country does not necessarily mean the total
annihilation of religion within society, it only means that the society does not identify as religious. Tunisia
is an example of a secular country where religious people are free to practice, especially Muslims and
Christians. The ambiguity created by secular countries gave birth to various dilemmas, among them the
dilemma of whether science and religion can coexist or combining them will be impossible because of a
fundamental conflict between these two. The fundamental conflict is noticed from the very beginning point
of defining religion and science. On one hand, « Science is based on fact, and not necessarily opinions and
preferences (…) a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable
explanations and predictions. » (Austin, 2014, p. 981) On the other hand, religion « is the whole complexes
of attitudes, convictions, and institutions through which we express our deep fundamental relationship with
reality and not excluding the created order ». (Austin, 2014, p. 981) In other words, whereas science is
based on experiments and proofs, religion is based on an absolute faith in the existence of divinity that
created the world. Both trying to climb the ladder towards absolute truth, religion and science differ in
terms of the methods. Without a doubt, science and religion use different methods aiming to claim the truth
and explain the natural world, which creates an opportunity for a conflict.

Throughout history, religion has been often associated with violence and wars. This is certainly due
to a misunderstanding of religion. For instance, La Reconquista in Spain is an example of the Christians
fighting the Muslims. This is how the story has been interpreted. The religion was blamed rather than
blaming the greedy nature of humans. Before everything, religion remains a choice. When I decide to steal,

this is due to my craving to gain more and this wrong act remains mine. No one would blame my family
for instance because it does not give me money. In this case, the individual is being blamed rather than his
partial identity. But whenever an individual commits an act of terror, the media and the lobbies blame
people’s religion or ethnicity. Stories of Muslims causing terrorism and Latinos or black Americans
causing crime are all over the world. Due to globalization causing news to spread all over the world
rapidly, the view towards religion is constantly being misunderstood by many individuals.

Within societies, misperceptions are often committed towards religion. Adding to this, « religion
has primarily struggled with science over who should influence public morality. » (Evans, 2011, p.713)
This is why in secular countries; religion is annihilated in terms of organizing the society so that the public
morality is not affected by religion. But the people within secular countries are free to practice their
religion the way they want. There are some restrictions and barriers that hinder the learning of religion
within the secular societies but usually the environment often shapes the religious behavior of individual.
As a matter of fac, the environment is the one that shapes humans’ identity; this same environment can also
shape the religious behavior of the individuals. If you are born in Morocco, in a Muslim family, it is likely
for the child to follow the path of his ancestors and be a Muslim. Therefore, you are born Muslim but
nothing guarantees that you will be a Muslim your whole life. Religion remains each individual’s choice. I
am a Muslim and I am proud to say it.

However, readers, sometimes when I am trying to explain a natural phenomenon according to
religion, I am confused to whether use the religious or scientific method. Usually, I end up using the
scientific method especially when arguing with non-believers. This is not due to the fact that I am not
excellent in religion but rather because religion is complex and harder to convince people with.

The debate around this topic raised the interests of many. Among those many, there is a part that
believes that religion has no place within science and cannot even go along with it. Those many, place
science above religion. For them, science remains the main source of knowledge. Without putting faith in
any supreme or divine creature, investigating different subjects and matters constitute these people’s
knowledge. Through coordination between different ideas and findings, scientists create knowledge. This
knowledge is based on experiments and hypotheses, which constitute logical ways to explain nature and
how it behaves. Because this part of people prioritizes science over everything else, it does not necessarily
mean that those people are non-believers. Individuals may believe in religion but not to the extent to take it
as the main source of knowing. Religion for them remains an inferior source towards the truth because it is
not subject to change. It is already given according to all circumstances. On top of being universal, the fact
that religion is static constitutes a negative aspect for people whose aim in this world is to reach the
absolute truth. When following religion, the absolute truth is already claimed and given “Most religious
believers are committed to making consciousness primary, for the simple reason that they think of the

ultimate reality as a form of conscious reality that is in most cases considered to be the source of physical
reality” (Ward, 2007, p. 129)

On the other hand, there are people who put religion above everything or at least religion for them
is part of their identity. They believe that science can go along with religion. They do not revoke science as
the main source of knowledge because of religion. They may believe in science because it is part of
religion. To be able to fully understand a religion, you have to be educated, and education nowadays relies
on science. When you get to read one of the holy books, various interpretations can be made in a blink of
an eye. For instance, “there is no one aspect to the study of the Qur’an; rather, there are ‘sciences’ (ulûm)
of the Qur’an, and the exegete must aster in order to access the text”. (Opwis, 2012, p. 375) At the same
time, it is so confusing to study religion and complex to understand it. Even if the words are the same, each
individual interprets it in a specific way. This difference when it comes to interpretations is the main cause
why people believe that science and religion are in a permanent conflict and they cannot merge together.
When you think about it, difference is behind one hundred percent of the conflicts around the world. Why
Palestinians and Israelis are fighting each other? Because each part believes that it has the right to do so.
The same thing is happening between the two aforementioned parts. Each of them is trying to convince the
other one that they are wrong rather than trying to find a middle ground for science and religion.
Throughout history, « conflicts over methods for making truth claims are historically rare. » (Evans, 2011,
p.711)

The legitimacy and acceptance of religion is often being questioned whereas science findings are
taken for granted. If this is happening, it is due to the fact that humans tend to be convinced by science
easier than religion because of the methods used by these two. When trying to explain a phenomenon,
science relies on the scientific method. Actually, the scientific method is used in all fields. Whether it is in
politics, economics, or medicine, they all share the usage of the scientific method. The scientific method
can study both abstract and real things. For instance, politics is not something we can touch, but scholars
when trying to explain an ideology often back up their argument with the scientific method. It is a way of
convincing you that something is right or the opposite. The scientific method is a tool to convince. Its
acceptance and legitimacy relies on its global usage. The assumption that « religious people tend to be
opposed to the use of a scientific instead of a religious method » is not always true. (Evans, 2011, p.708)
According to the « epistemological conflict theory », the incompatibility of the scientific method and the
religious method leads the religious people to avoid using both of them at the same time. (Evans, 2011,
p.708)

Some people may argue that « science can purify religion from error and superstition; religion can
purify science from idolatry and false absolutes. » (Evans, 2011, p. 712) But it should be mentioned that
« those who pursue science tend to abandon religion. » (Evans, 2011, p. 712) Religious people avoid
mixing scientific method with the religious one because they can contradict in terms of the explanation.

For instance, whereas science explains that the beginning of the world started according to the ‘Big Bang
Theory’, religion claims that « a supreme intelligence » created the world. (Evans, 2011, p. 709) When
religion and science do not agree on how the world started, no wonder why there is a fundamental conflict
between these two. The fundamental conflict is associated with how these two, religion and science,
approach reality. When in fact « scientific demands for repeated experiment, detailed evidence and
provisional hypotheses all seem to be ignored by religion, which apparently asks for faith and absolute
certainty on very little evidence at all. » (Ward, 2007, p. 1) Instead of explaining to humans something they
can understand like science provides, religion lacks the certainty of its claims because it remains based on
what people consider sometimes a myth.

Following up this point, « (Brooke 1990) historians of science who have made a special study of
relations between science and religion have observed that many of the debate that used to report a conflict
between the two are in reality more about the cultural meaning of the new scientific ideas. » (Mansour,
2015, p. 1769) When Darwin presented his theory claiming that us, human beings, develop from lower
form; the society made fun of him and considered him to be detrimental to the community. (Mansour,
2015) Darwin was seen as a challenger to religion and religious people definitely did not buy the claim.
Challenging religion at that time was seen as something inimical for the society. Everyone had to abide by
religious laws and take what is given to them for the truth. On the contrary, science is a field where hard
work is compensated and gratified. When someone contributes with new findings, they are respected
within the society. Science is an arena where hard workers are welcomed and respected because they add a
value to human’s life. Science extends from the range of coming up with an idea to the cure of cancer. Any
little contribution in explaining reality is seen as a noble act, even a simple idea, as long as it is logical.
When you get to think about religion and science in one single cup, it is hard to notice the similarities of
these two. What is sure is that « neither science nor religion could claim absolute monopoly of knowledge
with regards to all aspects of man’s experience and the universe. » (Austin, 2014, p. 983)

A third different perspective about aforementioned fundamental conflict is related to the types of
people. For instance, « Historiography of Islamic societies and the secularized successors often suffers
under the burden of century-old categories, values, expectations, approaches, and judgements » (Opwis,
2012, p. 44) Also when people study different subject, they may come up with a disregard towards
religion. For example, the case of immortality and whether it is possible. « Belief in immortality has
decreased for both the lesser and greater scientists has apparently remained steady (indeed, must actually
have risen, to counterbalance the decrease in belief among the greater scientists). » (Brown, 2003, p. 616)

All around the world, science and religion played major roles in building societies. However,
science takes over religion in some and vice-versa. It depends on what the society prioritizes. In England,
“even though religion and science are instrumental in connecting Benson’s future England to a
supranational Catholic community, science remains subservient to religion” (Shadurski, 2013, p. 405) This

is just an example of many. The fact that Shadurski considered that religion is above science contributes in
escalating the conflict. It is sure that each person has the right to share their point of view, but in such a
sensitive topic, it may influence other people in a negative way. In all cases, religion and science have to
be compared, but in a meaningful way. It serves no one to say that religion or science is better because
what is most important is trying to surpass the fundamental conflict between these two. Without a doubt, a
fundamental conflict between science and religion exists in terms of their influence over the society. In
Morocco, Islam affected the society more than science. This can be noticed when investigating the
different laws that are part of the constitution. Before everything, whether they are good or bad laws, they
remain Islamic laws. Whereas the science of the law tries to find and apply laws that are relevant to the
society in terms of time and space, religious laws remain static over time. Because they are not subject to
change, religious laws often conflict with laws created according to science. Another example on this is the
legalization of cannabis in different states of the United States of America (USA). If in the USA, Islamic
law was applied, cannabis would remain illegal till the end of the world. Because in Islam, anything that
harms your health is prohibited. But science allowed different scientists to study cannabis and its
consumption until it was found that is better to legalize it rather than jailing people for consuming it.

The difference between science and religion can be noticed in other subjects. There are scientists
who believe that immortality can be achieved in the future. Religion on the other hand, clearly states that
every human is ought to die. “Belief in immortality has decreased for both the lesser and greater scientists
and belief in God has decreased among the eminent ones. Only belief in God among lesser scientists has
apparently remained steady.” (Brown, p. 616) This subject of immortality is a great fundamental conflict
between science and religion. It is certain that our life became easier thanks to science. Cars, medicines,
food were all created and improved thanks to science. It should be mentioned that religion also contributed
in the field of medicine and food. But the contribution of science is way greater than religion because it
was considered as the main way of knowing in many societies. The choice of either science or religion to
rule over the country is a fundamental conflict.

“(Brooke 1991) Public commentators have often viewed the boundary between religion and science
as one of static epistemological conflict.” (Ecklund, Sorrell, & Park, 2011, p. 552) The fundamental
conflict between science and religion takes a huge range in terms of factors. Whether it is the method
approaching truth or their influence over society, science and religion remain two different things. It is like
having oil and water in one cup. You can mix them with a spoon but in no way they are going to be
homogenous alone. The only way to surpass the conflict relies on the spoon, which is us, humans. The way
we approach science and religion as a whole defines whether a fundamental conflict exists or not. I,
personally think there is a hope in the near future to surpass this fundamental conflict. I certainly think that
a fundamental conflict exists, and that can be noticed during the past paragraphs where I tried to
investigate different fundamental conflicts between science and religion. “When science has been

examined in light of the influence of religion, whether supported or challenged, the conflict paradigm has
dominated theories that seek to explain the relationship.” (Ecklund, Sorrell, & Park, 2011, p. 554) Thus,
none could surpass the conflict or at least explain clearly the relationship, which is the origin of the
conflict. No wonder why “the intersection between religion is paramount in the public imagination.”
(Evans, 2011, p. 707) This leads us to choose either to be a scientist or follow the path of religion correctly.
But there is a possibility to combine between them, it is obvious that I could not reach that level because I,
myself, still believe that religion and science cannot be merged actually. Maybe in the near future it would
be possible, but until then it is hypocrite to deny that a fundamental conflict between science and religion
exists.

Reference

Austin, O. O. (2014). Building a consonance between religion and science: An antidote for the seeming conflict.
European Researcher, 75(5–2), 980–989. doi:10.13187/issn.2219-8229

Brown, C. M. (2003). The conflict between religion and science in light of the patterns of religious belief
among scientists. Zygon, (3), 603. doi: 10.1111/1467-9744.00524

Ecklund, E. H., Park, J. Z., & Sorrell, K. L. (2011). Scientists negotiate boundaries between religion and
science. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 50(3), 552–569. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-
5906.2011.01586.x

Evans, J. H. (2011). Epistemological and moral conflict between religion and science. Journal for the Scientific
Study of Religion, 50(4), 707–727. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-5906.2011.01603.x

Mansour, N. (2015). Science teachers’ views and stereotypes of religion, scientists and scientific Research: A
call for scientist–science teacher partnerships to promote inquiry-based learning. International Journal of
Science Education, 37(11), 1767-1794. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2015.1049575

Opwis, F. M., & Reisman, D. C. (Eds.). (2012). Islamic philosophy, science, culture, and religion: Studies in
honor of Dimitri Gutas. Leiden: Brill.

Shadurski, M. (2013). Religion and science in Robert Hugh Benson’s the dawn of all (1911). English Studies,
94(4), 404-421.doi: 10.1080/0013838x.2013.780822

Ward, K. (2007). Pascal's fire: Scientific faith and religious understanding. Oxford: Oneworld Publications.

Paper III

Realism

Oussama Salmane

Dr. John Shoup

Al Akhawayn University in Ifrane

School of Humanities and Social Science
Social Theory (SSC 2302 – 01)

10/17/2017

Grade of the paper: A+

Grade of the class: A

In the social context, many theories have come up to explain the social framework. Each theory
tackles specific social matters. Even though theories differ from each other, they all tend to explain
something. The dominant thought is that theories often contradict each other but this is not always true, in
some cases they can be complementary. Each theory emerges in a specific social context during a specific
timeframe; this explains why theories often lose their influence over the social context. The social context
is subject to change so new theories emerge whereas old theories fade. However, there are some theories
that marked the social context such as Marxism. No wonder why there are a lot of people still reading and
interested in Marxism. On top of that, Marxism was subject to many criticisms; this witnesses the power of
this theory compared to other ones. (Harris, 2001) When it comes to a proper definition of Marxism,
« various terms have been invented to express the philosophical content common to Marx’s work and to
the political and social movement which acted in his name: the most famous of these is ‘dialectical
materialism.’” (Balibar, 2007, p. 1)

The core idea of Marx is to elaborate a change towards a better world. Marx clearly states that the
interpretations given by previous philosophers have to change. For him, “only a theory which enables men
to make history is worth the effort.” (Harris, 2001) When it comes to Marxism as a theory, it emerged is
based on the flaws of previous theories and philosophical ideas that were predominant in Western
societies. For Marx, a good theory is a theory that is able to prove that is able to explain the past, to prove
and show the flaws of other theories, and finally to make predictions. Marx also refers to the inconceivable
aspect of unity of theory in ‘nonlaboratory sciences’. (Harris, 2001) Besides this, Marxism is after all only
a further development of previous ideas that we may call a critique.

With his distinct theory, Marx aimed to explain the changes occurring in societies whether it is the
decline, or the development, or the rise of specific aspects of the society. It is obviously true that Karl
Marx was a revolutionist with his approach. But before deepening the explanation of Marxism, it is
required to conceive the main triggers of Marxism.

Within the historical context of Marxism, we may conceive that industrial revolution in the 18th
century played a major role in the emergence of this new trend. It certainly did but before the industrial
revolution, the feudal system was stable and perfect where everyone played a specific role within the
system and had to play this specific role. The industrial revolution came up with what is known as
‘machinism’: the replacement of human labor force by machines for more efficiency and productivity. This
technological rise influences also the activities and ideas of the people. The elites of the bourgeoisie started
seeing the feudal system as being old fashioned and archaic. This will lead later on to the American
Revolution in 1776 and to the French revolution in 1789. Starting this point, the widespread idea was that
people have control over their life and can construct their destiny; people no longer have to obey a specific
divine law. Absolute monarchies became a part of history. The new modes of production that were
established divided the society to two parts: the bourgeoisie that detained the means of production and
accumulated wealth to the detriment of the proletariat class. This division of society represented the perfect
opportunity so that Marxism can emerge. The consolidation of the capitalist mode of production due to the
industrial revolution gave birth to capitalism. (Mandel, 1991)

Under this capitalistic system, people of the proletariat were oppressed and deprived from their
humanity. The proletariat sold their labour infinitely to the owners of the means of production resulting in
the deprivation of the workers from themselves. The workers offer themselves to the bourgeoisie as labor.
With the division of society to two classes and the constitution of class struggle, Marx found the need to
define the term ‘classes’ and referred to as people sharing common interests whom relations to the means
of production are defined. In other the production’s structure of a society defines the classes. At that time,
there were two main classes known as the bourgeoisie who are the ones that own the means of production
and buy labor, on the other hand there is the proletariat who sell their labor and have no ownership in terms
of the means of production. There is also the birth of a small third class known as the ‘petite bourgeoisie’
who are people that detain the means of production but do not buy labor. (Edward, 1983)

Within this capitalistic system, the worker loses control over his life. Workers sell their labor just to
survive, they have no alternative. Workers become estranged. This aspect is known as the theory of
alienation. The theory of alienation refers to the estrangement of workers. In fact, the bourgeoisie
accumulates wealth through estranging workers. Estranging refers to the transition of work from being an
activity to a commodity. This is a pure form of exploitation. (Musto, 2015)

From a Marxist point of view, the consciousness of people is not determined but rather constructed
as the person grows up. However, people are subject to use what nature has to offer in order to fulfill their
needs; they end up in the same path. The societal relations are constituted through interactions between

humans and their needs for each other. These interactions influence the people and they become subject to
change. Following the historical path, history represents a constant transition of humans. According to the
Marxist theory, ideas result from a whole set of variables and are constantly changing. Through the
explanations of the conditions of the society, Marxism is a movement rather than an ideology. It is an
invitation for the proletariat to revolt against the monetary value and their exploitation. The final goal is to
extinguish class struggle because if it is not done, class struggle is just a repetition of history through
different stages. After all, Marx and Engels managed to identify six different stages of history. The
common point between these stages is the sharing of class struggle. (Banaji, 2010)

When you get to think about whether Marxism is strong or weak, the critics of its weaknesses and
flaws by the many prove its strength. The polemic Marxism created persisted during these last centuries
and the debate is still ongoing. This being said, the strengths of Marxism are easily noticeable. Equality is
the motto of capitalism as it aims to extinguish social stratification and class struggle. Adding to this,
Marxism is concerned about the whole society and not only a particular part of it. As it has been said in the
beginning, a good theory is a theory that explains the present and expects the future. In fact, Marxism
succeeded in predicting the accumulation of capitalism until it reaches the aspect of monopolization. By
achieving social equality, people will have a common sense of social obligations and this is a plus for
societies as they will be able to reach higher life standards. All of these advantages show the importance of
Marxism in society and its tendency to create social equality by abolishing classes struggle.

« Since the appearance of Marxism as an intellectual force hardly a year – in the Anglo-Saxon
world since 1945, hardly a week – has passed without some attempt to refute it. » (Hobsbawm, 2011)
Among these ideas, the non-respect of the concept of private ownership. When people contribute to the
common good, they may end up in the loop of losing themselves as they have no properties. It does not
encourage creativity and economics when you get to think about it. By working for the common good,
you’ll be master of yourself but not to the point to evolve your social status. With this, technical skills are
not a must. People have no incentives to get better education. Marxism certainly aims to abolish inequality,
but this may lead also to the abolition of competition. People may start counting on others to survive
instead of counting on themselves. These negative aspects were certainly reviewed under the emergence of
Neo-Realism. Because Marxism is old fashion, Neo-Marxism emerged and one among many differences is
that societies are no longer operating under class struggle. Neo-Marxism is also concerned with the rise of
communist countries that succeeded in accumulating wealth.

The ongoing debate does certainly prove that Marxism is still to be studied. As it is based on critics
of older literature at the time, current literature and new theories can emerge also as critics of these recent
theories. It is a sure thing that no social theory is perfect because no society is yet utopian. The complexity
of societies and the interrelation between its different parts make it hard for scholars to come up with a
perfect work. In the case of Marxism, it became a relevant theory because it explained what happened and
where it is leading. On top of that, its relevance extended to other disciplines such as International

Relations in explaining how states behave toward each other’s. Marxism was a great contribution to the
world literature and this is why it is still being studied. It is important to know how it emerged and how it
raised so that further theories can be created and developed. The knowledge of Marxism is a must,
especially that current states still fail achieve social equality. As a matter of fact, Karl Marx was right when
he said that : « History repeats itself first as tragedy second as farce ». After all, our current world is a
consequence of history but the problems and inequalities persist. Once they are here, they can never be
extinguished unless a perfect utopian social theory is developed.

Reference

 Balibar, E., & Turner, C. (2007). The philosophy of Marx. London; New York: Verso, 2007
 Harris, M. (2001). The rise of anthropological theory: a history of theories of culture. Walnut

Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.
 Marx, K., Engels, F., Isaac, J. C., & Lukes, S. (2012). The Communist manifesto. New Haven:

Yale University Press.
 Mandel, E. (1999). The Place of Marxism in History. Amherst, NY: Humanity Books
 Edward A.(1983). Class in Itself and Class against Capital: Karl Marx and His C lassifiers.

Canadian Journal of Political Science / Revue Canadienne de Science Politique, (3), 577.
 Musto, M. (2015). The ‘Young Marx’ Myth in Interpretations of the Economic– Philosophic

Manuscripts of 1844. Critique: Journal Of Socialist Theory, 43(2), 233.
doi:10.1080/03017605.2015.1051759
 Banaji, J. (2010). Theory As History : Essays on Modes of Production and Exploitation. Leiden:
Brill NV.
 Hobsbawm, E. J. (2011). How to Change the World : Reflections on Marx and Marxism. New
Haven, Conn: Yale University Press.