socio

Mujiono
Siane Herawati

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | 1

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | ii

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice

Penulis
Dr. Mujiono, S.Pd., M.Pd.
Siane Herawati, M.Pd.
Desain Cover & Layout
Winda Efmilika Anjani, S.S.
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19 Tahun 2000 tentang Hak Cipta, Bab XII Ketentuan Pidana, Pasal 72, Ayat (1),
(2), dan (6).

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | iii

PREFACE

Most students may not be able to understand the sociolinguistic book
written by well-known experts. As a consequence, students face barriers in the
learning process of Sociolinguistics. Moreover, they come from various
backgrounds. "SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice" has been written to
understand the learning process of sociolinguistics in theory and practice. This
book can be used, especially for undergraduate students who are taking
sociolinguistics courses.

This book has seven chapters with discussions that are easy to
understand. For the first discussion, Chapter 1 explains the Sociolinguistics and
Sociology of Language. Chapter 2 explores the Language and Variation. Chapter
3 analyses the Language Varieties and Dialects. For Lingua franca, Pidgin and
Creole are discussed in Chapter 4. Whereas Language Choice, Code-Mixing, and
Code-Switching are found in Chapter 5. Discussion on Style, Register, and
Genre is found in Chapter 6. Last, Chapter 7 contains about Language and
Culture.

We are conscious of this book, "Sociolinguistics: Theory and Practice,"
far from perfect. But we hope this book can bring positive benefits and can be
used by both readers and writers. Your constructive criticism and well
suggestions are needed for better development in the future.

The writer
Mujiono & Herawati, S.

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface iv
Table of Content v

1. Sociolinguistics and Sociology of Language 1
1.1. The Notion of Sociolinguistics 2
1.2 Sociology of Language 3
Question 4

2. Language and Variation 5
2.1 The Kinds of Language Variation 6
2.1.1 Regional Variation 6
2.1.2 Social Variation 7
2.1.2.1. Social Class Membership 7
2.1.2.2. Gender 8
2.1.2.3. Age 8
2.1.2.4. Ethnic 9
2.2. The Influence of Kinds of Languages Variation on 10

Language Change 10
2.2.1 The Influence of Regional Variation on Language Change 10
2.2.2. The Influence of Social Variation on Language Change 11
Conclusion 11
Questions

3. Language Varieties and Dialect 12
3.1. The Notion of Dialect 13
3.2. Dialect variation 14
3.3. Kinds of Dialect Variation 15
3.3.1 Regional Dialect 15
3.3.1.1 Factors Affecting Regional Dialect Diversity 16
3.3.2 Social Dialect 16
3.3.2.1 Factors Affecting Social Dialect Diversity 18
3.3.3 Personal Dialect 20
3.3.3.1 Factors affecting personal Dialect diversity 21
Conclusion 22
Questions 22

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | v

4. Lingua franca, Pidgin, and Creole 23
4.1. LINGUA FRANCA 24
4.2. PIDGIN 28
4.2.1 Characteristic of pidgin language 29
4.2.2 Example of pidgin language 30
4.2.3 The Reasons for The Development of Pidgin 33
4.2.4 Does Pidgin Always Become Creole? 34
4.3 CREOLE 34
4.3.1 Examples of Creole 35
4.3.2 Example of Haitian Creole 36
Question 38

5. Language Choice, Code-Mixing, and Code-Switching 39
5.1 Language Choice 40
5.1.1 Social Factors 41
5.1.2 Domain 42
5.1.3 Speech community 42
5.2 Code-Mixing and Code-Switching 43
5.2.1 Code-Switching 44
5.2.1.1 Tag Switching 45
5.2.1.2 Inter-sentential 45
5.2.1.3 Intra-sentential code-switching 46
5.2.2 Code-Mixing 47
5.2.2.1 Slang 48
Conclusion 49
Questions 50

6. Style, Register, and Genre 51
6.1. Style 52
6.2. Register 56
6.3 Genre 60
Question 63

7. Language and Culture 64
7.1. Language 65
7.2 Culture 66
7.3 The Relationship Between Language and Culture 67
7.4 Students of English as Foreign Language 69

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | vi

7.5 Language and Culture 70
7.6 Language and Culture is Taught at EFL Class 74
7.7 The Language-Culture Correlations 75
7.7.1 Subordinated Relationship 75
7.7.2 Coordinative relationship 76
7.7.3 The implementation of Language and Culture in EFL Class 76
7.7.4 The Reason Why Language Should Be Taught in EFL Class 77
7.7.5 The Reason why Culture should be taught in EFL class 78
Questions 78

References 79

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | vii

1

Sociolinguistics and
Sociology of Language

Time Allotment: 2 X 50 Minutes
Basic Competencies
• The students can understand the concept of sociolinguistics and

sociology of language
• The students can explain the differences between sociolinguistics

and sociology of language
Indicators of Learning Outcomes
• The students can explain the definition of sociolinguistics

according to linguists
• The students can differentiate between sociolinguistics and

sociology of linguistics.
• The students can explain Linguists' views about sociolinguistics

and sociology of linguistics.

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | 1
SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | 1

Sociolinguistics and Sociology of

1 Language

1.1. The Notion of Sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics is an
interdisciplinary science that learns
Language Sociology more a language in society. It is a social
system and communication system
than emphasizes the attention to and a portion of specific cultures
and communities. Sociolinguistics
the aspects of human behavior and took the company standing on
language as a reflection of society
social organization through (Hawkins 2013:29).

language talks and language As quoted by Wardhaugh
(1999:13), Hudson has described
attitudes regarding the use of the distinction between
sociolinguistic and sociological
language. Etymologically, languages.

sociolinguistic is a science that Sociolinguistics explores
how social structures influence
relates to sociology and linguistics. speaking and habits in varieties
that correlate with social attributes
Sometimes, Sociolinguistics is an like class, gender, and age. On the
other hand, the sociology of
interdisciplinary field of research language is a study of what society
does with their language, i.e.,
where linguistics, sociology, and attitudes and attachments that
explain the functional distribution
other human sciences, combine to of speech forms in the community,
shifts in language, maintenance,
learn a different language and and replacement, Community
speech (Coulmas 2007:5).
human behaviors (Paoletti 2011:1).

O'Barr, as quoted by Eades

(2010:108) that he says

Sociolinguistic has documented

much about how social differences

are encoded in the language. Social

means society and linguistics is a

language study—the linguistic

basis of power and the role of

language in social diversity

(Mesthrie 2011:2). Sociolinguistics

is a language study related to a

condition worth studying by social

sciences. Speak is fundamental to

society (Hawkins, 2013:41). Thus,

Sociolinguistics is a social language analysis. If Sociolinguistics is
people interact with others in society, they should use the study of
the language at any time and anywhere. Through
language, people will find some problems when they language associated
do things with others or even their activities. In other with viable
words, no person or community communicate
conditions studied
by social sciences.

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | 2

without using language. The role of language is critical in human life.
Linguistics study reveals that language and society are closely linked and can
not be isolated. Transform into language sociolinguistic or sociological.
Sociolinguistics is a study of characteristics, language, and functional aspects.

Also, that is the study of the characteristics of linguistic diversity and
their work characteristics. The speaker's characteristics as the third continue
to communicate, translate, and turn each other into a group language. Also,
Holmes (2001) stated that Sociolinguistics is concerned with the relationship
between the language and the context. Also, Sociolinguistics explored how
people use languages in different social contexts provides a wealth of
information on how to use the language, as well as on social relations in the
community, and how people communicate aspects of social identity through
language. Sociolinguistic does not discuss the structure of language but focuses
on how language conflicts precede the emergence. Sociolinguistics is a branch
of linguistics that studies in the property language, and the language itself
involves a connection to the social and contextual aspects, as set out in
Chambers (2002) and Downes (1998).

That is accepted by Trudgill (2003), which describes sociolinguistics
research as a work meant to obtain a more understanding of human language
through reading language in a social context or acquiring a higher knowledge
than the connection and communique between language and society. Labov
(1972) explains that as the query of the relationship between language and the
social class, analyzing the relationship between linguistics and social
phenomena as its primary objective. So, sociolinguistics' task is to handle
language as a function in society. In other words, sociolinguistics dealing with
language as a means of communication.

1.2 Sociology of Language

Coupland (1997) explains that the sociology
of language is observing the language varieties'
characteristics, the characteristics in their
capabilities, and the speaker traits. Those three
continue to interact, change, and change
each other, both in and among speech network.
Therefore, the sociology of language aims not only to discover social rules and
norms that clarify the language's actions in the speech culture but also to
assess the symbolic value of the language varieties for their speakers. Also, we

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | 3

taught sociolinguistics, cultures, and societies to learn as much as we can about
what kind of language, and in sociology, our language maintains the course of
our interests. Hudson (1996) defines the two into; sociolinguistic is a language
analysis concerning culture, while linguistic sociology is the language-related
study of society.

QUESTIONS
1. What are the differences between sociolinguistic and

sociological languages?
2. What is the role of language?
3. What is the role of sociolinguistic?

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | 4

2

Language Variation

Time Allotment: 2 X 50 Minutes
Basic Competencies:

• The students can explain the language variation
• The students can describe the kinds of language variation
Indicators of Learning Outcomes:
• The students can describe language variations
• The students can define types of language variation
• The students can explain the regional variation
• The students can describe the social variation
• The students can describe the influence of kinds of language

variation.

SOSCOIOCLIIONLGINUGISUTIICSTSI:CTSh:eTohreyo&ryP&raPcrtaiccetic|e5| 5

Language

2 Variation

2.1 The Kinds of Language Variation

The variation used in The causes of migration make the
human create the new languages
society refers to language variation. that understanding by themselves.

Wardhaugh (1990: 127) Language variation is the
language used based on the
distinguishes the language speaker, where they will use
different linguist forms on other
variation in two types: regional occasioTnhs.e dialect geographers try
to show their exploration of the
variation and social variation. geographical boundaries by
drawing a line on a map they call
2.1.1 Regional Variation isogloss. And then, they use
sampling and informant as a
Regional variation is the method in dialectology. For the
sample, they focus on rural areas
variance in the language used in
rather than urban areas. The
culture caused by different reasons why they concentrate in
the rural area because the rural
geographical areas. It happens area regarded still conservative or
did not influence by modernization
because the technology and the rather than metropolitan area were
acknowledged to be innovative and
infrastructure are not as modern as influence by the modernization.

today. There were the mountains Male speakers must make
the selection of informants based
and rivers that separate the human on specific parameters with clear
voices, teeth, and ears. It also
groups, which led to the emergence happens in a group of agricultural
workers. They are acquainted with
of language change. Because of that, the questionnaire's subject matter

all the area is just limited by the

rivers and the mountains. For

example, the way of London,

Manchester, and Hyde people

pronounce "brush." In London, they

pronounce "brLs", in Manchester

they pronounce "bras," in Hyde

they pronounce “brais”. And then,

in Indonesia, how the people of

some regions in Indonesia

pronounce "cengkeh". The people

of Batak Karo pronounce “cengkeh”

(singke), Minangkabau “cangkeh”,

Lampung "cangkih", Madura

"cengke" and Flores "singke." It

proves that the language has

changed because the human group

migrated from one place to another

place.

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | 6

and answer responsively, even lower class. The upper class will
authoritatively. differ in the use of language. The
use of language will be higher, and
2.1.2 Social Variation usually, the use of this language in
According to their each class. The variation of speech
is in social classes based on the job,
respective social groups, social education, and residence.
variation is a social group in one
region with various languages. Each society is stratified in
According to Sunarowih (2007) deferential groups and is
argues that many things can affect determined primarily by economic
many language variations in an status. Therefore, different groups
engaging social life to discover. establish in the same culture,
Variation may occur in two or more where each group's members
languages speaking cultures. This usually differ from the other groups
languages' diversity is the plurality ' members. The more
of regions' cultures. Diversity heterogeneous the community, the
among people is a widespread more heterogeneous the language
phenomenon in this world too. Someone with a higher
regarding their role, status, and position in the social hierarchy is
abilities. Several factors affect more likely to misbehave. It was
various language: social class different from people in a lower
membership, gender, age, and position in the hierarchy. Such a
ethnicity. variation of the same language
between the social classes creates
2.1.2.1 Social Class Membership
Social class membership "sociolects." But, the interesting
thing is because of their desire to
has been a prominent variable in aspire to be the upper class; every
sociolinguistic variation studies. person from a particular class will
Both individual life chances and speak differently from others in the
social institutions' functioning are same category.
most often decisively decided by
class relations and class locations.
Westergaard (1996) revealed that
class society is a set of subjective
concepts in social science and
political theory centered on social
stratification models. These people
go into a set of hierarchical social
groups: the upper, middle, and

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | 7

2.1.2.2 Gender ideas, while men are relatively
Gender is cultural a concept
simple, arrogant, and powerful. The
that addresses the characteristic other characteristics physically,
that distinguishes between woman women are weaker than men, so
and man both biologically, behavior, the language used is more suitable.
mentality, languages, and socio- 2.1.2.3 Age
cultural. As a result, the study of We can see the variation of
gender variation in language has language users in terms of age from
been tackled by many various children, adolescents, and
sociolinguistics starting from Labov
and Trudgill (1972) to Lacoff adults. Children begin to learn to
(1975), Tannen (1994), Cameron speak at approximately 18 months
(2002), and Holmes (2013) and of age so that a child can be said to
others. Age is also one of the master grammar; they are about
central variables that have also three and a half years old. During
been considered in variation the development of language, these
sociolinguistics because age children have a characteristic of
enables it to investigate language shrinkage (reduction). In this case,
change over time. Eckert & the grammar or children's language
McConnell-Ginet (2003) show that
men have a higher social status due
to traditional social influences,
contributing to their speaking
privilege. At the same time, the men
also explained gender-language
experiences.

Gender differences in
language are not only displayed as
linguistic and sociolinguistics
phenomena but also as social
phenomena and have become
popular subjects in them. People in
any region or country have
different understandings of cultural
concepts. They expect different
roles and behaviors of gender, as
well. Therefore, women's language
is kind and respectful in traditional

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | 8

consists of phonology, semantics, "keh," "boh," "you," "wen" and "no.".
and syntax. Example in sentence

One of the typical 1. No kenapa lama kali sampek,
adolescent speeches is called kami udah nunggu dari tadi
jargon. Some examples of the means that why to long
vocabulary in terminology are arrived, we are waiting for.
among(wretched, destroyed) gout
or out (me) ji (you) as for adults, 2. Coba lihat tugasku, uda
the variation in language that is betul keh? Look at my job, is
more organized influenced by it true?
adults' experience and the higher
educational background. 3. Kapan kapan mampir ke
rumahku boh? Sometimes
2.1.2.4. Ethnic come to my house, please
Ethnic is a human
The characteristics of
classification system based on the Sundanese people when speaking
beliefs held, values in society, must truck into the words "mah,"
habits, customs that carry out, "atuh" and "teh." Example in
language norms, social history,
geographical area, and family sentence
relationships. According to Leets et
al. (1996), preliminary work aims 1. Da kamu mah kalo
to measure ethnicity through social dibilangin suka ga percaya
characteristics and categories it means that you often do
defined by researchers shown not believe my words
along the lines used in government
censuses, including religious 2. Sekarang teh aku udah
background, national origin, native pindah kerja. It means that
language, and others. now I have moved to work.

From the statement above, The explanation given above
there will be two or more infers that the cause of the
languages found in one region. For emergence of different languages is
example, in an area, there are be social class, sex, age, and ethnicity.
found the accent of Sudanese and
Gayo tribes. The characteristics of
Gayo people when speaking must
be tucked into the word "get,"

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | 9

2.2. The Influence of Kinds of 2. Bishkek: is a social category
Languages Variation on that is considered less
Language Change respectable or upon looked
Based on the explanation down.

above, we learn that there are two 3. Vulgar: is a social
kinds of linguistic variations: phenomenon, the features of
geographic and social variation. which tend to be the use of
words by those who are less
2.2.1. The Influence of Regional educated and uneducated.
Variation on Language
Change 4. Slang: is a common and
As we know, regional confidential social variety. In
other words, this variation is
variation is the variation caused by used by other groups that are
different geography. Language is very small and not exposed to
not something constant. It has the other groups.
changed as time flies. The influence
of regional variation toward 5. Colonial: is a social variation
language change is because of the used in everyday conversation.
occur language contact or
interaction between speakers of 6. Jargon: is a social variation
different languages to create a new that is limited to the use of
language. So, based on that aspect, other social groups.
language has changed.
7. Argot: Argot is a social
2.2.2. The Influence of Social variation that is limited to
Variation on Language certain professions and is
Change confidential. The location of
Language Variation is argots is in vocabulary.

Related to the Level, class, Status, 8. Ken (cant): is a particular
and Social Class of the Speakers social variation that is pleasing,
1. Akrolek: is a social variation whining, and full of pretense.

perceived to be higher and
more prestigious than any
other social variation.

The general concept of social class structure
is to group people by social or economic class.

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | 10

These people have different opinions in their language, style, and linguistic
characteristics, not only in more prosperous property ownership, strength,
liking, educational affiliation, or ranking. For example, a well-known tertiary
institution professor should not speak like someone who works in a garment
factory. Another example is an entrepreneur who has never used an account
when talking to a colleague.
Conclusion

Language variation is the language used based on the speaker, where
they will use different linguist forms on other occasions. Language variations
have two types: regional and social variations. Regional variation is the
variation in language caused by different geographical areas, and social
variation is the variation caused by people's experiences within society. There
is a particular impact on the social variations: age, gender, class, and ethnicity,
and kinds of cultural differences based on social status: acrolec, bhiskek, vulgar,
slang, colonial, argot, and ken. Language variation affects the alteration of the
language.

QUESTIONS
1. Why are language variations divided into two types?
2. What is language variation?
3. What are the things used in various languages?
4. Why is social membership caused the various language?
5. Mention kind of Influence of Social Variation on Language Change!

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | 11

3

Language Varieties
and Dialect

Time Allotment: 2 X 50 Minutes
Basic Competencies:

• The students can explain the dialect
• The students can describe the varieties of language
Indicators of Learning Outcomes:
• The students can describe the notion of dialect
• The students can describe kinds of dialect variation
• The students can describe factors that affected dialect

diversity.

SSOOCCIOIOLILNINGGUUISISTITCICSS: :ThTheeooryry&&PPraracctitcicee||1122

Language Varieties

3 and dialect

3.1 The Notion of Dialect

A dialect is a form of spells' mom’. It is also occurring in
language spoken in a particular the word 'colour' used in British
context that may differ from other English, which is different from
language forms. That shows the American English, which spells its
characteristics of the vocabulary of color. In pronunciation, British
grammar, as well as the dimension English, the term 'far' is
of pronunciation. The dictionary of pronounced /fa/ while in America
linguistics describes dialect as a English, it is pronounced/fa:/.
variety of language production Another example is in the word
used by people. Dialect is a 'new.' British English will
geographic variation of the spoken pronounce /nyu/ while America
language in a specific area. People English will pronounce it as /nu/.
who live in the same place
sometimes share a dialect. That is Another example is a word with a
the local or social variation of a
language distinguished by different spelling and
pronunciation (accent), grammar,
and vocabulary. People can't be pronunciation but refers to the
confused regarding the language
that they are talking about it. For
example, Javanese, Balinese, and
Sundanese speak fluently without
confusion in their language.

Another language same meaning. The term 'autumn'

description is any language form in British or 'fall' in America refers

distinguished by systematic to the same season when all the

pronunciation, grammar, and leaves fall from the tree. In

vocabulary variations from other grammar, the British and America

language varieties. The example is tend to speak different grammar.

in vocabulary or spelling. There is a For example, British people will say

different word in British English 'different from' and 'have you got

and American English that refers to it?' while Americans will say

one word 'mother.' British English 'different than' and 'do you have it?'.

spells 'mum' while American

English

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | 13

The above concludes that dialect is a language variety spoken by a group of
speeches that systematically characterized into phonological, lexical, and
grammatical characteristics that distinguish it from other language varieties.
(Wood 2009).

3.2 Dialect variation

The various dialects of one language process the rules of grammar and
the distinct vocabulary, the speakers of a particular dialect of one language
understand each other without any difficulty (Spolsky: 2010). The use of
language can speak different dialects, although they speak the same. The
dialect variation has three kinds, which are individual (personal) Dialect, social
(group) Dialect, and regional (geographically) dialect. Personal dialect refers to
one individual's speech; social dialect refers to one social class group, while
local dialect refers to the idiom that belongs to a particular region.

Specific dialects are affected by various factors described as follows:
social class, social context, ethnicity, age, geographical origin, and gender.

1. Social class There is a disparity between the
user with particular ethnic groups
In social class, the various dialects and native speakers of individual
appear by the people's different languages. (Bell, 1976).
levels or positions, such as in
education, the background of 4. Geographical origins
parental, job, or profession in
society (Trudgill, 2000). Every community member or
group has various and unique ways
2. Social Context to communicate based on their
experience, education, and
Social context created various aspirations (Trudgil, 2000).
dialects. The use of dialect depends
on people's changing situations to
use the language in formal and non-
formal situations.

3. Ethnicity 5. Nationality

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | 14

The different nations, of course, 7. Gender
make the additional use of language
by the people. The use of language between men
and women will be different,
6. Age especially in the quantity of speech
and speech intonation (Trudgil,
Age affects using vocabulary and 2000).
grammatical complexity.
3.3 Kinds of Dialect Variation

3.3.1 Regional Dialect

Regional dialect characters are different from those used in certain
geographical regions or from various languages used. Speakers in the same
geographic area can identify with every other social group. Speaking is a very
different variety, although they have the same variations in the regional
language.

Holmes (2001:124) found regional variation or regional dialect in the
international world. The variation can be distinguished from the pronunciation,
vocabulary, and even from the grammatical differences. In the past, the lack of
communication and technology development was not modern like today. Some
mountains and rivers break down groups of people, which causes difficulties in
language changes. Wijaya Kusuma (1996; 35 ) says that in the UK in English
words by London, Manchester, and Hyde. London's 'brush' words say [brLs],
Manchester people say [bras], and Hyde people say [brais]. For example, in
Indonesia, the word Cengkeh, BatakKaro people say singke, Minangkabau
people say cangkeh, Lampung people say cangkih, Maduresesaycengke, and
Flores people says singke.

Another example is in Britain (Liverpool, Newcastle) the people in
Liverpool use some different pronunciation but have the same meaning.
Meanwhile, EastJava (Surabaya, Malang), the people in Surabaya and Malang
use the same language as the Javanese language. However, the people in
Malang speak smoother than the people from Surabaya.

Regional dialects have two parts, which are dialects continua and
dialect geographical. Dialect continua is the term dialect used to differentiate
between local varieties in which change the language. For example, we say

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | 15

‘gerobak’ in the past and in modern times, as we say in ‘Mobil’. At the same
time, geographical dialect is a term used to describe attempts to map the
distribution of various linguistic features to demonstrate their regional
geographical origin.

3.3.1.1 Factors Affecting Regional Dialect Diversity
• Historical background

For example, it is in America. Variation in the Dialect has taken place over a
long period of years after the impact of historical change. It is because, in their
history, America was colonialized by the British. Another example is English
spoken by Australians that was influenced mainly by British English. One
possible reason for this is that because Australia is one of England's
colonialization country.

• Geographical area

Even if people speak the same language for
one region, they will have a different accent
on each other. In Indonesia, for example. The
Javanese with a flat land will have a smooth
dialect compared with the people in the East
part of Indonesia. The East people tend to
talk in louder sound because of their geography condition that consists of a
mountain area.

3.3.2 Social Dialect

Social Dialect, also known as a
speech community, is the second type of
dialect in society. That applies to a set of
discourses associated with a particular
social class of society. Eastman (1983), as
Jendra (2010) quoted, revealed that the
speaking community comprises individuals
who have the same understanding. The group at least use one language to
communicate with each other in it. In a particular region, the regional dialect
found that social dialect is the dialect used among social groups. This social
group can be social class, religion, race or ethnicity, age, gender, etc. Social
dialect (social dialectology) explores the relationship of speaking to social

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | 16

differences within a particular region. In social dialect, in the form of
vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammatical can change a language.

There are some kinds or sociolect. The first is acrolect, which is the
sociolect that considers being the more prestigious than others. For example,
the Javanese with Kromo dialect regards as the most polite dialect that the
Ngoko. The second is basilect that refers to the kind of sociolect that less
prestigious than the others. The next type is vulgar, which contains features
used by less educated or even uneducated people. And then there is slang,
which is the non-standard words used by certain groups of people. The last is
colloquial, a sociolect used in daily life (oral) and not in writing.

A study case of social class in England (based on Sayma: 2015)

In her research, she found that in the 1950s, the speaker's social group
have several pairs of words in it. For example, the upper-class speaker tends to
use the words'sitting room' while the lower class uses the word 'lounge.' It is
also different when the upper class tends to use 'lavatory' and 'sofa' while the
lower class uses the word 'toilet' and 'settee.'

The difference between the upper and lower class also exists in
grammatical form. Back in the 1950s, in the English-speaking community,
children from lower-class families used more forms of language verbs than
children from middle-class families. For example, in the way of a simple
present test, the higher class children said, 'he walks to the college every day'
while the lower class children said 'he walk to college every day.' In the past
tense, the lower class children said, 'I finished the book yesterday,' while the
lower class children said, 'I finished the book yesterday.' In the negative form,
the higher-class children said 'nobody wants any chips' while the lower class
children said 'nobody doesn't want any chips.'

A study case of social class in Indonesia and India (based on Sayma: 2015)

Social dialects can be seen obviously in Indonesia and India, where
these two countries have a system of castes that give to the people since they
are born. It makes them speak a language or dialect that can reflect their social
group in society. For example, people in Yogyakarta say more polite than
people in Surabaya. It is because, in Yogyakarta, which submits a sultanate or
aristocrat, they have a caste system that controls the way they talk, while in

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | 17

Surabaya, people do not have a caste system. Also, Surabaya has many
immigrants that make them have variation dialect.

3.3.2.1 Factors Affecting Social Dialect Diversity

In social dialect, some elements are affecting the differences of one
social class with other social types. Those factors are:

• Education

Education can affect the diversity of social dialects. The higher education we
get, the more we get different from those who do not know. The well-educated
people will talk formally, appropriately, grammatically, and tend to speak like a
book. In contrast, less educated people tend to talk simpler, sometimes
ungrammatical, and infrequent speech words.

• Ethnic background

Every ethnic group carries a different dialect with the other ethnic: Black
English or Ebonics known as African American Vernacular English (AAVE).
This ethnicity tends to use multiple negations like "I don't know nobody". They
also do the omission of the third person –s/es, e.g., "He like reading."

In Indonesia, we have Javanese and Sundanese. These two ethnic have
some similar words but with a different meaning. It explains in the table below:

Javanese Sundanese
Gedang “Pisang” Gedang “Pepaya”

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | 18

Atos “Keras” Atos “Sudah”
Cokot “Gigit” Cokot “Ambil”
Raos “Rasa” Raos “Enak”

• Religion

Religion influences the people talk even they talk
the same language. For example, in Baghdad, Irak.
Back to when the world was in a peaceful era, the
Christian, Jewish, and Muslim who lived in that city
spoke the same language, Arabic, but in a different
dialect according to their religion.

• Age

The way we talk with our friends is different from how we speak with someone
that older or even younger than us. When we talk to our parents or
grandparents, we will use polite language. For example, in Java, people use the
Jawa Kromo language when speaking with the older one. This type of speech
considers to be more polite rather than the other language.

• Castes

Caste is easily found in India. The scholarly and higher caste hierarchy speak
Iyengar (Brahmin) dialect, while the lower caste used Mudaliyar (non-Brahmin)
dialect or language. The example can be seen below:

Word Brahmin Non-Brahmin
Drinking water Tirrto Tanni
Saado Sooru
Food Puuje Puuse
Worship

3.3.3 Personal Dialect

Another variety of dialects is a personal dialect. Personal dialect is a
dialect spoken by one individual: refers to speech. The type of language can be
shown or depends on where they talk and whom they talk. The people use a
personal dialect called idiolect: a Greek combination, 'one's own' idioms, and '

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | 19

chosen expression or word ' lektos. It is defined more generally as the
speaker's use of language characteristics, which necessarily incorporates all
aspects of the individual speech style, habits, and mannerisms.

Idiolect or individual dialect is the freedom to use language by every
individual. All people in the world have their style to talk with others. It is
because the concept of language depends on humans themselves. Personal
dialect is a specific variety of social dialects. In social dialect, many social
groups have their dialect in using language in social groups or ethnicities.
Every individual also belongs to have different styles and rules to use language.
The other influences the form of language choice to be used to communicate
among them. Every person or individual can use the language by their style
without following the rule of language. Language can be understood only by
the people who have the language. Individual speak different varieties of
language is also according to their activity (Halliday and Hassan, 1990).

Pronunciation, the speed of speaking, and the articulation show
different dialects of the language. According to Jendra (2010), idiolect (speech)
can only know through some knowledge about the society of which the
individual speaker belongs to as a member. So, not all individuals understand
other people's talk.

All people practice the language to explore themselves to other people.
For an example of practical idiolect is speaking English. All Indonesians speak
abstract Indonesian language, Americans or Australians speak abstract English,
Indians speak abstract Hindi, etc. However, every individual does not exactly
speak the same language. Many factors influence different individual dialects.
The factors that may affect a personal dialect include age, gender, health status,
size, personality, and emotional state, such as speaking English. According to
Fromklin (1990), all English speakers should talk to each other and understand
each other. But none of them said the same thing. Age, gender, state of health,
size, personality, emotional shape, and personal uniqueness cause some
differences. Each person speaks differently from each other. Our ability to
recognize others by talking to them is showing this.

3.3.3.1 Factors affecting personal Dialect diversity
• Age

The first factor is age. Human age can affect how everyone talks, especially in
speech speed, for example, younger and older people. Young people tend to

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | 20

speak more clearly about articulation rather than older people. Older age
makes clarity in one's less speech Age in idiolect can affect someone's
speaking style with whom they speak. From the previous example, we can see
how young people talk to older people will be slower.

• Gender

Besides age, gender also affects individual dialect—for example, women and
men. Women have smoother ways of speaking, and the sound produces when
they say it is smaller. Meanwhile, men have a language style that tends to be
more assertive, and their voice is louder than women.

• State of health

Someone's state of health also influences individual dialect. A person's health
condition also affects a person speaking style. Health can affect pronunciation
when someone's speaking. For example, someone who has a cold or a
disruption in the vocal cord can make someone talk less clearly.

• Personality and emotional state

Another factor of individual dialect is personality and emotional state.
Personality and emotional state also affect the dialect of each individual. The
difference in character can see from the way they speak and the affirmation or
choice of words used in speaking.

For example, the first president, Soekarno, is remembered for his using
powerful words, such as ‘menghantam’(to strike), ‘menggempur’ (to assault),
'ganyang' (devastate), or his phrase such as 'jiwa revolusi' (spirit of revolution)
which could keep his speech-audience amazed. Soeharto has personal dictions:
'mankin' (to be more), and 'daripada'(of), which used to be put as an object of
parody by some people during his administration.

So, even if they both were Indonesia's presidents and use the same
language, Indonesia, they still have a different speaking style.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the variation of dialect has a connection with one
another. In regional dialect, we found the social dialect, while in social dialect,
there is a personal dialect.

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | 21

For example, in the Jawa dialect as a regional dialect, we found an
upper class in Yogyakarta that uses their dialect differently with any other
dialect as the social dialect. In that upper class, the King or Sultan owns the
different talk styles with the Queen as they are both different. The King may
use the wise word, talk a little louder while the Queen will use a smooth
pronounce when she talked due to their position in the Kingdom and their
gender.

QUESTIONS
1. What is Dialect?
2. The dialect variation divided into three kinds, what are they?
3. Mention kind of factors that influences the various dialect?
4. What are dialects continua and dialect geographical?
5. Why does education affect the diversity of social dialects?
6. What is idiolect?
7. Why does gender also affect individual dialect?

SOCIOLINGUISTICS: Theory & Practice | 22

4

Lingua Franca, Pidgin,
and Creole

Time Allotment: 2 X 50 Minutes
Basic Competencies:

• The students can explain the definition of Lingua Franca
• The students explain the definition of Pidgin
• The students explain the definition of Creole
Indicators of Learning Outcomes:
• The students are able to describe Lingua Franca
• The students are able to describe Pidgin
• The students are able to explain the example of pidgin
• The students are able to describe Creole
• The students are able to explain the example of creole

SSOOCCIIOOLLIINNGGUUSSTTIICCSS:: TThheeoorryy && PPrraaccttiiccee || 123

Lingua Franca, Pidgin,

4 and Creole

4.1 LINGUA FRANCA
Lingu franca is a common language used by somebody to communicate

between two or more people who do not share their first language (Seidelhofer,
2005, p. 339). Lingua franca or national language is a unifying language in a
country that has diverse citizens from several other regions but, understands,
and can use this unifying language or lingua franca, one example is Indonesian
in the region Indonesia. Indonesian is one of the lingua franca because citizens
from various regions can understand or be able to use Indonesian easily in
communication.

According to Wardhaugh (1998) and Trudgill (2000) states that the
Lingua franca is a non-speaker-born language (Azlan). Holmes (2001) states
that lingua franca is the use of a language used to communicate between
speakers, although the first language of speakers is different, it is capable of
understanding and use a language called lingua franca. By using the lingua
franca speakers must understand the language used in speaking between
fellow speakers (Azlan).

Mixed language is one of Lingua Franca, Bakker and Papen (1997, p.
355) stated that describe it one language like as Michif is mixing between Cree
Language with French language who spoken in Canada about thousand
descendants of metis (Aboriginal and French), often marked as mixing
language between Cree verbs and French nouns that are accurate in using
Cree's grammar and French vocabulary shows the identity of the community
by expressing new ethnicities so that new languages emerge in the
communities of Cree and French (Yallop).

As we know that English is an international language and the example
of lingua franca is English, which is used as a
means of communication in many countries.
and plays a major role in many aspects of
life, such as politics, industry, commerce,
and diplomatic relations. Therefore, English
can not be separated from the development
of technology, science, economics and
education. In recognition of the importance
of English, Indonesia's government preferred English as the first foreign
language and a core topic in our education system. English is a dominant

SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 2

language around the world. English has been used by many countries as their
first or second language. This makes English an international language.

Indonesia has English as its foreign language. Samarin (1968, p. 661)
revealed four kinds of functions from English as a foreign language (Yallop):

1. A trade language (e.g., Hausa in West Africa or Swahili in East
Africa);

2. A contact language(e.g., Greek koiné in the Ancient World);
3. An international language (e.g., English throughout much of our

contemporary world);
4. An auxiliary language (e.g., Esperanto or Basic English).

Lingua franca is called the language that's solely famed by
language of instruction or social some groups of individuals.
language, within the sense of a according to (Barotchi 1994: 2211),

during a publication understood by society who use the
language.
revealed in Paris in 1953,
Chinook Jargon could be a
associated Cultural native language from North
America within the 19th century,
Organization|UNESCO|United but the utilization of this language
is sort of extinct as a result of
Nations agency|UN agency} within the time of Europeans came
this language was just undeveloped
outlined the lingua franca as an however was employed Speakers of
English and French within the
everyday language known as the region (Thomason 1983,820). And
therefore the extinction of this
maternal language to facilitate language is as a result of there are
only a few restrictions on the
communication inside a community utilization of Chinook Jargon
language in English.
cluster (‫)حمیدی‬.

Lingua franca is a language
used each day during a community
who perceive the language and
additionally lingua franca is spoken
during a variety method. Besides
that this language as a
communication tool by used
mother tongue that may be

SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 3

However, in some country, there is exploitation of the English language
as a national language or mother tongues just like the United Kingdom and the
U.S.A. And additionally English language as a second language, like as in India,
Singapore, and Malaysia.

Example of Lingua Franca language :

1. Indonesian language, this language is one of the languages used in
the lingua franca, because the Indonesian language can be
understood by all citizens of Indonesia, although different regions,
and different from their mother tongue.

2. English, this language is one of the languages as lingua franca in the
tourist destination, the scientific community, and for business trips.

3. Mandarin language in Chinese is a language used in the lingua
franca. Mandarin language in Chinese is the language used in
Lingua franca.

Example of the conversation by using mandarin language (Pratama et
al.):

1. “Wo shi Chen Jia Li, wo hui ting yi tian yinni yu, bu guo
2. Jiang de bu liu li.” means: “My name is Chen Jia Li, I don't

understand your language because very quickly”.
3. “Xie xie!” means : (Thank you.)
4. ”Mien li mien li.” means : (Your welcome)

Swahili language found in Africa which located on the coast like as
Tanzania, and Zaire. The Swahili language is one of Lingua Franca. Example of
noun clause in Swahili language (Petzell):

1. kitabu, vitabu in the meaning ‘book’
2. mguu, miguu in the meaning ‘leg’
3. mahali in the meaning ‘place’

Sarawak language is one of Malay language in the state of Sarawak,
Malaysia, this language is Lingua Franca spoken the Malay language. For the
example from Sarawak language in Proverbs (Patdeli and Bahasa):

1. Berbudi dan berjasa in the meaning Courteous and meritorious .
2. Merendah diri in the meaning Humble

SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 4

3. Bekerja kuat in the meaning Hardworking
4. Berjimat cermat in the meaning Thrifty
5. Taat setia in the meaning Loyal
6. Menghormati Undang-undang in the meaning Respecting the laws
7. jangan meludah ke langit kelak nimpak muka dirik empun in the

meaning don’t spit into the sky or it will fall into his own face.

Chinook Jargon is a native language from North America in the 19th
century, but the use of this language is almost extinct because in the time of
Europeans came this language was still undeveloped But English and French
were used in the region (Thomason 1983,820). Example Chinook Jargon
languages in Video:

Number Chinook Jargon

1 Ixt
2 Mak(w)st
3
4 †un
5 Lakit
6 qwinm
7 Taam
8 Sinamak(w)st
9 Stu(x)tkin
10 K’wayts
ta†lam

In alphabet into Chinook Jargon the word (†) be read (k), () be read
(kh), () be read (e), for the example: †un in the pronunciation (kun), taam in
the pronunciation (takham), and qwinm in the pronunciation (qwinem).

Greetings:

Hello! †aayam!
How are you? Qhaya mayka?
I’m good! †ush nayka!
Good bye! ta†lam

SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 5

In descriptive analysis greetings Chinook Jargon, a phonetic symbol
also same with the pronunciation in the word that in numbers. And my opinion
Chinook Jargon in the pronunciation always use sound (kh)

The objective of the study of English in Lingua Franca is to understand
learning and to serve as a means of public communication for speakers. Lingua
Franca is one of the material from sociolinguistics which in particular is
theLingua Franca that is interconnected between Pidgins and Creolization.

4.2 PIDGIN

Pidgin is a language that is reduced as a result of large
connections between groups of people without the same
language. Like when people need some sort of verbal
interaction, also for business purposes, but no
community learns native languages from other groups
due to social reasons that may include lack of trust or
close contact. Pidgin languages are those who have less
power (substrate language speakers), are more
accommodating, and use more strong (superstrate)
terms from their dialect, even if they are responsive. The
use of these words in the pidgin language may be
affected by the languages of the substrates of communication. According to
Todd (1974 pp. 1), this means that pidginization is a "marginal or language
touch" that tends to satisfy Some communication needs of people who do not
have a language in common (Pratika).

Todd's Theory of Pidginization (1990, p.1) shows that Pidgin is a
marginal language, the language of interaction that seems to fulfill certain
communication needs that are restricted to speakers who do not have the
same language but have certain goals (Pratika).

On the other hand, according to the theory of Holmes (1992, p. 20), that
he defines a language that has no native speakers called pidgin (Pratika). Many
social environments can affect pidgin, and the two most common are
circumstances where mass labor and increased trade in migrants can occur
(Winford 2003, 271). In another case, There are people with linguistic
backgrounds who need to communicate with others, but who only use one
language dominantly. Pidgin language is so interesting to explore because in

SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 6

spite of the lack of elaborate grammar the speaker understand each other
(‫)حمیدی‬.

4.2.1 Characteristic of pidgin language
The simplification of the linguistic structure of the pidgins is so obvious

at the morphological and grammatical level (Pratika). And according to Sebba
(1997, p. 69) there are some characteristics:

a. Has no native speaker
b. Result of contact between two or more language
c. Describe one most of their vocabulary language
d. Grammatically simplified
e. Simple phonological system
f. To have analytic and agglutinating morphology
g. The relationship between words and context is semantically clear
h. Have a small vocabulary that covers a wide variety of semantics

The Pidgin language usually does not last long due to its limited use.
These disappear when contact declines as societies move apart, or when one
community learns another language.

Pidginization is a lingua franca that has
no native speakers, according to Todd (1974 p.
1). Pidgin is also used for communicating by
people who do not share the same language.
Pidginization is a language that is not its mother
tongue, such as English, Russian, French, etc.,
which means that pidginization is a "marginal or
language touch" that seems to satisfy some communication needs between
people who have no language in common (Pratika).

Pidgin is the language of contact, it is
built on rudimentary grammar, simple structure,
and also limited vocabulary. The speaker learns
it orally as a second language. In short, language
contact is used for the purpose of basic
communication by the people which has no
common language. While the marginal language
is identic with poorer and darker people marginalized by society. Pidgin itself
in sociolinguistic is mixing two or more languages that can be understood in a

SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 7

certain group. The words of this particular group can be understood and
happen in a certain organization, a gang, or something like that.

Historically, the origins of pidgin derive from a colonial situation in
which the members of the specific colonial power, administrators, tradesmen,
slaves, and sailors came into contact with the native speaker.Pidgin language
itself started to develop in areas where the colonialists came and settled in that
area. Pidgin is a mix of local languages that influenced by English, Spanish,
Dutch, France, Arabic, Portuguese, Chinese, etc. And at that time pidgin was
lingua franca for trading and a communication tool for slaves and immigrant.

From the explanation above, there are two families of pidgin language.
The Atlantic community is formed in West Africa, transported to the West
Indies and America during slavery. Throughout Africa, it is still commonly used
in Gambia, Sierra Lione, Liberia, Ghana, Togo, Nigeria and CameroonIn America,
they are found on the island and the mainland, mainly spoken by the black
population. By the Pacific, from the coast of China to the northernmost parts of
Australia, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, and Hawaii.

Indonesia also includes which has pidgin language. Throughout its
history, the Indonesian language has absorbed a lot of foreign vocabularies
such as Sanskrit, Dutch, English, Arabic and much more. However, the origin of
Indonesian is modern Malay. Indonesian was derived from the Malay language
that borrows from foreign languages. From this language phenomenon, led the
idea of pidgin and creole where there was contact language between local
people and foreign people that happened in Indonesia and more orless
influenced the original language of local people.

4.2.2 Example of pidgin language.

Wafi : spoken by the people of the Niger-delta region in the

south of Nigeria

Benin pidgin : spoken by the Benin people

Lagos pidgin : spoken by indigenes of Lagos

Hawaiian pidgin : was influenced by English, Portuguese, Cantonese,
Hawaiian, Korean, Philippine, Mexican

SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 8

An illustration of this differentiation:

English : Have you ever eaten?

Wafi pidgin : cane your line

Lagos pidgin : face front joor

English : mind your business

Wafi pidgin : cane your line

Lagos pidgin : face front joor

Benin pidgin : na wetin concern you

Another example by using pidgin language:

English : people don't want to have him go to work

Hawaiian pidgin : people no like t'come fo' go work

English : how are you doing today?

Nigerian : how you dey?

English : I don't know

Nigerian : I no no

English : what's going on?

Nigerian : wetin dey happen?

English : I'm fine

Nigerian : I dey fine

Another example is Babah Malay. Babah
Malay is a language of the Peranakans
(descendants of Chinese-Malay intermarriages).
This language is a mix of Malay and Chinese

SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 9

languages from Hokkien, also known as Fukien, Fujian, or Southern min.
Without realizing it, Indonesians or Chinese Indonesians use the following
from daily conversation. Indonesian language or Bahasa Indonesia itself is a
modernized variation from the Malay language. The Malay language now used
by the Indonesians as the official language, the standard language, the national
language and also as lingua franca in Indonesia.

Gua (I), lu (you) and dia (he or she) is Hokkien words

Semua (all) and orang (people) are Malay words

In Indonesian language gua and lu is the informal language which is
used between friends. However, this is also common in Jakarta language for
Betawi. Until now Babah Malay it is still used in Malacca and Singapore even
though it is experiencing the growing pressure from Malay and other Chinese
Language.

Example of Gabon Language in Video:

Gabon Language is a native language from Gabon country, especially in
Libreville part. Gabon language is a pidginization from English pidgin and also
their pidgin is very similar to Nigeria's.

In this video, the white man tried to learn some pidgin language from
Gabon with Malvis and Linda, a native speaker from Gabon country. At the
beginning of the conversation the white man was introduced who is Malvis,
and Malvis said “naso”.

“Naso” means “that's right” (can be used as an exclamation or a reply to
something or a statement you feel is right)

In the next conversation, the white man asks to Malvis to teach him
some pidgin words like common greetings. Malvis said, "good morning, come
inside, enta”.

“Enta” means “enter”

which means “good morning, come inside, enter”.

In the next conversation, the white man tries to learn another pidgin
language from Mavis's friend name's Linda. She said, "do you want chop?". The

SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 10

white man though “chop” means “job” but Malvis said “chop” in here means
“eat”. And also the white said that Linda said "chop" like she offered him want
to chop trees or something, which means the white man though "chop" in
English language is to cut off trees.

“chop” means “to eat”

“do you want chop?” which means “do you want to eat?”

At the end of the conversation, the white man said "my sister thankyou”
and Linda answer "thank you brother, we die very happy to see
you ............................. thankyou very much. Mina Linda, wala Helen”

“die” means “so much”

“mina” means “I'm”

“wala” means “she is”

4.2.3 Reasons For Pidgin's Development

Smelser et al (2002) was reported in the nineteenth century, many
people immigrated to another state, the majority of whom came to North
America as slaves to plantation work. They mixed with different races with
people from other parts of the world. They need to interact with each other,
and particularly with their masters. In this case, pidgin is created because there
was no common language for mutual communication. The reason for creating
this language is that they could come up with the idea of escaping back to their
territory.

The other reason for the development of pidgin is the colonization. The
languages that played an important role in the development of pidgin during
colonization are Spanish, French, Portuguese, English, and Dutch.

There are two situations that bring up creolization. The first is to keep
the speakers separate in order to prevent them from speaking their different
native languages. And they are required to keep the original pidgin and then
move it on to future generations, then there is going to be a transition from
pidgin to Creole. In the Caribbean and South America, this situation occurs. He
was forced to become a slave by a colonial ruler.

SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 11

The second is when other social groups intentionally upgrade pidgin to
various higher languages. In Papua New Guinea and Cameroon, this condition
occurred. But, as what happened in Papua New Guinea, Cameroon did not
stretch. As a result, the Pidgin mayor's children will eventually use Pidgin as
their first language. Another consequence is that they have lost the native
language of their family. As a well-developed language, the linguistic stage
must grow and operate. Pidgin was therefore granted or used with full status.

4.2.4 Does Pidgin Always Become Creole?
Basically, not every pidgin will become a Creole based on Wardhaugh

and Fuller (2015). That is experience the method of the development of the
Creole. Actually, only a few do that. Most of the pidgins region lingua francas,
which exists to satisfy temporary native desires. These are spoken by people
who use a different language or culture to fulfill the majority of their wishes as
well as their young people's wishes. It will die out if a pidgin is no longer
needed. Even the pidgin should always be ' reinvented ' in a clear space; for
example, there is no reason to believe that either the Cameroonian Pidgin
English or the Hawaiian Pidgin English have continuous history.

Creolization happens only by pidgin for a few reasons, the variation of
the language that young people should use in a situation where they have
essentially deprived the use of a 'full' language. A lot of speakers ' language is
Creole. However, we can see that this was supposed to have happened in Haiti
once the French were practically sufficiently rejected, and the African
languages brought by the slaves had also been disrepair. We will also see that
many qualified guest workers in Europe speak German-speaking to each other
while their children did not. Nevertheless, they developed these variations
with various achievements in acquiring Standard German because they had to
go to school and be educated in German. They have complete language
accessibility, so they don't have to ask what the Gastarbeiter Deutsch is.

4.3 CREOLE
Holmes (1992, p.95) says Creole has evolved in form and vocabulary as

a pidgin. The function of Creole is to reflect different meanings and execute
various functions given by the first language. Creole's ancestors have a dialect
or pidgin. The entire group of speeches was spoken in the original. Their
descendants were often forcibly relocated in a manner that partly disrupted
their connection with their native language and socio-cultural identity. The

SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 12

speaker will have a new language (new word) in their community to
communication in daily life.

Creolization is mixing people who have their own local language which
eventually leads to mixing in the formation of new identities and replacing
previous identities called creolization and mixed languages or new identities
becoming the mother tongue in the area.

According to Todd (1974 pp.1) states that creole appears when pidgin
native language because there is no successor (Pratika). Holmes (1992, p90)
discover that Creole is the Pidgin language that has adapted the original
language (Pratika). Theory Creolization according to Todd (1999, p.1) states
that creole appears when pidgin the native language because there is no router
(Pratika). On the other hand, the Holmes (1992, p. 90) creole theory is that
pidgin has adapted from the original language (Pratika).

Creole is a culture that emerges from meetings between Native
Americans, Europeans, and West Africans. Most of the population met due to
colonization and slavery in the 16th century. Because these groups of people
live together, there is a cultural mix that contributes to the formation of a new
identity. Creolization, therefore, is the mechanism by which the language of
Creole develops in the New World. (Anggie ; 2019.1)

In general large creolization has a negative connotation at first.
Emigration into distant environments is considered to turn Europe into
various types of races. As the historian Antonello Gerbi said, "The distinction is
not cultural, economic or social, but geographical. It used to be based on
negative soli juice, prioritized by jus sanguinis" (1973: 182).

Based on the above definition, it can be inferred that Creole originates
from a pidgin used by a group of people whose descendants have used that
language and have transformed it into a mother tongue language in their
everyday lives.

4.3.1 Examples of Creole
Creolization in the sense of popular culture according to Cohen

(2007:7) :

• Food

SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 13

In this context,' Creole Cooking ' refers to a combination of elements and
traditions between tropical and European products. For example, this is often
used to characterize cuisine that in South America combines elements of Africa
and France. And in Louisiana Creole in general, cooking is often described as'
authentic,' implying that there are no indigenous peoples in such an area
where all are relatively new migrants.

• Music
Jazz originated as a dialogue, often from plantations and rural areas, between
black folk art traders in the United States and dark music rooted in urban New
Orleans. In the listening room, Field Hollers meet. Negro spirits are joining the
opera lovers. Those who perform the mild blues sit together with those who do
the waltz, quadrille, polka, and mazurka. Jazz was established as a musical par
excol in the parade, funeral dirges, a popular picnic, and party songs (Collier
(1978:5964)).

• Religion
The term ' syncretism ' has always been used as a
definition for the creation of anthropologists who
are studying the fusion of European and
African aspects in popular religions in Cuba,
Haiti, and Brazil were the three most intensively
researched countries of the new era. New religious
beliefs-such as from two religious traditions that
took place at Sentaria in Cuba, Shango in Trinidad,
Candomble in Brazil and Voodoo in Haiti, but can not be limited to both.
Because the expression of this new religion can only be described in its own
words and has persisted and developed over time, making the religions of
Creole similar to the Creole culture: They are like a mother tongue, not a
language.

4.3.2 Example of Haitian Creole:

• Example of Haitian Creole in Video
Haiti Creole (/ ˈheˈn ˈkriːoʊl /) is the Creole language adapted from

French and the only language in Haiti. This is called kreyòl ayisyen or only k
reyòl ([kɣejɔl]) by speakers and créole haïtien in French.

No Haitian Creole English

LESSON 1: GREETING SOMEONE, SHARING NAME AND SAYING GOODBYE

1 Bonjou Hello

SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 14

2 Kijan ourele What’s your name ?

3 Mwen rele .... My name is ......

4 Nawe See you later

LESSON 2: ASKING HOW SOMEONE'S DOING

1 Bonswa Hello (Good Afternoon)

2 Kijan ou ye ? How are you ?

3 Mwen byen I’m good

4 Bon bagay Good stuff

LESSON 3: ASKING FOR PERMISSION (RECEIVING A "YES")

1 Mwen kapab ......? Can I .....?

2 Ou ule .....? Do you want ....?

3 Wi Yes

4 Mesi Thank You

5 Pa gen pwoblem ! No problem

LESSON 4: ASKING FOR PERMISSION (RECEIVING A "NO")

1 Non No

2 Souple Please

3 Eskize mwen Excuse me

LESSON 5: WANTS, LIKES, AND DISLIKES

1 Mwe pa konprann I don’t understand

2 Mwen renmen I like/ I love

3 Mwen pa renmen I don’t like

4 Li He/She

• Example Nigerian teachers will use Nigerian Creole as the language of
instruction with the following principles:

According to Ukwuoma (2015:2) lecturers Nigerian Creole can use
English as a teaching tool for those who learn to speak and understand. The
teacher refused to use Creole Nigeria as a teaching tool Because they believe
their use will jeopardize the English language learning of their students.
Postgraduate students are able to provide guidance from a mixture of Nigerian
and English Since they find Nigerian usage language to be enjoyable and to
represent the voice of a new Nigerian generation. The last sample was based
on the fact that, before the Nigerian Creole information did not encourage the
learning of English as a result of both languages, they were too distinct to
promote the transition of learning.

• Example Causative and encouraging Asian Ibero romance serial verbs
Creoles Convergence of substrates and superstrates:

SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 15

According to Baxter (2009:1) Two forms of serial-direct causative and
indirect verbs-in the Asian-based Creole languages of Portuguese and Spanish.
Discussions on the structural nature of the problem are that, considering the
semantic relationships involved in the exchange of arguments and reflecting on
The potential role and superposition of the substrate language in its
development. It is suggested that the geographical distribution of serial verbs
should be induced by the convergence of substrate and superstrate.
Portuguese lexically based Creole, convergence starts with India. In addition,
when the Portuguese extended their network of trading to the east, the serial
systems provided reinforcement of the substrate in a variety of settings where
formation and stabilization took place. Additional confirmation of the need for
group mobilization over a longer period.

QUESTIONS
1. Why is Indonesian one of the lingua franca?
2. What is the meaning of Pidginization?
3. What are the characteristic of Pidgin language?
4. Why does Indonesia also include one of states that has pidgin

language?

SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 16

5

Language Choice,
Code-Mixing,

and Code-Switching

Time Allotment : 2 X 50 Minutes
Basic Competencies:

• The students can explain the concept of language
choice

• The students can describe code-mixing

• The students can describe code-switching

Indicator of Learning Outcomes:
• The students are able to describe language choice
• The students are able to distinguish code-switching
and code-mixing
• The students are able to explain code-switching
• The students are able to describe the factors causing
code switching.
• The students are able to describe the aspect of code
switching
• The students are able to explain code-mixing

SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 17
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 39

Language Choice, Code-Mixing,

5 and Code-Switching

5.1 Language Choice
People use their language c hoices with

each other, in their daily lives, they will make
language choices to make communication
easier. Grosjean (1982: 127) says that in
everyday interactions with others, people
constantly change the variety of languages they
use. People use choices in their communication because the same people may
not understand their language. So, many people decide to use the software in
their communication to make the recipient understand what they are saying.
Based on Holmes (2013: 22) the choice of language is the choice of language
interaction that occurs in many speech communication. That is the purpose of
someone's communication, usually finding some people make language choices
in their communication. In addition, in the community, people can use more
than two languages.

The use in communication of more than one language by speakers
indicates that they make language choices. In other words, they will choose one
language or another compatible language. People choose the language that
matches their compilation of speech, people with languages to other languages,
and they use different language conversations. They urged themselves to be
confident to communicate with other communities, even to expel them from
using language. According to Somarsono (2009: 201), there are three kinds of
language choices in the field, including sociolinguistics; code-switching, code-
switching, and variations in the same language. Substitution from the first code
this speaker is supplemented by a number of factors: speakers, topics and
participants. Mixing the second code appears in phrases and words. The last is
variation in the same language, the same language combination between
formal and informal forms. This relates to the Fasold statement (as quoted in
Chaer and Agustina, 2004: 153), namely the choice of languages with three
forms of choice; code-switching, code-mixing, and language variants.

The phenomenon of language choice also exists in students of the
English Language Department at the Faculty of Arts and Humanities of the
Sunan Ampel Surabaya State Islamic University. Students choose varieties of
insome languages. For example, students use English in formal situations, or
they use Indonesian in non-formal situations. While compiling the app with
friends, they use the community talk or regional language. They use languages

SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 18

in different domains such as in classrooms, canteens, classrooms, or other
places that encourage them to choose their language.

5.1.1 Social Factors
Everything that is done by several factors, people may also have

reasons to do something, it also happens by using language choices. When
people talk to other people, there are several factors that influence them to
choose the language. These factors can arise from the community itself or are
determined by several outside factors (environment, culture, education, etc.).
Jendra (2010: 71) notes that the capacity to choose a language as a
communicative skill and at the time of development is established by taking
into account the variables found in the social meaning in which the language is
used. Holmes (2013: 9) pointed out that there are growing social factors that
influence language selection. Social considerations in the language that they
choose to use. These are the factors;

1. Participants: who you are talking about and who you are talking
about (Student Lecturer)
2. Settings: Social talks or where they speak (Class, Meeting)
3. Function: Reasons Why there is talk (Informative, Social)
4. Topic: Topic of discussion or what is discussed (Subject,)

Also, Holmes points out that all variables are important in certain
contexts, but can be organized in a useful way. In any discussion, the general
choice of language will reflect one or more of the social factors above. The
choices that can be chosen depending on their reasons and reasons. Therefore,
compiling someone makes language choices, it must be approved by several
factors. Furthermore, Ervin Trip (in Grosjean, 1982: 127) said that the
aspirations in any language community related to various social aspects had an
alternative repertoire that could be used well. Through the two resolutions
above, it can be approved by the Community as well as influencing people in
making language choices. Therefore, it presents four main factors that cause
code changes or variations. They are: arrangements and interactions,
participants in interactions, topics, and the last is interaction.

SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 19

5.1.2 Domain

Holmes (2013: 22)

announces that the environment is

what is implied by a standard

relationship that has been related

to the importance of software But in this study, the author
focused on domain two; they are
selection patterns in many formal (class) and non-formal
domains (outside the classroom).
languages, such as families, The author chose it because the
object of this research was
friendship, religion, education, University students.

job, and administration. While 5.1.3 Speech community
Every community group.
according to Domaine (2000: 44),
Different group members.
the domain is an obstacle that According to Wardhaugh (2006:
119) the speaking community is a
determines the activity of the ball group member who speaks the
same language, dialect or variety.
which is a combination of a certain Learn about the community. Talk
about us learning about groups.
time, arrangement and relationship However, people usually make
groups for reasons, the reasons are;
roles. Besides, Chaer and Agustina Social, Religion, Economy, Family,
Culture, Study, and so on. Hopefully,
(Chaer and Agustina, 2004: 153), there are three speaking
communities. The national
Indonesia usually uses three language, English, and regional
languages. English Department
languages for different domains; students choose different
languages in different choices.
Indonesian is used in the national

domain, vernacular languages are

used in local domains, and foreign

languages are used in the global

domain. Based on the above

hypotheses, it can be concluded

that the context is one of the

reasons that influence people to

choose their language.

5.2 Code-Mixing and Code-Switching

Everyone must have basic communication skills, which support
communicative competence. The communicative competency manager knows
when to speak, anytime, and what to talk about, with whom, when, where, and
in what way. In other words, communicative competence is related to language

SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 20

and language usage. Everyone has limitations to learn any language that has
been approved by modern linguistics. Meanwhile, the language may be the
main guideline for humans to come true. In other words, structuring the
language is a view that will be challenging. Discussing, looking at humans about
the world does not depend on the particular language they have discussed.
When speaking, humans have built up words and lived in the world they
conveyed living in the world of things and people. They use words to control
the behavior and behavior of others. We often speak several languages or mix
their languages into conversations, such as students from the English
Department in the Faculty of Arts and Humanities.

Changing code and code-mixing that happen in bilingual and
multilingual cultures, coping with the concept of Chaer which compiles people
talking about code-switching, can be opened by code mixers (Agustina and
Chaer, 2004: 114). The quality of mixing and code-switching used in speech
acts. But it's actually code-switching, each language still has autonomous
functions and runs code, doesn't mix code. Mixing is a function and other
languages justpieces, or there is no function phrase. Nababan (1993: 32)
defines mixed language as people who confuse speaking type or dialect with
speech. In Indonesia, this mixing code also contributes to everyday
conversations between people who can speak Indonesian with the most
difficult regional languages. Meanwhile, code-switching is almost entirely in
any place that is supported by the community. The changes in code occur when
the speaker compiles to switch from one language to another in order to move
the speaker from one code to another.

Fishman in Chaerand Agustina (2004: 108) states that some people use
code-switching, there are; speaker or listener, language, when and what the
purpose of speaking. Whereas, Soewito in Chaer and Agustina (2004: 107)
classes two forms of code switching, namely: Internal Code Switch and
External Code Switch. The internal code language is between two internal
languages (first and second languages), while the external code switches from
internal language to language and language depending on language and social
background. People speak differently according to their educational
background and work, among others.

5.2.1 Code-Switching
Code-switching is a concept of sociolinguistics that applies to use in

conversation of more than one language or variation.Speakers change their

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