Language Choice, Code-Mixing,
5 and Code-Switching
5.1 Language Choice
People use their language c hoices with
each other, in their daily lives, they will make
language choices to make communication
easier. Grosjean (1982: 127) says that in
everyday interactions with others, people
constantly change the variety of languages they
use. People use choices in their communication because the same people may
not understand their language. So, many people decide to use the software in
their communication to make the recipient understand what they are saying.
Based on Holmes (2013: 22) the choice of language is the choice of language
interaction that occurs in many speech communication. That is the purpose of
someone's communication, usually finding some people make language choices
in their communication. In addition, in the community, people can use more
than two languages.
The use in communication of more than one language by speakers
indicates that they make language choices. In other words, they will choose one
language or another compatible language. People choose the language that
matches their compilation of speech, people with languages to other languages,
and they use different language conversations. They urged themselves to be
confident to communicate with other communities, even to expel them from
using language. According to Somarsono (2009: 201), there are three kinds of
language choices in the field, including sociolinguistics; code-switching, code-
switching, and variations in the same language. Substitution from the first code
this speaker is supplemented by a number of factors: speakers, topics and
participants. Mixing the second code appears in phrases and words. The last is
variation in the same language, the same language combination between
formal and informal forms. This relates to the Fasold statement (as quoted in
Chaer and Agustina, 2004: 153), namely the choice of languages with three
forms of choice; code-switching, code-mixing, and language variants.
The phenomenon of language choice also exists in students of the
English Language Department at the Faculty of Arts and Humanities of the
Sunan Ampel Surabaya State Islamic University. Students choose varieties of
insome languages. For example, students use English in formal situations, or
they use Indonesian in non-formal situations. While compiling the app with
friends, they use the community talk or regional language. They use languages
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 18
in different domains such as in classrooms, canteens, classrooms, or other
places that encourage them to choose their language.
5.1.1 Social Factors
Everything that is done by several factors, people may also have
reasons to do something, it also happens by using language choices. When
people talk to other people, there are several factors that influence them to
choose the language. These factors can arise from the community itself or are
determined by several outside factors (environment, culture, education, etc.).
Jendra (2010: 71) notes that the capacity to choose a language as a
communicative skill and at the time of development is established by taking
into account the variables found in the social meaning in which the language is
used. Holmes (2013: 9) pointed out that there are growing social factors that
influence language selection. Social considerations in the language that they
choose to use. These are the factors;
1. Participants: who you are talking about and who you are talking
about (Student Lecturer)
2. Settings: Social talks or where they speak (Class, Meeting)
3. Function: Reasons Why there is talk (Informative, Social)
4. Topic: Topic of discussion or what is discussed (Subject,)
Also, Holmes points out that all variables are important in certain
contexts, but can be organized in a useful way. In any discussion, the general
choice of language will reflect one or more of the social factors above. The
choices that can be chosen depending on their reasons and reasons. Therefore,
compiling someone makes language choices, it must be approved by several
factors. Furthermore, Ervin Trip (in Grosjean, 1982: 127) said that the
aspirations in any language community related to various social aspects had an
alternative repertoire that could be used well. Through the two resolutions
above, it can be approved by the Community as well as influencing people in
making language choices. Therefore, it presents four main factors that cause
code changes or variations. They are: arrangements and interactions,
participants in interactions, topics, and the last is interaction.
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 19
5.1.2 Domain
Holmes (2013: 22)
announces that the environment is
what is implied by a standard
relationship that has been related
to the importance of software But in this study, the author
selection patterns in many focused on domain two; they are
languages, such as families, formal (class) and non-formal
friendship, religion, education, domains (outside the classroom).
job, and administration. While The author chose it because the
according to Domaine (2000: 44), object of this research was
the domain is an obstacle that University students.
determines the activity of the ball
which is a combination of a certain 5.1.3 Speech community
time, arrangement and relationship Every community group.
roles. Besides, Chaer and Agustina Different group members.
(Chaer and Agustina, 2004: 153), According to Wardhaugh (2006:
Indonesia usually uses three 119) the speaking community is a
languages for different domains; group member who speaks the
Indonesian is used in the national same language, dialect or variety.
domain, vernacular languages are Learn about the community. Talk
used in local domains, and foreign about us learning about groups.
languages are used in the global However, people usually make
domain. Based on the above groups for reasons, the reasons are;
hypotheses, it can be concluded Social, Religion, Economy, Family,
that the context is one of the Culture, Study, and so on. Hopefully,
reasons that influence people to there are three speaking
choose their language. communities. The national
language, English, and regional
languages. English Department
students choose different
languages in different choices.
5.2 Code-Mixing and Code-Switching
Everyone must have basic communication skills, which support
communicative competence. The communicative competency manager knows
when to speak, anytime, and what to talk about, with whom, when, where, and
in what way. In other words, communicative competence is related to language
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 20
and language usage. Everyone has limitations to learn any language that has
been approved by modern linguistics. Meanwhile, the language may be the
main guideline for humans to come true. In other words, structuring the
language is a view that will be challenging. Discussing, looking at humans about
the world does not depend on the particular language they have discussed.
When speaking, humans have built up words and lived in the world they
conveyed living in the world of things and people. They use words to control
the behavior and behavior of others. We often speak several languages or mix
their languages into conversations, such as students from the English
Department in the Faculty of Arts and Humanities.
Changing code and code-mixing that happen in bilingual and
multilingual cultures, coping with the concept of Chaer which compiles people
talking about code-switching, can be opened by code mixers (Agustina and
Chaer, 2004: 114). The quality of mixing and code-switching used in speech
acts. But it's actually code-switching, each language still has autonomous
functions and runs code, doesn't mix code. Mixing is a function and other
languages justpieces, or there is no function phrase. Nababan (1993: 32)
defines mixed language as people who confuse speaking type or dialect with
speech. In Indonesia, this mixing code also contributes to everyday
conversations between people who can speak Indonesian with the most
difficult regional languages. Meanwhile, code-switching is almost entirely in
any place that is supported by the community. The changes in code occur when
the speaker compiles to switch from one language to another in order to move
the speaker from one code to another.
Fishman in Chaerand Agustina (2004: 108) states that some people use
code-switching, there are; speaker or listener, language, when and what the
purpose of speaking. Whereas, Soewito in Chaer and Agustina (2004: 107)
classes two forms of code switching, namely: Internal Code Switch and
External Code Switch. The internal code language is between two internal
languages (first and second languages), while the external code switches from
internal language to language and language depending on language and social
background. People speak differently according to their educational
background and work, among others.
5.2.1 Code-Switching
Code-switching is a concept of sociolinguistics that applies to use in
conversation of more than one language or variation.Speakers change their
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 21
language type code to another one when constructing A sentence to explain to
the interlocutor, sometimes with the same language meaning, and they can do
so many times.
In the field of education, the teacher teaches foreign language code-
switching and they also use a teaching technique to develop the skills of
learners in the English. At the beginning of the class, the teacher uses the goal
language before describing the content and then turning back to Indonesia to
make sure the students understand it. Code-switching is to replace the
language used by someone who is bilingual; for the local language of the
Republic of Indonesia for example; Reasons for using code-switching include:
a. If we speak to other people who both understand regional languages,
there are suddenly three people who don't understand the local
language then the third person, often Indonesian, changes the language.
b. If we talk to other people who, although they understand the local
language we use (eg Javanese), to avoid the problem with which level,
we use Indonesian, which is considered neutral.
c. To give a more formal atmosphere, for example in the office, school,
and worship houses, we prefer to use Indonesian rather than regional
languages.
In a bilingual situation, there are occasions when the speaker replaces
the dialect and speech level components in a dialogue he has, according to the
context and circumstance of the language. For context, when A speaks X with B,
the C person who can't speak X comes into that language situation, so A and B
switch to the language understood by C. This is the kind of event we call code-
switching. Chaer (1995: 141) describes code-switching as a method of
switching language usage due to changing situations.
In contrast to the appellate code-switching occurs between languages,
Hymes in Chaer (1995: 141) says code-switching does not only develop
between languages but also various languages or styles of the language that
contained in a language.
Nababan (1991: 31) states that the concept of code-switching also
includes events when we move from one variety of languages to one, for
example, formal variety to another, such as familiar variety; or from one dialect
to another; or from a high level of speech, for example kromo inggil (Javanese)
to lower speech, for example, ngoko language, and so on. Kridalaksana (1982: 7)
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 22
asserts that the use of other language variations to adjust to other roles or
situations, because of other participation is called code-switching.
Code-switching may occur in a sentence (intra-sentential) or between
sentences (inter-sentential). There are four main switching which are:
5.2.1.1 Tag Switching
Tag code-switching occurs when a speaker introduces short
expressions (tags) from different languages at the end of his / her utterances,
e.g. "you know," "I mean" from one language to another language.
For examples:
Teacher: “benar, that’s a good answer”!
“Bagus, good job Santi”!
Okay, Silahkan buka halaman 20!
Kalau sudah selesai, Ibu panggil one by one
What do you want to ask, silahkan!
Bagaimana I call your nick name?
And you, come forward. Ayo!
Lecturer: Ganti ya nanti saya pikirkan kata yang lain, Okay?
Lecturer: Okay group five, group five, silahkan!
Lecturer: Alright, sebutkan juga topik nya ya!
Lecturer: Waw, it’s very easy!
Lecturer: Ya, come here!
Lecturer: Ayo, come on!
5.2.1.2 Inter-sentential
Sentence-level code-switching between sentences is changing.
Intersentential code-switching occurs when a speaker completes a sentence in
one language, moves in the next sentence to another language, or occurs at
sentence rates when each sentence or clause is in one language.
For Examples:
“Okay sekarang dilihat teksnya, kalian pilih the most interesting
one”.
“Apa WH question itu?”
“Kalau dengan why?”
“Handphonenya disilent dulu.”
“Kalau mau menanyakan moral value?”
How about your dictionary? Siapa yang tidak bawa?
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 23
Many of your friends have the same hobbies. Jadi kalau ingin pergi
nyanyi, ajak teman teman yang lain!
Kalian punya tugas untuk pertemuan selanjutnya. You have to make
the short dialogue.
“You have the task for the next meeting. Kamu harus membuat
dialog pendek”
“Jangan kemana-mana sini aja! Do you understand?
“May I borrow your pen? May I? Pulpen saya warna nya merah”.
“Jadi cerita yang paling menarik akan mendapat skor yang bagus
and the surprise for the next week from me yes?”
Lecture: I just want to see your ability in speaking your brave.
Ceritakan aja biasanya gimana!.
Student: Iya miss.
Lecturer: So you have to look your note just prepare yourself at
home and setelah itu kamu berbicara berbagi idea dengan teman
kamu.
Lecturer: You can say something about that! Jadi kita pun nambah
gituh pengetahuannya.
Lecturer: Next week I think this is the groups. Ya sama aja group nya
ini ya.
Lecturer: Silahkan siapa saja 1 orang mengambil kertas itu and then
you give a clue and the other groups have to guess what the word is.
5.2.1.3 Intra-sentential code-switching
Perhaps the most complex form of intra-sentential switching among
the tree. Code switching happens within a clause of intra-sentential switching.
It means that within the same sentence, the speaker added words, clauses from
another language, where changes occur within the boundary of a clause or
phrase.
For examples:
Can you please tell me kalimat apa ini? I‟ll give you a gift kalau kalian
bisa jawab
Selain di post office itu kita ngapain sii?
“Macam kayak membaca puisi tapi intonation, pronouncation, up
and down nya itu pas gitu”.
Lecturer: Sebenarnya inti dari belajar basic speaking according to
you ?
Lecturer: Very good ya cuman terlalu cepat too fast ya
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 24
Lecturer: Okay setiap group each group come in to choose your topic.
Teacher: Open your matrik book and kerjakan page 10
Menurutku, that’s good idea
T : “Have you done your homework, Aul”?
S : Sudah, Ms!
T : look at the picture and fill the blanks.
S : yang mana Ms?
5.2.2 Code-Mixing
The other code-switching-related method is code-mixing. Code-mixing
happens without change of subject and can include different language levels
such as phonology, morphology, grammar constructs or lexical elements.
“Have you done your homework, Hasan?”
“ Yes Miss, saya sudah kerja my homework.”
The student uses the English word's peace to address the teacher's
question from the example above, because the student has no understanding in
speaking of English. And, grammatically, the statement of the students is also
appropriate for English grammar.
For examples:
Find the best answer dan lanjut ke next page
Kalau mau lulus, Listening skill dan speaking skillnya harus
bagus
Baca teksnya on the previous page
Lihat task 1 and do it
Judul and content jurnalnya menarik
The so-called mixed code uses two languages, or more languages,
between people we know well. Reasons for using mixed code include:
a. We can freely mix our code (language or a variety of languages),
specifically agreeing that we cannot agree with other languages.
b. A speaker wants to show his proficiency in special talks.
Kridalaksana (1982; 32) provides a range of languages for use from
language units for the use of language styles or languages; including the use of
words, clauses, idioms, greetings, and so on.
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 25
In a context that needs language acceleration, Nababan (1989: 32)
explores how to adjust conditions for people to combine two (or more)
languages or languages. The speaker is the speaker and it suits the habit. Such
language is called a mixed code. This is because there is nothing in use with the
language used when there is a situation in this case, so it is appropriate to use
terms and pleasures from other languages.
Thelander (in Chaer 1995: 152), if a transition from one clause to
another occurs in speech, then the case of code-switching. By then, The clauses
and phrases used in a common speech episode consist of mixed clauses and
phrases and each clause no longer supports specific functions or shows that
can be combined with code.
In other words, mixed code (mixing code) is agreed upon by speakers
using dominant languages to support a speech inserted in another language.
Applied to speakers' characteristics, such as social background and educational
level. Only a few characteristics that stand out from casualty or informal
conversations. However, weaknesses in this language expressions may not be
identical, so there is a temptation to use other languages, so only one feature is
supported.
5.2.2.1 Slang
Slang is one language variant
that occurs in society.. Slang is non-
standard English in which the elements
of the language have been modified
and expanded. Slang is an established
language, but it is often made up of
new words. On the other hand, slang
used not only represent excitement,
jokes but also be used by the person in
every grade in life. Slangs are highly informal and often used in colloquial
speech. Slang used by people in a certain community, teenagers or young
people.
For Examples:
Awesome
Gonna: Going to
LOL: laughing out loud
ASAP: As Soon As Possible
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 26
BTW: By The Way
OMG: Oh My God
ATM: Automatic Teller Machine
Wanna: Want to
Yup: Yes
Exam: Examination
Lab: Laboratory
Math: Mathematic
Gym: Gymnasium
Flu: Influenza
Motel: Motor Hotel
Infotainment: Information + Entertainment
Smog: Smoke + fog
Brunch: breakfast and Lunch
Edit: Editor
Emote: Emotion
Donate: Donation
Shut up: Be quiet
Conclusion
Someone who learns a single language is called monolingual, mastering
two traditional languages is called bilingual, and mastering more than two
languages is called multilingual. As a human who uses more than one language,
the similarity between the two language structures used or used from one
language component to another will occur. This may be due to the lack of
speakers' understanding of the second language or even habits. Mixing these
language features is called code-switching or code-mixing.
Code-switching and code-mixing are due to a change like the dialogue,
the interlocutor, the lack of knowledge of the second language by the speaker
and the intent of the conversation. The role and purpose of using a code switch
is to validate a communication with the other party. In code mixing there is no
special function, only to be more relaxed and more familiar with the other
person, such as the use of slang which is inserted between sentences.
Whereas code interference happens when a speaker uses a language that is
dominantly supported by a voice inserted with other language components.
This is usually related to the features of speakers, such as the social
background and the level of education. Generally, casualness and informal
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 27
situations are a prominent feature. But, according to a small vocabulary, the
word in the language is not identical, so there is a tendency to use other
languages, even though it only serves one purpose.
QUESTIONS
1. Why do people choose language in communication?
2. What are the social factors in the language chosen by people?
3. What is Code-switching?
4. Why do Indonesian people use Code-switching?
5. Please give three example conversation using taq-switching!
6. Could you give another example using inter-sentential code-
switching?
7. Could you give another example using Intra-sentential switching?
8. Why do people use slang in their communication?
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 28
6
Style, Register, and Genre
Time Allotment: 2 X 50 Minutes
Basic Competencies:
• The students can explain the definition of Style
• The students explain the definition of Register
• The students explain the definition of Genre
Indicators of Learning Outcomes:
• The students are able to describe Style
• The students are able to describe Register
• The students are able to describe Genre
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 51
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 1
Style, Register,
6 and Genre
6.1 Style
The term style is described as a way of speaking the informal language
and informal language. While the speakers speak a language, they can use
formal or informal speaking ways. Style is the way in which the speaker uses
language whether the formal or informal language used as conveyed by
(Chalak, 2015). Style is a set of language variants with social significance in
different ways and a situation that is spoken English. There are five types of
styles:
1. Prozen: The very formal language use by a certain only in some occasion or
important ceremony. For example; Khotib (Muslim) and the language used
in UUD 1945.
2. Formal : The language use at the formal situation in a particular group. For
example; Speech of independent day and the meeting of some company.
3. Consultative: The language used in one group. For example; in a discussion
between lecturer and student at the campus.
4. Casual: The language used in daily activity.
5. Intimate: The language that use to make good communication between the
people that very close. For example closefriend and family.
About formal language, we see that
formal language uses a complex structure, not
using contractions, not a language that is
common to spoken English, and more focused on
vocabulary options also uses a special discipline
vocabulary. To avoid misunderstanding about
the style of use in our language we must know
first about how we can use the do and not, because they can create some
perspective when we directly use them in some Opportunity. (Chalak, 2015)
Formal languages are mostly used in formal conditions. Such as
speeches, institution activities such as banks or legal institutions. Among them
the formal langu age needed because the institution had a formal atmosphere.
Recently people follow policy assignments. Another is the informal language or
as familiar as the casual language (Fuller, 2015). Informal language is used in
daily activities, although we can also find casual language use in classroom
learning. This may be regarded as their own style to give you an idea. In the
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 2
classroom, there are no specific rules for using formal language, perhaps some,
examples in presentation classes. But some lecturers will use informal
language to make students understand well about the material described in the
lecture.
The use of style in the language is divided into the formal and informal
language spoken by the speaker. Formal language has a level of formality, it is
due to several factors such as the type of opportunity, various social
backgrounds, ages, differences between speakers, gender and certain tasks that
would involve such writing or speaking. Emotional being one of the speaker
factors uses a different style to convey or message it to another speaker.
The style will be divided into 2 examples.
They are a formal and informal style used by the
speaker. For a formal language that is mostly used in
formal institutions such as legal institutions. As the
Board of Law institutions use formal language.
Informal language or casual language is the language
spoken by people in everyday activities, throughout the family, and a friendly
environment. When the speaker is communicating with him or his friend, the
speaker would prefer to use the informal language because this language gives
a close relationship between them.
For the explanation above the study concluded that style was the way
the speaker chose how he spoke with others. There are two types of languages
to be used in their style are formal and informal language. The language
selected by the speaker depends on the factors that belong to the conversation.
The function of style is to make a strict difference in the way the language
should be used on several occasions or in a particular group.
According to (Janet Holmes, 2013) style is a language variance that
represents shifts in situations such as addressee, setting, task, and design.
Wolfram and Schilling-Estes (1998:214) as cited on Wardhaugh and Fuller
(2015), define the type of language as a difference in the voice of the individual
speakers. In choosing a style, the speaker may speak very formally or very
informally based on the circumstances.
The level of formality is affected by four factors:
1. Kind of occasion.
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 3
The occasion here is the condition, situation or place where the speakers
would like to speak. For example, the speaker is on the ceremonial occasion,
he or she requires very formal speech. Meanwhile, the speaker requires
informal or casual speech when he or she speaks with family or close
friends.
2. The various cultural, gender and variations between the students.
For example, when the speaker meets someone who has the age older than
the speaker, so the speaker has to speak formally. Another example is the
speaker meets someone who has a social status higher than the speaker, so
the speaker requires to speak in a formal way.
3. The basic function involved.
Task here is writing and speaking. Those tasks have different word choice,
so the speaker or the writer has to understand whether the word they
speak suitable with their task or not.
4. The emotional involvement of one or more participants.
The emotional here refers to the condition where the speakers are in. when
the speakers are in the condolences, they should speak with the word
choice that showed that they shared their condolences.
Stockwell (2002), In the case of sociolinguistics research, style refers to
variability within the registers which may reflect individual choices in the
social context. The level between formal and informal relative gradations
would be one stylistic factor within the registerStockwell stated that other
stylistic levels consist of impersonal-intimate, monological-dialogical,
formulaic-creative styles, and so on. He also claimed that there are three
variables used to interpret the variability in tone; medium, domain and tenor
in particular. The medium shall mean the language used; the scope shall mean
the meaning or purpose of the language, and the tenor shall be the interaction
between the users of the language in a given case.
The style variation is highlighted when the idea of identity becomes
more marked. The correlation between language style and identity encompass
the intrapersonal, interpersonal, social life, a political issue that associated
people to see based on their social group. Some factors have affected the
nature of the speakers, such as the addressee, the intent of the speakers, the
emphasis of the speakers, the interaction between the speakers, the topic-
matter, the situation and the communicative intention of the speakers.
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 4
The choices made by the style turn into a factor that could be replaced
by the concept of social factors. Martin Joos argued that the language style
refers to the language form used as characteristics by the speaker and the level
of formality. Joos categorized the styles into five different types; frozen, formal,
consultative, informal, and romantic style.
Frozen style is used in public speaking with a wide audience,
particularly in word preparation, excessive intonation, and appropriating
rhetoric. The formal style is used in the treatment of the listener, generally, the
audiences are too large to allow for direct interactions between the speaker
and the audience,
and the form is not typically defined as a frozen style, such as college
classroom lectures. A consultative style refers to the dialogue which is quite
formal in choosing words. For example, the transactions of business and
doctor-patient conversation.
Casual style is a conversation among friends, colleagues, or a family at
times. There is no need to maintain the meaning of words and the social
barriers are quite low.
The last is intimate style. This form of style completely absence the
social inhibitions. The intimate style usually used by a family member, close
friends, and where you appear to show your inner self.
In speaking context, people sometimes switch their language style from
casual style to formal style. The switching of one style to different style is called
as style-shifting. The person could do the code-switching based on the different
situation and based on the purpose the speaker perceives. Labov (1966),
Thought about style-shifting in the formal and casual, it can be seen as a
dimensional continuum that represents the attention given to their
expressions by speakers.
Meyerhoff (2006), Style-shifting is suggested by the correlation
between individual speech variations and address differences, social meaning,
personal priorities, and the role assigned. She added that when people engaged
in language with different kinds of verbal activities, more or less attention
would be given to their expressions. In fact, by designing their styles to match
them, speakers may have an audience in mind. Also, style-shifting could be
proposed to highlight important details and ensure the main themes and sub-
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 5
themes. Moreover, the related shifts that occur during the style-shifting should
not be overlooked. To communicate and track changes in the information, this
type of transition involves paralinguistic signs, prosody, pauses, intonations,
movements, and facial expressions.
The topic of the discussion has a great influence on social interaction
through the refinement of types and changes. Giles & Powesland (1975), Have
an opinion on the topic that might attribute style-shifting to salience,
emotionality, technicality, abstraction, and humor. Salience is the design object
in which speakers communicate in a particular context on subjects that are
more important to them than those that are less important to them. Instead,
emotionality refers to the speakers ' emotional and sensitive topic, the style of
speech and accent is balanced. Indeed, somebody might argue that speakers
tend to talk about their emotions more slowly (based on what the speaker has
to say about traumatic memories and positive memories). Therefore, when
feelings are positive and fertile speakers tend to align the style with the lower-
pitch, lower-intonation, and more casual.
When speaking to peers, a college linguist will typically use more
lingual and scientific words than in talking to non-technical friends. While
speaking to colleagues, a university linguist will use more lingual and technical
words than when speaking to non-technical friends. After that, abstraction is
the concept of a language in which speakers appear to change their modes of
speech while going from concrete to abstract subjects. This is because of the
language form could be more formal and nuanced when the abstract approach
contrasted with informal and concise dialogues. Though, it depends on how
formal and informal the speech is.
The last is irony, in comparison to a serious story, speakers tend to
change their styles appreciably when they say a humorous story.According to
Giles and Powesland (1975), the humorous style tends to be more non-
standard, less accurate in enunciation, and more rhythm and pitch than the
claimed serious speech. They added that, even without a live receiver, the irony
of a subject will influence the speech or style of the person to some degree.
6.2 Register
A set of language objects affiliated with a confidential professional or
social group is called a register. According to Aga (2006:24), the register is
described as a linguistic range related to culture – with specific social practices
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 6
internally and with people involved in such practices. The register shall be the
language of the varieties in compliance with their use. According to Halliday
(1987, p.157), "Register is a variety found about the social context”. The
register is therefore a linguistic variety that reflects a variety of situations and
must be seen as a linguistic concept. Since the register is a description of a
language, it should also include words, lexicon-grammatic and phonological
features.
Through socialization in different cultural groups, the speakers can
learn different register. The registers identify as a variant of the language due
to its use in Various groups of people, or in specific situations at times. The
term of register describes the language of community that has common
interests or jobs or language used in situations related to such groups. Journals,
baby-talk, race-callers, sports commentators, airline pilots ' language,
politicians, and disc jockeys, for example. Hence, registers in principle are the
ways of uttering different things. In general, a register is described as
situational-conditioned language varieties and have focused on the distinct
aspects of languages varieties.
A register has a meaning as a situational-conditioned variation, and it is
strongly connected to a situation of a particular situation. Registers can also
make communication simpler. We refer mainly to particular opportunities
rather than to a specific social community. For example the language of football
sports-casters, which will show some identifiable and understandable
vocabulary. The characteristics of the register are also shown by football
players and coaches. Language choices that these were largely determined by
the social background rather than the need for their occupational class to be
identified.
There are two examples of the register that will be discussed. The first
example is the word traveling. In general, traveling has the meaning of to go
from one place to another by car, train, plane, or ship. Meanwhile, in basketball,
the word traveling means a violation when a player has taken more than two
steps without the ball being dribbled. The second example is the word diving.
In general, diving is the sport or activity of swimming or exploring under the
water. Meanwhile, in football, A player uses the word diving to gain an unfair
advantage by falling to the ground and possibly feigning injury, giving the
impression that a foul is committed.
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 7
According to Holmes (2001), there are two ways to understand about
the register. In a broader sense, the register is a variety of languages linked to
certain contextual variables such as address, setting, communication mode,
function or topic. Nevertheless, some researchers use the register to refer to
the common language used or used in a specific situation by different
occupational groups. The term's limited interpretation seems quite
inappropriate, as the register analysis should not be confined to words.
According to Wardhaugh and Fuller (2015) The specific aspect of the
registers refers to the collection of language objects linked to distinct
occupational and social groups. Some experiments have indeed concentrated
on some people's registers. Sports advertisers, students, researchers, or even
parents thinking about children, for example. However, Wardhaugh’s
definition is hard to admit. The explanation is that the concept register is
strongly linked to the state of use rather than to particular groups of
individuals.
Ferguson (1983), There are two approaches to finding changes in the
register; the parameter and tag approach. The approach to the parameter is
often unsatisfactory, since the characteristics of the register and the rater may
not always be interpreted as a particular set of parameters; the approach to the
label, in effect, does not provide a general framework for the overall pattern of
variability of the register In one language or a culture of speech.
Biber and Conrad (2009), set of the genre's situation characteristics as
follows:
1. Participants
A) Addressor(s): speaker or author
1. Single or plural or institutional or unidentified
2. Social characteristics are age, education, and occupation
B) Addressees
1. Single or plural or un-compute, for instance, radio
listeners, TV shows audience, magazine reader
2. Self or other
3. Are there on-lookers?
Addressers and addressees, participant classification, hardly need any
information. The characteristics of society of the text-creating people have a
strong effect on language choices. The role of on-lookers is also important. For
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 8
example, listeners are those who are not specifically the addressees of the text,
a theater audience watching a play of tragedy.
2. Participant relationships
A) Interactiveness
B) Social roles, for example, relative status or authority
C) Personal relation such as friends, colleagues, strangers
D) Shared knowledge, for instance, individual and specialist
The level of interactiveness differs from every register. For instance,
conversations are more interactive. Within Halliday's model, social roles and
personal relationships are roughly equivalent to the individual tenor. The
databases finally show variations depending on the level of general
background knowledge, e.g. academic writing versus popular science
publications.
3. Channel
A) Mode: speech or writing or signing
B) Particular media:
Permanent: handwritten or printed or transcribed or e-mail or
taped
Transient Speech: radio or Television or face-to-face or telephone
Channel has the same meaning as Halliday's template which works
with the difference in spoken and written language.
4. Production Circumstances: real-time/ planned/ revised/ scripted and
edited
Production situations are associated witha channel of communication.
There is hardly any space for language editing in the spoken registers. Written
texts certainly give a better chance of editing, although they will depend on the
genre from this point of view.
5. Setting
A) Time and place.
B) Place of communication.
1) Private/ public.
2) Specific setting.
C) Time: contemporary, historical time period.
For example, setting time and place has a significant effect on language
preferences, depending on whether communication happens in a private or
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 9
public environment (shared or not by participants) or whether it occurs in a
historical or contemporary context.
6. Topic
A) The general region, such as domestic, daily activities, workplace,
science, education, government/ politics, religion, sports,
entertainment.
B) Particular topic.
A) The social status of the people being referred to.
Topic, which is more or less suited to Halliday's field, is the most
important determinant of lexical variation (adaptation to a particular and
general subject matter). Depending on Biber and Conrad (2009), the subject
has an influence on the register's grammar. The previous standard is more
concerned with grammatical differences between registers. They occur as a
consequence of different purposes of communication.
6.3 Genre
In recent years, we have seen an
improvement in the attention paid to the
concept of the genre at ELT. It refers not only
to English for a specific purpose (ESP) but also
to other fields of language teaching. For
example, in Australia, a genre-based approach
has been extended to educational written
works, English at work, the growth of second-
language literacy in adults, and language development in classrooms, although
the concept of ' text type ' has been overlooked. OSome of the consequences is
that, in some cases, The terms ' genre ' and ' text type ' appear to have been
combined and these two concepts are substituted by the term ' genre. '
On a large scale, twenty-three genre Corpus analysis, Biber (1988),
distinguishes between genres and text with significant implications for
language learning classes. For Biber, the term ' genre ' categorizes text based
on external criteria, whereas the term ' text type ' is a linguistic grouping of
similar text, irrespective of genre. The word genre thus defines the type of
activity, such as prayer, preachings, songs and poetry, ' that occurs regularly in
society ' (Dudley-Evans, 1989) and ' the community of speech itself believes to
be of the same nature ' (Richards et al., 1992). Being the type of text, on the
other hand, represents a Similar group of texts in terms of linguistic pattern co-
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 10
occurrence. Exploring the same genre by Biber can be very different in terms of
linguistic characteristics. He also noted that in linguistics, various genres may
be very similar. The terms ' genre ' and ' text type ' represent different
perspectives, but in terms of text, they complement each other.
Some genre meanings influence the area and form of the text of the
genre review, especially those defined by Martin (1984) and Swales (1990).
Martin's interpretation mainly affects the work on the Australian genre-based
teaching approach. Martin (ibid.: 25) Explains the definition of the genre as ' a
stage, critical, objective event in which the speaker is engaged as a
representative of our society'. Further investigation by Martin in which he
provides various examples of genres such as narratives, exhibits, poetry,
lectures, conferences, prescriptions, books, appointments and meeting services,
as well as news broadcasts, clearly indicates that the definition of taking most
of the same perspectives is in genres such as Biber (1988). Although Swales
(1990) describes the category as a ' communicative event class, ' participants
who share multiple sets of communicative aims understood by participants of
the community parent discourse indicate that Biber often understands the
significance of the category from which specific perspectives are
communicated.
Different examples of rhetorical organization for different types of text
have also been presented. For example, Meyer (1975) describes four main
types of text structures, which are chronological order, a set of descriptions,
comparisons, causes, and implications, in the Introduction to the Rhetorical
Organizational Analysis. Another discussion of the rhetorical organization in
the text can be found in Hoey's work (1983) on general-specific, problem-
solving, contrast-matching, and hypothetical-real text, and Crombie (1985),
which provides several illustrations of problems and text-type subject-
restriction diagram. Hedge (1988) points out classes for text types Such as
static explanations, descriptions of systems, causes and consequences,
viewpoints, opinions, differences and correlations, classifications, concepts and
reviews. McCarthy (1991) and Carter (1994) discuss rhetorical variations in
the text and provide some examples of common types of text. Each explanation
of rhetorical patterns is very useful as a class of language learning materials. In
the field of interpretation, the genre which determines this study can give an
impress that the idea of genres and types of text is obvious. While Iyu, this is
true in some cases, it is much less true of the application of certain pedagogical
results of the analysis of genres.In addition, some of this suggests that the
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 11
pedagogical use of genre analysis was based on the concept of ' text type '
rather than ' genre '. Derewianka (1991), who addressed academic writing at
school, introduces as a kind of text classification that he calls narration,
recounting, informational reports, explanations, and arguments.
This classification can also be found in Martin's latest genre work (see
Martin (1984), for example). This is also the case with Hammond et al. (1992),
which focuses on the development of second-adult language literacy, lists as
categories of anecdotal genres, exhibitions, descriptions, news items, reviews,
narratives, reports, and procedures. HoweverThe analysis from the written
text discussed in Hammond et al. indicates that this text can be interpreted
from a different perspective, one of which is the type of personality and the
class of membership in the terms mentioned above. This alternative approach
is illustrated in Table 1.
Genre Text type
Recipe Procedure
Personal letter Anecdote
Advertisement Description
Police report Description
Student essay Exposition
Formal letter Exposition
Formal letter Problem-Solution
News item Recount
Health brochure Procedure
Student assignment Recount
Biology textbook Report
Film review Review
Table 1
It is clearly stated that more than one category may have the same type
of analysis. One of them is a type of police report, and both ads may have a text
form definition. On the other hand, one genre, such as a formal letter, can be
applied to more than one type of text; in this case, problem-solving and
presentation.
Hoey (1983) provides an example of a type of text that refers to more
than one genre: the text of the solution-the problem is explained in the form of
scientific discourse, advertisement, short story, and novel; In the context of
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 12
books, poems and scientific texts, another popular text is explained; the
comparison of text-matching is explained to the editor in the context of
literature and letters. In contrast, Crombie (1985) reflects on the nature of the
debate providing many examples of text question approaches in the form of
scientific reports and advertising, as well as text illustrations about the
advertising and news reports.
The communication of genres and forms of text can be used in language
learning courses in several ways. In the literature on genre analysis, many
recommendations are made to deal with the text of generic structures that can
be used equally in the teaching of textual structures. Details of many of these
activities were provided by Flowerdew (1993), Swales (1990), Hammond et al.
(1992), and Bhatia (1993).
Moreover, in language learning classes, the text structure and the
general structure can be compared and contrasted. For example, students can
be faced with various category genres and text types and are asked to select
the correct category for a particular text. A list of text and generic structure
elements can then be addressed to us and asked to find them in the text.
Alternatively, students may be provided with the text's basic elements and text
constructs, and they will need to reconstruct the text as well as the collection of
main content and concepts. Other tasks may involve students organizing
portions of text based on information provided by the teacher about the
generic and text structure.
A variety of examples of certain genres may be given to students and,
on the basis of their analysis of the text, they are expected to recognize
standard structures and related text types. This allows students to discuss the
characteristics of certain genres and the forms of variations within them.
Students may be asked to analyze English composition and lecture discussions
for similarities and differences with respect to traditional learning systems and
associated text types in English (EAP).
They are then guided to construct their text, to build on the language,
and to define the current pattern of discourse. SStudents may also be asked to
evaluate the test and assignment questions so that the form of a text can be
defined based on specific questions. Students can then create a text frame for a
particular test or task question (McCarthy and Carter 1994:58-62); such a
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 13
diagrammatic description of their answers to questions by the structural
organization. It will then be used by students to formulate their text.
QUESTIONS
1. When do pepole use formal language?
2. Why do people use informal language in daily language?
3. What factors are influenced in level of formality?
4. What factors are influenced speakers’ style?
5. When do people use frozen style?
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 14
7
Language and Culture
Time Allotment : 2 X 50 Minutes
Basic Competencies:
• The students can describe perspectives on the concept of
identity and its association with the use of culture and
language;
• The students can explain theoretical insights and empirical
findings on which current understandings are based;
• The students can describe Social Identity and Contextual
Relevancy of Social Identity
Indicator of Learning Outcomes:
• The students are able to describe current perspectives on the
concept of identity and its connection to culture and language
use;
• The students are able to explore some of the more relevant
theoretical insights and empirical findings on which current
understandings are based.
• The students are able to describe Social Identity.
• The students are able to describe Contextual Relevancy of
Social Identity.
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 64
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 15
Language
7 and Culture
1.1 Language
In Indonesia, our lingua franca is Bahasa Indonesia which we use to
communicate when there are many people from other regions. Bahasa
Indonesia is a wider contact language among Indonesians who do not share the
same local language. Although every region has their language (mother tongue)
that usually they use to communicate, but when they gather with other society
from different region, they must use Bahasa Indonesia to communicate
because when they use their language, the other society will not understand
what they are talking about but when they use Bahasa Indonesia, each society
in whole Indonesia will understand their language.
As noted by Widodo (2016), indigenous languages in the majority are
languages with more than one million speakers and less than 200,000 speak
indigenous languages in the minority (p. 130). A language can be confirmed as
the language to society when there are 1 million people who speak use that
language. It means that a language formed based on the amount of the speaker
and their agreement in creating the language as their lingua franca.
Language plays an important role in human life, especially to
communicate between societies in daily life. A person can make claims, express
facts of understanding, clarify or even report something by using the language.
Language is also a device used to interact in culture. When there are two or
even more people communicate with each other whether it is between family
members, friends, or other people, we call it as the system because language is
called as a code of communication. People who speak only one language are
called monolingual, two languages are bilingual and more than two languages
are multilingual. It means the code is determined based on how many the
person uses language to communicate with others. If the code is understood by
other people with other languages, the code has been delivered perfectly and
no need to concern about the grammatical pattern because we just think how
to make other people understand this code.
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 16
There are two language forms, verbal
and non-verbal. About verbal communication, it
consists of oral language (spoken) and written
language while nonverbal language consists ofa
sign, gesture, and symbol of the language. These
are the kinds of language that basically human
use to communicate. Spoken language, for
example, is when there are two speakers who are talking to each other orally
and it is in direct situation or face to face while written language is like when
we are sending messages or email to other people. We are not talking to each
other directly but by using tools like phone or email, we are including as
communication using written language. And for a nonverbal language such as
gesture is like when there is a person who is talking and his hand is also
moving or he does some kind of gesture, it means his activity is including a
communication also. Another example is like when on the road, there is a
driver who gives a sign to other drivers. That also a communication because
without saying any word, we can understand what does the other driver means.
1.2 Culture
Indonesia is a linguistically and
culturally diverse nation. More than seven
hundreds of local vernaculars exist with a range
of various dialects from different ethnic groups
(Marcellino, 2008; Widodo, 2016). According to
the statement, it means Indonesia has so many
cultures based on ethnic groups. Each ethnic
automatically has their culture that is why Indonesia is very popular with its
culture and called as ‘’The Richest Cultural Country’’.
Cultural research is an area of education that explores how
"community" produces and changes everyday life, social relations, and
individual experiences. Humans are growing up in a social group that learns
about how to look, think about something, do things, express things and solve
certain problems in certain ways that they have applied to society. They must
act based on the rules of our society because the culture is such an agreement
that the people before us have agreed or called their ' forerunners '. When
there is a person who did not obey the rules, it means he/she breaks the
agreement from their ancestor.
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 17
Therefore, culture is the "know-how'' that an individual must have in
order to get through the daily life process. Every region has its region,
especially in Indonesia. Indonesia is one of the well-known countries because
Indonesia is rich in cultures. For example in NTT culture (Nusa Tenggara
Timur), drinking alcohol or the quite similardrinking such as moke can drink
when there is an event but sometimes the people in NTT drink it in a party but
in Javanese culture, it seems quite impolite when the people drink alcohol. This
is the context of villagers. That is why culture can be called as a character from
that region and automatically it will be different from other’s region character.
According to the well-known theory of
Goodenough (1957, 167), a society's culture
consists of anything that has to be learned or
accepted, operating in a way that is acceptable to
its members, and doing so in any place that they
find to be of their own. Based on this definition,
culture can be interpreted as a rule for someone
to act in a social context because a culture consists of beliefs, behaviors, objects
and other characteristics similar to members of a particular community or
society. Analyzing cultural representation requires a critical understanding of
what culture means. Spradley (1980) points out that the creation of culture
involves three basic elements of human life: The first is social behavior; what
people are doing, the second is cultural knowledge; what people know, and the
third is cultural artifact; what people are doing and using. It means that every
culture has an important role to manage human life such as what people do to
other people while considering is it right to do or not, so that when someone
has been aware to do something in the society basically she/he has known
about the culture.
1.3 The language-culture relationship
Language and culture are two interrelated aspects. Language in culture
has a function as social interaction which is managing the social to interact
with others. This refers to how we apply language with our interaction with
other people/society. This means how we use words and how we interact in a
social setting. Language helps to form culture as a characteristic of the
individual (region) and as a communicative skill between cultures.
There is a social purpose for both
language and culture because they both have
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 18
meaning. Brooks (1997) suggests The language has the syntactic, semantic and
functional sense to communicate to language users, while society has meaning
and cultural meaning is expressed by patterns of behavior. For instance, there
is a belief in North Borneo when there is a person who is eating then there is
another person who wants to go out. Then the eating person offers the food for
the person, so another person cannot refuse the eating person’s offer because
in there it is very impolite when someone offers food to us then we refuse to
accept the food. The society in the region belief that when we refuse the food,
there will be something bad happen to us. Here is the meaning of cultural
meaning which is delivered by offering food and the cultural meaning is we
will get bad luck.
According to Scarcella (1992), language and culture are so similar that
they are known as synonymsLanguage is used to communicate the social
thoughts and beliefs of individuals and to interact while society is embedded in
language. Brown (2000) suggests that a language is part of a culture and that
culture is part of a language; both are so intricately interwoven that one can
not separate the two without losing either language or culture's meaning.
Based on this argument, it can be argued that language and culture can not be
isolated because they have a strong relationship with each other in daily life in
society.
On the other hand, based on Wardhaugh's book, There are several
different language-culture relationships. First, the social structure can
influence or decide the language structure and/or behaviour, for example that
the younger person speaks differently from the older person and vice versa.
This is used to show the politeness between both younger and older person.
The second is a linguistic system and/or actions that can influence or
determine social structure and worldview. For example, a concerted reduction
in sexy language can lead to a reduction in gender attitudes, such as when girls
usually call their friends "Hey Icha'' and boys usually call their friends ' ' Hey
Bro '' or even sometimes call them animal names, that is, "Hey Icha". The third
is bi-directional: language and society can interact with one another. Such as a
man is usually rough (but not all men) to speak on the basis of the word stress
and the intonation that they give to other speakers and to a woman who is
rather polite and calm when talking to people. Fourth, there is no connection
between the linguistic system and the social structure, and each is independent
of the other. This means that language and culture do not have a relationship at
all because they are independent and able to stand by themselves.
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 19
1.4 Students of English as Foreign Language
Not every country uses English as its
second language (ESL) in the world. If there is
a country that teaches English as a second
language, this means that it is referred to as
ESL student, for example, Malaysia and
Singapore are countries who learn ESL, while
the student that studies English as a foreign
language (EFL), such as Indonesia. According
to Braj Kachru as one of the linguists, EFL refers more or less to the expanding
circle. Teaching English in Indonesia is only for some kind of knowledge for the
students because it will give the students a good impact when learning it. Also,
English is an international language that students need to know to help them
(especially English as a foreign language) communicate when they want to
continue their studies abroad.
Besides learning the language, automatically without realizing it, the
students also learn about the culture because learning English make them
know that western culture is very different from our culture, especially
Indonesian culture. Therefore, in this context, we are only talking about EFL
student who is studying the language and culture. We are not talking about
learning English because it is too wide and general. According to the above
statement, EFL student must learn English as language users from the specific
culture and community of a particular region.
Society is something that has always
been related to our interaction in our daily
activities. Society is connected by interaction
among people by developing a language to
deliver the message of each other. It could be
said that language and society have a really
strong connection. Language and society are
two things that cannot be separated because both of them have a relationship
with each other. There is some explanation for the language-culture
relationship.
1.5 Language and Culture
Until describing language-culture relationship, the main thing that
needs to be known is sociolinguistic. Sociolinguistics is a theory that emphasis
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 20
on language use by speakers in their social groups. According to Ninsiana
(2018), the sociolinguistic perspective, language is not seen as a culture, but it
means that language is an interaction in human society. Sociolinguistics can not,
however, be separated from the issues of language use and social activity. This
sociolinguistic approach produces an overview of theories of understanding
the language-culture relationship.
According to Saussure (1974), language is a sign system. This means
the language is made up of A written or sound-image and a concept. In other
words, the concept and the sound-image are never part of each other. The
concept is produced by thought, so the
sound and thought cannot be separated.
Another explanation about language is from
Chase (1969); A language's function is to
communicate, to think and to deliver
someone’s think. In this case, language is a
communications tool for others. It is not the
case in the actual use of words that only the
forms of speech give meaning. Language is living in our society and used by our
citizen for communicating with others. The life of the language is influenced
bythe dynamics that happened in our society. In the other words, the culture
that exists in that society very influenced the face of that language and
language has many different dialect or meaning in a different region, for
example, Javanese and Sundanese language, in Javanese language Gelis means
quickly but in Sundanese language Ge(u)lis means beautiful. That is the
example of the same words in a different meaning from the other region.
Language is a cultural context that creates meaning; the formation and
perception of language take place within a cultural framework. If there is no
language maybe we still cannot get the meaning of the culture in our society
such as if you want to say yes you will nod your head and the people in your
society will get that meaning of your gesture, but if you do that same action in
out of your society maybe the other people from the other society or region
cannot get that meaning of your gesture.
Another thing should be known is culture. Culture has multifarious
meaning. Based on Goodenough in Mahadi (2012), culture, there is a systemic
community of people who have some way of life. The concept of culture has
also been explained by Sapir (1956), who claims The culture is an implicit
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 21
behavioral system and forms. Culture consists of behaviors, objects of faith and
other characteristics common to members of a particular community.
According to Mahadi (2012), culture is a social product and it is not natural,
inborn and will-ness. Thus, the culture will change by the generation by the
generation. Culture also has many differences from one to another region, for
example in South Korea you cannot eat your meals before someone who has
the older age than your age eats his meals, but in Indonesia, it is not like that. In
Indonesia, we can eat together without caring that he is older than us or not.
Most of the experts say that culture is the main system, whereas
language is a subsystem. Language and culture have really closed relation to
each other. There is some possible relationship between language and culture.
According to Wardhaugh (2014), there are several potential relationships
between languages; The first is the social structure that can influence and
decide the linguistic structure or behaviour; the second is the language
structure or actions that can alter the social structure or worldview of
individuals; the third is language or society or culture are affected by each
other; the fourth is language and culture is unique, so there's no relationship
between language and culture. They are independent of each other. However,
this kind of possibilities is wear and has many criticisms put forward by the
linguist itself. It is for this reason that language and culture is a subject that
must be evaluated in every sociolinguistics analysis of both foreign and local
language learning.
There was a study about language and culture conducted by Sapir and
Whorf. The Whorfian hypothesis is the hypothesis that claimed by Sapir and
Whorf. They are a linguist from America who had research to prove the
correlation between language and culture. Sapir was Whofian’s teacher. They
conducted a study on language and culture correlation by providing two
hypothesizes. The first hypothesis is called linguistic relatively (weak version).
Linguistic is relatively a belief that it is defined how people view the world, in
whole or in part, by the structure of the language they use. An evidence of
linguistic relativity has occurred at aboriginal people who do not have any
direction words that the people usually used in this world such as left, right, up
or down. Instead, they used the cardinal and quadrant points to indicate the
location of things such as north, west, east or south. Some language uses in this
sample is to support linguistic relatively and show how the language interacts
with our mind.
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 22
The second hypothesis is called linguistic determinism. This linguistic
hypothesis is a strong version which is language more diverse people
conceptualization in the world. The people with different language use may
have a different concept on their world view. People of different language have
a different thought on processes. For example, the word “corner” in English
means the angle where two or more sides or edges meet. The word ‘corner’ can
be combined with other words such as table corner and street corner. In those
words, the word “corner” has a different meaning even the word s=is the same.
Meanwhile, in Japan the corner of the street and the corner of the table have a
different word to explain. Japanese people have “kado” for table corner which
is an actual object and “sumi” for street corner or inner space or room which is
not an actual object. So, in this case, when Japanese people speak with English
they could tell or explain more about difference “corner” words for actual
object and not an actual object.
There are two relations in language and culture. The first relation is
coordinative relation. This relation talks about the uniqueness of language and
culture related. According to Chaer (1995), The language-culture relationship
is like a coin. One side is the linguistic system which is language and the other
side is a cultural system. This opinion also stated by Masinambo (1985) that
language and culture is different system but really close n relationship. It is
suitable with Whorf and Sapir’s hypothesis which is hypothesis I. The second
relation is subordinate relations. This relation deals with the language and
culture related to language change caused by cultural change. According to
Robert in Ninsiana (2018) the morphological changes can be seen from several
aspects; omission, addition, expansion, refinement, and exchange. The example
of morphological changes appears at Toba Batak people vocabularies. The
word “lae” change into “putra” to greet all men who are about the same age and
do not have genealogical relations.
The language-culture relationship is based on several studies. The first
study was conducted by Ninsiana (2018). The research is intended to explain
and identify Interaction between culture and language from a sociolinguistic
view. The research was conducted by using library research methods. The
researcher also provides the Sapir-Whorf theory about subordinate relation
and coordinate relation. This sociolinguistic perspective creates the concept of
understanding the language-culture relationship and represents a pattern of
co-ordinating and hierarchical relations. The coordinate relationship is
characterized by the quality of the reciprocal relationship between the two.
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 23
Meanwhile, subordinate relationship reflects the quality of relationship from
the one side. The dynamic culture affects dynamic language.
The second research was conducted by Mahadi (2012). The study aims
to learn whether there is a relationship between language and culture and
what is the language-culture relationship when there is a relationship. This
study introduced and explained some of the main theories. The main theories
are about language, culture and Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Every person belongs
to a specific group of people. They reflect their unique culture and thought. It's
easy to put him/her in society and to differentiate him/her from the other. In
the example, the people of the North and the people of the South speak
differently. The other example is the children language my different from an
adult language. That’s all based on the society or special group that people
usually meet or interact, so the language change based on the culture change.
Particular languages are historically linked to particular culturesLanguages
offer the key to the culture of communication, especially to literature.
Languages can not also be understood without the understanding of culture
itself. Language and culture should be studied together. For example, English
was used in the administration of the cultural diversity of the empire. It is
spoken by members of a number of different ethnic groups. Meanwhile, people
from different ethnic backgrounds have been changed to expand vocabulary by
loan-translation in almost every region. It can be argued that language and
culture are very similar to each other. Thus, culture has a direct effect on
language, and language is the symbolic presentation of culture.
The last study was conducted by Rangriz and Harati (2017). The study
focused on the language-culture relationship suggested by Wardhugh (2011).
There are four claims are reported. The first is that the social structure can
affect structure and behavior of the language. The second is the language
structure and behavior management or the social structure of worldview. The
third is language, and society may affect one another; the last explanation is
there is no language-culture relationship at all. Knowing the language-culture
relationship can be a good starting point for any approach to language learning
in the field of education.
1.6 Language and Culture is Taught at EFL Class
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 24
History of culture teaching began in the 1960s. In the 1960th century,
The anthropological elements of culture were given more attention to the
teaching of culture in a foreign language class. In the 1970s, foreign-class
culture was linked to cultures, both native and target communities. Cultural
content in the foreign language class aims to be made visible through the
introduction of topics in the class. Culture's role in education in foreign
languages is greatly enhanced. Scholars began exploring the nature of society
in a foreign language in the 1980s and its impact. The language-culture
relationship was closely examined and the need for adaptation of linguistic and
cultural education into a foreign language was addressed. In the 1990s, the
challenge faced by foreign culture teaching was a challenge due to globalization.
The development of technology has also played a role in the foreign language
category. Byram (1989) described a model of learning culture in foreign
language classrooms for integrated learners ' native culture and languages’.
There are two methods that could be used. The first is that the teacher uses the
mother tongue of the students to be a medium for teaching. The second
approach is integrated language and culture through the use of a foreign
language. There are four things to be remembered (Byram and Esarte-series,
1991); the first is language learning, further attention is given to language use
and its context; the second is language understanding, that allows students to
explore and understand the language-culture relationship; the third is cultural
knowledge, which reflects on cultural teaching; and the fourth is cultural
experience, which is direct.
The reasoning why English should be learned language and culture as
a foreign language course is that the language-culture relation is very close.
When someone learns the language, automatically he/she also learns about the
culture too. The devices can be used to teach language and culture through the
target language, such as dialogs and mini-drama, role play and practice.
Golshan and Ranjbar (2017) researched the effect of learning the
language and culture of EFL student. Students studying language and culture
may compare their own culture's underlying values and beliefs. Students will
not only know the differences between the target culture but will also
appreciate native and target cultures. Learning how to connect in an additional
language can involve culture awareness that related to language whenever it is
used. According to Gardner and Lambert (1965), teaching culture in EFL class
also affects the motivation of students. Not only does it encourage them to
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 25
understand more about the language target, but also increases learners '
enthusiasm.
1.7 The Language-Culture Correlations
Language and culture are one of the things that almost everyone
recognizes in society. This is because both language and culture have a very
important role to play, and we can not separate language and culture from our
social life. Language and culture have their respective roles in our life, such as
language that has a role as the medium of culture and culture also has a role as
a producer of languageIn this case, both language and culture are closely
related. So that is why language and culture are one unity that cannot replace.
Because we cannot get the meaning of some culture clearly if there’s no
interaction between us and the other people from the other region. With
language and interaction, we can know more different culture, dialect, a word
with the same words but in a different meaning and many more.
But nowadays, many people just only know about the culture and also
people only know about language. In fact, language and culture actually have a
close relationship with each other. People in society should,
therefore, recognize that there is a language-culture relationship because it will
be good knowledge for people in social life to know the language-culture
relationship, here are some theories about the language-culture relationship.
Generally, these theories can be grouped into two categories:
1.7.1 Subordinative Relationship
The first category is the subordinative relationship. In this category,
The language-culture relationship is a subordinate relationship where
communication is in a cultural environment.The subordinative relationship
indicates that language is within the social context. In other words, culture is
the main system while language is a subsystem of the culture. It means that
culture has a role to play in how patterns of interaction occur within the
community. Culture determines how interaction in the community should take
place, for example, the interaction based on the level of age and speech level. In
a region, politeness has a high place in the society so that when talking to
parents especially those who are older, we need to consider our language use
because it can be rude when we use the same language to the older when we
are talking to our friend. As proof, the culture here manages how someone
talks to the older. That's why culture is the main system and language is a
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 26
subsystem because the language in a social setting s included in the culture.
Language-culture are one unit that can not be replaced, the meaning of that
culture can not be represented so well without culture, and it can not be
understood by the other person of the other region, if culture is a system which
organizes in this society the interaction. Language is then a subsystem with a
function as the continuation of that relationship.The subordinative relationship
reflects the quality of the relationship that only on one side.
1.7.2 Coordinative Relationship
The second category is the coordinative relationship. In this category,
language has the same relationship with the culture and also language has the
same position as the culture. From the coordinative relationship, we know that
language and culture is equal, the same height position.There are two
interesting phenomena related to this category. First, according to Silzer
(1990) who said the co-ordinative relationship was tightly bound as a coin:
One side is the system of languages and the other hand is the system of culture.
This statement in line with the concept of Masinambouw which said that
linguistic and culture is a two different phenomenon but both of them have a
tight relationship. Second, the existence of the controversial hypothesis is from
Edward Shapir and Benjamin Whorf. Looking from their hypothesis, it stated
that language not only determines the culture of the pattern but also determine
the way people think. Here, Saphir also emphasizes the close language-culture
relationship and emphasizes that it is difficult to separate language and
culture. So, it meant that people cannot understand language without culture
and otherwise. In the other side, Whorf tries to expand his idea. Not only did
Whorf claim there is an influence, but language and culture also have a
determinative relation.
1.7.3 The implementation Language and Culture in EFL Class
Within the context for education, language-culture is also things that
are considered by both teachers and students. That is because besides
language and culture are very influential in the wider community life, language
and culture also have an influence on the education context. This deals with
language and culture as the curricular material of Foreign Language (FL) in the
Foreign Language (EFL) situation. Unfortunately, throughout this time, culture
has been overlooked or viewed as an additional subject in foreign language
teaching, particularly in Indonesia, as nearly all Indonesian students are in EFL
classes. Foreign Culture (FC) education can lead to the students ' progress in
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 27
language learning. It is impossible to teach language in the class without
culture, according to Stern (1992), because the culture is an important context
that language users require. In this situation, Neuner (1997) said that In the
sense in which they are situated, foreign language learners need to know how
to use the target language. There is some example of the Foreign Language
communication situation that shows to avoid confusion even when people use
the correct language form of a foreign language, the social meaning of the
target community should be incorporated into the teaching of a foreign
language to cultural contexts. It meant that learning Foreign Culture has the
purpose of helping users of Foreign Language interact effectively not only in
the context of sociolinguistics but also in the cultural context.
In Foreign Language Education, the other things according to Nault
(2006), Language and culture is perceived to be very significant as culture
plays a role in helping students learn the target language. From learning a
target language as a new language, foreign language learners can experience
the new world. The writer therefore classifies here into two reasons why EFL
class must be taught both language and culture.
1.7.4 The Reason Why Language Should Be Taught in EFL Class
When teaching EFL class, it is expected: the first is that language
learners become more competent in EFL and also familiar with English as a
foreign culture, they begin to express their new experience within their old one,
make it relevant to their lives, and build their thought about culture. The
second is That language learners can learn not just a foreign language, but a
target language group as well. Language learners can be more accepting and
appreciate people from that country, culture, norm, behavior, and others from
learning about that issue. And the last is from the teacher side, it is expected
that language teacher can avoid “acute corner” of culture shock in the process
of teaching language.
1.7.5 The Reason why Culture should be taught in EFL class
It is expected by teaching English culture as a Foreign Language class:
the first is that students can show how people conventionally act in the target
language in the most common crisis situation. The second is that students
should determine the relative strength of a target culture generally in terms of
the amount of evidence supporting the statement. The third is that students
have built their skills needed to find and arrange the content from the
library, personal observation, online journal, and others about the target
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 28
community. The fourth is students understand that the social factor around the
building, such as race, age, social classes, and environment, can influence how
people speak and act. And the last point is that students are able to enrich their
experience and make them aware that There is still a variety of cultures all
over the world, even though some cultural elements are being globalized.
In this situation, it is very important to teach EFL class to avoid
misunderstandings or vulnerabilities between learners. It is the reason why
EFL classroom should be taught language and culture. On the other hand,
students often learn about the environment of another country by learning a
language in the school. According to Wang (2008), making students aware of
the important characteristics in the target culture makes them realize that
there are no issues like superior and inferior, and differences often occur
among people of a distinctive culture.
In short, EFL class should be taught language and culture because it can
increase the awareness of students and also grow their interest in the target
culture and their own culture, allowing them to compare the culture.
QUESTIONS
1. Could you explain verbal and nonverbal language?
2. Why does Indonesia called as ‘’ The Richest Cultural Country’’?
3. Why Language and culture are two elements that are related to each
other?
4. Why language is a tool to communicate with others ?
SOCIOLINGUSTICS: Theory & Practice | 29
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