01 the role of psy in mus ed

ARTICLE The role of psychology exposure to music, through processes
in music education occurring without conscious awareness,
enables the development of aural schemata
Susan Hallam on the nature and importance of musical ability for music. These provide the basis for
subsequent musical skill development
questions Music psychology has a long history Historically, as in education more when the individual begins to actively
dating back to the end of the 19th generally, psychology played a engage in making music. Progress from
resources century. It is a distinctive strand major role in music education this point depends on the amount of time
of psychology that has grown in through the development of psychometric spent in the activity and the quality of that
strength over the years with tests to assess musical ability. Testing engagement (see Jorgensen & Hallam,
researchers in the UK leading the began in 1883 when Carl Stumpf 2009, for a review). In addition to
field. Much of the research has suggested a number of simple aural tests undertaking individual ‘deliberate’ practice
been of interest and relevance to that music teachers might undertake to (Ericsson et al., 1993), the learner may
music education and covers a wide select pupils. Subsequently, a range of also rehearse and perform with others
variety of musical engagement. assessments has been developed that can where technical and musical skills can also
This article focus on research be administered to groups of children of develop and be consolidated (Kokotsaki &
relating to three aspects – musical different ages and adults (for a review see Hallam, 2007).
ability, the development of Hallam, 2006a).
expertise in music and the wider To summarise, the quantity and
benefits of musical activity. In the UK nowadays, such tests are quality of learning experiences, formal
rarely used. This is, in part, because it has and informal, contribute to the level of
Why is it important that educators been accepted that every child should have expertise attained and also the quality of
conceptualise learning with an expertise the opportunity to learn an instrument and that expertise. The evidence suggests that
paradigm? actively engage in music making. In these principles apply across a wide range
addition, research has demonstrated that of musical endeavours, including
What is distinctive about music a wide range of factors contribute towards improvisation, composition and
psychology that has made it more the development of musical skill and that performance. It is likely that they also
successful in its impact on education test performance improves with increased apply cross-culturally, but to date most of
than other strands of psychology engagement in music making (see the research has focused on Western music
relating to the arts? McPherson & Hallam, 2009). (Hallam, in press-b; Hallam et al., 2009).

Davidson, J.W. (Ed.) (2004). The music The evidence from neuroscientific What is musical ability?
practitioner: Research for the music studies of musical processing has
performer, teacher and listener. demonstrated that the brain develops in Developments in our understanding of
Aldershot: Ashgate. very specific ways in response to particular the way that music expertise is acquired
learning activities, and that the extent of seem to be reflected in perceptions of
Hallam, S. (2006). Music psychology in change depends on the length of time musical ability in the wider community.
education. London: Institute of engaged with learning. The substrates of Hallam and Prince (2003) explored the
Education, University of London processing reflect the auditory ‘learning conceptions of musical ability held by a
biography’ of each individual (Altenmuller, cross-section of the population, including
Lehmann, A.C., Sloboda, J.A. & Woody, 2003), which in turn reflects the available adults and children, musicians and non-
R.H. (2007). Psychology for musicians. musical opportunities and influences musicians, asking them to complete the
Oxford: Oxford University Press. within the prevailing culture. phrase ‘Musical ability is…’ Six categories
emerged from the analysis: aural skills,
McPherson, G. (Ed.) (2006). The child as These findings support the growing receptive responses to music; generative
musician: A Handbook of musical consensus that learning in music is best activities, the integration of a range of
development. Oxford: OUP. understood in relation to the ‘expertise’ skills, personal qualities and the extent
paradigm (Ericsson et al., 1993). Early to which musical ability was perceived as
being learned or inherited. A follow-up
study, based on responses to rating scales
derived from the qualitative research,
indicated that musical ability was most
strongly conceptualised in relation to

references Altenmuller, E.O. (2003). How many deliberate practice in the acquisition Handbook of psychology of music. Hallam, S. & Creech, A. (2008). Survey
music centres are in the brain? In I. of expert performance. Psychological Oxford: Oxford University Press. of musical futures. London:
Peretz & R. Zatorre (Eds.) The Review, 100(3), 363–406. Hallam, S. (in press-a). 21st century Institute of Education, University
cognitive neuroscience of music Green, L. (2008). Music, informal learning conceptions of musical ability. of London.
(pp.346–356) Oxford: Oxford and the school. Aldershot: Ashgate. Psychology of Music.
University Press. Hallam, S. (2006a). Musicality. In G. Hallam, S. (in press-b). Cultural Hallam, S. & Prince, V. (2003).
McPherson (Ed.) The child as perceptions of musicality and Conceptions of musical ability.
Chabris, C. (1999). Brief exposure to musician (pp 93–110). Oxford: Oxford musical expertise. In M. Barrett (Ed.) Research Studies in Music Education,
music does not increase intelligence. University Press. A cultural psychology for music 20, 2–22.
Nature, 400, 826. Hallam, S. (2009). Motivation to learn. In psychology. Oxford: Oxford University
S. Hallam, I. Cross & M. Thaut (Eds.) Press. Hallam, S., Thaut, M. & Cross, I. (2009)
Ericsson, K.A., Krampe, R.T. & Tesch- Where now? In S. Hallam, I. Cross &
Romer, C. (1993). The role of M. Thaut (Eds.) (in press). Handbook

1016 vol 22 no 12 december 2009

special issue

rhythmic ability, organisation of sound, school) has led to research focused on instruction, although individual lessons
produce a somewhat larger effect than
communication, motivation, personal motivation and the development of group lessons and the effects are more
likely with younger children (three to
characteristics, integration of a range of musical identity (for reviews see five years), and when standard musical
notation is taught (Hetland, 2000b). In
complex skills and performing in a group. MacDonald et al., 2002; O’Neill & a more recent study, Schellenberg (2004)
randomly assigned a large sample of
Having a musical ear came lower in the McPherson 2002; Hallam, 2009b). Music children to four different groups, two of
which received music lessons for a year.
list than might have been expected, given educators have also explored ways of The other two were control groups that
received instruction in a non-musical
its prominent position with regard to utilising informal teaching methods in the artistic activity (drama) or no lessons. All
four groups exhibited increases in IQ over
musical ability historically. Musical classroom, drawing on pupils’ musical the time period, as would be expected, but
the music groups had reliably larger
appreciation, knowledge and being able interests – usually popular music – to increases in full-scale IQ with an effect size
of .35. Children in the control groups had
to read music or compose came further generate and sustain pupils’ interest (see average increases of 4.3 points while the
music groups had increases of 7 points.
towards the bottom of the list. The Green, 2008; Hallam & Creech, 2008). Schellenberg suggests that these effects
may occur because music instruction
importance attached to rhythm and The fact that young people have plenty requires individual practice, attention and
concentration, which may lead to greater
musical communication may reflect their of opportunities to engage in music outside transfer of learning strategies and
motivation.
roles in much popular music, while the school has put pressure on educators to
Those working in music psychology
high ratings given to motivation and justify the role of music in the curriculum. have also attempted to disseminate their
findings in books that can be easily
personal characteristics suggest that the The findings from psychological research accessed by educators (see resources,
opposite) as most teachers do not read
role of effort and determination to have provided evidence for the wider academic journals of any kind. While
psychological research has had a major
succeed are generally recognised (Hallam, benefits of music education, although positive influence on and for music
education, there is still some way to go
in press-a). some research exploring the effects of in finding ways to engage with people
teaching music in a wide range of
music on general intellectual skills has environments, both to communicate
research findings and also to set up
Taking it into schools been controversial. The claims that a dialogue with them to establish how
future psychological research could
listening to Mozart could improve spatial support their work.

Acknowledgement of the effort required reasoning (Rauscher et al., 1995) have I Susan Hallam
is Dean of Faculty of Policy
to reach high levels of musical expertise, proved difficult to replicate (Chabris, 1999; and Society and Professor
of Psychology at the
and concerns about low take-up of music Hetland, 2000a), but findings relating to Institute of Education,
University of London
options in schools and the relatively high the benefits of active music-making have [email protected]

drop-out of children from instrumental been more promising. A meta-analysis of

lessons (even when there is evidence of experimental studies examining the effects

their engagement with music outside of music lessons on spatio-temporal and

other abilities,

including 15 studies

involving over 700

children aged three

to 12 years

undergoing music

lessons in programs

ranging from four

weeks to two years,

reported a mean

effect size of r = .29

for published studies

and r = .44 for

unpublished studies.

Active music lessons

appear to enhance

spatio-temporal

performance in

children concurrent

with instruction and

for at least two years

Findings from psychological research have provided after. The benefits occur

evidence for the wider benefits of music education with any style of

of music psychology. Oxford: Oxford Practising. In S. Hallam, I. Cross & identities. Oxford: Oxford University (pp.31–46). New York: Oxford
University Press. M. Thaut (Eds.) Handbook of music Press. University Press.
Hetland, L. (2000a). Listening to music psychology. Oxford: Oxford University McPherson, G. & Hallam, S. (2009). Rauscher, F.H., Shaw, G.L. & Ky, K.N.
enhances spatial-temporal Press. Musical potential. In S. Hallam, I. (1995). Listening to music enhances
reasoning. Journal of Aesthetic Kokotsaki, D. & Hallam, S. (2007). Higher Cross & M. Thaut (Eds.) Handbook of spatial-temporal reasoning.
Education, 34(3–4), 105–148. Education music students’ music psychology. Oxford: Oxford Neuroscience Letters, 185, 44–47.
Hetland, L. (2000b). Learning to make perceptions of the benefits of University Press. Schellenberg, E.G. (2004). Music lessons
music enhances spatial reasoning. participative music making. Music O’Neill, S.A. & McPherson, G.E. (2002) enhance IQ. Psychological Science,
Journal of Aesthetic Education, Education Research, 9(1), 93–109. Motivation. In R. Parncutt & G.E. 15(8), 511–514.
34(3–4), 179–238. MacDonald, R.A.R., Hargreaves, D.J. & McPherson (Eds.) The science and Stumpf, C. (1883). Tonpsychologie.
Jorgensen, H. & Hallam, S. (2009). Miell, D. (Eds.) (2002). Musical psychology of musical performance Leipzig: Hirzel.

read discuss contribute at www.thepsychologist.org.uk 1017