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Excepional Memory

K.Andrs Eftsm n d Will.. GL Chin
D~prtmn~Of Psyd~lhow

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SECURITY CLASS'IrICATtOH OF TIS PAGE P 1,en Do*a Bflre,.

REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE 3E7RREEl ADCWOMlSPTLU9TCINOGNSFORM
I' GOVT ACCESSION NO: S. RIIENT1mS CATALOG HNI1191R
1. REPORT HIumsER

4. TITLE (modSubtitle) 5. TYPE OP REPORT A PERIOD COVERED

EXCEPTIONAL Me"OY Technical Report

G. PERFORINGw ORG. REPORT MUSER9

7. AUTI4Oft~a) L CONTRACT OR RANT NUMBER(A)

K. Anders Ericsson I N0Ol4 -. 02 15
William G. Chase
1

S. PERORINGH ORGANIZATION NUR ANC ACORESS Ia. PROGAN LENT P FIT. TASK
AREA1& WORKMNT 1= 1011
Department of Psychology

Carnegie-Mellon University
Pittsburgh, PA 15213

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ISL SUPPLEME1NTARY
OEE

To appear In: American Scientist, 70(6), November-December 1982.

NannyComputer simulation
Skilled Poermzune
humoaica
*Cognitive Psychology Learning

IL ASSIRACT (C ve.-s wRM ft ieZ70p ";,-*UR IV e .0680

wxrodmry feats of mamesy cam, be matched or ampassed by people with

average memories that hoe bee mawed by Mzining.

Us JAN 147 loUw euev OSOML

wCUMIVFO 11 M ove

~Kr~i!±

K.Anders Ericssn Exceptional Memory
William G.Chase
Extraordinaryfeats of memory can be matched or
surpassedby people with average memories that have
been improved by training

-There are scientific records of mem- afonrdaasthteonrdt etidmtob, uitt bs kept available fats Of memory appear to violate the
oyfeats that deviate so markedly then is irrevoca- limitation of STM and other charac-
from the normal that they are called bly lost unles it isatnetogin estcsofnrame o oft o

exceptional and are assumed to re- or rehearsed. This temporary srge these memory feat have used num-
fleet a memory system structurally system is called short-term memory bars and other kinds of meaningless

different from that of most people. (Sm'). The amount of information material, similar to those used to test
Some -recent research involving that nbehlat one limina IisT S in normal people. Around the
memory training of normal people severely limited for normal people. turn of the century Blnet (1894)
has led us toquestion this distinction. To be str" permanently. informa published astudy of the exceptional
dion has to be placed in logtrteory of mental calculators and
Wewill fias describe the empirical

-evidencezreorte in support of the emsesemnotiraylly(Luiinil)i,mwitheidchancdonpseirsmtsaonfeannt cabhleesstommasutletirpslyTthweocSa-lcduiglaittonrusmwbeerres
base for stoing Information. Infer, mentally without external memory
idea that exceptional memory is dif- nastion in Liican be rettred only ais and were also abl to commfit
ferent from normal memory. Then b precis retrieval cuss, and failure larg matrices of digit I* memory
we will present our research in sup. in retrieval Iathe najormuse of lss ate a brief prsettin Accordng

port of the assertion that n1orl
memory stuctre is sufficient to ex-

plain ec"eptosa Mu y how if we of.lahform. in Liii. Fmr normal .teverba ffports we thes mental
take into aePnumt in people it requires conscious effort alculatmtWhe stoeh -esn

practice Sand prio experience. aunndeltceodnslidienrfaobrlemttiiomnetotoLicioimImnnait dimigietssastheuishe ausditoryoe'i"oeerPsvirniIsmua-l
Let us first describe some laws
and generailcharcteristicsof normal form that makes it available for re- itive copyin rcs n leading to
human memory and then speeify tiwaL the term photrpl memory."
how exceptional memory deviates Fay early in psychology, at- In the most cited ad extensive
from and contradicts them. The temptsi were made to measure the study of exceptional imemoary. Luuia
contemporary view of the memory capacity ofsm Tite mO common (196Q examined the memory of a
"onqtin normal adults is that in- -procedure was thememorye newspaper reporter named S. V.
fo-owatlon can be held primtarily in task, in which an mprmne e-Seehvkl(5)for Over 20years S
two different storage systems: iasaeaberdoeeflme tb showed an exceptional ability to

short-term and long-term mmy.Inaorer The itemwar psn-tdat eoias ennls nomto
When new informatod e rceive a fetyapi rte1Iftem pereecosad) such a nonsense sylla le.mthe-

to sainvlnethe a, 'of Informs- matinal formulas, and poe in for-
dent =*tavetd to LIK The Inter, etgp languages. ALbu rhkuann-

A"bwio Axntinho in ating concinusioa was tha the fortunately pywv. roif actual

Av*vWNhewo0f * xbf~y 1 memoq ry sI limited and Isa&p- docuumnaton ofSsmemory feats,
,C.I . , prudm i Itethe snfee m--- "ype he did publish a detailed descriptiont
IN.&" "-*. SAWol ofN ofS. memorization of a matrix con-
aroundf difeetdigit tming 50 digits. Slooked atthe ma-
naonants and slightly fewer (5 tnix for minutes and then. after the
,-gIo*r ) coleus viual pausentedA-e matrix was taken away, wa able to
deibe all the informto on the
ANI#AI Iaw*4 DiW IV ofr' I axsiitweseavmlbleto himin
PpdmhpofCwOes~ ii Uiswawafyt uq etIca igns. and w ille a metal picture. Lurka argued that
SS exceptional memory wa stuc-
aattnaesaarw~usewvv (1946) smmedthis seerhby tuly different from neenal and
daigtat Ut has th" apct to was based on noncegntlve sensory
awpm*.O frm*wdlk11011 . rean plus ot sanm I Wmbols or Fw
chunks. A chunk is a cauleti" of
CkhOm I%P *u P~dx6IM vls sucahs~ a0phonme number..
Cd~ INt4IestMMP Am. & l t--*;asa yuieall the
-
-Ai A fi I nepapVC IW I

s*Ab M. AN. aod -"h. Iftimm.eauue'l1ybWh"a"tI'V t

drl.*d%Ike~OW10LebvAatlhem 1td& I,1~es11 1 andwth~ceturenkis. a modAerfne1we1Jr1e1cnnt4s6td0i1ems ehtaovde usetdo

* of Indvidual whose ecponlmance, of people With enceptiona

memory. The most notable of theme performance of cheow masters was
studies is Hunt and Love's (1972) go,
closely linked to the presence of
analysis of VP, an excellent chess meaningful Chen paterns, patterns
player who displayed the best mem! 00 that have become familiar with years
ory of recent subjects although he is
not up to the same level as Luria's of practice.
In the rest of this article, we.will
S. Iargue that both exceptional and ex-
Several types of evidence have pert memory are consistent with the

been cited in support of the idea that laws and limitations of normal
exceptional memory is qualitatively 0
different from normal memory. First, emory, and that all adults an de-
velop these forms of memory
there is a marked difference in per- through extensive practice. In theory,
formance, a difference so large that
the exceptional feat is judged to be' 0 50 10P0 =V150"wYI'NU IO 30extensive practice creates a large
knowledge base in LThO and ntew in-
outside the range of normal subjets. RM L MONt m0081 PeOPO can formation can be stored efficiently in
For example, after having had their.
memory spant for digits measuredi, oWnmiltyoh aWesnaleo~na a4nU?odpmigc1tso, farnadndoowmSn nPuemopbleers a retrievable form by associating it
,to~ with familiar material in the knowl-

most People find it inconceivable .bsIn mmm nU !gNi Yet sF, a edge base.
that they Could ever double or triple cal'a utaidusu mran loog-dlstaac Our argument Is based on thre
their performance, regardless of the aso of m oucs fdaa Frt.w wl d

amount of practice. Asecond differ. imaadN ron~e aqec;a oI15trate thast normal adults with
once concerns the processes and abn ORAleis .bmmo)Vyan ol0 modest amnounts of practice can
structurst involved in the transfer of mgnehof amli,sho.i. meni. DO, achieve memory performance that
informationportotedLYfMo.ramSui~nbjgiemctgwS equals the recorded performance of
re- am.Ihes*d who wa aWRagdistana PpyoOl sweiytheeaxicOepntio*nhal mdemvolrpies.

b viuhais umoyatsapainn_ssho~wans~is Onr -
simply looking at the digit matrix.Bycoeyxaingtedvlp

Most people form a verbal string by ment of such a memory skill we will
using rote rehearsal, as they do for show its relation to the limits of

other types of memorized informa. and ability to recail. Investigators normal memory. Second, we will
tion such as the name of the months have demonstrated this reation for show tha the cognitive structures
and the national anthem. Further- a Imp number.of skillsing brdeand processes acquired through

more, motpolerqie xesve ChiiftW),crui l practice cam account for exceptional
effort and concentraton over pro- ass (FOa nd Schwartz l99Y), n expert minoty. In particular,we
longed Pei ods of tim to memorize andarhcail drawings (Akinin will compare in oe detai the per.

mean~ngs inforrastlom Uf the in- press). Sormanceof our trained subjects with
formation ksams he~rplal In his original studies Dntthat of peopl wihalgedly excep-
copied, Itap pe unlikely that skill (1I94) sent out questionnaires to tional memtory. Finally, -we Will
or other cognitive proaesses are in- chess masters, inquiring about their demonstrate that.all normal adults

volved. The implicit assumption toismental representation of cheow exhibit skilled and exceptional
thast, event with practice. normal gae.The chews astlers almost in- memory in a domain where they are
peoplelis ammory praues are dio- vably reported having the chess exports.

plpyonwrM eoughto generate board stored asavisual image, like a Acquistion of exceptionl
teperforae adhbsd by people mental photogeaph. Howevier, K1not
weitnhmpIoa memories. How- found sanpehsotodg1irfafeprhesnceas ndbetwtheees- eorme-r
eyer, matnormal0 people Are Simply regular
uaaeof this silsw of tech.- nta visual Imm t images did We de-de Athat it would be partic.
iqe tha an be used to improve no laduede the eme color and do- ularly interesting to study the effieta
te memory. tailed features of ches plss or the of prate on the digiteopan task,

A type of superio mmory re- shadoews cast by the pious and, in which Isgenerally used to asses the

laOe tO GNCeP001onal memory has general the Images,sme to takw capacity of a personIs sm~In this

beenA ebs mn gapu.s for trei en abtAci t or schesmatic chok' task, a sbjec Isnead a sequence of
doma" of,ne Wsoerf a hewbuted actor, randm digit at a rate of about I

is shown Sscdsabgneat S emoer ,achhas dgItpprIafocrn.If the subjct epeat
ch reproduice the location of definitely refte the notion that tesqeccortlthen the next
only 4 or 9 pieces This is exactly chess ismers we able to ake a v1- sequenc is Increased by I digit;
what thes liit for normal ?m svia menal copy of chessboards otherwise, the next sequence is de.
woul pinile. However, a chess (Chase and Simown 19h b; de Groot cuease by I digit. The estimated
muter con, after th se short ox- IW,4) When Investigators briefy spant ofa subjec equabs the length of

posure, mou all the pleas on the showed the duemets maplOel adigt sequenc that the subje can
cheesboed vitualy perfectly. Im.rni r qo espee rePat coretyhl h e
preedchess piFMs at Inteuse- ona asher the missw coud We #dminred thedgtea
dielvels of skil shw betterr-nsaDiodth oftlmdm 4or5 task to as naF erdat o
dwi~hSahe bapnr,. bet '06cMwN nRbasw than the about I hOursday t Sdsaweek

4"iTe a Isthw- WwleO c~hies 4M with rich for 30 wmnhe'r formae tha 230

a h !1o e O(~** madam the superioir Iomfaeoytetn.Ateg

7 -A

SF had only avraemr abilide T* ntOfUAoOnVay Sw* hearsed to himself. It was only after
and Mvre intelligence fora college TA I1W. Am. my ft he introduced anew leVel of encod-
ing, in which the digit groups wetu
stdn.hsdigit span steadilyW

proved from?7 to around 80 digits, a aftedbo wnpm Won combined into "super groups," that
truly exceptional memory perfor- SF was able reliably to recall more
mance (Fig. 1)YN.ormal subjets have OM M lan 'C1 than four groups. For example, to
spans of around 7 digits and only ahilfli <12 remember 25 digits, SF normally

rarely are spans of over l0digitob. 1 MOM1 < 1 grouped the digits into three groups
served. Even individuals with alieg. L..(M <2 of 4 digits each, three groups of 3
edly exceptional memory do not %gEM Lo " digits each, and a 4-digit rehearsal
come dlose to this level of perfor. Ik. as 1wyj pI? group at the end. One indication of
ASOm. Is

*mance (Table I). The highest digit this grouping structure is that when
asubject repeats the digits, there isa
span ever recorded previously is 18
digits, the span of the German ages 25%, of SF's mnemonic associa- falling intonation in his voice on the
*mathematics professor Rfickle tions. last group of 4digits and there isa
As soon as we discovered ST. long pause before he repats the 3-
(Mi41ler 1911).
It is important to note that dur. successful technique of associating digit group. With further practice, SF
* ing this entire. study SF was in no digitsequmnces with running times, continued to introduce further levels
way coached or instructed in how to we atte te toconsutrta model of into his hierarchical storage of digit
improve. However, he was highlIy his cognitive processes. We simuist- groups until he reached his highest
* motivated and constantly tried :7i- ed theppeoe involved In recelv- memory span of 82 digits. His orga-
ferent mtdsto improve his span. ig amd e^coding adigit sequence by nizatlon of 80 digits is shown in

His skill was thus self-taght. constructing a coputer program Figure 2.

In the JIMs 4 sessions of the ex. that wudtransformn digi sequencees In anothe eries of experiments,

periment. SF either rehearsed the into rumnn Hims We used our we denmotrated that SF stre these
entire digit sequence or broke the computer model to generate digit digits in aretrievable form in LTM. as
sequence into two groups and re- -sequen-ces1 that SF would not am- shown by his ability to recall over
hearsed t" second group. He also claw wit running times, When he 90% of the 200-300 digits presented
occasionally reporte noticing nu- was faced with these uncodable se- .during an entire session. When SF
mralpoetns, ut as 654 andf 424. quences, SF's performance dropped could regulate the speed of presen-
This is exactly what weobserve with alof to his beginnng leveL In an- tatlon of digits,after about 100 hours
* other normal subjects. Ouring this other experimenal session, we pro- of practice hie was able to reduce by
initial period. SF*s memory spani sented him with sequences that half the tdme he needed to memorize
stayedi withina normal ronge of?7 to toub! alf Ie associated with runnin 50 digits.
9 digits. His performance jumped by On the basis of these and other
.times.

In the fifth sissae- SIF noticed 2211. from an average of 16 to an av- -experiments,wet Aodue that Si's
memory skinl consistd of efficient
that some digitgroupereminded him envg of 19.5 digits.
This lest e=eimn also dam- and rapid storage anid retrieval of
of running tim for different races.
(SF was agood long-ditanc runner onstrates that SF memor span for knfomation in, LY~i. SF did not ~
who compete in races; throughout digits was not unlimited eve when achieve his extraordinary- perfor-
* the eastern United States) As soon as. all the groups of 3and 4digits weemance by siply Improving his
he started thinking of some digit meaningful. SF was at that time abe ability to rehearse digits mentally. In

groups a nnming times. his di~ It t remember only three ot foursuch fact, he relied on rehearsal only to

* did was begin mentally to-oncode 3- at he nd of asequience, that he re- setdin eact sequence. He gave the
and 4-digi Poop as running time
*for for various tose. For example, he
* rmembered 3492a*3 minutes and
49.2 seconds. near wield-rcord time

ruigaml."In the early
phmropotehe diecovered

only asmal nenbers( running-lmi

*catogories which mat tha he had

to remember may digit seqences

ally Cora trucied an ebrate sot of
mnemonic aseoclatious based Ini-
tially en running times and then

"4.3powa old avim OW porso ) ur-28 -- -up- -unsdstasp.a.p.u&s ru m si
* aMmed"dl afWtsW4a104"4)wfeag 'w the end dla h. "Iele~j~
qec of sheaue -~hmhlsbispuo f 4disovwolA, I
hm

BM~ng- ti e o nd ~ bu t us r em"

other inherently meaningless digits runner,DO, ha been able to improve digit sequences. Rcke reported di-
meaningful interpretations as run- his digit span, which is currently at viding 18 digits intothree groups of
ning times, ages date, and so on. aboutT5digits (see F g. 1).
6 digits and meaningfully encoding
Throughout bis development of the , In this series of studies, we have each of these groups by using his
memy skill there is no evidence demonstrated that normal adultsan extensive knowledge of numbers.

that SF extended the limits of STm. perform outsand" gfeats ofmemor For8eample, w04e7nwcsoded as
The largest number of digits for without extending any of the s 893 -19 X 47;.047 - 47.
which he generated mnemonic as- limitations of normal memory. In From Lura's(1966) analysis of S,

socations was four, and the number memory tasks in which normal we know that S mmitted nforma-
of encoded digit groups in a single subjecs rely on reheamd inSTM, our tion to Lm, as evidenced by his
.super group" was never more than trained subjectsspidly coded the ability to recall the information days,
information meningfuly and were weeks, and years later. S reported
four. Even after 20 months of prac- able to stm it in permanent and re- that he genetew meaningful asso-
tice, he almost never rehearsed more trievable form in LTh. clations for many typea of nonsense
than six digits to himself. We also

tested his amnory span for another LTM t materials, such as foreign poems, to
kind of symbo-ie., consonants-
FoaeSe aid memorization. (S denied using
and found that it remained at six
consonants. such associations for numbers. We
Are the cognitive processes of will return to this bcet later.)
SWehave ebewhem rported the m f e dlugandstoagelin
Mults of experiments analyzfg r- Mnemonic associations like
Lnt toacimto peor- those deacribd by S have been
rors in recall and temporal patterns menm of eqpet and aceptioa known since the time of the ancient
of recall that strongly support the memm telWaiey little inferma- Greek orators, who developed tech-

description we have given here of tiem is available Of the cognitiv aques to aid them in memorizing
SFs skill (Chase and Ericsson 191, processes used by exceptional l1ftofitemsand names.Anexample
19826ricson et al. 1960). We have subjects to commit inlsmation to of thee hniques, which have been
aiso shown that other subjects can memory. However, MAller (1911) refined and extended over the
acquire the same skill with practice anlyxe in eta*l how RMdle, who centuries (Lomyne and Lum 1974;
and initial coaching. Using SF's had the highest observed digitspan Yates 196), is the generation of a
techniques, another long-distance ep op-In theltfesaummemodsi mental image to connect otherwise

unslated vwdL The word pair
"tow, barl can be effectively re-
Figur tuo 1rg aU2 sqmusu o membeudit om & w, an imae of
soyen ubyA* sdmuieglI M h a cowli d ng abell
mow, Im, NgmWhp.1eStbMebeeabeiao~ouIeaafhtklt~baied ohowtirly 4
4 a sms* recently
ad@oehmpa 0 thaa e~e without practice normal

-mwio. 5.dI mal -mmfmmWbrm. aed 3 1 4 ' 9proethermempeooypsilneftclyan ae these techdques to

e,d I .iofwi"enW. (lower 12). In fa ct people do not
Im WLibae"eq.i mah k 4 n s infoer-

1 arde" iws N-a IN waMO. a maton to memoy simply by rote

a7~ m have dst~mna~ted that normal
-_.-
__________of__INS -- sujecs alostinvariably gnrte
associtionm wen they
________fet - mmelasd notse word (Mont-
______ 1g~t~WF3o~r,tlk9l.
a" he w dm "m without

a."hMenic technsappear
dCmetlthMmolppesoflee nonvMeueliyomnas.

teremerim lnbm~M, md peole

to ldqes a---b

- ________ y an ot .ibaEIVORY dfferent
the methdm s OW by normal
\i-om
W~e~~~~lpdoepbwitsr
x of ml e sattwm
•iwiami m Vewl,i l - ftoe
. . .__W#_ ...

_____

pas.._____ _ prfmm7"om

the exceptional people. We have so- different ways, several of which are of the digit matrix. as his retrieval
lected memorization of matrices of illustrated In Figure 3. The time time were about the ame regardless
digits as the task, because Sregarded needed by several mental calculators of the order in which the digits were
numnbersas "the simplest type of anid other subje'cts to stuy and then recalled. These dat are the only ob-
material" (Luria 1968, p.60) and be- to retrieve the 25-digit matrix are jective evidence supporting Luria's
cause numbers were the only kind of given in Table 2.Table 3givessimilar claim that Shad astructurally unique
material for which Sdid not report results for Luria's SO-digit matrix. memory. The rest of S's memory
generating mnemonic associations. Before we turn to a detailed performance is based on standard
discussion of these results, let us mnemonic techniques

Process and structure of nbarfi1eyftlhyinetreedrpaptoraerttsehhdoo.wwBnintheient y(T1wa9be4lre)ea2rogsnuuigepdi-- apnedrfoWramefehthwaedsooautmhreetartainsueknsdd(iseseruegbTrjaeacubtal,etSseFs2,
exceteioxaclptineamltohrayt
and 3). Furthermore, we found that
In comparing people with allegedly ported the reports of the mental cal- Mfiller (1917) had collected data on
exceptional memory to our trained culators Inaudi, who claimed to en- normal subjects and on the mathe-
normal subjects, we are interested in code the digits as auditory symbols, matics professor RGc"d for Dintes
*showing not only that the perfor. and Diamondi, who claimed to en- 25-digit matrix (see Table 2). We can
mance of the two groups iscoinpa- code them visuail, As iamondi was see that the normal subjects took
rable. but also that their cogn~itive much faster than ma-di in retrieving much longer than our trained subject
processes and subsequent memory the digits. Luria (1968) argued that and the exceptional subjects to study
structures-the ways-in which they the dat shown in Ta"l 3upheld S's the matrices. However, there isno
store inforation-are similar. The reports otgetneati atvisual image
first problem is. to evaluate the

memory structure.
Fortunately, there are data that pip 4Aju=w Lud* .w asedipl w. to ka the muma sibbubIGM&5
have been used to Infer the structure
of exceptional memy. Suppose thast -quAemuiqasLud..b mmy wrntucwtulyuiqmbesSa"mo aulew digtas

asubjectisaskedto menrie ama- Weu mmmxis amy a#tM dhedn so wit apaaL

trix of digits like the oftes shown int01 ** 00
Figure 3 n 4 net (1894 used a4s 2
such a'MWM 1t0orucsrtd tem- * 0
02ry of menalccIam ndL a- 4
usedasiallarpadrtues -

0

idea is quit "iplPa, hlkh- - -.

th matrix we caM eamine t6005SI -OMsSlmOms :
mmay srumare bysa" how,the 0*
*
Accordift toth theories that 000
osme o be'ctp.e armea th turn a UudfMs
at the ;;;muy. = aembsicalk Nn 9 a6
ways " aot t cxam tostomd In- a 9 IF* 0
meamy. It ain be sore, as alis of
WoarythemomAaNea a
audlbor syNMol. the
ele toret-he lhae

cm be strd iUult which pVWaem
Survaes sWpSWtk tUctur. Uf the
Mari is stored auditoely, then the 00
informatloncan berapidly utrieved
0 00

onlyinthe same order in which it .0
wa committed to memory. Retriev-

ithematrx Inany otherway,such

much harder andwouldmbWhokger. .
On the Ofter had*if abSmORuI is
a.*
storedvisually,it Should be~dl * ...
tomttrieve the latomastl~iaaot.
any way with tlhibe me Seed. S *** *
bsvdwpsltpIm, .. 0
The Ilaibl
tnealsMmOvSes1mesao *

Toasss how lMrINMa-I_so*il P *
was slosud, the subets we"e Wa
savuied to recall the dlltsla mw

- - ..- *.**.y~v- 4

TaWle 2 lm On 0 Cahnidesd o study tm re~ovshuB's naomh

(OmmImW NoonA MIan of

ia sOf 46 10 2 12.7 26. 226.6

om 11 3 7.2 6.7 41.8 24 5
hindiAst fe 7 - 7A
mu , 6.40 uW --dew 36 U .3 2.7 31.2 5
36 23.9 7.0 226 33. 5
so 36 24.6
OWisus go $a7 26.7 16.1 64.0 71.6 25
upwol stumm so 25
18 16.S 56.5 -

6.5 43.3 73.8 11

OlsbsuW 16.4 92.6 124.0 2

bMUIa 11W6167

* nu eao 1 I d . iIN ewess fl sIw(6

evidence that the mental calculahos rows? Such a reult would support subjects-which would lead to the
and S were aster than SPand Ilek. the idea that the expet an retriev- low correlations in Table 5. The in-

Rather, there is a clear indication to ina information from an uncoded teresting result to notice is that
the contrary. visual Image, subjects e able to retrieve the entire

Let up now proceed to the times Wetarmthmo matrix row by row as fast as they can

required to reue the memord tepttenof ren dotimes forany retrieve a single column.

digits in different order. A visual two vslbet by calculaftng the cor- Given our knowledge of the

inspection of the retrieval times re- relation coefficient. A high positive conitive processes used by trained
veals no dear,systemacdifferences correlation shows a very similar subjects, can we account for the ob-
t ofretrieval times? SF
between the ecepional, tained. pattern of retrieval times for the e commting the matrices to
and normal sub*t Although It sub*t an4 sugls that thy e
took the normal subects many tim simila memory structuresr the mem. In a manner similar to the
*longer than the expert to memOrine 25iltk mLrlW sA*"y in 'Ag. eoie iisi I.w
the matrices, they we abl- to re- hecoehtaomtwee all I the digitpa task. Uing his mne-

ftraietvaes pthaertesxopfetrhtes. mFraotmrce ammest as- a4rwevherayvle laddtheedive;a 14 fAbl-h r io(hheidm"-11 a' ahiencldodt ed each

tal studies, we know dMtespeed of tweem th a ee etiea time dt group, and he stored each row in a
retrieval is dosely relaed sothrat normal aumbM and tht of 0etha m"am- Y structure smIlar to that
b 2. ion.Figuyrrew2.11. rextrrcIeevd thhe
s"tdy time spent b M t*aI re- repial * t teheou'mti digt orgts frm each
quited for mem on wIhe .i
-"eefor exmple, Newel "n RosnR-
epmtkedfw~aomsfr

bloom 191) Thw, it tWbe the We- matrix d n In Pigm 4 a=i row.he men slphasewas
tios between diffmrnt al subjecls in T" we find thmi to rleen thenetdgit oup;once
tie of a subject tht will give u be low ad w* canevalatl a 1""up r=Ltd n the

Information about th memmy (TaAle M5R)r l m-e b a row was amt m-

* Sruct rathr than th*,a*ohum mat&i apea fA he Aou the'tame mediaeX mla69blreotsw
rtieval moes. To tak a rxee- rdlem of the retieval Irrde aabua frml OW nwomd subjects
aOpltvmetheexprt Ale*.uw tin. and thi dtpteno ive b' Mkle (Mwl
a.adwr
Sa marx by columns fA* as by form dm is Indcated by all 1%91%"m- wellast&em eMoramt

- iTaw T-re nsm m mi imam, si m toaaslai ffio

OP IWbOM 88 V A*S" 81* SP 8*0 AiweII fWebub
"a ie o mui inun
it, mI

5- 46 61 'ib * 1
1 115 1' 4
46 4.4 -

l777I.M . .1 N
-- "
-

V? (Hunt and Love 1974) OWS 40t ms
We bam~v~d des&Wpiesuede Tb4 4-Coo**n g~g~W @MrMe61o01u,10ImIm gS Wmt

which uub*x Iwo, and nretlve Ofma NO--.-
thee wAkdow tow by mow a digit

of Ike nmber of times a now digi Amso 0.W SAW 0.V 0.1W 0"3 CA3W

grouaporraw isrswed.In twluw %*"AmP "-a) 9EnS 7) 947 94n O946

colum at Tablems 2=01 3 we have ~05 .W 03

*m ba babe roftlved. The .del
oa imawkal g"od job ofp~

d~ctise~ev ftn TawlU1c *'<G

Ow asuf fewievfng th
* aul by rows. w*hqi nvolves 5
dipgit i.f*.esr ~u Ping om WAG home(o practice (COim S6mi.s in mtwry but with practice
theinar~nbycolumms whitch he.an Simat Wb1% b). Mhoug we in lb. ofieft use of Ln. We also
wilves am arnpde reie is* u 4Am.* A* *wxW~ aculueo beliee w at such superior ammoay
gow~aclwwdkuabuttumm bmmI~Ou~.we now Seem an be. ad is, acquired by any nor-

l~~f*-bo~TgMh~ befdA I'su Miaddudh'Le~-hDhcame individuals de-

flora. beWe*nj,,ls.S'bk.i p _soat of Awwommbkw elp skilt In avariety of domains,
dions a" th - obwevdusw;I~hij~ alemdasIAIsd~fcult wofnda met ofskills fhat
tiMsaMte b.10 (kWu4a41i'eumnd 4kMnurmseau~aedeults hame invaiably
lahsihtnegrI~f~sswa~n e.~q s1~~squ~e evieimf aquied.However. all adults are
unusuaL~~Wh"6u0pe mtosy~ien using their native Ian-
smaook u&Aaftera htmidhoumof
a", SIecnd prccaninstuctionin a now

7740

-WIeaam,- 4esw rneqoSm eseI

* OWA 464r a"u. O mawia (Kbft*aW4k I97~ltach and

'010maeo"ae

- wi~.. ~--wina

*~ ~ ~ M X1M1faeS64

p4~b~e~h~~W1 ,,Qi~nSI
ej,o." IJ I I
to, Alpe

40- ~-~'-A-- 14 Y.tdm4%! lebio0*ml aI~t.u m"Omaf
~tJ{] t.vep~pj

411'T"

ma d

~d-L

those in the regular memory-span mechanisms that under' .A excep- the language uage test (r- 0.50, p <
test, have shown that normal subjects tional memory. 0.01). The numeric resoning test was

are in fact able to retain for a short- We designed an experiment to only weekly related to these mea-
time the exact wording of sentences, evaluate the hypothesis that LTM is sures of accuracy and did not con-

markedly surpassing the normal STM responsible for the superior memory tribute any additional information.
limit of only 6 or so unrelated words span for sentences. For scrambled Similar results have been reported by
(Aaronson and Scarborough 1977; words, little or no LTM would be ex- Daneman and Carpenter (1980).
It appears that normal people's
Jarvella 1971). pected. We presented intact and
In order to compare memory for scrambled sentences alternately, and memory for prose involves the same
prose directly with the standard es- asked the subjects for immediate mechanisms that underlie expert

timates of memory span, Ericsson written recall after each sentence. memory. Peoples memory for prose
and Karat (1981) used a procedure The major difference from earlier can exceed theirsTu capacity if they
closely analogous to the digit-span experiments was that we also unex- use their knowledge of semantics

task. They took meaningful sen- pectedly asked the subjects to recall and syntax to store information in
tences with different numbers of all the presented information after- LTh4. Further, one can interpret the
words from short stories and novels ward, when they were cued by a large Individual differences in prose

by Steinbeck. The longer sentences unique word from each sentence. memory as due primarily to differ-
The main result of this experi- ences in language skill.People who
were used intact and were also
scrambled to form meaningless se- ment was that the subjects' cued re- have spent many years building up
quences of the same words. These call of the intact sentences was re- their language skills have acquired
two types of stimuli correspond markably high, but their recall of the an extensive verbal knowledge base

closely to the regular and scrambled scrambled sentences was virtually in LTm that can be used more effec-
chessboards studied by Chase and nonexisent. In only 12 of the c.se tively to store the meaning and

Simon (1973a, b). Both intact and could the subjects recall anything structure of sentences.
scrambled sentences were read in the from the scrambled sentences, and in We noted earlier that feats of

same monotone and at the same only 4%wre they able to recall more exceptional memory have been ex-
speed of one word persecond. At the than a single word. In contrast, they hibited for information that is unfa-
end of each sentence, the subjects recalled wods from int't sentences miliar or meaningless to normal

wrote down as much of it as they 79% of the time, generally remem- subjects. Normal subjects' memory
bering more than half the presented for such Information is severely
could remember.
There was a striking difference words. This result clearly indicates limited and appears to reflect some
in the amount remembered between the Involvement of LTM in thesupe- fixed structural limits of the cogni-
tive processing system for briefly
the meaningful sentences and the rior mesmy for sentenmeL
scrambled words. The subjects hd In our experiments we have also premed Information. However, we

perfect recall half the time of scram- consistently found systematic indi- have shown that normal subjects can,

bled sequences of only about 6 vidual differentes in the ability to through extensive practice., vastly

words, in complete agreement with recall sentences. Using traditional improve their memory for certain

the estimates we cited earlier of methods for calculating memory types of information, even surpass-

memory span for unrelated words. span, we found de san for words in ing the performance of individuals
As predicted, the subjects' ability to sentences to range from 11.0 to 20.5 with allegedly exceptional memory.
recall the exact words of meaningful words for different subjects. When The patterns of retrieval used by

sentences wasmuchbettesentences we analysIed our data in terms of the these trained normal subects and by

of 12 to 14 words wer recalled per- number of perfectly recalled an- people with exceptional memories

fectly about half the time.Althugh lnces or the percent of recalled forbW matrices of dtsare similar

the average percent of perfectly re- words we found reliable individual to the oceseswused by untrained
aied sentmncs decased as de differencs well normal subjects to remember mean-

number of words in th sentences metWtoeexcpolnodmucdteedrealaftinnnalbeetxwpeeenl- ingfuInl soeunrteanncaelsy.sis of large differ-
Increased, seveal wel-formed mi-
tences with asmenyas 26 word were the subjet' I sg skilland their enc In memory performance. we
.alied perfectly bysome subjects, memory span fe ntences. LAn- have found that cerin limits remain
To takeoneeample, 2 of 20 subjec*t uae il ws a edby a testof unchanged. We noted that the num-
rtledthe following 25-word m- I 1--pw &Mve"rbale- ber of chunks of infiormsif that our
tence perfedy. "Phe brudd a cloud soning. To be able to refute the iaM- subject SF kept in mind we limited
of hair out of her eyes with the back portance ofgeneral intelgllence, we to fou, regardles of whether the

of her glove and left,&amuof alsogve thk subcts a test of nu- chunks correponded to digits re-
Mork reaeoin S . The number of hearsed in smid, t stored as a
earth on her cheek in dohing it. Otesstored asa

In ters of the amouft maled. correctly recalled words was very graup, or ru
"waeolliupateldicted by both the language supergroup. mtlawe her not
these memoy feat by
subectseemamo, impams ive smetest(rm 0.72<000)and the found a single ecption to this limit

those e bited by the d. maser verbal reasonit IM (ri 0.74. p < In Out may e de memory per-
andit experts. The qumiis D0). Pow the number of Moely ferma ate W st!eI~ expet.

whether~mmor _ -,1- is amskill
ee.... -moe w soes, awwo a*W.--a$*whA OeWr 55 < -tfht) beanlsd51ibfd'eaenedd WNa is.....
WweeO'stuhwelrit.h

..... ... ...- ' -. -"~subjecA., 1 - I(S@d *+I+ +I .... " + ++ m

developed through extensive prac. connected speech. 1. Vvmv LeeIug and mediation. 1.Exp. PsprOW. M-29-33.
tice and experience, that allows for V.15,har I&40-16 M.A1leC E1911. ZurA~y.dSCId..

rapid and efficient use of LTM. Fur- Kintsch. W. 1974.7T1h rpesgrat im of MrpiW nhstigikeit und dos VonstellungSverlaufeg
Tedl 1.ZriISCfift fir Pssjwhoili 5.
ther, this skill is developed within in Menwar. Hlillsdale, NJ: Erlbaumn.
- 1917. Zur Analyse.der Gedlichtnistfi-
the basic abilities and limits of the lintsch. W.and T.A.Van Dljk. 1978. Toward tigkeit und Vorsteilunpiveulaufes: Tell 11.
Zeilxhnrfi fir Pswicd9.e
normal cognitive system. In every a model of text comprehension and pro-
recorded feat of exceptional memory duction. PsoWkoi. Re'. 85:363-94. Neell An dsP.iS. Rosnloom.n19111
oflaprticetMice.In asSkilluso and the law-
we have identified thesame compo- Loray-c H.. and 1. Lucas. 1974. The Mn'mnrt
quisiaed. ). L. Anderson. Hillsdale. NJ:
nents: the importance of prior expe- Bok
Erbam
rience and practice, the availabily Luria. A. R. 196. The Mind of Mitteantit.
ofmenigfl sscitins tg Avon. Prytulak. L S.1971. Natural language media.
ion. Coapnhse PsycW. 2:1-56.
in m andfeu fficittienaslofrane Miller.G. A. 1956. The magica number seven,
formand ficiem retrAievgl odeln Yates, F.A. 1966. 71eArt ofMemor. London:
plus or minus two. Psycau. Rev. 63:81-97. Routledge & Iegn Paul.

msaeory. isadqutetodscib al dutMontague,W.LJ .A. Adams,and H.. Kies.
esrbeal dl 1966. Forgetting and natural language

References

Aaronson. D., and H. S.Scarboough. 1977.
Performance theories for sentence coding
Some quantitative models. I. Ve4ul endegf
and Y~ieraivmW .277-303.

Akin. 0. In palme. The PvgC~lbJ.A AdiftmUI
Den~a London: Pion.

Binet. A. 1894. Ps~haogi des Gread Calcaul.
leaps dt Pumps d'&*cs. Paris: Uibralule Ha-

Dower, C. H. 1972 Mental Wmagel anda-
ciative learning. In ConH as. in Learsnft and
Memory. ad. LW. Gregg Wiley.

Charneas. N. iM7. Component of skill in
bridge. Ca.. ISO"pha Sd-O

Chase. W. C.. and ILA. Erimonsi. Int.Skilled
memory. In Cagedavr Skitlsend Tlu* Acpasi
sihsue. ed. 1.R.Anderson. Hillade. NJ: Eri-
barna.

- 11112. Skill and working meosy. In

16. ed. G.H.Bower. Acadlemic Press,*

Chane. W. CL, andl H. A. Simon. 1973a Per.

ception in chess Ceguftio Psyclita. 4:55-
81.

-1973b. The mIndrs eye in chems. In V.
snad luefawm Pracesmad. W. C. Chose.
Academic Pi.

Daneman. M.. and1 P.A.CarpenWe. 1911I.n-

dividual differences in soi ng memory'
and reading. 1. Ve"u ldam6eg and Verial
Iehavasv 19:430-66.

doerowu. A. D.196. Pereeptlon and moeoI
veo~ thoughtSomeoldieu andreent
*findings. In P!ra*EeTu Auwa~urd*.

Method. aged?Wear, ad. .nmauffl
Wiley.

Egan. 0. E.and LI1.khwast W99. Chuning
in recall of symbolic drawings. Memauwy

Cauan7:149-56.

Ericsson. IC.A.. W.C. Chose, and S.Fats..
1911A0c.quisition of a memory skill.Scieue

Orkasf. K.A6. and 1.Knort.smy (eW n
in sequences. Pae a&4tmee-tg Pay.
chonomic Sac. Philadelpa 19111.

Hunt. L, and T. Lo. IOM2 How goo can
memoery be? Is Cedhrg Ptrems to tem
min"t. ad. * W.Mob"e 8nd K Martint.

WaahlI W Wiesief

Hu~AMa.. L 197. An mrAmWsP"en

be.Po 6WtSS.&

Ja0wril. It. 1. 1971. Syntsele penn of

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Charles Myers. Ubrary Departmemt of Gomputar Science
Livingstone Huse Stanford University
Livingstone Iod Stanford, CA 94305
Stratford
'London 31S I I Mr. Wallace eurzeig
ENGLAND Solt Beranek A Newman, Inc.
50 Moulton St.
Dr. William i Cobrid*e, *A 02138
Cftapranreogioe"Belit Pio'vlrenINlIar

Pittsburgh, l,$Pt.

. .. ... -+ 7

CMU/CHASE October 16i 1980 Page 7

Non Govt Non Govt

I Dr. Edwin A. Fleishman I Dr. Ron Hambleton
Advaced Research Resoures Orga, School of Education
Suite 900 University of Massehusetts
11330 East West Highway Amherst, MA 01002
Washington, DC 20014
1 Dr. Harold Hawkins
DR. JOHN D. FOLLEY JR. Department of Psychology
APPLIED SCIENCES ASOCIATES INC University of Oregon
VALENCIA, PA 16059 Eugene OR 971103

Dr. John R. Frederiksen 1 Dr. Barbara Hayes-Roth
Bolt" eranek & Nowman The Rand Corporation

50 Moulton Street 1700 ain Street
Santa Monica, CA 90406
Cambridge, 4A 02138

Dr. AlLnda Friedman 1 Dr. Frederick Hayes-Roth
Department of Psychology 7he Rand Corporation
University of Alberta 1700 Main Street
Edmonton, Alberta Santa Honics, CA 9006
CAUA TGG 29
1 Dr. Jnes R. Hoffman
Dr. 3. Edward Gelselman Department of Psychology
Deprtment of Psyohoalosy University of Delaware
University of California Newark, D9 19711
Los Angeles, CA 9002
I GPOfl.efuOnmd.eanBoOIxnret1ee1lnl6i3wgllden,.eEd.Newsletter*
I DLRIO. CROERtT CLAM

UNIVERSITY OF PITSSKM Birmtinn, MI 4i012
3939 O'HAA 21111
PITI'SSUVIK, PA 15213 1 Dr. Earl Hunt
Dept. of Psychology
I.Dr. Mrvil . oek University of Wshington
217 Stone oll Seattle, WA 98105
Cornell olversity
Ithns, my t#853 I Dr. Steven W. goe
Dept. of"Psychologly

Dr. DoniLel Olher University of Oregon

ndiatriel a Monagwent logineering Eugene, 08 971103

Tehnion-sreel Institute of Technology 1 Dr. Wlter Klatach
Haifa
•ISRAL Department of Psychology

Dio. JAI4S 0. a D 'Boulder. University of Calerado
CO 80302

UNIV9 IRSPSII'TVSR I Dr. David hKee
3939 O'NARA STrRET Deperum or Psychafty
I numi7U,t PA• •15213
• UTuIsm* ItArt oWr#.aria" ,

CHU/CHASE October 16, 1930, Page 8

Non Govt Non Govt

Dr. Stephen Kosslyn'1 Dr. Donald A Norman
Harvard University Dept. of Psychology C-GO,
Department of Psychology Univ. of California, San Diego
33 Kirkland Street La Jolla, CA 92093
Cambridge, HA 02135.
1 Dr. Jesse Orlansky
Hr. Mrlin Kroger Institute for Defense Malyses
1117 Via GOleta 400 Army Navy Drive
Palos Verdea Estates, CA 90274 Arlington, VA 22202

Dr. Jill Larkin I Dr. Seymour A. Papert
Department of Psychology Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Carnegle Mellon University Artificial Intelligence Lab
Pittsburgh, PA 15213 545 Technology Square
Cambridge, MA 02139
Dr. Alan Lesgold
Learning RID Center 1 Dr. James A. Paulson
University of Pittsburgh Portland Set* University
Pittsburgh, PA 15260 P.O. low TS012 97207

DLrv.~netP~oerhtelal nd, 1 MR. LUIGI PEIttILO .
I Dr. Michael Levine 2131 W. EDI OOS STREET
ARLISGTON. VA 22207
Department of Educational Psychology
210 Education WEdg. I DR,PETER L3ON.
University of Illinois DEPT. OF PYCHOLOGY
Champaign, IL 61801 UNVERSITY OwP COLRA
BOULDR.I CO 8030
Dr. Robert A. Levit
Director, blvioral Sciences 1 Dr.Fred Naif
The SO Q.rpwetion
7915 Jame Brench DrSve 0/o Physics Bapartmat
McClean, VA 22101 University. of GkUlfwria
Sarkely, CA 1 0
Dr. Charles Levis
Faculteitl Soel ,Wtemshappen Dr. Andrev . bao
RiJksuniveralitt ir~oningon Aferioas InstituteS fr Research
Oude Nateriaanstr"t 1055 hm" AJrferna St. W
Gro ""e Wasbingto.a, DC 007
NTHERILAN5
1 Dr. Ernst . t l i e
Dr. KArk 1iller ell Laboratories
Mountain Avewe
•Texas fnst.ents, be.
Nary 11 N t~
SmDialllaSs,tatTio.n 371, P. SOx 225936
: •0No :tatics

I Dr. oil.

-

t S e.._ --
u*

CIU/CHASE October 16, 1980 Page 9

lNon Govt Non Govt

I DR. WALTER SCHINEDER I Dr. David Stone
DEPT. oF PSYCHOLOGY ED 236
UNIVERSITY OF ILLZNO13
CIWIPAIGN, IL 61820 SUNY, Albany
Albany, NY 12222"
Dr. Alan Sohoenfeld
Department of hthematics I DR. PATRICK SUPPES
Hauilton College
Clinton, NY 13323 INSTITTUE FOR MIATHMATICAL STUDIES IN
THE SOCIAL SCIECES
Committee on Cognitive Research
%Dr'. Lonnle R. Sherrod STANFORD UNIVERSITY
Social Sl-nee Research Council STAWORD, CA 94305
605 Third Avenue
New York, NY 10016 I Dr. KIumi Tatsuoka
Coputer Based Educatlon Research
Robert S. Siegler Lob6ratory
Associate Professor 252 Engineering Research Laboratory
Carnegle-Mellon ol~versity University of Ilinois
Department of Psyohology
Schenley Park Urbana, IL 61801
Pittsburgh, P. 15213
1 r. John. 7ho8s
I Dr. Robert Saith
Department of Computer Science 1DM Thomas J. Watson Research Center
NReuwtgerrusnbUmnoivke,rsNitJy06903
P9O.n3x 218

Yorktown lr, NNYT.10S96

1 DR. PERRY THO2E00iC
THE RAND O.OPORUTOW
S1A7N00TAMAMIONNICSTAR, EECTA "@06

Dr. Rieherd sow 1 D. outo1a TO"" .
School of MiWstm Univ. of 36. Cllftraie
heavlori Wleaoofp Labs
Ianford Univerity 184 S. flnes
, sfbrd, CA 9"% Redondo each, CA 902??

I DCra.pt.tbobfe'rtIft Stomr0'eS 1... ; hI

Yale I~iveraity b.
.BoxhA. 1We Station 6271 vM Am
Woodland Hill, CA91364
P-wime. CT 0600

OR A3J9"."Toll -two- 1 Dr. Benton J. Mderwlod
Dept. of PsAtyelegy
iDOT DItANio & =IIWm,
tII3S, -J
.0OlTO STCT
; mcnAx ,A

X"a4roaSsteI,*"IVA1* t""
~ N.11bS.
4,

................ . . . . . ----

CMU/CHASE October 16, 1980 Pie 10

Non Govt

I Dr. Dsvid J. Weiss
3660 Elliott mall
Uiiversity of Minnesota
75 E. River Road
Minneapolis, MN 5555

1 DR. GERSHON WELTmN
PERCEPTRONICS INC.
6271 VARIEL AVE.
WOODLAND HILLS, CA 91367

1 Dr. Keith T. Wescourt
Information Sciences Dept.
The Rand Corporation
1700 Main St.
Santa Moniea, CA 90406

1 DR* SUSAN E. WHITELY
PSYCHOLOGY DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS
LAWRENCE, KA11SAS 66044

Dr. Christopher Wiekens
UDenpiavretm/,seinttycof PIfslylionhooilsogy

& Ii