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SCHEDULING AND MANAGING THE SECURITY OFFICER FORCE
2.5 Post Orders

x Officers will promptly report any criminal conviction to their employer. Obviously, any
criminal convictions reflect negatively on the officer and the employer. Reporting
convictions may also be a licensing requirement where a state board can rescind the
officer’s license (Wilson & Brookshank, 1999, p. 263).

x Officers will not leave their post unless properly relieved. Posts must not be left “open”
for any reason. Continually manning certain critical posts is an operational necessity in
all protected environments.

x Officers leaving a post will brief their relief fully and pass along any orders that have
been issued. This ensures a complete transfer of daily intelligence and instruction. Such
a practice is essential to the maintenance of a safe, secure, stable environment.

2.5 POST ORDERS

Post orders are the most important written instructions for the security force. Post orders do
the following:

x Express the policies of the protected enterprise.
x Summarize required officer duties.
x Avoid the problems of word-of-mouth instructions.
x Provide a basis for site-specific training.

Clear and understandable post orders are important in serious incidents that may call into
question the integrity, competence, or capacity of an officer. Not every potential scenario can
be described in post orders. Innovation, flexibility, and improvisation are important qualities
in any security officer. However, it is an indication of poor management when an officer uses
poor judgment in responding to an incident that should have been foreseen but for which
there were no clear instructions.

Post orders should be developed with the following criteria in mind:

x Each order deals with a single subject. This criterion enables the officer or supervisor to
locate a policy or procedure quickly when consulting the orders for guidance. It also
facilitates revision or cancellation when circumstances change.

x Each order is as brief as possible. The order is an action document intended to state
clearly what must be accomplished and when. Reasons for an order can be explained in
other parts of the training program.

34 Protection of Assets • Copyright © 2011 by ASIS International

SCHEDULING AND MANAGING THE SECURITY OFFICER FORCE
2.5 Post Orders

x Each order is written in simple, easy-to-understand terms. The orders should be
written in a basic version of the language spoken where the facility is located. A few
other considerations are as follows:

— An officer with a 12th-grade education (or less) should not be expected to read and
understand the professional language or jargon of someone with an advanced
education.

— Reading time is inversely related to reading comprehension. The longer it takes to
read a passage, the less likely it will be accurately understood or remembered.
Reading time is a function of both the structure of the passage and the reading skill
of the individual. (This is one reason for requiring and validating a minimum
literacy level at the time of hire.)

— The use of vocabulary should emphasize plain meaning and avoid jargon, nuances,
and ambiguity. If three individuals familiar with the enterprise read and cannot
agree on the clear meaning of a passage, sentence, or instruction, it must be
rewritten.

x Orders are indexed in detail. To permit swift location of relevant orders, a thorough,
cross-referenced index should be prepared and maintained. Topics should be listed in
several ways. For example, an order on emergency snow-removal procedures for an
unexpected blizzard should be indexed as “Snow removal, emergency procedures” and
“Emergency procedures, snow removal.”

Post orders should be available at each guard post. They must be kept current and accessible.
They are the vital link between the requirements of the client and the ability of the security
officer to effectively meet those requirements. In a fixed post, post orders should be stored at
a designated location. For a patrol post in a vehicle, the post orders should be carried in the
vehicle. For officers on foot patrol, it is inconvenient to carry a large volume of post orders.
Officers may carry electronic devices, such as personal digital assistants (PDAs), that access
post orders as well as provide for reporting and information sharing. If post orders are in
paper format, one approach to making them convenient to carry is to produce a photo-
reduced version of the post orders—for only that post—in a size that can be carried in the
uniform pocket. Each set of post orders should be reviewed periodically to ensure that the
orders are current and complete.

Post orders require a coordinated effort. Care must be taken to ensure that no contradictory
orders are in use. This can occur with complex systems, and electronic reporting or a large
number of posts can contribute to the problem. Management must maintain a single,
consistent set of instructions at all times.

Protection of Assets • Copyright © 2011 by ASIS International 35

SCHEDULING AND MANAGING THE SECURITY OFFICER FORCE
2.6 Supervision

2.6 SUPERVISION

Shift supervisors train and direct the shift officers, are front-line managers, and are the key to
mentoring, staff turnover, and employee satisfaction. They lead teams that are responsible
for responding to a wide variety of situations that may arise episodically. Shift supervisors
must understand the site’s requirements, management’s needs, and their own role within
the organization.

The quality of assets protection is a direct function of local training and local supervision.
Training occurs when a supervisor observes the ongoing performance of an officer and
provides feedback in response to situations that were not correct or where the officer
appeared unsure or confused. Other training is provided when new material is introduced
that requires familiarization by the individual officer or the entire shift. A common practice is
a formation at the beginning and end of each shift. During the few minutes available at these
times, a theme or concept—such as the gist of one of the new important orders—can be
explained to the assembled officers. They can also be told to read the order when time
permits during the shift.

Training also occurs when new security personnel are introduced to the site. If opportunity
and budget allow, one can pair the new staff member with the supervisor or an experienced
patrol officer for extended periods. A security operation’s responsibilities do not decrease
when a new employee comes aboard; the full slate of tasks still need to be accomplished. The
quality of training is directly proportional to the quantity of training.

Log sheets and files should be kept to track the training of a new officer. Training log sheets
take the various site responsibilities and reduce them to a series of tasks. As the training file is
worked through, the trainer and trainee initial each task, verifying that training for that
particular responsibility has been completed. The training log sheet can also form the basis
for post order checklists, which patrol officers can carry on their person.

To ensure the post order is read and to reinforce the training, the supervisor can later visit
each post and do the following:

x Ask one or more specific questions about the new order.
x Observe the officer in an actual situation involving its application.
x Set up a hypothetical situation requiring the officer to show a working knowledge of the

order.

This procedure takes a few minutes and should be a routine part of the supervisory post visit.

36 Protection of Assets • Copyright © 2011 by ASIS International

SCHEDULING AND MANAGING THE SECURITY OFFICER FORCE
2.6 Supervision

To accomplish training objectives, the supervisor must visit each guard post. Some
supervisors ignore this fundamental point and stay at the command or other fixed post for
most of the shift. The result may be poor performance on the other posts and an increase in
issues requiring supervisory intervention.

Radios, PDAs, public address systems, cellular telephones, and other devices eliminate the
need for a supervisor to remain at a fixed post. The supervisor should make regular—but
unscheduled—visits to all posts and also have instant communication with appropriate
elements of the security force. The supervisor can observe the condition of the post, officer,
environment, and level of activity. By also observing the general conditions along the route
from post to post, the supervisor provides an additional supplemental patrol.

A better alternative—unless prohibited by collective bargaining terms—is to have the
supervisor perform some post relief. The supervisor would staff the post when the officer is
away. This practice provides the best insight into what occurs at the post.

Supervisors themselves need special training in management, human relations, inter-
personal communication skills, labor and criminal laws, emergency response, and other
issues. This training should be available prior to promotion to supervisor to the greatest
extent possible. Is should also be continuous while the supervisor occupies a supervisory
position.

2.6.1 EVALUATIONS

An ongoing problem in guard force management is performance rating for security
personnel. Absent an incident that establishes unusually good or poor performance, an
individual officer’s shift-long activities may not be evaluated at all. The lack of evaluation
causes problems at salary review time. A partial solution is the regular assessment and
recording of officer performance by supervisors after every post visit.

The assessment must include at least the following items:

x personal appearance and condition of the officer
x physical condition of the post
x availability and condition of all required personnel and post equipment, including the

post orders
x quality of officer response to training questions or situations
x quality of officer response to actual situations arising at post during the visit

Protection of Assets • Copyright © 2011 by ASIS International 37

SCHEDULING AND MANAGING THE SECURITY OFFICER FORCE
2.7 Security Officer Reports

The supervisor should record all observations and then transfer the data into a program for
security force management.

As officers or shifts change, different supervisors can make independent observations. At
regular intervals, the security manager can review performance and ratings to determine
whether additional training or counseling is needed. These performance evaluations should
be used to ensure that staff and supervisors receive regular feedback on both positive and
negative performance.

Coaching and leadership go hand in hand. Coaching is “the process of giving motivational
feedback to maintain and improve performance” (Lussier & Achua, 2004, p. 185). The process
should maximize the employee’s potential to the benefit of both the employee and employer.

2.7 SECURITY OFFICER REPORTS

It is often said that security officers are the eyes and ears of management. However, the
information developed by the officers is frequently not communicated to management. This
lack of communication could be attributed to several factors:

x Individuals drawn to security may be action-oriented, not word-oriented.
x Information that is reported may not appear to be acknowledged or acted on.
x The report process may not encourage careful fact processing.
x The organization may lack the infrastructure needed for data collection.

It is not uncommon to see officers’ daily officer reports stating, “Reported 0700. Nothing
unusual. Relieved 1500.” Several days of such reports should suggest to the security manager
that the post is not necessary, that the officer lacks training, or that the officer is not report-
ing properly. It may be beneficial for the manager to ask the officer not to record that the
area is secure but instead to record what the officer did to make it secure.

Post orders should require reporting of specific incidents, such as the signing out of keys,
providing of escorts, and assistance to contractors. Report forms that force positive
statements are better than those that expect the officer to formulate a narrative.

Officer reports should be filed electronically to make their information searchable and
sortable. A Web-based platform aids accessibility and makes the security program more
transparent to management. This may be a particular concern in a contract security setting
where a client organization can see exactly what is going on. It also helps motivate the

38 Protection of Assets • Copyright © 2011 by ASIS International

SCHEDULING AND MANAGING THE SECURITY OFFICER FORCE
2.7 Security Officer Reports

protection force. Periodically, the security manager should use the accumulated information
to assess and reinforce security officers’ performance.

2.7.1 SECURITY LOG

The central report document is the security log. It is a primary record of significant events
affecting facility protection made contemporaneously by security officers.

2.7.2 DATABASE LOG

Incident management software can be configured for the input of security officer reports and
logs. The information can be retained in a security force database that can be relational to
the main incident database. Thus, all events pertinent to a specific location or date and time
can be retrieved in a readily understandable format. To make it easier for staff to develop the
incident database, one method is to use a drop-down menu of incident types. Over time, the
security manager can refine the drop-down list to include the types of incidents that are
actually occurring.

An automated log format enhances efficiency. The date and time of entries are automatically
generated. The officer logs onto the system with a unique identifier and password and enters
events into the system. The event entry is given a unique, consecutive event number. Entries
are recorded in real time and are immediately available to supervisors and managers from
both contract and proprietary organizations. Entries can be made using a desktop or laptop
computer or terminal or a hand-held data entry device.

Once officers complete a log entry, they can retrieve but not edit it. Changes or corrections
are entered as subsequent entries. Editing is reserved for higher-level supervisors.

The software’s database management and report-generating capabilities may be expensive,
but they present a great tool for guard force administration and should be included if
possible.

2.7.3 MANUAL LOG FORMAT

Manual security logs are uncommon but still exist in some operations. Whether manual or
electronic in format, security logs generally fall into two classes: the main or control log and
the individual post log. The first is the cumulative, consecutive history of significant events
on every guard shift. The post log is a local record of the events involving a particular post.
For example, if post orders require the security officer to count people or vehicles passing a
certain point, the count numbers might be recorded in the post log. There may also be a
corresponding statement in the main log, stating that the post was to make specific counts
on that day. The post log would be a historical fact statement. The entry in the main log
would point to the existence of the historical record.

Protection of Assets • Copyright © 2011 by ASIS International 39

SCHEDULING AND MANAGING THE SECURITY OFFICER FORCE
2.7 Security Officer Reports

Security logs vary, depending on the protection mission. However, all logs must contain
certain information to be useful later. For each item recorded, the log should include the
following:

x Entry number. This enables the entry to be located or referenced easily.

x Day of the week. This is normally abbreviated.

x Hour of the day. This is listed in military time.

x Category label. This is a one- or two-word term on the nature of the entry. For example,
“Weather” could refer to a statement of weather conditions. The category permits rapid
scanning of the page to locate particular entries.

x Incident or event description. This is a short statement, often using symbols or codes
for brevity.

x Reference. This includes the name, date, number, or other identification of another
report or document that contains more information about the logged incident. A good
example would be a reference to a detailed complaint.

A typical log entry for a routine weather report might read as follows:

Entry# Day Hour Category Item Ref.
36 Mon. 0700 Weather 75°F, clear and bright None

To ensure that manual log entries are not altered or eliminated, they should be written in ink
and used in consecutive order. If a change or correction is needed in any entry, it must be
made under a new event number as a separate item.

40 Protection of Assets • Copyright © 2011 by ASIS International

SCHEDULING AND MANAGING THE SECURITY OFFICER FORCE
2.8 Management Use of Reports and Logs

2.8 MANAGEMENT USE OF REPORTS AND LOGS

Aside from the historical value and audit opportunities that reports and logs have for security
management, they also have value for the general management of the facility. Security force
reports and logs have been used as an authoritative source to establish a variety of facts:

x weather conditions on a given date
x receipt of a telephone call
x precise time an event occurred
x presence of particular people at the facility

Security reports and logs are admissible in legal proceedings as entries made in the regular
course of business and are therefore exceptions to the evidentiary rule against hearsay. The
admissibility is pertinent in litigation, arbitration, or administrative matters in which the
entry is the only evidence of the event. To qualify, the report or log must

x be regularly maintained,
x be maintained by a person as part of his or her regular duties,
x record an event of which the recorder had personal knowledge or which was reported to

the recorder by one who had personal knowledge and a duty to report.

2.8.1 DATA CAPTURE AND TREND ANALYSIS

Data capture and trend analysis help the security manager determine the effectiveness of the
program and fine-tune it. The process shows what is working and what is not working. It may also
justify the department’s existence by detailing security incidents and security staff’s responses.

Trend analysis enables the security manager to determine whether events are part of a trend.
If so, the security program can be altered to address the trend.

2.8.2 FAILURE TO USE REPORTS AND LOGS

A source of security officer dissatisfaction is the apparent failure of management to read
reports and logs. Security managers should read reports and logs in a timely manner,
acknowledge items of significance, and arrange for corrective action. When a security officer
reports an item, such as a broken exit sign light, and it goes unfixed for weeks, the officer may
begin to think that no one cares and may stop reporting the problem.

Scheduling and controlling the security officer force is of paramount importance. The proper
allocation of human resources is a fundamental responsibility of the security manager. A
great deal of effort is required to motivate the department and maximize its potential. As the
cost of security personnel continues to rise, it is essential that the security manager get the
most out of them.

Protection of Assets • Copyright © 2011 by ASIS International 41



CHAPTER 3

ENHANCING SECURITY OFFICER
JOB PERFORMANCE

The duties of the security officer can range from the mundane to the highly complex. Officers often
work alone and experience little direct supervision. They are expected to take personal risks other
employees are told to avoid, as well as to deal with the entire spectrum of human behavior. They
make decisions that can affect the personal well-being of others and millions of dollars in physical
assets. Moreover, because of the importance of first impressions, an inefficient or indifferent
security officer will have an adverse effect on visitors, other security employees, and the general
work force.

From both fiscal and human perspectives, efficient security officer performance is a critical aspect
of an asset protection program. Management must take action to ensure optimum job
performance by this expensive and valuable resource. The consequences of poor staff
development will be quickly recognized when a major incident occurs.

Excellence in security officer performance requires attention to the traditional issues of pay,
supervision, and deployment. In addition, job analysis, training techniques, the workplace
environment (including corporate and departmental cultures), and ergonomics must all be
considered. The security manager and the security officer supervisor must be able to identify
deficiencies and determine what corrective action is required and when.

Protection of Assets • Copyright © 2011 by ASIS International 43

ENHANCING SECURITY OFFICER JOB PERFORMANCE
3.1 Vigilant Performance

3.1 VIGILANT PERFORMANCE

The term vigilant performance has a special significance in security operations. The quality
of vigilance can be described in the following contexts:

x dictionary: keen attention to detect danger; wariness
x physiology: the global responsiveness of the nervous system to external (sensory) and

internal (muscles, tendons, and joints) stimuli
x psychology: unspecified function of the central nervous system that enables an

individual to respond effectively to the infrequent and uncertain occurrence of specific,
often low-order intensity stimuli in a monotonous environment

In part, vigilant performance is an expectation requiring nurturing and opportunity. Of
course, it is the security officer who must recognize, embrace, and deliver that vigilant
performance. It follows, therefore, that proper employee selection is vital.

Stress leads to behavior patterns that can adversely affect job performance and the physical
and mental health of an individual. A study for the National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH), conducted by the Institute for Social Research at the University of
Michigan, noted the stress associated with “low utilization of one’s abilities, low
participation, low job complexity, limited opportunities for future advancement and the
lowest levels of social support.” This is an accurate description of many security officer jobs.

The following are elements that can affect vigilant performance:

x Work area design, particularly with regard to space, light, heat, and noise. A security
officer working in a guard shack with insufficient heating and air conditioning may be
more concerned about keeping warm or cool than about completing his or her assign-
ments. A good work area also requires appropriate chairs and desks.

x Human engineering of the tasks performed or the equipment operated. Often, people
are only as good as their equipment or task design.

x Human visual and auditory acuity. This refers to the officer’s physical ability to observe
an area effectively by eye and ear.

x Human detection, identification, and recognition capabilities. Expected events should
be reviewed frequently to improve officer vigilance and the detection capabilities.

x Human attention and information processing performance. This refers to the officer’s
ability to detect an event and respond in the desired manner.

x Job analysis. This is the systematic collection and recording of information about the
purpose of a job, its major duties, the conditions under which it is performed, required

44 Protection of Assets • Copyright © 2011 by ASIS International

ENHANCING SECURITY OFFICER JOB PERFORMANCE
3.2 Studies of Similar Conditions

contacts with others, and the knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to perform the job
effectively (Bartol & Martin, 1998, p. 318). A detailed job analysis should be prepared for
each position. There needs to be a fit between the security officer, the position, and
company expectations.

x Training. Security staff need general training in a wide variety of topics, such as report
writing, patrol techniques, and emergency response. They also need site-specific and
equipment-specific training and testing. A lack of attention to training will certainly lead
to a negative impact on vigilant performance.

x Workplace environment, including corporate and departmental cultures. Manage-
ment styles and organizational cultures may affect officers’ vigilance. Because various
departments are managed differently, the security officer may receive contradictory
messages from other departments or may see staff treated differently within the
department itself. This may occur especially in a security department containing both
contract and in-house officers.

x Quality control. This is a way of establishing departmental and organizational expecta-
tions, and vigilant performance is defined through expectations.

x Morale. To achieve and maintain vigilant performance, security staff must feel good
about themselves and the job they perform. Low morale can lead to complacency,
inattention to duties, increased turnover, tardiness, absenteeism, and excessive sick
time (Vellani, 2001, p. 90).

x Management advocacy for security staff. Management can reinforce vigilant behavior
and performance by serving as advocates for security officers.

3.2 STUDIES OF SIMILAR CONDITIONS

There is a dearth of research on performance failures in guard operations. However, studies
have examined workers in other occupations where vigilant performance is important. For
example, a U.S. Department of Transportation analysis of long-haul trucking accidents
indicates that 40 percent are caused by sleeping or drowsy drivers. Like truck drivers, security
officers often experience monotony and an increase in fatigue as a shift progresses, leading
to a gradual loss of alertness. In some ways, the phenomenon of road hypnosis affecting
truck drivers resembles the “sleepwalking” of security officers. Neither individual is actually
hypnotized or asleep in these conditions, but both can almost completely lose the ability to
respond to a sudden change in the situation. In any situation involving undesirable activity
by a security officer, one should not immediately concluded that the individual does not
want to perform the job correctly. An unbiased, root-cause analysis should be completed to
identify all the conditions that may have contributed to the problem. Removing the officer
does not mean the problem is solved.

Protection of Assets • Copyright © 2011 by ASIS International 45

ENHANCING SECURITY OFFICER JOB PERFORMANCE
3.2 Studies of Similar Conditions

Research into vigilant performance can be traced back to at least 1932, when early studies
were made of visual inspection tasks in assembly line operations. However, the most
significant work began during World War II, when studies examined the performance of
ships’ lookouts and radar and sonar operators. The tasks of those operators were sedentary
and involved long periods of waiting with no signals received. These studies revealed that the
operators did not perform at peak efficiency for more than 30–60 minutes, even when a
failure could have serious operational consequences. In Man and the Radar Displays (1962),
Baker reports that his study of British wartime records indicated that “if all radar watches had
been only one-half hour long, enemy submarine detections would have increased by fifty
percent.”

An ASIS CRISP (Connecting Research in Security to Practice) Report—Fatigue Effects and
Countermeasures in 24/7 Security Operations (Miller, 2010, pp. 50-51)—found that
automation often places a human into a monitoring role, which is not usually handled well.
A few of the problems associated with automation and human monitoring are as follows:

x increased monitoring load for the operator with concomitant attention lapses

x high degree of operator responsibility with little to do

x loss in manual skill proficiency by the operator

x out-of-the-loop problems for the operator

x automation replacing human pattern recognition abilities with less competent sensors

x creation of the “cry wolf” syndrome whereby a high false alarm rate causes the operator
to ignore indications of system malfunction so that malfunction rates detected drop
nearly to zero

x inadequate displays that do not support optimal operator performance and do not
allow for individuals’ differing abilities to remain vigilant

x automation problems being misdiagnosed so that erroneous corrective measures are
taken

x failure to recognize subtle vigilance problems until after a large number of automation-
related accidents

Miller researched the effects of fatigue and countermeasures with police officers and other
shift workers. Several serious issues surfaced from the research, including the income-
patibility of humans with nighttime work; the problems associated with schedule changes;
and the effects of fatigue (acute and chronic). Accident rates increase substantially around
0300. They also rise at 1500 due to circadian rhythms. Individuals awake for more than 17

46 Protection of Assets • Copyright © 2011 by ASIS International

ENHANCING SECURITY OFFICER JOB PERFORMANCE
3.2 Studies of Similar Conditions

hours are likely to reach a dangerous level of mental fatigue (p. 34). Chronic fatigue can set in
whenever sleep debt accumulates. Both acute and chronic fatigue impair alertness and
decrease cognitive ability.

To counter decreased vigilance, it makes sense to reevaluate how human assets (protection
officers) are viewed. Management should assess officers’ interaction with technology so that
technology enhances rather than diminishes officer performance. Management and
subordinates should be educated on the challenges posed by fatigue as well as available
countermeasures. Officers’ schedules should allow for meaningful rest, including at least two
nights of unrestricted sleep between shift changes and limitations on days worked
consecutively and hours worked per shift. Increasing the lighting level during the evening
hours and keeping the work environment cool can increase alertness. While anathema to
traditional managerial thinking in much of the world, consideration should be given to
allowing naps where possible.

3.2.1 BEHAVIORAL THEORIES

This section highlights the work of five behavioral scientists who have the most relevance to
security officer functions. A brief summary of someof their concepts follows. The theories are
detailed in other sections of Protection of Assets.

McGregor

Douglas McGregor’s key concept is that every supervisor relates to subordinates on the basis
of assumptions termed Theory X and Theory Y.

Theory X holds that the average worker is by nature indolent, dislikes work, lacks ambition,
avoids responsibility, is passive, is easily led, is gullible, and must be molded to meet the
needs of the organization. This is done by exhortation, driving, punishing, and rewarding, on
the assumption that the worker is indifferent to the needs of the organization and is
incapable of self-discipline. Theory X is personified in the hard-driving authoritarian
manager.

Theory Y assumes that work is natural and can be satisfying or punishing, depending on the
circumstances. This theory holds that individuals are capable of assuming greater
responsibility and seek it in the proper work environment. They are also able to exercise self-
direction, motivation, ingenuity, and creativity. Theory Y represents involvement,
contribution, and commitment by all workers.

Protection of Assets • Copyright © 2011 by ASIS International 47

ENHANCING SECURITY OFFICER JOB PERFORMANCE
3.2 Studies of Similar Conditions

Maslow

Abraham H. Maslow identified a hierarchy of needs, beginning with the most basic physical
needs:

x physiological: needs geared toward survival
x safety and security: needs concerned with the economic, physical, and mental well-

being of the individual
x social or affiliation: the desire to be liked and accepted or to belong
x ego: needs concerned with knowledge, independence, achievement, status, self-confi-

dence, recognition, appreciation, and the respect of others
x self-actualization: needs related to an inner urge to actualize individual potential (also

expressed as “what a person can be, he must be”)

Needs are driving forces and the most effective motivators. However, a satisfied need is no
longer a motivator; providing more of the same may not result in improvement.

As the needs at one level are met, people begin to strive to satisfy higher ones. However, this
is not always done in a precise, well-defined order—even though it is futile to appeal to
higher-level needs before the lower-level needs have been satisfied. Basically, each
individual is multi-motivated, and the yearning for need satisfaction continues throughout
life. Therefore, while the lower-level needs are more demanding, the higher-level needs are
the most effective and enduring as motivators. Recognition of the employee can be a
powerful positive influence.

Herzberg

Frederick Herzberg’s major contribution is disproving the theory that the removal of the
causes of job dissatisfaction and low morale automatically result in improvement and that
motivation and lack of motivation are at opposite ends of a continuum. He provides a two-
dimensional model involving what he describes as hygiene or maintenance factors and
satisfiers or motivators. Hygiene factors appeal to an individual’s avoidance mechanism and
generally relate to working conditions. They include such elements as employer policies,
communications, job security, fringe benefits, working environment, supervision, and inter-
personal relationships. The satisfiers or motivators are elements that make the job more
challenging and lead to personal growth and development. They include earned recognition,
achievement, a sense of contribution, increased authority and responsibility, growth, and
advancement.

According to Herzberg, both sets of factors are necessary, but they serve different purposes.
The causes of lack of motivation and job dissatisfaction must be removed, but doing so does

48 Protection of Assets • Copyright © 2011 by ASIS International

ENHANCING SECURITY OFFICER JOB PERFORMANCE
3.2 Studies of Similar Conditions

not necessarily motivate an individual to improve job performance. In certain cases,
motivators can overcome the negative effects of poor hygiene factors, but the reverse is
seldom true. Ideally, the manager should work to provide a proper balance between the
hygiene factors and the motivators, while at the same time allowing for individual
preferences.

Argyris

According to Chris Argyris, traditional organizational principles, structures, and procedures
are incompatible with the mental health of employees. Such ideas as task specialization,
chain of command, unity of direction, tight budgets, and controls are calculated to make
subordinates passive and submissive, allowing them to have little direction of their own
work. As a result, workers become apathetic, engage in self-protective defense mechanisms,
or just fight the system.

Bennis

Warren G. Bennis’s theory attempts to avoid the polarization of human relations versus
scientific management, and employee satisfactions versus organizational requirements. In
his view, the organization can be an adaptive, problem-solving, innovative system operating
in and coping with rapidly changing environments. Bureaucracy and the “organization man”
will have no place in future organizations, according to Bennis. Instead, future organizations
will have free and full communication regardless of position; reliance on consensus rather
than coercion or compromise; influence based on competence rather than on power; a
climate that allows for the expression of emotions as well as task-oriented actions; and an
acceptance of conflict, coupled with a willingness to deal with it rationally. According to
Bennis, the major organizational challenges of the future include the following:

x integration: synthesizing employee needs and management objectives
x social influence: distributing authority and power effectively
x collaboration: managing and resolving conflicts
x adaptation: responding appropriately to changes induced by the environment
x revitalization: dealing with problems of growth and decay

Protection of Assets • Copyright © 2011 by ASIS International 49

ENHANCING SECURITY OFFICER JOB PERFORMANCE
3.3 Analysis of Personality Traits

3.3 ANALYSIS OF PERSONALITY TRAITS

An officer who excels in a Theory X organization may be a disaster in a Theory Y
environment. The individual’s job knowledge, proficiency, and personality traits should be
matched to the requirements of the assignment. One method of achieving a better match is
to consider the individual’s introvert/extrovert personality traits.

An introverted personality is better adapted to performing monotonous tasks. An introvert is
generally quiet, retiring, and reserved; plans ahead and distrusts impulses of the moment;
avoids excitement; keeps feelings under control; and is essentially nonaggressive.

An extroverted personality is less adapted to performing monotonous or sedentary tasks. The
extrovert generally possesses an outgoing personality; is impulsive; is more likely to take
chances; is uninhibited; is sociable with others; craves excitement and variety; likes to be on
the move; is sometimes unreliable; and can be aggressive with others.

3.4 WORK ENVIRONMENT

Security officers may need to operate in a wide variety of work situations and rapidly
changing conditions. Officers may use automated systems, such as visitor management
systems, geographic information systems (GIS), and communications systems. Posts may be
sedentary or may involve lengthy vehicle or foot patrols. All posts generally share a set of
environmental concerns—such as working space, heat, light, and noise—that may or may
not be amenable to modification.

3.4.1 MECHANICAL ENVIRONMENT

The working space assigned to a fixed security post is generally inadequate in a number of
respects. Often the design and location of the structure do not enhance officers’ ability to see
and hear. Poor air circulation can cause wide fluctuations in the interior temperature, which
can be unhealthy at worst and uncomfortable at best. A prolonged elevation of heat levels
may cause a serious loss of vigilance and may result in security officer drowsiness.

Security officers often work alone. The only contact they may have with supervisors is by
telephone. The inactivity and isolation of the post can induce sleep in the healthiest of
individuals. This is a natural process for all human beings. One should recognize that there
may be extenuating circumstances when a security officer is discovered sleeping on post. If
disciplinary action is required, the supervisor should handle the matter promptly and with
sensitivity.

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3.4 Work Environment

In such a case, it may be possible to use a simple failure analysis checklist. A sample checklist
is shown in Figure 3-1. Security managers can adapt the list to ensure equitable discipline for
performance failures and to determine what changes in the work area might reduce the
incidence of gross performance failures.

• Is the security officer in good health?
• Was any medication used that may cause drowsiness or diminish alertness?
• How many hours of sleep did the security officer have in the previous 24 hours before assuming the

post?
• Were there any changes in the shift schedule that affected this officer?
• How many hours had the officer been awake before reporting to work?
• How many hours was the officer on post before falling asleep?
• What was the inside temperature of the area at the time of discovery?
• What were the lighting levels in the area at the time of discovery?
• Did the security officer have any active functions to perform at the post, or was there enforced inactivity?
• How was the “sleeping on post” detected or reported?

FIGURE 3-1
Checklist for Analyzing Performance Failures: Sleeping on Post

Even a well-designed system can contribute to officer performance failures if principles of
human behavior are overlooked. For example, is it possible that a multiplicity of signals or
response functions may occur simultaneously? Both behavioral theory and practical experi-
ence suggest that overlapping of signals and response requirements will create confusion in
the mind of the security officer and may lead to a serious performance failure. Likewise, the
constant, passive monitoring of closed-circuit television systems can produce rapidly
diminishing vigilance, and a failure to detect unwanted events may result. Some of these
problems can be corrected by first simulating a worst-case condition and then working out a
drill response sequence to ensure the security officer can respond appropriately. It may be
easier to rotate officers at one- to two-hour intervals to maintain vigilant performance.

Today’s control centers may be the hub of activity for a single site or multiple sites. Multiple
work stations and a variety of equipment monitoring security and other building systems
make for a demanding environment.

Closed-Circuit Television

Closed-circuit television (CCTV) can extend a security officer’s effectiveness. However,
watching television monitors is a passive, almost hypnotic activity. Conversely, observing 20
monitors can be highly stressful. Ergonomics should always be considered in the design of a
CCTV console. The design of the system should incorporate display and annunciation

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3.4 Work Environment

features to enhance officer efficiency and maximize the usefulness of the system. Sequential
display of several camera images—where possible—can reduce both the number of monitors
required and the hypnotic effect. A video motion detector can sense a change in a camera
image and alert the security officer. Further, consideration should be given to rotating staff
regularly out of this demanding environment. Even the most vigilant officer cannot maintain
the necessary alertness forever.

Access Control Systems

Access control systems are symbolic of today’s technological security advances. Such
systems may be connected to many other systems, including CCTV and building
management systems. Their overall design must lend itself to vigilant performance. For
example, if there is no way to verify door alarms, officers will quickly learn to ignore them.

Fire Alarm Systems

Fire alarm systems, if improperly managed, can quickly reduce vigilant performance. A
poorly managed system can cause both legitimate and illegitimate alarms to rise to
unacceptable levels. When exposed to false alarms, people learn to ignore the potential
danger. Diligence is required to manage fire alarm systems to ensure that the maximum
effectiveness is achieved.

Miscellaneous

Several other systems tend to end up, by default, being monitored by security staff in the
control center. Because security personnel are often the only people available 24 hours a day,
they are often tasked with managing a system on behalf of another department or asked to
act as backup during off-hours. Examples include elevator monitoring equipment, lighting
control, mechanical area inspections, and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems.
Without proper training and testing and a determination of whether the staff can respond to
the additional requirements, the security officer may feel overloaded and unappreciated.
These are two factors that can quickly lead to performance failures.

3.4.2 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

In analyzing the security officer operation, physical stress must be considered. Physical
standards may vary according to the job assignment, but the types of physical factors listed
in Figure 3-2 are generally found in most security officer positions. The physical capabilities
of the uniformed security officer should be evaluated with these standards in mind. In the
hiring context, preemployment screening is fairest and most efficient when it uses a detailed
list of physical requirements against which the applicant can be measured.

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Physical Factors Sensory Factors

Function Avg. Hours

Total hours on feet 6

Standing 4

Walking – level surfaces 2

Climbing – stairs or ramps 1

Crouching or squatting <1

Back and hip bending (30° – 90°) <1

Bending elbow (both arms) 2

Reaching above shoulders 2

Reaching below shoulders 6

Knee bending 2

Lifting, carrying, pushing, or pulling 16 to 40 lb. from floor to a height of four feet <1

Fingering (pinching or manual dexterity) 4

Handling, grasping, or coarse hand motion 4

Note: Officer may be required to help lift or transport up to 200 lbs. if an employee is sick or injured during an
emergency.

Minimum Requirements • Speech (no serious impediment)
• Eyesight (binocular vision, correctable to 20/30) • Hearing (talking from 20 ft., whispering from 10 ft.)
• Three-dimension vision
• Color vision

Common Exposures
• Operating exposures: power-driven equipment, vehicles, etc.; power hand tools
• Walking exposures: unimproved walkways; obstructions
• Elevations: ladders; elevated test stands
• Temperature: above and below normal due to internal/external patrol requirements at all times of the day or

night, regardless of weather conditions
• Skin irritants: solvents; cleaning compounds

• Respiratory irritants: surface and road dusts

FIGURE 3-2
Physical Demand Analysis for Security Officer Position

Before the principles of job enrichment can be applied to the security officer operation, it is
necessary to analyze each security officer position and then group those with similar physical
demand functions. For example, several different fixed posts may share a common set of
physical demand factors while the factors for a foot or motor patrol may be substantially
different.

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3.4 Work Environment

Next, the security manager should analyze each physical demand factor. The factors must be
analyzed in terms of the average exposures encountered during an eight-hour shift or within
an average workweek. If a job requires prolonged periods of standing on one shift and level
surface walking on another shift for the same post, then these factors may be listed at the
maximum of eight hours. A complete job analysis also provides documentation to support
qualification requirements, based on major job content that might otherwise be deemed
contrary to the nondiscrimination provisions of the Americans with Disabilities Act.

Stress factors may be reduced through job modification. In many cases, this may require
splitting patrols so that a security officer spends four hours at a fixed post and the remainder
of the shift on a roving post. In other instances, this may involve more extensive job
modifications or improvement of environmental factors—such as reducing noise, heat, cold,
wind, or dust.

Fixed Posts

At a fixed post, it is possible to develop a series of functions that maintain the essential
vigilance of the security officer. Alarm test sequences, badge making, key control, and
records maintenance can be incorporated into some security officer posts. The most
effective way to maintain vigilance is to rotate a security officer’s duties between fixed post
and roving patrol (both foot and mobile) assignments.

Foot Patrols

Foot patrols can be physically taxing and may, in some cases, be viewed as a punishing or an
unrewarding job assignment. The types of performance failures associated with foot patrols
center mainly around the skipped or the partially completed patrol round. Sometimes this
type of failure results from fatigue; at other times it may result from overreliance on
electronic alarm systems—the belief that human patrol in an area is unnecessary because it
is protected by an alarm system. Another type of failure results when officers do not
understand what is expected of them when they encounter an incident or when they choose
not to act in accordance with policy.

Every organization has a wide range of minor functions that must be performed. The security
manager should consider expanding the security officer’s role into non-security areas if
doing so increases job interest and improves performance.

Mobile Patrols

Mobile patrols present their own problems. They often involve frequent stopping, starting,
and climbing in and out of vehicles. Many injuries to security officers occur in this process

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3.5 Human Environment

because of darkness, leading to falls. Also, the encapsulation of the security officer in a
moving vehicle greatly restricts his or her range of observation and virtually eliminates the
use of hearing. Some problems can be reduced through the use of electric golf carts,
Segways, bicycles, or other specialized vehicles.

3.5 HUMAN ENVIRONMENT

There is no magic formula to help the security manager in security officer selection,
primarily because of the wide range of duties performed. An individual who may succeed in
one assignment may fail on the next if no consideration has been given to matching the
individual’s job knowledge, proficiency, and personality traits to the assignment.

Though a face-to-face interview is still the most important aspect of personnel selection,
today more and more companies are investing in personality inventories, assessments, and
examinations. When security officers take personality assessments, they gain a better under-
standing of their weaknesses and strengths and how to become better learners, employees,
and communicators.

One assessment is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, which specifies four sets of mental
preferences. The first set relates to how people take in information (sensing verses intuition).
Those who prefer sensing perception favor clear, tangible information that fits in well with
their direct experience. In contrast, those who prefer intuition perception are drawn to
information that is more abstract, conceptual, and big-picture and that represents
imaginative possibilities for the future.

The second set of mental preferences identifies how people form judgments or make
decisions (thinking verses feeling). Those who prefer thinking judgment have a natural
preference for making decisions in an objective, logical, and analytical manner with an
emphasis on tasks and results to be accomplished. Those whose preference is for feeling
judgment make their decisions in a somewhat global, visceral, and value-oriented way,
paying particular attention to the impact of decisions on other people. People who prefer
thinking judgment may seek conceptual or factual clarity in a dispute, seeking to identify
objective principles, whereas a person preferring feeling judgment may seek harmony or
collaboration in the same dispute, seeking to bring the principals in the dispute together
according to their personal values.

The third preference is energy consciousness (extroversion versus introversion). The distinc-
tion boils down to whether people gain their personal energy from the outer world of people,
things, and action or from the inner world of thoughts, ideas, and concepts. People
preferring extroversion tend to enjoy being with large groups of people and prefer to act

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3.5 Human Environment

rather than reflect, while people preferring introversion tend to enjoy quieter activities and
like to reflect before acting.

The fourth preference is life management orientation (sensing versus intuition). The
distinction is whether people pay attention to their five senses, seeing the world as it is, or
whether they are more interested in interpreting or applying meaning to what they see
before them.

People who prefer sensing can be seen as practical and down to earth, relying on experience
or what they see in the moment. People who prefer intuition can be seen as visionaries or
idealists, more interested in the future or some timeless principle.

3.5.1 BIG FIVE MODEL OF PERSONALITY

The purpose of this model is to categorize traits into one of five dimensions. Thus, each
dimension includes multiple traits (Lussier & Achua, 2004, p. 30). The five categories are
surgency, agreeableness, adjustment, conscientiousness, and openness to experience.

x Surgency. This refers to leadership and extroversion. When people have this trait, also
referred to as dominance, they want to be in charge. They wish to get ahead through
both competition and influence. People weak in surgency are followers.

x Agreeableness. This dimension refers to a person’s ability to get along with others or not
and ranges from warm, easygoing, compassionate, friendly, and sociable at one end to
cold, difficult, uncompassionate, unfriendly, and unsociable at the other.

x Adjustment. This personality dimension includes traits related to emotional stability
and ranges from strong to weak or emotionally stable to emotionally unstable. High
adjustment suggests being calm under pressure and being relaxed, secure, and positive.
Low adjustment suggests being out of control, poor under pressure, nervous, or
insecure.

x Conscientiousness. This dimension includes traits related to achievement. Descriptions
range from responsible and dependable to irresponsible and undependable. Conscien-
tiousness also suggests credibility, conformity, organization, and a willingness to work
hard to accomplish goals.

x Openness to experience. This dimension includes traits relating to willingness to
change and try new things.

Personality inventories do not provide certain answers. They merely indicate various
possible strengths and weaknesses.

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3.6 Personal Communication, Training, and Supervision

3.6 PERSONAL COMMUNICATION, TRAINING, AND SUPERVISION

Security officers often depend on written instructions because they may not see a supervisor
each day. However, written instructions must be reinforced through personal commun-
ication. Supervisors should organize their schedules to provide for daily personal contact
with officers. Unless a security officer is constantly challenged as to job knowledge and
operating proficiency, it is impossible to ensure the adequate protection of a facility. The
inspecting supervisor should question the security officer on the details of his assignment as
well as the correct responses to incidents. Figures 3-3 and 3-4 show two different approaches
on this topic by two noted authors in organizational management.

1. Principle of Line Loss. The effectiveness of a communication tends to vary inversely with its
extension. The more people are involved with the line of communication, the greater the probability
of distortion, delay, and loss of meaning.

2. Principle of Emotional Appeal. Appeals to emotion are communicated more readily than appeals to
reason. People will listen and understand better if the ideas being introduced relate to their personal
interests, desires, families, and jobs.

3. Principle of Application. The more a communication is applied, the better it is understood and
remembered. People will retain information better if they can put it to use; application converts ideas
into action and gets results.

Source: Louis Allen, The Management Profession (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964).

FIGURE 3-3
Three Basic Principles of Communication

A. Relationship between method of instruction and learner recall:

Method of Instruction Amount of Information Recalled

3 Hours Later 3 Days Later

1. Telling only 70% 10%

2. Showing only 72% 20%

3. Combination of show and tell 85% 65%
B. A learner tends to remember:

10% of what is read

20% of what is heard

30% of what is seen

50% of what is seen and heard

70% of what is said (for example, repeated instructions)

90% of what is said as the described operation is performed

Source: Frank E. Bird, Jr., Management Guide to Loss Control (Loganville, GA: International Loss Control Institute, 1974).

FIGURE 3-4
Job Instruction and Learner Recall

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3.6 Personal Communication, Training, and Supervision

The following are brief recommendations for the communication and training process:

x Base training on needs. The instructing supervisor should determine any knowledge
deficiencies and take appropriate corrective action.

x Recognize individual differences. Some of the traits that affect individual learning rates
are intelligence, desire to learn, knowledge, aptitudes, interests, motives, attitudes, emo-
tions, and learning ability. It should be possible to establish reasonable standards of
performance for all, while realizing that not everyone can perform at the same level. Not
everyone learns the same things at the same time of life. A learner may not be able to
appreciate or even accept some particular learning at a certain age but may embrace it
later. Individualized instruction can help security officers develop to their best at that
point in their lives.

x Maximize motivation. Supervisors can best motivate people by understanding their
drives and desires; by working with them to achieve meaningful performance standards;
by showing personal interest in each individual; by providing proper incentives; by
setting a good example; by using the positive powers of praise, reward, and recognition;
and by instructing clearly and completely.

x Take the learner’s viewpoint. The best results are obtained when the instructing
supervisor places himself or herself in the learner’s shoes and orients the instruction
accordingly. Asking learners what they feel they need to learn also gets positive results.

x Provide timely feedback. All people in a learning process want to know how well they
are doing. Providing systematic reports of progress may speed up the learning process
considerably.

x Expect ups and downs. Learning often progresses unevenly. It may occur rapidly for a
while, level off, and then increase again. Reasons may include motivation, effort,
physiological conditions, or the method of training.

x Remember follow-up. Repetition and summarizing are useful teaching techniques. The
supervisor should provide information and then offer a recap of what was just
conveyed.

x Learn to instruct. A person may know how to do a job well but may not be able to
impart that knowledge to others. Good instruction requires preparation, practice, and
patience; familiarity with the principles of learning; thorough knowledge of the job to be
taught; and application of the fundamentals of instruction.

3.6.1 CHANGES IN THE WORK ENVIRONMENT

Many security managers experience problems when shift schedules are changed. Security
officers who performed satisfactorily for months or years on one shift may seem unable to
adapt to the same post on a different shift. Transfers to other posts, even on the same shift,
can produce the same performance problem. Usually, the security officer adapts to the
change after a few days.

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3.6 Personal Communication, Training, and Supervision

3.6.2 INTERACTION WITH OTHER EMPLOYEES

Positive interaction between the security officer and other employees must be facilitated ona
continuing basis. The security officer may be perceived as a negative entity because he or she
is an authority figure. Daily business interactions of a minor but positive nature between a
security officer and employees may diminish hostility and alienation.

3.6.3 ENHANCING OBSERVATION CAPABILITIES

A security post should be designed to maximize the security officer’s ability to observe the
protected area. Alarms and CCTV systems may extend the range of surveillance. Also, the
type of glass used in the post is important. Glare from the sun or artificial light is a significant
work fatigue factor common to many security officer operations. The problem is often com-
pounded at night when the glare of artificial lighting greatly restricts the security officer’s
range of observation. High-efficiency anti-reflective coatings essentially eliminate glare as a
performance obstacle.

3.6.4 TESTING AND POST-TESTING

Proficiency in a skill does not last unless an officer receives random performance tests and
feedback. These tests can be simple or complex. A simple test/post-test routine is shown in
Figure 3-5.

Test
1. Test signal is initiated from an external source at random times, but at least once on each shift.
2. The exact time the test signal is transmitted is recorded by the sender.
3. The receiving security officer presses the “acknowledge” button when the signal is received, and

this action automatically records the time and date of signal receipt.
4. The security officer either calls a designated in-plant telephone number and reports the alarm test

(using a test drill checklist) into a telephone message recording device or places a call directly to
the signal sender.

Post-Test

1. The test alarm transmission time is compared to the receiving time recorded on the alarm printer
tape.

2. The recorded message left by the security officer in the alarm response sequence is reviewed for
accuracy and clarity.

3. The test drill checklist is reviewed for accuracy and completeness.
4. The test results are discussed with the security officer no later than the next scheduled work shift.

FIGURE 3-5
Test/Post-Test Routine

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3.6 Personal Communication, Training, and Supervision

3.6.5 ANALYZING JOB PERFORMANCE

Performance appraisals are an essential part of any job. Common criteria for a performance
appraisal are task performance, overall behavior on the job, and positive and negative traits
that relate to the officer’s performance. It is recommended that, as a minimum, an individual
formal performance appraisal be conducted once per year, with an informal review at the six
month mark. This will ensure that the employee knows exactly how he or she is perceived in
the eyes of management.

The next step is to examine each security officer position, identify the types of performance
deficiencies that occur there often, and identify the cause of those deficiencies. It makes
sense to correct first the deficiencies that have the greatest effect on performance. Only an
accurately identified skill deficiency in a security officer can be corrected or modified by
additional training.

3.6.6 SERIOUS MISCONDUCT

Security managers and supervisors must pay immediate attention to some forms of security
officer misconduct, such as the following:

x acts of misconduct involving weapons
x use of unreasonable force (for example, physically restraining a youth when a garden

hose is missing)
x conduct that takes the security officer away from an assigned post without justification
x accusations of criminal conduct (such as fraud, theft, or conducting a body search on an

individual who has revoked consent)
x conduct that interferes significantly with the officer’s ability to perform assigned duties

Among the most serious offenses are those involving the use of alcohol or drugs on duty.
Such offenses are especially serious for security officers equipped with deadly weapons.

Leaving a post without giving proper notice and a sufficient reason is another serious act of
misconduct. A security officer may become ill and have to seek medical assistance urgently,
but he or she should first inform a supervisor.

All these infractions can be covered in a single policy statement. Perhaps the security depart-
ment already has a written statement detailing security officer performance. A separate
statement can be drafted to state that dereliction with respect to any of those matters will be
dealt with as a serious offense. Such a statement would lay the groundwork for employment
termination or other serious discipline. Under common law, deliberate acts by employees,
including security officers, can be pursued in court as intentional torts. Where a union

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3.6 Personal Communication, Training, and Supervision

represents the security force and there is a just-cause discharge provision in the contract, a
clear statement is needed to sustain severe discipline.

3.6.7 MISDIRECTED PUNISHMENT AND REWARDS

Sometimes an officer is reprimanded for doing what is expected. The punishment can take
many forms. An outstanding performer is seldom loved by coworkers and soon moves on or
is pushed out of the group. An individual may be kept on an undesirable post because he or
she handles the job better than others.

Other times, an officer is rewarded for wrong behavior. Misbehaving on the job may bring
prestige to the offender within the work group. Professed ignorance or inability may be
rewarded with an easier assignment.

3.6.8 OFFSETTING THE EFFECTS OF TASK SIMPLIFICATION

Efforts to minimize officer distractions have, in many cases, made officers’ jobs over-
simplified and monotonous. Officers need variety in their tasks. To provide that variety,
supervisors can assign brief, hands-on, special tasks such as inspecting all door-locking
mechanisms within a building and reporting any malfunctions.

Even for a fixed post, it is possible to develop tasks that help the security officer remain
vigilant. Alarm testing, badge-making, key inspection and control, and record maintenance
can be incorporated into some posts.

The most effective way to maintain officer vigilance is to systematically rotate the security
officer’s duties, at two- to four-hour intervals, between fixed post and roving patrol (both
foot and mobile) assignments.

If the security manager served in every security officer post in the facility for several work
shifts each year, he or she would quickly recognize and resolve many of the issues discussed
in this book. Organizations are in a constant state of change, and many of those changes
affect security officer functions. Every reasonable effort should be made to create interesting,
fulfilling jobs. Most security officers respond readily to a security manager who
communicates to them the value of their services.

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CHAPTER 4

TRAINING THE SECURITY OFFICER

Training is a key aspect of success in virtually any work environment. Employees cannot be
expected to perform functions they have not been trained to do. A reasonable expectation of
professional performance by management must be based on continuous training and
development. An increasingly important and relatively new function for security departments is
training and educating.

These basic principles are critical to the success of security officers in any situation. The
complexity of the security officer’s role requires significant amounts of training at both the pre-
assignment and on-the-job phases of the employment relationship. Protection managers are
continuously challenged to find ways to ensure that their subordinates are adequately trained.
This chapter provides an introductory framework for meeting this challenge.

4.1 HISTORY OF SECURITY OFFICER TRAINING

Throughout history, serious loss problems often spawned the development of security
measures. History also shows that the security measures adopted by private organizations
were often linked to those used in public policing and the military. A study of these
developments and the nexus between them is essential to fully comprehend the evolution of
security officers.

It is also important to appreciate the various milestones in security officer training, although
the training of security officers has lagged far behind their hiring and deployment.

Security officers have not benefited from an abundance of training opportunities that can be
documented in historical references. Nonetheless, key junctures in the evolution of training
specifically for protection officers can be identified. These historical parallels not only shed
light on the development of training but also can lead to actual instructional initiatives.

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4.1 History of Security Officer Training

The seeds of today’s security officer training efforts can be seen in the development of
apprenticeships, formal and informal training efforts, government and private studies, and
training guidelines and standards.

4.1.1 APPRENTICESHIPS

Of the several legally binding codes surviving from the ancient Middle East, the most famous
may be the Code of Hammurabi, sixth king of the Amorite Dynasty of Old Babylon. The code
is perhaps best known for its retributive provisions: “an eye for an eye; a tooth for a tooth.”
More importantly, however, the code regulated commerce and required craftsmen to teach
their skills to younger persons. This system of apprenticeships ensured that adequate
numbers of craftsmen were maintained.

Centuries later, in the waning years of the Roman Empire, craftsmen began to organize
themselves into “collegia” to maintain standards within their trades. By the thirteenth
century, guilds representing various occupational groups began to appear throughout
Europe. Similar to collegia, guilds supervised quality, established methods of production,
and regulated employment conditions. In time, guilds monopolized the trades, requiring
heavy fees for entry and allowing only the sons of guild members to become apprentices.

Government intervention became necessary, and in 1563 the Statute of Artificers was
enacted in England. Under this statute, persons could not practice a trade unless they had
been apprentices. The statute also regulated the number of apprentices a master might have
and gave justices of the peace authority to assess wages (Encyclopaedia Britannica,1989).
Apprenticeships remained popular in the Middle Ages because tools specific to a trade were
becoming more complex, meaning parents could no longer simply teach a trade to their
children. In exchange for work, then, craftsmen would teach apprentices who normally lived
with their teachers. Apprentices received only a small salary because the opportunity to learn
a skill was, in itself, highly valuable.

American law enforcement has featured apprenticeship programs for many years. Examples
include law enforcement explorers, cadet and community service programs, and internships.
Apprenticeships serve as recruitment tools and community outreach programs (Orrick, 2010,
p. 20).

Apprenticeships have numerous parallels to the evolution of training in the security industry.
First, on-the-job training, a basic form of security training, can be thought of as an abbreviated
form of apprenticeship because it is easily structured, requiring only a single instructor and the
tools or equipment needed to do the job. It must be documented, however, to ensure that
crucial knowledge is imparted. Second, professional certifications in security can be thought of

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4.2 Key Training Concepts

as a simplified form of apprenticeship. While certifications generally do not require a teacher,
they do require and document a certain level of experience.

As a third parallel, field training officers (FTOs), common in policing, mentor new officers
and evaluate their suitability for the job, a relationship similar to an apprenticeship. Because
the role of the FTO involves evaluation as well as teaching, FTO programs usually require
considerable planning and instructor preparation.

Finally, formalized training based on the apprenticeship model has been developed by
various organizations. The British Security Industry Association (BSIA), for example, has
aided in establishing apprentice alarm installers. While this program is not for security
officers, it demonstrates another way that apprenticeship programs for security officers
could be established. Such programs may be particularly applicable to highly specialized
protection officers, such as executive protection specialists who are hired to guard celebrities
or other VIPs.

4.2 KEY TRAINING CONCEPTS

Establishing a training program requires persistence, humility, and creativity. Understanding
various leaning concepts and applying them correctly is the key to success in training design
and implementation. While an in-depth study of the theory of teaching, training, and adult
learning is beyond the scope of this chapter, security personnel charged with training
responsibilities must continue to study if professional-level training is going to be offered to
line security officers.

A brief introduction to the terms and concepts related to the training function is outlined in
the following paragraphs. Those concepts include learning at the cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor levels, retention and transfer, and socialization. The interrelated concepts of
education, training, and development are also explored.

4.2.1 LEARNING

A positive change in a person’s knowledge, skill, ability, or perspective occurs through
learning. A basic tenet of learning is that there are numerous learning styles for different
persons. Everyone learns in a slightly different way. Some are visual learners, some are adept
at absorbing information from reading, while others are active learners who must be
engaged to learn.

In addition, individuals learn differently at various times in their lives and careers. The
perspective of a veteran employee or supervisor is different than that of a neophyte. Older

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4.2 Key Training Concepts

persons “see” things differently than their younger counterparts. A protection officer with a
graduate degree may have an enhanced view of managerial theory and concepts, while one
with purely work-related experience may better understand and adapt ideas for practical
purposes.

Effective instructional design cannot be developed to fit the specific learning styles and
perspectives of each individual. However, it can, and indeed must, incorporate various
means of imparting information. These approaches should be applied in a systematic,
continuous manner throughout the employee relationship.

Learning can be separated into various domains: cognitive (knowledge-based), affective
(attitudinal or perceptual), and psychomotor (physical skills):

x Cognitive learning. The intellectual aspect of learning—cognition—includes the
amount of material that is learned and the theory relating to the material. Cognition, a
key component of problem solving, involves grasping a theory and applying that theory
to practice. Thibodeau (2008) warns against short-circuiting cognitive learning by
showing short, generic security videos without an instructor being present. For
cognition to take place, there must be a full and complete explanation of a topic. For
example, videos need to be supported through active learning techniques such as
questions for the viewer to consider; a pre-test; a challenging, valid post-test; and guid-
ance from an instructor or supervisor.

x Affective learning. How a person views a situation is changed by affective learning.
Training of this type includes understanding various cultures, dealing with disabled
persons, practicing safety compliance, and exploring the methods used by adversaries
to acquire information. Protecting assets effectively is based on the ability to understand
loss and appreciate how it affects an organization. Securing assets against an adversary
requires an appreciation of that adversary. In addition, affective learning can aid
trainees in appreciating and realizing the nature of assaultive behavior. The criminal
mindset and speed of an assault need to be thoroughly grasped by protection staff.
Those who do not fully understand this can easily become victims. Affective learning is
essential to a professional protection force concerned with terrorism, espionage,
workplace safety, and maintaining positive relations with the various publics that an
organization deals with, including customers, employees, vendors, police, emergency
medical personnel, HAZMAT teams, etc. Affective learning should be integrated within
the cognitive and psychomotor aspects of the instructional program.

x Psychomotor learning. The physical or hands-on aspect of learning falls under the
psychomotor domain. Psychomotor training encompasses everything from equipment
operation to defensive driving tactics to emergency response skills. Psychomotor devel-
opment requires repetition, practice, and refresher courses. Regular defensive tactics
and firearms training, annual fire extinguisher training, and first aid recertification are

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4.2 Key Training Concepts

all necessary to maintain psychomotor skills. Training managers should carefully
research the recognized frequency with which psychomotor skills must be refreshed
and incorporate this schedule into the training process.

4.2.2 RETENTION AND TRANSFER

Retention, or the amount of learning that remains with the learner over a period of time,
requires reiteration. Having the student perform the task while listening to the instructor
promotes the highest retention of information. Continuous learning aids in both retention
and the transfer or application to the job of the knowledge, skills, and abilities obtained in
training. Transfer concerns the relevance of the learning to the job environment, thereby
ensuring that what is learned in the classroom is put to use.

4.2.3 SOCIALIZATION

Socialization includes the process by which an employee learns and adopts workplace
values. Training is a major part of formal socialization. It can be thought of as occupational
or professional socialization. Supervision is another key aspect. Managers need to ensure
that a single coherent message is sent throughout the formal aspects of the socialization
process.

Informal socialization also occurs and is often a stronger influence than formal socialization.
Therefore, managers must be wary of negative socialization that can occur via peer group
influence.

4.2.4 EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND DEVELOPMENT

As the following equation shows, the professional expertise that officers acquire through a
combination of education, training, and guided experience leads to personal development.

Education
+ Training
+ Guided Experience

Development

Supervisors and managers have a key role to play in guiding security officer job experience so
that it is developmental. Therefore, the importance of teaching, counseling, and coaching for
supervisors and managers cannot be overstated.

Education, training, and development are interrelated and mutually supportive concepts
that enhance job performance. Each is distinct, but they all result in learning—a positive
change in workplace behavior. Each process reinforces and builds on the other, resulting in a
more competent, capable, and professional protection officer.

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4.2 Key Training Concepts

Education

The acquisition of knowledge and information leads to education, which broadens a
person’s perspective and appreciation (affective learning). Education may not specifically
apply to a job but is concerned more with the “why” rather than the “how to” aspect of job
performance.

A broadening and deepening of one’s perspective leads to increased education, which
furthers understanding. The more education a person receives, either formally or informally,
the easier it is for that person to learn new things. Hence, an educated security force can be
more easily trained. Education, then, is the foundation of training, certainly within the
cognitive and affective learning domains. Educated persons readily accept learning, or
change, much more easily than uneducated ones. They read faster, write better, and are
more adept at problem solving—the ultimate challenge in a security officer’s job.

Training

Training is the acquisition of the knowledge, skills, and abilities that directly relate to job
performance. It is the formal process used to facilitate learning. Training has a definite
purpose—for example, teaching security officers such specifics as how to operate detection
equipment, conduct interviews, or monitor alarms. Training is specific preparation for com-
pleting job tasks and involves practice and repetition. Therefore, training must be
continuous and should include repetition.

True training is something akin to indoctrination where basic principles are presented and
imbued into learning. It produces a change in the behavior of the learner. While obvious
examples involve emergency psychomotor skills, such as defensive tactics, driving, or
operating a fire extinguisher, the principle is applicable to all training. If protection officers
continuously use certain techniques when conducting an interview, such as a long pause or
para-verbal prompters (uh-huh), they will become adept at interviewing. Once every
interview is done proficiently through the skillful use of basic principles, then more
advanced learning can occur.

Development

Job incumbents must learn to understand (through education) and acquire some degree of
proficiency (through training) to develop as an employee. The old saying “experience is the
best teacher” is not necessarily accurate. Experience must be guided or directed by
education and training. If employees do not understand or appreciate what they are
experiencing, they may learn the wrong lessons. And those mistakes may, and probably will,
be repeated. Experience without education and training is the most expensive teacher.

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4.3 Benefits of Training

Competence and professional growth for those personnel who already meet performance
expectations constitutes development. It is the grooming of an employee—making a good
employee into a great one. Development is the culmination of education, training, and
experience mixed with a substantial dose of professional commitment.

According to Grimme and Grimme (2004), development

x adds new skills or competencies,
x sharpens or enhances existing competencies,
x encourages the application of knowledge or skills to the job,
x fosters increased performance so that the employee becomes more efficient and works

smarter,
x prepares the employee for future promotion,
x prepares the subordinate for new challenges, and
x aids the officer or investigator in problem solving.

The last two objectives are perhaps the most important. Challenges faced by subordinates
can include new assignments within their present job category, such as investigative tasks,
special events, emergency situations, or having to fill in for a supervisor temporarily. A
critical aspect of facing challenges in protection operations is flexibility. If personnel are not
cross-trained, then staffing specific posts can be a problem. Problem solving is, after all, a
major part of the protection mission in virtually any environment.

4.3 BENEFITS OF TRAINING

While training does involve cost, it also has many benefits. Both the costs and benefits of
training must be assessed to chart a course that will provide the greatest return on a
company’s investment.

The principal benefits of training include improved job performance, ease of supervision,
revised procedures, staff motivation, reduced turnover, and legal protection.

4.3.1 IMPROVED JOB PERFORMANCE

True training makes protection officers proficient at job tasks. Managers cannot expect any
degree of proficiency without training.

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4.3 Benefits of Training

4.3.2 EASE OF SUPERVISION

Well-trained protection officers are easier to supervise. Managers in organizations that have
professionally developed training programs can spend more of their time addressing issues
that are not related to the imparting of rudimentary job knowledge. Burstein (1996) states:

Effective training makes supervision easier and less time-consuming: effective supervision
reduces the need for discipline, and the most cost-effective way to discipline personnel is
through additional training, not punishment.

4.3.3 PROCEDURE REVIEW

The analysis of job tasks that managers must complete before training can be conducted is
the same process that must occur before procedures can be developed. McGlaughlin (2003)
found that after a training program had been written and implemented for operating the
elevators in a hospital, all problems with the elevators ceased. For this reason, an
organization’s training function often resides within the planning or research department.

4.3.4 STAFF MOTIVATION

Better training can increase employee self-worth and job satisfaction. Burstein (1996)
mentions a security director who accomplished both basic and refresher training through a
combination of films, textbooks, lectures, computers, and examinations. All examination
questions were available via computer. While not in a classroom environment, the structured
format proved to be relatively inexpensive and improved morale among the officers.
Employees and visitors also gained a more professional image of the officers. Creating a
professional identity within the ranks of security officers led to a more professional approach
to job performance.

4.3.5 REDUCED TURNOVER

While many factors can help reduce turnover, training—if applied artfully—can be a
significant one. Training can reduce the stress to an officer who is confronting new and
unique challenges. Training also demonstrates management’s concern for the welfare of the
officer. Knowledge of the work environment, management expectations, and problem
solving techniques all serve to reduce anxiety on the part of new employees.

Carr (2011) maintains that in general employers appear to be oblivious to the needs and
desires of employees. He advocates consistent, honest communication with employees. This
is of particular import regarding the long-term plans of the organization. Employees need to
feel as though they are a part of the plans. Protection officers have an increased need in this
regard; not only are they members of management, but they will be involved in any
downsizing that the organization may go through.

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4.3 Benefits of Training

Ortmeier (2005) maintains that employee retention begins with open lines of
communication designed to ensure that realistic expectations are in place for new and
existing employees. The next step is a proper orientation to the employee’s work
environment followed by training about the organization’s products, services, culture, and
expectations. Goodboe (2002) discusses a program at the Wackenhut Corporation that
prepared supervisors to be better at training their subordinates. Three years after the
program was implemented, a substantial decrease in turnover was noted.

The security department at West Manchester Mall in York, Pennsylvania, experienced an 85
percent to 90 percent reduction in turnover. While officers received a 7 percent to 10 percent
wage increase, training was cited as the primary factor in reducing turnover. According to
Pero (February 2003), the training process for new security officers at West Manchester
includes the following components:

x completion of the Professional Security Training Network (PSTN) Basic Series before
being assigned to a field training officer for the first 90 days of employment

x completion of the Federal Emergency Management Agency’s Emergency Response To
Terrorism course and the PSTN Shopping Center Series, along with monthly training
sessions in the appropriate use of fire extinguishers, handcuffs, and oleoresin capsicum
(pepper) spray

x completion of the PSTN Supervisor Series within one year of employment

x completion of the Certified Protection Officer Final Challenge Option after one year of
employment

Carr (2011, p. 116) maintains that there is an element of social justice within development
opportunities in that the options are available to everyone. Development via training
provides recognition to the officer, something traditionally lacking in the security industry.
Leaders would be well advised to seek out opportunities to recognize their subordinates.
Training, especially with its associated pins, certificates, and promotion in grade, offers
innumerable opportunities to recognize staff.

4.3.6 LEGAL PROTECTION

Management’s failure to train security officers can result in complaints from labor unions or
plaintiffs in a legal claim of negligence. To be prepared for such challenges, managers should
be sure to document all training. A roster of attendees and class activities should also be kept
for every training class. Tests should be signed by both instructors and the employee being
tested. A centralized database should be kept on all security officer training activity.
Additionally, on-the-job checklists and employee evaluations should document the
instruction given, since performance deficiencies are often caused by both training and

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4.4 Identifying Training Needs

supervisory breakdowns. Documenting each step in the training and supervisory processes
helps ensure accountability. Reiteration of training can negate claims that officers were not
trained often or recently.

4.4 IDENTIFYING TRAINING NEEDS

Before instituting any instruction, training needs must be identified. This process can be
completed in several ways. As a first step, the manager conducting the assessment should
determine whether any legal requirements for training apply. These requirements may be
mandated by government or by contractual agreement. Contracts with governmental
entities may need to comply with certain training standards, such as those established by the
Canadian General Standards Board. Training mandates may also be part of a client contract
or be included in a union agreement. Insurance carriers may also impose training
requirements.

Once any requirements for training are known, the manager should identify relevant
standards, guidelines, or industry best practices that can help set training parameters.
Increasingly, professional organizations are publishing training recommendations. ASIS
International, the National Association of Security Companies, and the International
Association of Chiefs of Police have all released security officer training guidelines.

Community standards should also be assessed to see if similar facilities within a geographic
area, such as hotels or colleges, are providing specific types of training. Reviewing the
training schedules of neighboring facilities can help the manager spot deficiencies in his or
her own training program and learn of useful training innovations or instructional resources.

Performance deficiencies noted in after-action reports following an incident or in
performance appraisals can also point out training needs. Training should prepare security
officers to perform both routine and emergency duties in a professional manner.

Protection officers themselves can be asked to identify and rank needed training topics. This
form of job task analysis may also be useful in identifying previously unknown training
needs. Asking officers to help set the training agenda validates their self-worth and
encourages participation in subsequent training. Gaining cooperation is vital, especially if
the training may disrupt officers’ schedules or challenge their abilities.

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4.5 Training Program Assessment and Design

4.5 TRAINING PROGRAM ASSESSMENT AND DESIGN

Once instructional needs have been identified, managers can proceed with designing,
developing, and evaluating the training program. Before beginning, however, the following
questions must be answered.

x Is the training needed to solve a current performance problem? Training should only
be used when there is a documented deficiency in knowledge, skill, or ability on the part
of job incumbents. It is inappropriate and a waste of precious funds if training is used to
compensate for non-performance issues such as poor job design, inadequate
equipment, or low morale.

x How will the training be funded? Creative managers can often find many ways to fund
training. Every funding resource should be identified and quantified. At the same time,
an analysis of the total cost to the company if the training is not administered should be
calculated. Long-term costs to the organization may well exceed the short-term
expenditures needed for a training program. The following adage applies: “If you think
education is expensive, try ignorance.”

x When does the training need to be completed? If training is needed immediately, using
an off-the-shelf program or contracting with an outside trainer will probably yield the
best results. If the needed training program is already in place or can be developed
within a two-year window, in-house instructors may be the best option.

Generally speaking, however, rushing into training is problematic. Costs often get out of
control, and scheduling the instruction may interfere with both the trainer’s and
student’s routine. For this reason, having an established training structure that can
accommodate new demands with minimal disruption is the best option. As a part of this
structure, managers should give serious consideration to appointing an individual who
can be in charge of training and can track specific training required by state mandates
or insurance companies, which change frequently. An established training structure can
more easily adapt to new demands.

x Who needs to be trained? Determining what will encompass basic, pre-assignment
training and what topics will be taught to seasoned employees must be done so that the
content can be tailored to the learners. Investing in pre-assignment training may create
a more loyal and competent employee. Continual learning is also important, however,
since every employee’s skills need to be refreshed from time to time.

Requiring persons to participate in training simply to keep their jobs should, for many
reasons, be avoided if possible (Stroberger, 1999). First, the concept contradicts
Malcolm Knowles’s “principles of andragogy,” a theory of adult learning that assumes
adults are self-directed and will take responsibility for their own learning needs. Also,
mandated training undermines the credibility of the entire training program in the eyes
of the recipient. Management, as the provider of the training, may lose credibility as well

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4.4 Training Program Assessment and Design

(Hertig, 1993). Finally, training requirements, particularly those imposed by govern-
ment entities, usually set only minimum standards. Simply complying with them will in
no way ensure a reasonable degree of professional competence among a security staff.

4.5.1 BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES

Based on the identified training need, behavioral objectives should be written for the actual
training program. Each objective should describe the desired task, the conditions for
performing the task, and the criteria for an acceptable performance of the task. Since the
objectives guide the development of instruction and tests, they can be most effective when
written with the help of a consultant.

The initial statement of the objective can be simple: “conduct vehicle searches” or “monitor
the telephone.” But once the actual instructional design begins, very specific objectives
should be developed. For example, “The trainee will identify items of contraband depicted in
photographs within the facility with 100 percent accuracy.” This statement specifies the task
(identify), the conditions (photographs), and the criteria (100 percent accuracy).

4.5.2 DESIGNING THE INSTRUCTION

Developing instructional modules takes time and expertise. The key aspects are the ability to
design the instruction and then to prepare tests and documentation. To facilitate the
process, appointing a staff member to be in charge of training or hiring an outside consultant
may be in order. The pros and cons of such a decision must be weighed carefully. Internal
personnel know the organization but may lack the technical expertise to design training.
External consultants may not be intimately familiar with the organization but do have
training experience and a network of professionals they can call for assistance. Certainly, few
individuals can be expert in all phases of program development, so some form of training
team is generally necessary. If time, available expertise, and money are issues, however,
purchasing off-the-shelf programs may make more sense, provided the programs meet the
organization’s needs.

Outsourcing instructors is another approach, and this technique may be necessary when first
starting a training program. Instructors must be selected carefully, since they play a
dominant role in officer socialization. Qualifications to teach (education, training,
experience, and certifications) should be carefully assessed. An instructor’s perspective on
the role of the security officer should also be explored. Persons from a law enforcement
background may have trouble understanding the various roles of a security officer; some
may even be condescending to their students. In-house personnel may have a narrow
perspective on the topics being taught and may not be aware of new research or court
decisions, for example. Another caution is to be wary of the “Certified Trainer Syndrome,”
which can occur when an instructor purports to be certified on a topic but has no

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4.5 Training Program Assessment and Design

background to teach a class (Hertig, 1993). Instructors must be advocates for their students,
and they must be well prepared to fulfill that role.

4.5.3 TRAINING EVALUATION

Since training is expensive and time-consuming, it must be evaluated closely. The number or
proportion of employees exposed to training is considered the learning contact. When
evaluating training, the learning contact is important since programs that the entire security
staff does not participate in are of limited, and perhaps questionable, value.

Participant evaluations should always be used to assess how the training is perceived and to
provide feedback on the instructor. Participant evaluations are usually not good as validation
tools, however, because they do not measure actual learning. Rather, they validate what the
learners thought they learned. A feedback form that forces the participant to recount
information that was learned and tell how it can be applied to the job is more useful.

Tests should be as objective as possible: the respondent either supplied the correct answer or
did not. Other types of tests, such as essays and multiple choice, may provide additional
information but must be developed carefully and graded objectively. Test design is one part
of training development where external experts should be consulted. Commercially available
training programs generally include tests as part of the purchase, which can save time and
money on test development. Care must be taken, however, to ensure that the tests are valid
and challenging.

Rating forms, which can be used by evaluators to specify whether the trainee did or did not
perform a specific task, are simple to develop. However, the task to be accomplished must be
clear to all parties. There must also be room for narrative comments from the evaluator on
the form.

Drills or scenarios are useful as final examinations for the security force as a whole as well as
for individual officers. They can also be used as motivational tools during periods of low
activity and are excellent for teaching officers how to resolve certain problems. Drills must be
safe and valid and must test on training that the officers have already received.

Incident review is another way to evaluate training. After a crisis, the security manager
should assess how individual officers—and the overall organization—responded. In this way,
policies and procedures can be dissected, and equipment and training can be tested. If
officers responded inappropriately, revised training may be necessary.

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4.6 Training Methodology

4.6 TRAINING METHODOLOGY

Effective training can be delivered in many ways. The method chosen will be affected by
scheduling, available technologies, the comfort level of the instructor, and the number of
persons who will receive the training. Security managers responsible for training should
consider the following options: lectures, job aids, distance learning, on-the-job training, and
mentoring,

4.6.1 LECTURES

A traditional method used to instruct personnel, lectures are a useful and necessary
technique for ensuring that a group receives a common body of knowledge. Lectures are
appropriate for introducing a topic and setting the course of the instruction, with follow-up
training offered through other methods, such as role playing, video learning, and physical
skills training.

Lectures are not appropriate for individualized instruction, however. They may also be
ineffective if the session is not short and dynamic. If the lecture must be scheduled right after
lunch, the instructor should suggest participants take a drink of water before sitting down,
keep the lighting level a little brighter, and plan to have the participants move around.

By using a variety of visual aids, such as flip charts, overheads, white easels, blackboards, and
digital slide presentations and videos, the instructor can help get the message across and
keeps the learner’s attention. Changing the lighting level when using projection or a flip
chart are other ways instructors can keep the class stimulating.

Lecturers can produce a simple handout by omitting key words or concepts from a lesson
plan and distributing it as a fill-in-the-blank form. This can be done on online as well as on
paper. Learners can then be asked to write in the appropriate content as it is presented.

4.6.2 CASE STUDIES

The case study method was developed at Harvard University in the 1880s. It has been used
for the teaching of law and is also useful for guiding the learner in any topic where
discretionary judgment is necessary. Crisis management, use of force, and ethics are all
amenable to instruction via case study. Case studies can be used to supplement lectures and
give them life. The lecture can present the facts needed and then have some time for
discussion. Video presentations can reduce the time needed for the facts to be presented.

In general the case study method works best with students working together in groups where
there is active discussion. It could be used as a means of individual tutoring. Evolving
communication technologies may make case study a viable learning option for one-on-one
instruction.

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4.6 Training Methodology

4.6.3 JOB AIDS

Job aids are convenient reminders on how to do a task. They can be detailed, such as an
operator’s manual for a CCTV monitor, or straightforward, such as signs giving instruction
on operating detection equipment or laminated cards with key telephone answering points.
Also called “take-aways” (McGlaughlin, 2003), job aids help ensure that correct procedures
presented previously to officers in training sessions are being followed. Ideally, they are a
supplement—not a substitute—for training.

4.6.4 DISTANCE LEARNING

Instruction where the learner and teacher are at different locations but are still able to
communicate is called distance learning. If individualized instruction is necessary, distance
learning, also called distance education, is probably the only means of accomplishing it.

This type of instruction can be delivered in a number of formats, from the old-fashioned
correspondence course to computer-based instruction using the Internet or CD-ROM.
Professional certifications often use a form of distance learning since candidates study
material individually then take an examination. Even college research papers could be
considered a form of distance learning.

Some trainers reject distance learning, preferring to rely only on traditional classroom
training. However, protection managers who fail to use all the training techniques available
today, including distance learning, will almost certainly fail to train all their subordinates
adequately. Distance learning is accepted and necessary in many training applications.
Security service providers, for example, often use distance learning because they need to
deliver consistent training to many sites.

4.6.5 ON-THE-JOB TRAINING

On-the-job training (OJT) is easy to develop. It is an especially useful way to ensure that
transfer of learning, from instructor to student, has occurred. OJT works well when it is
structured with specified procedures and a competent coach. The written part of the training
can be a simple checklist of the key topics to be covered, with room for narrative comments.
However, if it is not structured properly, the effectiveness of OJT is often questioned.

4.6.6 MENTORING

Many contemporary protection officers are considered to be management representatives.
To fulfill this role, they must be familiar with management’s philosophy and the corporate
culture, meaning they must be highly socialized. Mentoring and field training officer (FTO)
programs are useful ways to enhance the socialization aspect of the training process.

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4.7 The Training Process

In a mentoring program, a new security officer, after completing pre-assignment training, is
placed with a mentor who coaches him or her on the job. A mentoring system assists with
socialization and helps bridge any gaps between classroom-based pre-assignment training
and the realities of the job environment. The mentor teaches but does not evaluate.

By contrast, in true FTO programs, the mentor is also a supervisor who evaluates the
neophyte’s performance. At some point a recommendation to retain or terminate the
employee must come from the FTO. Obviously, the role of the FTO is complex, and executing
it effectively requires considerable planning and training.

In most security environments, a mentoring system works best. Mentors can be rewarded
with a salary increase and even a different job title such as “lead protection officer” or “senior
security officer.”

4.7 THE TRAINING PROCESS

Training must be conducted as a process consisting of a series of carefully structured
learning sessions or episodes that are mutually supportive. Each learning opportunity should
build on the previous one. Ideally, security officer training should mirror the concept of
lifelong learning, where learning occurs constantly throughout the employment relationship.

One method of ensuring continuous learning is to separate the training process into
segments. Trainers structure their sessions with an introduction and body, then close each
topic with a summary and test.

For example, during orientation, officers are introduced to the training topics: patrol
functions, fixed posts, executive protection, vehicle safety, and fire prevention. The main
body of instruction occurs through OJT, studying aspects of the Certified Protection Officer
(CPO) program, completing Web-based programs, or participating in in-house courses.
Closure would occur via a supervisor check-off of an OJT form, a commercial test such as
those included with the CPO, Critical Information Network (CiNet), or American Safety
Training programs, or custom tests developed as part of an in-house course.

What is needed is some degree of redundancy as well as a sequence of learning. Managers
developing training programs should examine whether current training in specific topics has
a sufficient introduction, body, and closure (summary and test).

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4.8 Obstacles to Providing Training

4.8 OBSTACLES TO PROVIDING TRAINING

Before developing training programs, protection managers must have a clear understanding
of the obstacles that arise to implementation so they can foresee them and plan for them.
Rushing blindly into the launch of a training program usually results in substantial problems.
Unfortunately, when this happens, the training program is derailed and security officers do
not receive needed training. The most common obstacles are budgetary limitations,
scheduling, a lack of management training expertise, prejudice, and ego.

4.8.1 BUDGETARY LIMITATIONS

Budgetary limitations are a major enemy of training, and finding the dollars needed for in-
house training can be difficult. Managers must realistically identify all costs associated with
the proposed training, such as compensation for those being trained, overtime pay for
replacement officers, instructor fees, training aids and equipment, materials purchase, and
administrative development. Once a firm amount is established, managers can determine
how best to proceed.

Training budgets can be stretched in many ways. Several common approaches follow:

x Purchase off-the-shelf training programs. Purchasing a program that meets a number
of instructional needs is much less expensive than developing custom training
programs. While the programs selected must be relevant, they do not need to be perfect,
especially if the alternative is no training or a time-consuming development process.
Purchased programs can always be supplemented with materials tailored to a specific
training need or environment.

x Outsource training to a local community college or technical institution. Having the
officers complete set coursework at an external institution may cut a lot of costs. This
can be made a condition of employment or be put into a horizontal promotion scheme.

x Assess the availability of grant monies that may be available for training. Various state
and federal programs may provide funding for job training.

x Join professional organizations. Professional organizations such as the International
Law Enforcement Educators & Trainers Association, ASIS International, and the
International Foundation for Protection Officers provide discounts on educational
programs to their members. Attending classes and other training opportunities
sponsored by these groups gives learners access to instructors and materials that would
be both difficult and expensive to replicate.

x Share instructional materials. Other branches of the company or neighboring facilities
may be willing to partner in training initiatives. Borrowing a video program from a
nearby high school or college may be feasible. Purchasing a video program and lending
it to a nearby school can also create positive publicity and significant goodwill.

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4.8 Obstacles to Providing Training

x Use distance learning. The appropriate use of distance learning can reduce classroom
and instructor time and costs.

4.8.2 SCHEDULING

Finding time for training is difficult in situations where the security organization is a 24/7
operation. Classes must be offered numerous times to expose all security officers to the
learning. Employing some type of distance education or self-teaching is most useful in
overcoming the scheduling dilemma. The following options should be considered:

x Pass-along media. The old audio cassettes were often passed along so that an officer or
investigator could listen to the tape at a convenient time and answer questions based on
the tape or engage in interactive exercises. CDs, DVDs, and videotapes have all been
used in a similar manner. Pass-alongs may be an easy and inexpensive strategy—
particularly useful for smaller organizations or groups studying to pass a certification
examination.

x Online learning programs. Available in either synchronous delivery (where instructor
and learner are working together in real time) or asynchronous delivery (where
instruction is given and feedback is not immediate or in real time), online learning takes
many forms. There are packaged learning programs specially adapted for various types
and levels of protection officers. There are also webinars, which were originally for
management-level personnel but can be used for entry-level officers. Webinars may
include test and learning documentation. Online programs have the advantage of being
more stimulating and interactive than pure pass-along technologies. Organizations with
substantial numbers of personnel to train may wish to consider developing their own
customized e-learning programs, a prospect particularly applicable to security service
providers that have a centralized training department. In proprietary settings, an
economy of scale may be achieved for development costs if the program is designed to
be applicable to employees beyond the security department, such as managers, emer-
gency squad members, or even all employees. An organizational learning needs
assessment will aid in determining the viability of these approaches

x Written procedures. If officers can receive written procedures, they can then be tested
on the contents. This technique has the advantage of being low-cost, facility- or
organization-specific, and relatively easy to administer. Some type of human interaction
should still occur, however, to ensure that the procedures are interpreted correctly.

x Pass-along logs. Procedures, instructions, or even magazine articles can be sent to a
recipient who then passes them on to another. The communication can be via e-mail,
Web site, or an actual document with a routing slip attached. Pass-along logs can be an
inexpensive means of keeping learning alive. They can also be used to target current
learning needs where they serve to remind and reiterate important information.

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4.8 Obstacles to Providing Training

x Distance learning. Online programs such as those offered by ASIS International or
various universities are generally used for developing supervisory or managerial
personnel. Investigators may benefit from some of these programs also.

x Certifications. Professional certification programs are worthwhile educational
endeavors. Examples are the Physical Security Professional (PSP) sponsored by ASIS
International, Certified Protection Officer (CPO) offered by the International
Foundation for Protection Officers, and the Certified Institutional Protection Specialist
(CIPS) administered by the International Foundation for Cultural Property Protection.
Differing levels of security practitioners can be certified in specialties through
comprehensive, industry-recognized programs offered by such organizations as the
International Association of Healthcare Security & Safety and the American Hotel and
Lodging Association. Instruction is usually based on distance education or home study to
minimize scheduling problems. While certifications provide a substantial development
opportunity for individuals, they also benefit employers since they represent a recognized
educational standard that can be used as a benchmark and a promotional tool for the
security organization. An added positive is the international flavor of professional
certifications in a global economy.

4.8.3 LACK OF MANAGEMENT EXPERTISE IN TRAINING

Most managers, as knowledgeable and good communicators, are capable of teaching a few
subjects. Unfortunately, without some education, training, or experience in how to design
and deliver training, managers will have difficulty in doing so. While most protection
managers understand the need for training, few know all that is needed to administer the
entire process. Assessing training needs, writing instructional objectives, developing
teaching materials, and designing testing instruments are usually outside their expertise. To
deliver adequate training programs, managers either have to learn how to accomplish the
full spectrum themselves or hire someone who has that expertise. Additionally, developing
training materials takes time. Even if managers acquire the know-how, they will probably
lack the time to execute it properly. A manager’s careful assessment of his or her training
strengths and limitations is crucial to the success of training efforts.

The major instructor certification program within the security industry is the Certified
Protection Officer Instructor (CPOI) designation administered by the International Foundation
for Protection Officers. Individuals with teaching experience who have become Certified
Protection Officers may be eligible to become Certified Protection Officer Instructors.

Managers may wish to have someone on staff acquire this designation or consult with someone
who has already achieved it.

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4.8 Obstacles to Providing Training

In the final analysis, designing and developing a security training program is at least a three-
pronged group effort. First, protection managers must guide and initiate the process; they
probably should play a role in instruction as well. Second, one or more staff members should
be developed as designated training directors, coordinators, or officers. They can then be
responsible for taking care of the many details involved in training and serve as a liaison
between management, supervision, line security officers, and external resources.

Third, some external resource will almost certainly be needed. This resource may be a simple
off-the-shelf instructional program or a contract with a nearby training institution. It may
also be the hiring of a training consultant to fill in the gaps of training expertise. Consultants
can also provide an objective external perspective on the organization’s training needs. They
also have access to training resources and current research or methodology that may
ultimately save bottom-line dollars for an organization.

In addition to program design, consultants can instruct in certain key subjects. These are
topics where substantial specialization is required, such as violence or crisis management. It
may make sense to spend more money if the trainer will be covering a high-risk topic with
liability exposure. The contracted instructor should be thoroughly credentialed in the subject
he or she is teaching and should have some real-world experience in it. When selecting a
contract instructor, it makes sense to choose one would could testify effectively if necessary.

4.8.4 STEREOTYPES

The traditional societal view of security officers is often less than positive. Burstein (1996)
writes:

For too long, the stereotype of a security officer has been that of a relatively uneducated,
possibly older person or retiree in a police-type uniform either making patrol rounds or
sitting behind a desk checking parcels and identification badges.

Security managers, too, may buy into the stereotype. The smallest hint of prejudice in
instruction can derail a training program. Protection managers should carefully assess their
own feelings toward their subordinates. Training is difficult to develop, but a willing, creative
manager can always find a way to enhance officer knowledge, skills, and abilities.

4.8.5 EGO

Some managers believe they have the knowledge, skill, ability, and time to write every lesson
plan and deliver every class. This belief can evolve into the “Frog Syndrome” (Hertig, 1993).
The term refers to managers who decide to train all their subordinates personally, jump into
the project, and then, when the reality of the workload hits home, jumps back out, leaving
the training uncompleted. The result is that training stops and organizational development
stagnates.

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4.8 Obstacles to Providing Training

McGlaughlin (2003) describes a scenario where a security director realized he would need
help developing a training program. A sergeant-level position was open within the
department, and the director revised the job description so that the newly-hired employee
could evolve into a training operations manager. Such an approach is rational and adds to
organizational development.

Additionally, having a dedicated training position can enable the security department to
become a training service provider to other departments. In a hospital setting, for example,
the security trainer can provide certified training to the nursing staff on such topics as
nonviolent crisis intervention or the management of aggressive behavior. Hotel protection
departments could provide Training for Intervention Procedures by Servers of Alcohol (TIPS)
certification to restaurant employees.

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