Authors: Annalisa M. Giddings, Azarriah A. Jeffrey & Shamaine D. Adams PSY1101 - Introduction to Psychology Jean Piaget’s Theory: Cognitive Development U n i v e r s i t y o f G u y a n a , T u r k e y e n C a m p u s
Student Authors of Group Fourteen Annalisa Giddings (1040596) Azarriah Jeffrey (1040619) Shamaine Adams (1040143) Program B.Sc. Medical Imaging Year 3 School of Allied Health - College of Medical Sciences University of Guyana, Turkeyen Campus Course Lecturer Prof. M. Amsterdam Course Introduction to Psychology (PSY1101)
Table of Contents Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 1 Piaget’s Theory ............................................................................................................................... 2 The Stages of Cognitive Development ........................................................................................... 3 The Sensorimotor Stage ............................................................................................................. 4 The Preoperational Stage .......................................................................................................... 5 Concrete Operational Stage ...................................................................................................... 5 Formal Operational Stage ......................................................................................................... 6 Key Concepts in Piaget's Theory.................................................................................................... 7 Schemas...................................................................................................................................... 8 Assimilation................................................................................................................................ 9 Accommodation.......................................................................................................................... 9 Object Permanence.................................................................................................................. 10 Egocentrism ............................................................................................................................. 11 Understanding Conversations....................................................................................................... 11 Critiques about Jean Piaget’s Theory ........................................................................................... 12 Case Study on Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development ................................................. 13 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 15 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................. 16 Contributions towards the Completion of Literature Review....................................................... 18
Page | 1 Introduction Born in Switzerland on August 9, 1896, Jean Piaget was a psychologist and philosopher who was recognized as one of the most important figures in the field of Developmental Psychology. His ground-breaking research on children's cognitive development, was his established groundwork for contemporary educational methods and our comprehension of human learning and development. In his theory ‘cognitive’ was established as thinking and memory processes while ‘cognitive development’ meant long-term changes in these processes. Piaget’s mother, Rebecca Jackson had an interest in the field of psychology, while his father, Arthur Piaget, was a professor of medieval literature, therefore, Jean was predisposed to his interests in Psychology and Philosophy. Early on, since Jean showed an interest in Biology and the natural world, it would then later shape his writing and his work (Scott & Cogburn, 2019). The theory he keyed led to him providing critical insights on the Stages of Cognitive Development of which individuals go through as they mature throughout the various areas of life, as Piaget was successfully able to attain this through observations, theories and research. Despite this, Piaget's original interest resided within Biological Studies, rather than Psychology and amongst the various subjects he studied throughout the years, he eventually became a Biologist. Later on, his focus shifted to Psychology and his knowledge in multiple disciplines helped him with his ground-breaking research. As previously indicated, his theory was founded on the idea that children actively construct their worldview, and his interpretation of this fundamentally changed the area of developmental psychology (Scott & Cogburn, 2019). Therefore, this essay serves to examine Piaget's contributions to psychology as well as the significance of his research for our knowledge of learning and human development.
Page | 2 Piaget’s Theory Piaget disagreed with the conventional wisdom that knowledge was predetermined or intrinsic. Rather, he thought that a child's knowledge and comprehension of the universe evolved over time, through experiments using the child's interactions with the world, he keyed this belief. The study of Genetic Epistemology emerged from his reflections on cognitive development in tandem with his epistemological perspective. Most notably, Piaget was able to see how young infants formed schemas that influenced their understanding, reasoning and judgment of the outside world. He divided the child's growth into four consecutive stages which were Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational and Formal Operational (Cherry, 2022). He claimed that learning came before the interaction between "fitting new experiences into prior concepts" and "fitting concepts into new experiences". While his theory focused mostly on long-term development as opposed to short-term development. The key patterns he followed when developing his theory and conducting his experiments were that “the stages always happened in the same order”, “stages were never skipped”, “each stage was important in the transformation of the other” and “each later stage incorporated the earlier stages into itself”. By doing his experiments, Mr. Piaget also saw that children's thinking just differs from that of adults' and not that children are less intellectual than adults. He pointed out that children's growth is not quantitative since they do not just add more information and knowledge as they get older but they gradually process it through the four stages which he determined to be qualitative instead (Thompson, 2019).
Page | 3 The Stages of Cognitive Development The central purpose of Jean Piaget’s Theory behind Cognitive Development lies within the regards of categorizing his studies and findings of ‘normal intellect’ from Infancy to Adulthood into four (4) significant stages as mentioned before, these stages were respective to specific age groups (known to vary based on the nature and biological construction of the individual) across the Human Lifespan. In Accordance with Piaget’s Theory, these Stages have been historically documented as: Stage One - Sensorimotor Stage Two - Preoperational Stage Three - Concrete Operational Stage Four - Formal Operational
Page | 4 The Sensorimotor Stage Extending from birth to approximately 18-24 months of age, the Sensorimotor Stage was described by Piaget to be the Experimental Stage of Life. This ideation arose from the acknowledgement made, that children within this age group (before 7 months of age) are typically known to portray behavioral patterns linked to impulsiveness and reflexes, with their dominant sense being sight, since they are prone to viewing the world from a perspective of which only allows their focus and primary sense of interaction to be directed onto their immediate environment; elements present directly in front of them. The ‘experimental’ prospect of this theory can be explored in observation of the average infant’s tendencies to assess the world through a lens of trial and error by performing innocent actions that have not yet been fully processed and critically analyzed within their minds such as throwing, shaking or placing random objects into their mouth as a form of gaining familiarity and expressing curiosity as it pertains to their surroundings; hence Piaget’s association of the term ‘experiment’, during this stage in particular (Ansorge, 2023). As the Infant transitions to the 7th to 9th month of life, the dominance of sight becomes shared with memory development, where the child is knowledgeable of the existence of basic objects without seeing them, commonly referred to as ‘Object Permanence’. This can be considered within a margin of much importance to this stage, as it serves as a major indication that the child’s cognitive development has progressed in preparation for the adaptation to new progress in their growth such as increased physical mobility in standing, walking, crawling etc. The Sensorimotor Stage officially comes to an end during months 18-24 as the infant gains ‘symbolic abilities’ as their language skills begin to develop and their thought processes expand in compatibility to the repetition as well as the association of words/names with objects and actions (Ansorge, 2023).
Page | 5 The Preoperational Stage This Stage of Cognitive Development spans from the toddler phase and usually attains completion as the child approaches their 7th Birthday. During this time, the average human child is observed to have developed vital analytical skills, as ‘cognition’ develops symbolically in a sense which enables a mindset of much maturity and a more sophisticated use of language. As children progress through this stage, their cognitive abilities expand to encompass memory and imaginative capabilities whereby this expansion allows them to distinguish between past and future events, engaging actively in make-believe scenarios. However, the structure of their overall thinking and ability to process information remains primarily intuitive whilst failing to transcend to a state of analysis which should be rooted in logic. Consequently, they still encounter difficulties in comprehending more complex concepts such as cause and effect, the nuances of time and intricate comparisons (Ansorge, 2023). Concrete Operational Stage The Concrete Operational Stage of Jean Piaget’s Theory on Cognitive Development manifests as the Third Phase of importance known to be distinct to one’s childhood as it is ideally observed in children aged 7 to 11, serving as a mainstream introductive shift towards logical and concrete reasoning beyond the borders of its absence during the Preoperational Stage. During this period, a child’s thinking extends beyond themselves as they become more attentive to external events. They are typically found to enter a duration of acknowledging the uniqueness of their thoughts and emotions as well as developing the understanding that these personal experiences might not be universally shared or might not align with reality hence, the average child’s ability to outgrow companions of comfort created by the mind such as Imaginary Friends. However, even as they progress, most children in this stage continue to face limitations in abstract or hypothetical thinking. In retrospect, despite the presence of these cognitive abilities in increasingly logical and concrete manners, the young mind on an average scale remains just beneath full maturity as dissection of advanced and critical thoughts have not yet fully developed to handle abstract concepts or hypothetical scenarios. (Ansorge, 2023)
Page | 6 Formal Operational Stage Adolescents who progress into the Fourth and Final Stage of Intellectual Development, known to naturally occur around the age of 11 and beyond, exhibit a notable transformation in their cognitive abilities. In this phase, they are susceptible to the demonstration of a heightened proficiency in utilizing symbols to represent and work with abstract concepts. Subjects such as Algebra and Science, which involve complex and abstract notions, become more accessible to them as the mind gains the capability to navigate these subjects with increasing ease, as one of the distinguishing features of this stage is the capacity for Systematic Thinking. Adolescents in Formal Operational Stage portray the competencies to approach problems and questions in a methodical and organized manner through the formulation of hypotheses, devise theories and engagement in critical analysis to explore various possibilities. This Logical and Systematic way of Thinking not only enhances their problem-solving skills but also contributes to their growing ability to understand and manipulate abstract ideas. (Ansorge, 2023) Additionally, adolescents in this stage are capable of pondering abstract relationships and concepts through a medium of delving into Philosophical Discussions relevant to Justice, Ethics and Morality, demonstrating a more nuanced and advanced understanding of these complex ideas. Their Cognitive Development enables productive and constructive interactions with thoughtful debates by means of considering multiple perspectives on a multitude of intellectual topics of interest, further contributing to their intellectual growth. In summary, the very last stage of Piaget’s Theory on Cognitive Development focuses on characterization of Adolescence by an increased proficiency in using symbols for theoretical concepts, a heightened capacity for coherent thinking and problem-solving and the ability to explore and internalize abstract relationships/complex concepts in a more sophisticated approach. This Stage specifically denotes a crucial period of Cognitive Growth, as Adolescents progress towards Maturity. (Ansorge, 2023)
Page | 7 Key Concepts in Piaget's Theory Piaget's cognitive development theory holds a central place within the realm of developmental psychology. It suggests that children undergo unique stages characterized by significant changes in their cognitive capacities. At the heart of Piaget's theory lie fundamental ideas, including the processes of assimilation and accommodation, the formation of schemas, the grasp of object permanence, the presence of egocentrism and the understanding of conservation. These concepts serve as pivotal elements in Piaget's framework, shaping the way we comprehend the cognitive growth of children (Mcleod, 2023). Jean Piaget's cognitive development theory is centered on the concept that learning is a dynamic process involving two key processes: assimilation, where new experiences are integrated into existing knowledge, and accommodation, where existing knowledge is adjusted to incorporate new experiences. This constant interplay between assimilation and accommodation is responsible for both short-term learning and long-term developmental changes. Piaget's primary focus was on these long-term developmental changes. Based on his extensive observations of children, Piaget proposed that cognitive development unfolds through distinct stages from infancy to adolescence, following a specific sequence with no stages skipped. Each stage represents a significant departure from the previous one, and each successive stage builds upon and incorporates the earlier ones. Essentially, Piaget's model can be likened to a staircase, with four major stages: sensorimotor intelligence, preoperational thinking, concrete operational thinking, and formal operational thinking, each associated with specific age ranges in childhood, though the exact timing can vary somewhat (Dasen, 1994).
Page | 8 Schemas Piaget argued that knowledge isn't solely a result of sensory experiences; it requires an initial framework to interpret the world. In Piaget's view, children possess an innate mental structure inherited through genetics and shaped by evolution. This foundational framework forms the basis for all their future learning and knowledge. Consequently, schemas act as the essential building components of these cognitive models, enabling us to construct mental representations of the world (Rabindran & Madanagopal, 2020). In his work, Piaget (1952, p. 7) defined a schema as: "a coherent, repeatable sequence of actions comprised of interconnected component actions guided by a central meaning". In simpler terms, Piaget referred to schemas as the essential units of intelligent behavior, representing a way to organize knowledge. It is helpful to envision schemas as "elements" of knowledge, with each schema pertaining to a specific facet of the world, be it objects, actions or abstract concepts. The equilibrium is achieved when our existing schemata can effectively explain our perceptions of the world. However, encountering a new situation that defies explanation disrupts this equilibrium, creating a state of discomfort (disequilibrium), which motivates us to learn. According to Piaget, the transition to higher levels of thinking is not a simple process. It necessitates the child to reconsider their worldview. An integral part of this process is the experience of cognitive conflict (Rabindran & Madanagopal, 2020).
Page | 9 Assimilation According to Jean Piaget's concept of assimilation refers to the cognitive process of integrating new information into existing mental frameworks, perceptions, and understanding. When encountering new information, the core beliefs and overall worldview typically stay relatively constant. Assimilation takes place when the new experience bears a resemblance to previous encounters with a specific object or situation. In such cases, the new information is integrated by augmenting the existing mental framework. In essence, when confronted with new information, individuals make sense of it by referencing their pre-existing knowledge, acquired through prior processing and learning and then attempt to integrate the new information into this existing knowledge base (Rabindran & Madanagopal, 2020).. Accommodation Piaget also proposed that a child's development is a result of the interplay between two key factors: maturation and interaction with their surroundings. Throughout this developmental journey, children construct mental frameworks, called schemata, to help them solve problems they encounter in their environment. The process of adaptation plays a central role in this theory, involving the child's ability to adjust their mental models to better fit the real world. This adaptation process consists of two crucial components: assimilation, where existing schemata are applied to handle new experiences, and accommodation, where existing schemata are modified to address novel experiences. The mainstream significance about this perspective stems from the origin idea of the child being envisioned as an active participant in their own development, rather than a passive recipient of either biological factors (maturation) or external influences (Dasen, 1994).
Page | 10 Piaget proposed that our drive to comprehend the world arises from a fundamental need for cognitive balance. This equilibrium entails a harmonious correspondence between our external sensory experiences and our internal knowledge. When confronted with an unfamiliar experience that disrupts this balance, we strive to restore it by either adapting our existing mental frameworks or adjusting the new experience to fit into our preexisting understanding. For instance, when encountering an individual who is unlike anyone we've previously encountered, we can make sense of them by either creating a new mental category for such people or by identifying similarities between them and individuals we already know (Dasen, 1994). Object Permanence Object permanence, a pivotal concept in Piaget's cognitive development theory, pertains to a child's ability to recognize that objects continue to exist even when they are not within their immediate perception. Piaget argued that infants are initially devoid of object permanence, meaning they initially believe that when an object is out of sight, it no longer exists. Over time, typically during the sensorimotor stage at around 8-12 months of age, children start to understand that objects possess enduring existence. For instance, they grasp that a toy hidden under a blanket still exists and can be uncovered (Piaget, 1954). In previous research, the concept of object permanence has been explored through observations of infants playing with their favorite toys. During the early stages of development, when a toy was hidden under a blanket, infants often exhibited signs of losing interest or distress. This behavior was indicative of their belief that the toy had disappeared, illustrating their limited understanding of object permanence at that point. As infants continued to develop, they gradually began to comprehend that the hidden toy still existed even when it was out of sight. Consequently, they exhibited a tendency to actively search for the toy under the blanket, indicating their evolving understanding of object permanence. (Dasen, 1994)
Page | 11 Egocentrism Egocentrism, a central concept in Piaget's theory, is mainly linked to the preoperational stage, which spans ages 2 to 7. It describes a child's inability to consider the perspectives and viewpoints of others. During this stage, children often see the world solely from their own viewpoint and struggle to grasp that others may have different thoughts, feelings, or beliefs. For instance, a child might assume that if they like a particular type of food, everyone else must also like it, without recognizing individual differences (Piaget, 1926). Understanding Conversations The concept of conservation refers to the understanding that certain attributes of objects, like quantity, volume, or mass, remain unchanged despite changes in their appearance. Piaget conducted experiments in which children observed transformations of substances, such as pouring liquid from a tall, slender glass into a short, wide one. In the preoperational stage, children tend to focus on perceptual changes, like the change in height, and may incorrectly believe that the amount of liquid has also changed. It's during the concrete operational stage, typically around ages 7 to 11, that children start to grasp the idea of conservation, realizing that the quantity remains the same (Piaget & Inhelder, 1956).
Page | 12 Critiques about Jean Piaget’s Theory The area of psychology and education have greatly benefited from Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development. However, like every significant idea, it has been criticized and contentious at times. According to Piaget's theory, children develop in a predetermined order as they move through a number of unique cognitive stages. Some who disagree claim that this rigid age-based pattern fails to take individual variance into consideration and that certain cognitive skills may emerge in some kids sooner or later than what Piaget's theory suggests. They also claimed that he disregarded social variables, had cultural and socioeconomic biases and misjudged children's capacities. Some even said that he neglected to take into consideration the underlying mechanisms and processes that supported cognitive development and that he gave insufficient information and details on how the actual cognitive development occurred (Cherry, 2019). Hughes (1975) argued that Piaget may have underestimated children's capabilities because his assessment tools often lacked clarity and were challenging for children to comprehend. Vygotsky (1978) and Bruner (1966) opposed the notion of schemas. Behaviorism also criticized Piaget's schema theory since it pertains to internal processes that are not directly observable. Consequently, they argue that schemas cannot be objectively measured. In the same era as Piaget, Vygotsky contended that cognitive development hinges on social interaction. Vygotsky maintained that a child's learning consistently occurs within a social environment, where cooperation with someone more knowledgeable (MKO) is crucial. This type of social interaction not only presents opportunities for language development but, according to Vygotsky, also lays the foundation for thought. (Dasen, 1994)
Page | 13 Case Study on Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development In a Real-Case instance, an assessment was conducted to focus on a three-and-a-halfyear-old boy, by the name of Johnson, in relation to Jean Piaget's theories of Child Psychology by a Researcher of whom identified as a close relative to the toddler, with aim of assessing Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development, intending to observe Johnson's behavior and cognition during play and specific tasks in exploration of the accuracy of Piaget’s findings. Before executing the assessment, the Researcher opted to select the most comfortable environment capable of conducting said evaluation of which conclusively existed in space which allowed Johnson to play with his friends, thus capitalizing on all of their familiarity levels as observations revealed similar behavior patterns among these children, despite slight age differences. Notably, Johnson exhibited a prominently egocentric behavior, primarily showcasing a self-centered perception during tasks and play. (Case Study for Piaget Project, 2020) During the Cognitive Tasks, Johnson's lack of understanding of conservancy became instantaneously apparent. The Research created Task One to involve the selecting Juice Bottles of two different orientations but the same quantity of juice regardless of their differing widths and heights in order to test Johnson’s correlation with logic. These bottles were then placed on a flat surface and made accessible to Johnson whereby it was further observed that the Toddler selected the Bottle of greater height and lesser width based on the visual manipulation and assumption that the taller, thinner bottle held more liquid than that of the shorter, wider one, despite both containing equal amounts through Johnson’s verbal indication through usage of the word “more”. This observation directly aligned with Piaget's concept of a lack of conservancy in the Preoperational Stage of Development. (Case Study for Piaget Project, 2020) Furthermore, during the Task Two which was arranged to involve the sharing Johnson’s favorite photo, where he then displayed highly possessive behavior by holding onto the picture in a manner that prevented his friends from having a clear view of and independent grasp on the physical image itself, preventing them from creating their own ideations of what was being
Page | 14 displayed within the photograph. This demonstrated his inability to comprehend others' perspectives, which is a characteristic of egocentrism in Piaget's theory. (Case Study for Piaget Project, 2020) The analysis concluded that Johnson fell within Piaget’s Preoperational Stage in much compatibility, typically found in children aged 2 to 7 years. His behaviors, such as inability to comprehend quantity conservation and a self-centered perspective, aligned accurately with Jean Piaget's Theory on Intellectual Developments amongst children of this age range. (Case Study for Piaget Project, 2020) In summary, this Case Study has evidently shown Johnson’s behavior and cognitive patterns to align with Piaget’s Stages of Development, emphasizing characteristics of egocentrism and a lack of understanding of conservancy. Although Piaget's concepts have faced criticism, they remain influential in understanding children's cognitive growth in society today and are widely utilized in educational settings due to much support being attached to the findings of applicability in Piaget’s Theories in extensively understanding the average similarities in Cognitive Progression and Development in Children of the same age, as these are usually enacted at the same pace throughout various Age Groups across each of the Four proposed Stages with the minority percentage of exceptions lying amongst children of advanced intelligence generally referred to as ‘beyond average’ or cognitively external to the parameters of the physical stage with which they may identify, biologically. (Case Study for Piaget Project, 2020)
Page | 15 Conclusion Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development has made a substantial contribution to our knowledge of how people, especially children, learn about and comprehend their environment. His innovative research has had a significant impact on the domains of child development, psychology, and education. Important insights into human development can be gained from Piaget's emphasis on the active learner's construction of their own knowledge, the idea of developmental phases and the importance of adaptation and equilibrium in cognitive progress. Even though Piaget's theory has been developed and criticized throughout time, it is still a fundamental framework for comprehending how the cognitive development of the average individual occurs. His work has opened up new avenues for the investigation and improvement of theories of development and methods of instruction. The fact that his theories are still relevant today in the domains of psychology and education is evidence of the long-lasting influence of his work and intelligence.
Page | 16 Bibliography 1. Ansorge, R. (2023, March 12). Piaget stages of development. WebMD. https://www.webmd.com/children/piaget-stages-of-development 2. Case Study for Piaget Project (2020, June 3). StudyCorgi.com. https://studycorgi.com/case-study-for-piaget-project/ 3. Cherry, K. (2022, December 16). Piaget’s 4 Stages of Cognitive Development Explained. Verywell Mind; Dotdash Meredith. https://www.verywellmind.com/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development-2795457 4. Cherry, K. (2019, August 2). Support and Criticism of Piaget’s Stage Theory. Verywell Mind; Verywellmind. https://www.verywellmind.com/support-andcriticism-of-piagets-stage-theory-2795460 5. Dasen, P. (1994). Culture and cognitive development from a Piagetian perspective. In W .J. Lonner & R.S. Malpass (Eds.), Psychology and culture (pp. 145–149). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. 6. Scott, H. K., & Cogburn, M. (2019, June). Piaget. National Library of Medicine; StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK448206/ 7. Thompson, P. (2019). Cognitive Development: The theory of Jean Piaget. Open.library.okstate.edu; Oklahoma State University Libraries. https://open.library.okstate.edu/foundationsofeducationaltechnology/chapter/2- cognitive-development-the-theory-of-jean-piaget/ 8. Piaget, J. (1926). The language and thought of the child. Routledge. ISBN 9780415267502
Page | 17 9. Piaget, J. (1954). The construction of reality in the child. (M. Cook, Trans.). Basic Books. https://doi.org/10.1037/11168-000 10. Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. (1956). The child’s conception of space. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Page | 18 Contributions towards the Completion of Literature Review 1. Azarriah Jeffrey [1040619] I. Introduction II. Piaget’s Theory III. Critiques about Piaget’s Theory (in Collaboration with S. Adams) IV. Conclusion 2. Annalisa M. Giddings [1040596] V. The Stages of Cognitive Development (in accordance with Jean Piaget’s Theory) Sensorimotor Stage Preoperational Stage Concrete Operational Stage Formal Operational Stage VI. Case Study on Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 3. Shamaine Adams [1040143] VII. Key Concepts in Piaget’s Theory Schemas Assimilation Accommodation Object Permanence Egocentrism Understanding Conversations