Daniel L. Schodek, Paulo Ferreira, Michael F. Ashby - Nanomaterials, Nanotechnologies and Design_ An Introduction for Engineers and Architects-Butterworth-Heinemann (2009)

496 C HAPTER 11 Nanomaterials and Nanotechnologies

Figure 11.12  Water well Pollution source
Pollutants can find their way into ground water in
many ways, including accidental discharges, and Contaminated Contaminated
be carried to sources of drinking water, rivers, and river water ground water
lakes.

Figure 11.13  Pump Pollution source
Experiments have been conducted with dispersing
reactive nanoparticles in slurries into contaminated Iron nanoparticles forced under
groundwater zones. The nanoparticles react with Treated water pressure into contaminated soil
certain pollutants and render them benign.

In experiments by a group at Lehigh University with slurries con-
taining reactive nanoparticles, the slurries have been pumped into
on-site reactor vessels (typically pipes) and dispersed into contami-
nated underground zones (see Figure 11.13). Iron nanoparticle
slurries containing about 99.9% iron and minor amounts of pala-
dium have been reported to degrade many organic contaminants
into benign compounds. Several experiments involved trichlo-
roethene plumes. Large percentages of this material were converted
into harmless ethylene and ethane by the underground injections.
Instead of being dispersed under gravity or pressure, nanoparti-
cles can also be directly affixed to various other materials. Similar
approaches can be envisioned for sedimentations and other depos-
its, even those containing heavy metals.

General Environmental Risks

We’ve briefly outlined the many advantages of using nanom­ aterials,
including the positive environmental benefits. The alternative
question of how nanomaterials might detrimentally interact with
our larger environment, and hence with both humans and ecologi-
cal communities, however, is a concern expressed by both envi-
ronmental advocacy groups and the research community. Concern
for the potential of adverse impacts comes from the following
line of reasoning. Nanoparticles might enter the environment in a
number of ways, including the following: accidental escapes during

Environmental Benefits and Impacts 497

manufacturing, use, disposal of products, or waste containing
nanomaterials, such as from nanofluids used in products ranging
from cosmetics to agricultural products and general recycling ini-
tiatives that involve grinding, abrasion, or heat. In Figure 11.13, for
example, the illustrated accidental discharge could potentially be
from a large nanomaterial manufacturing facility (at least in Figure
11.13 other nanomaterials are shown treating the discharge). Nano-
particles from any of these sources might then find their way into
water, plants, and other materials. Unbound particles might again
come into contact with humans and animals and even be ingested
or inhaled by them, with potentially adverse health effects (see
Section 11.3). If accumulations occur, concentrations might increase
with time and ultimately affect animals higher up the food chain.
Questions have been raised as to whether the health of whole plant
communities themselves could be affected. Though it is broadly
acknowledged that current quantities of nanomaterials produced
today are relatively small and current impacts not large, the issue
arises when nanomaterials become far more widely produced and
used in many different products and processes.

Many concerns stem from observations that the very same physi-
cal and chemical properties of nanomaterials that often lead to
positive use and environmental benefits can also potentially cause
health problems in human and animal communities. As we have
seen, the tiny sizes of nanoparticles that make them so useful in
a host of applications can also be below the sizes of common
airborne particulates in our atmosphere that are known to cause
adverse health effects. The high surface areas that can also be so
positively exploited can potentially also be associated with toxico-
logically negative effects as surface reactivities can increase. In the
discussion on positive uses of nanomaterials in drug delivery, we
noted that transport through the body can be enhanced via the
use of nanomaterials. This same property can be problematic if
the wrong substance is transported that might negatively damage
human cells. For negative effects to occur, undesired nanomateri-
als would have to find their way into bodies via routes such as
direct ingestion, inhalation, or dermal means. These routes, in
turn, can be affected by the nature of the overall environment
that surrounds us.

Section 11.3 outlined the general nature of potential health effects
on humans; it will not be repeated here. There it was also noted that
a critical component of the health assessment issue was whether
or not nanoparticles where strongly bound to some host to the
extent that they could not easily become free to potentially enter

498 C HAPTER 11 Nanomaterials and Nanotechnologies

human bodies. Strongly bound particles were noted as less likely
to be problematic than free or weakly bound ones. This issue is a
critical one in thinking about more general environmental effects
and risks.

Serious research is beginning to emerge in this area. Many questions
are simply unanswered or poorly understood. Questions raised are
many and include the following: What are sources and means by
which nanomaterials might enter the environment (briefly outlined
in this chapter but for which more quantitative understandings are
needed)? What specific compositions, types, and sizes of nano-
materials are most likely to enter various parts of an ecosystem?
If and how are particular nanomaterials subsequently dispersed or
accumulated in various parts of an ecological system? What factors
influence bioaccumulations? How might nanomaterials in the envi-
ronment possibly bind to other substances already present, or inter-
act with them? How might they be broadly transported throughout
a system? What are specific pathways for nanomaterials in the envi-
ronment to enter specific types of animal, plant, or human com-
munities, and are there any special concentration or bioinduced
accumulations or magnification that could take place? What kinds
of chemical or physical transformations occur during these many
processes? What specific types of effects, including adverse ones,
are there on the many components of an ecological system—for
example, how are specific plant or aquatic communities, such as
algae, affected?

The research community is beginning to deal with these and other
questions. Relatively little is known about them, and individuals
seeking definitive and validated “answers” concerning the impact
of nanomaterials on the environment in general or on various eco-
logical communities will not find them. Whether nanomaterials of
one type or another can make their way into the environment is
not the basic question being addressed; rather, it is one of type,
extent, and subsequent impact, as quantitatively understood. Many
research groups are focusing on one or another of the research
needs noted in this chapter, and evaluations of environmental risks
are part of many formal research overviews and reports sponsored
by various governmental and scientific organizations concerned
with the environment (see Further Reading).

Workplace Sources and Exposures

Some settings are expected to be particularly problematic and
should receive special mitigation attention. Exposure through

Further Reading 499

inhalation or ingestion of loose nanoparticles was noted earlier
as being particularly problematic, even more so if exposures are
prolonged. An obvious area in which special precautions should
be taken to minimize risks is in the very manufacturing environ-
ments where nanomaterials are actually produced. Other work-
place exposures and sources are expected to multiply in the future
as more and more products are made using nanomaterials or
more processes are facilitated by them. Even if discharges are
not accidental, methods for treating nanowaste products from
manufacturing sources before they are released are still in their
infancy.

During production and packaging processes, possibilities exist for
exposures to unbound nanoparticles that are airborne or in sprays
to be accidentally inhaled or ingested by workers. Many manufac-
turing methods involve high temperatures; hence containment is
a normal approach to reduce exposure risks. Nonetheless, escapes
and leaks can potentially occur during various stages of the manu-
facturing and packaging process. As with any manufacturing process
involving hazardous chemicals, special care should be exercised
with respect to the production of nanomaterials. Especially impor-
tant are monitoring systems to detect the presence of airborne par-
ticles. Some monitoring approaches exist, but with the variation
of nanomaterials types, compositions, and sizes, additional tech-
niques may be needed.

Further Reading

Center for Biological and Environmental Nanotechnology, CBEN, Rice
University.

Department for Environment, Characterizing the potential risks posed by
engineered nanoparticles, Food and Rural Affairs Report, U.K.

Environmental futures research in nanoscale science, engineering and
technology, Science to Achieve Results (STAR) Program, National
Center for Environmental Research.

S. Kaur, R. Gopal, W. J. Ng, S. Ramakrisha, and T. Matsura, Next-generation
fibrous media for water treatment, MRS Bulletin, Vol. 33, January 2008.

T. Masciangioli and Wei-xian Zhang, Environmental technologies at the
nanoscale, Environmental Science and Technology, American Chemi-
cal Society, 2003.

Friends of the Earth, Nanomaterials, sunscreens and cosmetics: Small in-
gredients, big risks, report, May 2006.

The International Workshop on Marine Pollution and the Impact of
Seawater Desalination, The International Center for Biosaline Agriculture

Headquarters, Dubai, UAE, December 1–3, 2003.
National Nanotechnology Initiative: The initiative and implementation

500 C HAPTER 11 Nanomaterials and Nanotechnologies

plan, NSTC/NSESTS report, March 2001.
The Royal Society and the Royal Academy of Engineering, Nanoscience

and nanotechnologies, U.K., 2004.
M. Roco and W. Bainbridge (eds.), Societal implications of nanoscience

and nanotechnology, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001.
M.C. Roco, R. Williams and P. Alivasatos (eds.), Nanotechnology research

directions: IWGN Workshop report, Kluwer Academic Publishers,
1999.
Steven Schnittger and Sinha Moitreeyee, The materials science of cosmet-
ics, MRS Bulletin, Vol. 32, ppf. 760, October 2007.
Mark Shannon and Raphael Semiat, Advancing materials and technologies
for water purification, MRS Bulletin, Vol. 33, ppf. 9, January 2008.
K. Shihab, Bino Murad, Marc Andelman, and Ben Craft, Flow-through
capacitor technology, In: G. Tchobanoglous, F. L. Burton, H. D. Stensel,
Waster water engineering treatment and resuse, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill,
2004.
G. Tchobanoglous, F. L. Burton, H. D. Stensel, Water waste engineering
treatment and reuse, McGraw-Hill, 2004.
Wei-xian Zhang and Daniel W. Elliott, Applications of iron nanoparticles
for groundwater remediation, Remediation Journal, Vol. 16, Issue 2,
pp. 7–21.

Chapter 12 

The Broader Context

12.1  Industry Perspectives 501

Our economy is made of up many sectors—transportation (auto­
motive, aerospace), sports, textiles, construction, and others—that
in one way or another involve design and development activities
that are heavily dependent on materials. Though interest in virtu­
ally all these industries has been expressed, the actual type, degree,
and rate of application development of nanomaterials and nano­
technologies in various industries depend on many factors. This
chapter takes a whirlwind tour across several industries to suggest
a sense of the role nanomaterials and nanotechnologies are or are
not playing in various sectors.

In looking across multiple industries, some of the driving forces
behind research and developments in the nanomaterials area are
broadly similar and generally include:

■ Improved product performances

■ Improved use experiences

■ Improved reliability and durability

■ Achieving safety and health objectives

■ Improved production techniques and rates

■ Cost reductions

■ Improved utilization of material resources

■ Energy minimization

■ Component miniaturization and multifunctionality

■ Improved product choice

Nanomaterials, Nanotechnologies and Design
Copyright 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

502 CHAPTER 12 The Broader Context

■ Improved appearances (in many industries)

■ Development of new products and opening of new markets
by taking advantage of emerging technologies

Obviously, not all these drivers are independent. Many are closely
intertwined. In many industries they have also long been historical
drivers behind the development of any new technology or mate­
rial innovation, not least because they ultimately translate into the
economic health of an industry or the profitability of producing
companies. They remain with us today. Other drivers have also
recently developed—some because of basic sensibilities concern­
ing societal directions, others because of either demand or imposed
regulations. These include:

■ Use of more environmentally benign materials and
processes, both for production and for material resource
recovery, including recycling

■ Use of limited energy resources

Older scope definitions of product safety and environmental
impact have also now widened considerably and affect many indus­
tries because more attention is now paid to the way that adverse
effects attributable to a product can be transmitted through inter­
connected chains and networks to contexts that are seemingly far
removed.

Though these drivers are somewhat common at the abstract level,
various industries still place differing importance on different
factors, as well as having their own specific motivators for poten­
tially using nanomaterials. In the following, we look briefly at a
variety of industries in a broad summary fashion. Many of the spe­
cific nano-based technologies referred to here were discussed in
earlier chapters.

12.2 The Automotive Industry

The automotive industry is already one of the world’s largest users
of nanomaterials, and expectations are that uses will increase.
General Motors was an early adopter in 2002 with its use of ther­
moplastic olefin (TPO) nanoclay composites in running board
step-assists. Hundreds of thousands of pounds of the material are
now used. Other companies, including Daimler, Nissan, and Ford,
are using nanopaints for improved scratch resistance and appear­
ance. Intensive research is in progress on many other fronts, includ­
ing propulsion and energy systems that use nanotechnologies (e.g.,

The Automotive Industry 503

fuel cells and batteries). Some of the primary drivers or motivators
for these initiatives include needs for the following:

■ Improved overall driving performance and comfort

■ Performance improvements in basic systems and
components

■ Safety improvements

■ Improved energy and propulsion systems that are more
efficient and environmentally benign (including reduced
emissions)

■ Use of more environmentally friendly materials (including
recyclability considerations)

■ Reduced weight

■ Improved advanced electronic control and communication
systems and accompanying sensor technologies

■ Improved appearances and user comfort and amenities

■ Improved durability, reliability, and cost efficiency

The factors are not independent. Reduced weights, for example,
can lead to improved fuel efficiency, reduced emissions, and other
benefits.

The automotive industry is by no means homogeneous, and
drivers vary according to product type and market. In some compa­
nies with high-value products, the potential of small performance
increments can and does justify extensive (and often expensive)
design and material innovations. In other companies, cost concerns
dominate, and new materials will be less likely to be introduced in
a widespread way unless their costs are on a par with or below those
of conventional materials for equivalent performance levels.

The role of nanomaterials and nanotechnologies in this area can
be rather simply thought of with respect to basic systems and com­
ponents (including propulsion and energy systems, suspension
systems, and others), frame and exterior body components, inte­
riors, and control and communication systems. Surface appear­
ances, including finishing and painting, are invariably important
for visible components (see Figure 12.1).

In the basic systems and components area, improvements in basic pro­
pulsion systems are always sought. As attention turns to hybrid and
all-electric vehicles, there is an obvious need for improved energy

504 CHAPTER 12 The Broader Context

Many electronic and mechanical components: emission controls, fuel
cells, batteries, supercapacitors, tribological applications (wear,
lubricants), nanocoolants, other

Self-cleaning glasses, antifogging
Control, communication, navigation systems,
car-in-context guidance systems
Emergency medical and personal health
monitoring systems, entertainment
Biothreat sensors and alerts,
air purification

Figure 12.1  Nanocomposites— Self-cleaning,
Opportunities for using nanomaterials and frames and shells antimicrobial textiles
nanotechnologies in automobiles.
QLED Antiscratch paints
lights Self-healing paints
Self-cleaning clear
coats

Magnetorheological shock
absorbers, electrorheological tires

sources. The “battery barrier” still remains a powerful limitation in
the move toward fully electric vehicles or more efficient hybrids.
Nonetheless, improvements in lithium batteries are anticipated
in both capacity and recharge rates. Attention for automobiles
remains primarily focused on the further development of fuel-
cell technologies and the role that nanomaterials could play in
improving efficiencies. The potential for significant improvements
in fuel cells over current technologies is extremely high. A variety
of nano-based materials and technologies can contribute here,
including new nanomembrane technologies. Various other fuel-cell
approaches are also being explored, including solid-state systems.
Not all fuel-cell approaches will prove useful for automobiles.

The Automotive Industry 505

Design demands for all-electric vehicles are high. A very high energy
density is needed for the propulsion system, but there are also ever-
present pressures to reduce the amount of space occupied by both
the fuel cells and supporting fuel tanks for storing the hydrogen.
Known sensitivities to humidity variations must be addressed.
Durabilily demands are extremely high. Many current fuel cells are
relatively sensitive to mishandling, so high levels of ruggedness are
required (also see Section 9.7).

The hydrogen storage problem is particularly acute for vehicles. Large
quantities of fuel must be able to be stored and replenished safely.
Several options are under exploration. Compressed gas hydrogen
is possible but quite costly due to the need for expensive tanks.
Liquid hydrogen storage has been explored as well, but significant
inefficiencies and energy losses occur because of the necessary con­
version processes. Combination gas/liquid systems are also being
explored. Solid-state materials may ultimately prove to be the best
storage medium if needed storage densities and charge and release
rates can be achieved. These are difficult problems. Still, materials
such as hydrogen-absorbing hydrides or others may prove effective
for onboard storage of hydrogen for fuel-cell vehicles.

Despite the interest in electric propulsion, the internal combus­
tion engine is by no means out of the picture. Its power and other
advantages will give it a place in vehicle fleets for a long time. The
internal combustion engine has also by no means seen the last
of improvements and efficiency increases made possible through
both design and material advances. Nanocomposites can help meet
their well-identified role of providing strength, hardness, and wear-
resistance improvements for many components, ranging from cyl­
inder liners and pistons to a host of other parts, including bearings.
Efficiencies can also be improved by limiting losses in engine-
generated thermal energy—particularly important in diesel engines.
Various nanocrystalline ceramics that have both hardness and heat-
retention capabilities, such as zirconia, are being explored for use
as cylinder liners. The interesting field of nanotribological studies,
which deals with friction, has obvious applications in the design of
the many mechanisms and linkages present. Even traditional spark­
plugs are being rethought to make them more resistant to erosion
or corrosion.

The catalytic characteristics of many nanomaterials that have been
discussed earlier have the potential to further reduce unwanted
emissions. Currently, precious metals such as platinum are used in
catalytic converters. This material is costly and subject to shortages.

506 CHAPTER 12 The Broader Context

Catalytic reactivity of platinum can be increased by using platinum
nanoparticles because of their much greater surface area. Efficiency
increases can lead to less use of platinum. Other kinds of catalytic
materials are being explored as well.

Other basic components include suspension systems that help
maintain control of an automobile by increasing contacts between
tires and roads and minimizing rolling or pitching. These systems
also help ensure occupant comfort by mitigating the effects of road
bumps. Seemingly humble shock absorbers, constituent elements
of a suspension system, are evolving into amazingly sophisticated
devices via the use of magnetorheological fluids. The viscosity of
these fluids can be altered by changing a surrounding magnetic
field (see Section 9.2). Electrorheological technologies can be simi­
larly used. These viscosity changes, in turn, can be used to control
vibrations and various road shocks. These absorbers can also be
connected to sensor nets and their viscosities electronically con­
trolled to be appropriate for particular road conditions or driving
styles. In some automobiles, the driver can also control stiffness for
either sport driving, which typically involves intensive cornering, or
highway cruising. Another approach uses electromagnetic motors
and power amplifiers. Each of these approaches involves utilizing
magnetic phenomena that can in turn be enhanced by the remark­
able magnetic properties of many nanomaterials (see Chapter 7).
Cobalt nanoparticles, for example, exhibit high ferromagnetism. All
invariably involved sophisticated electronic sensor-based control
systems that include complex computational means of relating
needed viscosity levels to specific automobile performance needs
(e.g., preventing rolling motions).

Tires, of course, are of fundamental importance in both basic
control and to the overall driving experience. They are the subject
of intense research, with various nanomaterials found to improve
wear and abrasion resistance as well as provide improvements in
fatigue resistance. Carbon black, one of the early synthetic nanoma­
terials, is widely used in rubber tire production to improve mechan­
ical properties and manufacturability. Other nanomaterials, such as
silica nanoparticles, are being explored for use as well to improve
basic tire properties and overcome many existing problems with
carbon black. In other areas, electrorheological approaches are
being tried for use to vary tire stiffness and aid in driving control
in much the same way as described for active suspension systems.
In light of the need to develop more environmentally friendly and
recyclable materials, tires are viewed as a target for innovations in
this area. Various elastomer and inorganic oxide formulations, for

The Automotive Industry 507

example, are being explored. Much needs to be done here, particu­
larly since the problem of disposing of or recycling used tires is
widely viewed as a major environmental issue.

There are far more emerging applications in basic systems and
components than can be even briefly touched on here. Polymer
nanocomposites with bulk carbon nanoparticles/fillers in a polymer
matrix, for example, have interesting electrical conductivity and
mechanical properties and are beginning to find use in various
components, including electrical connects or for static-dissipative
applications. Many of the nano-based coatings described in Chapter
9 that improve surface/edge hardness or toughness are finding wide
use as well. Many of these are based on nano carbon-based films.
Nano-based films and coatings have been developed for corrosion
resistance of parts. Lubricants are being improved through the
use of nanoparticles. Heat exchange fluids used in coolants are
benefiting from suspended and dispersed nanoparticles, since they
can conduct heat better than basic fluids. The list goes on.

There is considerable interest in strengthening basic frame and
body components to improve safety and reduce weights. Durability,
repairability, and recyclability are also factors, as is receptivity to
painting, for body components. Manufacturability considerations
are always present. Performance requirements for specific elements
vary dramatically. Many frame elements need to have high structural
strengths and stiffness as well as energy absorption characteristics
for crashworthiness. For some body elements with highly complex
geometries, strength and stiffness demands may be minimal, but
manufacturing considerations may drive material selections. In
other cases, surface finishes may drive considerations. In all cases,
however, weight is invariably important and lightweight solutions
are always preferred; hence continued research is always ongoing
in materials such as aluminum and magnesium. Overall industry
drivers also come into play, such as the need to use more environ­
mentally benign materials that can be recycled.

Depending on the component, and hence the mechanical, thermal,
or other design requirements placed on it, many types of metal
matrix composites, polymer nanocomposites, carbon-fiber prod­
ucts with embedded nanoparticles, and other approaches are
being explored, as are more traditional bulk materials with nano­
crystalline structures. Many interesting nanocomposites based on
carbon nanotubes, for example, are currently considered cost pro­
hibitive for common consumer vehicles, but this could change. For
many applications needing light, strong materials, metals reinforced
with ceramic fibers (such as silicon carbide) are attractive.

508 CHAPTER 12 The Broader Context

Polymer-based nanocomposites are finding use in many body
components. Both thermoplastics and thermosets are in use. Ther­
moplastic materials can be shaped quite easily. The early use of
thermoplastic olefin (TPO) has proven successful for use in certain
interior and exterior elements (step-assists, panels). Lightweight
nanocomposites of this type use relatively inexpensive nanoclays
and nanotalcs. The TPO normally used employs natural smectite
clay. It is treated so that exfoliation occurs and molecular sheets
are formed. Yet issues of cost, quality, and strength remain. Exfo­
liation methods normally need high quantities of additives that
can be a drawback, although several approaches are alleviating this
problem. Several explorations are in progress in relation to ther­
mosets, which can be quite strong, that involve the use of various
kinds of nanomaterials in the resins. Carbon nanotubes have been
explored for use here.
Paints, coatings, and other surface treatments are obvious targets
for the use of nanomaterials in the automotive industry (see Figure
12.2). Many highly important design characteristics of materi­
als relate primarily to their surfaces and less to their bulk or mass
characteristics. Nano-based paints were among the first products to
make wide use of nanomaterials to improve rheological properties
and provide better bonds to substrates. Chapter 10 discusses nano-
based paints in more detail. There it is also noted that finishes are
smoother and more durable than in the past. Color consistency and
clearness are generally improved.

Figure 12.2 
These pigments are used for automotive coatings.
The aluminum flakes are coated with a layer of
iron oxide only a few nanometers thick. They are
smooth, reflect light well, and help achieve bright
colors. Also see Chapter 10. (Courtesy of BASF.)

The Automotive Industry 509

Nano-based paints and coatings can also provide improved scratch
resistance. These kinds of paints are now fairly common, particularly
since performance is significantly improved while cost increases are
relatively minor due to the kinds of nanoparticles used. In auto­
mobile painting, several different layers and application processes
are employed. Nano-based materials are often used in final clear
coats in a typical five-layer automotive finish (see Chapter 10). Self-
cleaning and self-healing actions have also been developed and are
also now finding their way into paints. Other kinds of coatings for
frame and other components are less about appearance and more
about prevention of corrosion. In addition to nano-based paints,
the automotive industry has made use of other kinds of coatings
that exhibit specific behavioral actions. These include antifogging
and antireflection coatings for glasses. Many types of nano-based
polymer films are in use, as are nanoclays. Hydrophobic fumed silica
nanoparticles, for example, are widely used in many applications.

Interiors also benefit from innovations in nano-based paints and
coatings on surfaces and glasses, for similar reasons. The fascinat­
ing developments of nano-based textiles discussed in more detail
in Section 10.4, including self-cleaning and antimicrobial actions,
clearly have relevance here for seating and other soft surfaces. Addi­
tionally, the need for fire retardancy is high in all types of hard
and soft surfaces. Various kinds of oxide nanoparticles and organic
nanoclays are being explored to achieve fire retardancy in various
surfaces and for use as fire-retardant fillers in polymers. Many other
material properties come into play in the design of interiors. Tactile
qualities and whether materials feel cold or warm to the touch
are important (see Chapter 5). Seemingly simple objects such as
cup holders could benefit from improved insulation materials (see
Section 9.3).

The potential impact that nanomaterials can have on the design
of electronic systems is simply vast and beyond the scope of this
book, and so is the potential impact on control and communi­
cation systems used in automobiles. While components grow
smaller, processing speeds increase. Real-time control systems and
the response times needed are possible now and will only improve
in the future. The controllable responses made possible through
the active suspension systems we’ve described are only indicative of
future possibilities. Of particular interest is the potential value of the
many kinds of sensors and related control systems, with potential
for the overall driving experience to be both aided and enhanced.
The latter include systems that understand and aid in the behav­
iors of an automobile within a traffic context and even potentially

510 CHAPTER 12 The Broader Context

control them, or, minimally, provide warnings, such as follow­
ing too closely. Safety can surely be improved by a host of these
means. In other areas, display and other communication systems
will become better. Driving safety, for example, can be improved
via enhanced road views projected onto dye-coated windshields
(heads-up or other kinds of displays) that highlight hazards or
warnings as part of the viewer experience—for example, crossing
pedestrians are highlighted.

Improved way finding and navigation systems are surely expected.
Driver alert systems are already being explored and could save
many lives. In this unfortunate age of biothreats, biosensors that
can provide warnings are certainly feasible. Though only occasion­
ally discussed, the potential of sensors and devices for health moni­
toring and communication is surely there. Here there are detection
and communication of vital signs during crashes; communication
of similar information during medical emergencies (heart attacks,
stroke, or the like) as well as driver and vehicle status information,
and more ongoing personal health maintenance, such as blood
pressure levels.

12.3 The Building and
Construction Industry

Directions

Large portions of this book have addressed specific needs and poten­
tial uses of nanomaterials in the building industry. Industry char­
acteristics were also discussed in Chapter 3. Still, it is useful to view
the topic in a summary fashion on a par with other industry discus­
sions in this chapter, simply to put it into perspective. A question
always of interest to architects, for example, is whether the essen­
tial visible forms of architecture will undergo radical or disruptive
changes as a consequence of developments in nanomaterial and
nanotechnologies, as was the case with the faddish plethora of
“blob” architecture in the last decade, when architects discovered
powerful digital modeling tools. As we will see, this is a highly
doubtful scenario. Most changes will be largely incremental and
many seemingly “invisible” to the eye, although some will indeed
have strikingly visible manifestations (the obvious referent here is in
relation to light and optical phenomena). Highly positive benefits
that have less visible manifestations, however, will accrue through
performance increases in the many systems and components of a
building. Performance attributes will improve. Our buildings will be
better. They will serve society better.

The Building and Construction Industry 511

In the list of common drivers to all industries noted in the opening
of this section, the ones related to environmental impacts and the
use of environmentally benign materials, energy use, health and
safety, and costs stand out as very important basic concerns. Achiev­
ing good-quality indoor thermal and lighting environments is a
primary driver, as is providing buildings that are healthy for occu­
pants. Improved work and task environments are always important.
The quality of use experiences that stem from either interesting fea­
tures or spatial compositions or simply good functional designs
remain fundamental as well. Needs or desires to differentiate build­
ings from one another, in many sectors, remain highly important
(witness the success of designs from the office of Frank Gehry, an
architect well known for his unusual buildings). Specific material
or technological innovations that relate to color, movement, and
interactivity are hungrily seized on.

At the broad level, many nano-based materials and technologies
are poised to improve basic living and work environments. From
an environmental point of view, advances are certainly expected
in the quality of our lighting environments. Improvements are
expected in both artificial and the provision of natural lighting due
to improved light-emitting sources (types, control of wavelengths,
illumination characteristics); improved control of light reflection,
absorption, and transmission (surfaces, windows), and control
systems (see the following and Section 9.5). Improvements are
expected in air and water quality through improved cleaning and
purification systems based on nanotechnologies. Air environments
have the potential to become healthier due not only to improved
air-cleaning techniques but the potential of using nanocoatings and
other approaches to help reduce outgassing and the generation of
airborne particulates from many building elements that cause the
well-known “sick building” syndrome. Use of surfaces or materials
with antimicrobial behaviors can contribute to healthier buildings
in general, certainly in medical facilities. Exterior surfaces and
paving made with nanocoatings or nanomaterials can potentially
help reduce air pollution. Surfaces may be made more fire retardant
and less likely to give off toxic gases in fire circumstances through
the use of various nanocoatings and films. Thermal environments
can be more energy efficient, and highly improved means of energy
production are at hand. Actual impacts on comfort levels, however,
may be less dramatic than expected for lighting. Few really dramatic
improvements are expected in common passive acoustic environ­
ments, although there will be improved vibration and impact noise
control and great improvements in sound production systems.

512 CHAPTER 12 The Broader Context

Significant acoustic improvements are expected in spaces domi­
nated by electroacoustic devices.

Advances are also expected in approaches that aid in task perform­
ance in workplaces or homes. Many buildings are by now seeming
extensions of sophisticated “information and display systems” that
respond to the needs of various commerce and manufacturing
activities. This trend will surely continue. In home environments,
analogous information and display systems are expected for a range
of life-enhancing activities, including entertainment. There is great
interest in incorporating sophisticated human health monitoring
and aid systems into housing and other buildings to meet a number
of objectives, including general recovery from medical operations,
aiding individuals in rehabilitation programs, and aiding the elderly
to healthily “age in place,” as many so desire. Advances in sensory
technologies, including biosensors for identifying and communi­
cating warnings of chemical or other bioterrorism threats, are also
expected to benefit the building industry.

As we’ve seen, significant improvements are expected in enabling
electronic and electromechanical control systems and related
sensory technologies. These same technologies are also enabling
systems in a larger thrust toward “intelligent buildings” (Section
9.8). Though this concept has been around for quite some time
and particularly flowered during recent interests in smart material
applications, it is experiencing renewed interest via nanotechnolo­
gies, with their possibilities of both easy embedment and extensive
distribution. Intelligent building technologies are not only about
improved control systems, advanced sensory technologies, or inter­
faces, however; they also involve a much more complex interaction
among technologies, responsive materials, and human use needs
that is guided by cognition goals.

Systems

Environments of the type described are ultimately made using
many products made for use in the construction industry or by
actual on-site construction. The industry that produces buildings,
bridges, and other works is enormous and highly fragmented.
Buildings utilize a surprisingly diverse array of products. A host of
independent producers and suppliers provide these many products
that find their way into buildings—far more so than is common
with other industries. There are two simple parallel ways of con­
ceptualizing product developments within this confusing context;

The Building and Construction Industry 513

one is by building systems and another is to view them in terms of
levels within a technology sophistication chain.

Many building products play roles in relation to monitoring, control,
and communication systems. Many of these systems sense indoor air
environment characteristics and in turn provide the logic and con­
trols that allow various building environmental systems to main­
tain design levels. Other systems similarly deal with lighting or
communications. Yet others deal with fire detection, suppression,
or other needs. The list is surprisingly long. Many high-value prod­
ucts used in buildings find their uses in these systems, typically in
the form of sensors, actuators, or logic controllers. These products
are technologically complex and are in the top range of any kind
of technology sophistication value chain. Most used within the
building industry might have been tailored specifically for build­
ing use but usually have underlying technologies that have been
developed primarily by other industries and in response to driving
forces in those industries. This is often the case with mechanical or
electronic products (such as sensor-based control systems used in
everything from heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning systems
to escalators). Surely the building industry will benefit from the
many nano-based technologies associated with the expected rapid
advances in electronic and related communication technologies.
Certainly there will be enormous benefits from new optoelectronic
display systems.

Many buildings are literally all about “information” and can be
expected to use new display technologies (Section 9.5). In these
general types of monitoring, control, and communication products,
nanomaterial-led innovations will benefit the building industry,
but the industry will probably only rarely provide the primary tech­
nology development leadership for these products. It will, however,
provide a big market for tailored products.

Enclosure systems form an essential part of any building. External
enclosures provide fundamental thermal, weather, and sound bar­
riers and mediators. Façade elements, such as windows or glass
curtain walls, provide not only visual access to the outside world
but also are light mediators. Interior walls zone building spaces
and provide their own privacy, sound, and light control functions.
As observed in earlier chapters, the specific thermal, optical, and
sound properties of these many elements are essential in provid­
ing comfortable and habitable environments. Both external and
internal enclosure elements also provide the visual statement that

514 CHAPTER 12 The Broader Context

users and designers associate with the “architecture” of the build­
ing; hence appearances, textures, finishes, and the like are highly
important as well. Products produced for these systems vary widely
in technological sophistication. Glasses and many kinds of panels
can be extremely sophisticated, whereas other buildings might use
walls made of very low-tech products.
Nonetheless, the huge surface areas associated with enclosure
systems make them a natural target for sophisticated products that
are surface oriented. If there is one thing that buildings have in com­
parison with other artifacts, it is surface area. Hence, many applica­
tions can be expected in the “surface” or “enclosure” category, such
as glasses, paints, and coatings, and have either functional or useful
visual properties. As we saw in Chapter 10, many very interesting
and useful innovations based on the use of nanomaterials are taking
place here, such as various thin films, coatings, and others. Prod­
ucts with self-cleaning, easy-cleaning, antimold, or other behaviors
of this type are particularly attractive and can be expected to find
more use (see Figure 12.3). Many of these materials are based on
photocatalytic, hydrophilic, or hydrophobic properties made pos­
sible through the use of nano-based films or other surface treat­
ments. Products for flame retardancy and other mandated safety
objectives are also poised to benefit from the use of nanomaterials.
Reduced toxicity of emissions during fire circumstances is similarly

Figure 12.3 
This church in Korea uses a self-cleaning
photocatalytic surface. Also see Chapter 10.
(Courtesy of Tayo Kogyo).

The Building and Construction Industry 515

important. As noted, outgassing from many surface-covering mate­
rials, which can contribute to indoor air pollution, can similarly be
potentially minimized through nano-based coatings. Despite the
importance of these latter topics, there seems to be little current
research attention focused upon them.

Many other products are surface-oriented or form part of surface-
forming enclosure systems and include thermal insulation mate­
rials. Nanoporous materials that can be made into large surface
forms, such as aerogels, are expected to continue to make real
advances here, as are improved phase-change materials. The long-
desired “transparent insulation” material for use in building façades
could become a viable reality (or at least a highly translucent
version of it); see Section 9.3. Buildings also use extensive amounts
of polymeric sheets or coatings, and the many expected advances in
polymers through nanofillers or nanoparticles can potentially be
beneficial here. The same is true with textiles.

Many of the products made for enclosure systems are quite sophis­
ticated and relatively high up on the technology value chain. Pro­
ducers making these products respond to building industry needs
often lead in developing new technologies for the industry, but
they also rely on broader distributions and markets outside the
building industry to help support research and development activi­
ties. Some of the most exciting uses of nanomaterials in relation to
the building industry are found in these products. Products can be
designed to respond to many of the currently important industry
drivers, such as energy conservation, while uses and markets are big
enough to support technologically sophisticated responses.

Lighting and other environmental systems are also natural places for
rapid developments in relation to nanotechnologies. Advances
enabled by nanotechnologies in the lighting area promise to be
highly significant, not only for the quality of lighting but in rela­
tion to reduced energy consumption as well. Light-emitting diodes
(LEDs) are already in wide use and have become a major product
within the building industry. Expectations are that they could
evolve into more efficient and frequency-adjustable quantum-
based devices (QLEDs; see Section 9.5). Coupled with advances in
the optical properties of thin-film or coating technologies based on
nanomaterials, highly interesting advances can be expected in the
design of lighting environments. Other environmental systems are
expected to benefit as well. There is, of course, widespread interest
in using renewable or alternative energy sources, as well as making
traditional systems more efficient. The idea of a building being

516 CHAPTER 12 The Broader Context

independent of common energy sources via the use of solar cells, of
course, is so prevalent that it hardly needs mention. Yet widespread
energy self-sufficiency is a very long way away. Nanotechnologies will
certainly help make solar cells far more efficient than currently (see
Section 9.7) and will come in forms that allow more versatile place­
ment and use. Improvements can be expected in the form of other
energy sources, such as geothermal. Also important is the potential
for improved efficiencies in the plethora of systems that distribute
energy throughout buildings, including ubiquitous elements such
as heat exchangers or the like (Section 9.3). As noted, improved
enclosure systems will reduce heating and cooling demands.
Nanoporous materials, or nanomaterials with catalytic properties,
are expected to aid in achieving clean air and clean water objectives
within buildings.

Structural systems obviously provide a fundamental role in buildings.
Included here are structural system elements made from long-used
conventional materials, especially steel and reinforced concrete.
Aluminum and other metals can be used in certain circumstances
as well. These traditional materials have long been the subject of
intensive research and development. The basic materials used are
already surprisingly sophisticated—advanced metallurgy in steel
has certainly had its successes—and nanomaterials can be expected
to play a role in their further evolution, such as metal matrix nano­
composites. The development of sensor-based structural systems
that have either embedded damage detection technologies or active
responses to changing loading or force conditions that are enabled
by sophisticated control systems are undoubtedly areas that could
benefit from nanotechnologies. In these cases, member sizes can be
expected to reduce. Many devices are being developed, for example,
for controlling damaging effects of seismic ground motions or wind
forces. The future is bright here.

In construction, however, it should always be remembered that vast
amounts of common building activities use primary materials in
massive quantities – often in situations where performance require­
ments are not particularly high – and in relatively low-value con­
texts. This is not a picture that fosters widespread technologically
based revolutions to improve performances if costs for using inno­
vative new materials escalate as well. This picture differs in com­
parison with other industries. A driving force in selecting metals
for use in the structures for aerospace industry, for example, is to
use materials with high strength-to-weight or stiffness-to-weight
ratios, so that overall product weights can be reduced. The same
driver is present in the automotive industry. Benefits of reduced

The Building and Construction Industry 517

weights are enormous (improved performance, reduced fuel con­
sumption, etc.) and can warrant expected higher material costs. The
same driver is simply not true to anywhere near the same extent in
most common buildings. Though interesting and exciting excep­
tions certainly do exist, this absent primary driver and unfavorable
cost/benefit pictures can tend to inhibit innovation. Innovations
such as the use metal matrix composites or in response-control
systems are thus expected to occur first in specialized or very
high-value buildings (see the discussion on this topic in Chapter
3), not your average commercial or residential construction.

Nonetheless, advances are being made and incremental improve­
ments can be expected. With reinforced concrete, for example,
improvements based on nanoparticle inclusions not only can
improve strengths, they can improve workability and other factors
as well (Sections 9.2 and 10.2). Self-cleaning actions or pollution-
reducing treatments offer interesting potential. For metal members
and various kinds of structural panels, various kinds of nano-based
coatings and paints will undoubtedly become more widely used.

Ancillary elements serve elemental but highly necessary functions.
A host of products fall into this category, such as common railings,
hinges, and myriad others. Most typical products in this area are
made exclusively for the building industry and are fairly far down
on the technology sophistication chain. Rarely is there appreciable
sophistication here in basic bulk material usage, and, consequently,
prospects for positive improvements via the use of nanomaterials
are currently limited. Exceptions again go toward surface-related
interventions such as paints and coatings for these products.
Improvements in mechanical properties, such as scratch resistance,
are important. Flame retardant and toxicity-reducing coatings are
potentially highly important. Nanocoatings can potentially help
reduce outgassing from common material such as carpets that can
contribute to indoor air pollution. At the very bottom of the tech­
nology value chain are products that are widely used in construction
but are little removed from raw material product forms. Materials
such as gravels fall into this category. Little is expected here.

In summary, nanomaterials and nanotechnologies are expected
to contribute to greatly improved living and work environments.
More dramatic improvements are expected in specific high-value
systems and components. Others will be initially less impacted. The
most literally visible of these projected impacts—and keep in mind
that creating positive visual constructs is an important and valued
province of architects—is expected to be within the realm of light,

518 CHAPTER 12 The Broader Context

color, and interactivity. Possibilities are significant here. Improved
thermal control means may reduce the more visible manifestations
of needs for insulation and the like. Dramatic advances in struc­
tural nanocomposites will improve the performance of structures
and ultimately lead to component shape changes and size reduc­
tions but are not expected to immediately affect the organizational
and visual characteristics of passive structural systems to any big
degree. Improvements in active nano-based monitoring and
control systems and the development of “responsive” structural
systems, however, will have greater visible impacts. Surface char­
acteristics of all elements can potentially be positively improved
(self-cleaning, scratch-resistant, anti-microbial, and so on). Will
any nanotechnology actually be “disruptive” and change the fun­
damental nature of architecture? Probably not, but improvements
will indeed occur.

12.4 Aerospace, Textiles, Sports,
and Other Industries

Developments based on nanomaterials and nanotechnologies
that are expected in the electronics industry underpin many other
industries (automotive, aerospace, building). Huge research efforts
are under way in the electronics industry, and many applications are
being rapidly developed. It is abundantly clear that enormous per­
formance and other gains can occur via the use of nanomaterials
and nanotechnologies in many areas, ranging from chips and com­
munication systems to a host of optoelectrical devices. The potential
for performance and reliability improvements through exploitation
of the unique magnetic and electric properties of nanomaterials is
undoubtedly a primary driver for this industry. Many devices are
of high value and command high prices for even incremental per­
formance improvements. Other devices may be of lesser value but
are produced in large quantities so that expensive research and
development costs directed toward performance improvements
can be absorbed. A second primary driver is also the push toward
smallness in many products. A huge number of electronic products
serve as components in a host of products produced by other indus­
tries and serve to provide important enabling or ancillary func­
tions; however, since they are not the final product in themselves,
there are always pushes to minimize their size. At the same time,
their decreased sizes allow designers to be more aggressive about
integrating them into product lines or types where they were not
present before, thus increasing demand. (Consider the change in

Aerospace, Textiles, Sports, and Other Industries 519

the nature of products produced by the toy industry in recent years
as a consequence of the miniaturization of electronics.)

Other industries have different specific drivers. The aerospace
industry, for example, has long been both a developer and user
of advanced technologies in many areas. In addition to obvious
drivers related to aircraft operation and safety—the vast potential
of nanotechnologies in relation to electronic and electromechani­
cal control systems deserves special remark here—the industry is
also always necessarily concerned with both carrying capacity and
speed. These factors have obvious positive economic value in several
ways. Operating costs, particularly fuel, remain a major industry
problem. Various components within the industry seek to achieve
different balances among capacity, speed, operating costs, and user
pricing, depending on their markets. The demise of the Concorde
reminds us that very high-performance aircraft capable of high
speeds can fail if capacities are limited and needed price structures
to support costs are high.

Fuel is a major cost component in any balance equation in the aero­
space industry. Fuel consumption, in turn, is dependent on many
factors, including propulsion efficiency—an area in which nano­
materials can contribute in a number of ways that are far beyond
the scope of this summary to consider. Fuel consumption is also
highly dependent on weight. Hence there is an ever-present press to
reduce weights of all system components and infrastructures so that
higher payloads can be carried. The emphasis on reducing weight
characterizes many of the pushes underlying explorations of many
systems. Within supporting electronic and communication systems,
the aerospace industry is poised to be a major benefactor of the
electronics industry’s push toward miniaturization that is produc­
ing higher-performance products that are smaller, lighter, and easier
to integrate. The same push toward lightness is also undoubtedly a
major driver in the development of many nanocomposite materi­
als for mechanical and structural applications. In no other industry
do the ideas of strength-to-weight or stiffness-to-weight ratios have
equal relevance or importance as design drivers.

As noted in earlier chapters, many nanocomposites can truly play
significant roles here. Aggressive exploration and use of nanocom­
posites, even if still relatively expensive, can potentially pay off due
to the high values of final products as well as the fact that surprising
numbers of aircraft are actually produced from similar designs. Obvi­
ously, all the other unique property characteristics of nanomateri­
als (thermal, electromagnetic) will be contributors to the improved

520 CHAPTER 12 The Broader Context

design of the complex material and propulsion systems and are
relevant here as well.

In other areas, environmental comfort levels inside aircraft interiors
are far from satisfactory. Interest in improved sound environments
is always there, as is interest in improving basic thermal and air
environments. There are evolving interests in systems that aid in
health monitoring and the communication of health information
as well as providing direct aid. Various detection and alert systems
for threats from passengers or even crews are being explored. Many
of the areas of development already noted for the automobile
industry are equally important with respect to aircraft (see Section
12-2).

If we can characterize the electronics and aerospace industries as
leading industries in the development of sophisticated techno­
logies, it might be safe to say that not so very long ago the textiles
industry seemed rather staid. This is interesting in its own right,
since historians of technology quite often point to the fabulous
early looms of Marie Jacquard and others in 18th century France as
fundamental in the development of all subsequent industrial auto­
mation but also in the development of the idea of programmable
devices (some early looms used perforated cards to control weaving
patterns) that contributed to the development of computer logic
systems. The incredible rise of synthetic materials, including early
nylons and subsequent high-performance textiles in use all around
us are inextricably coupled with the textile industry. Current tech­
nologies and material use remain sophisticated.

The question facing the industry, however, is where might the
next really big level of new development come from? The recent
focus of many in the industry on the use of nanomaterials sug­
gests an answer to that fundamental question. As we saw in Section
10.4, applications in textiles are developing rapidly. Many of the
drivers common to other industries that were mentioned—needs
for improved durability, appearance, and so forth—are the same. In
the textile industry, however, the driver of adopting or developing
new technologies as a way of opening up new product lines, par­
ticularly high-value products, is pushing research and development
activities. This is not wishful thinking, either; nanomaterials can
help achieve such objectives as textiles that are antimicrobial and
can address a whole range of bacterial and fungal agents, or textiles
that are self-cleaning and perhaps even self-repairing. Clothing with
true antimicrobial actions and some level of self-cleaning would
not only promote health objectives—a valued objective in its own

Aerospace, Textiles, Sports, and Other Industries 521

right but also an attractive high-value product line—but have useful
side effects such as reducing needs for frequent washing and clean­
ing, which in turn would increase material longevity and decrease
environmental impacts. (These types of products are already avail­
able, but efficacies could be improved.)

The role of textiles vis-à-vis health promotion and delivery is still Figure 12.4 
in its infancy. The role of textiles in our difficult world of biologi­ New textile applications—wool fibers coated
cal threats is important, and expanded roles in relation to personal with nanolayers for controlling the permeation
security threats from bioterrorism are surely anticipated (see Section of warfare and toxic gases. (Courtesy if Juan
10.4 and Figure 12.4). Use of nanocomposites for fibers promises Hinestrosa.)
stronger, more durable, and lighter fabrics that are good for all but
particularly sought after by the sports industry. The same is true for
textiles that are incorporating high-performance thermal and mois­
ture-control materials. Nanostructured aerogels and phase-change
materials, for example, have thermal-control properties that are
highly attractive. They are already in some products, but their use
could be expanded. The recent fascination with “wearable electron­
ics” has its own impetus. Both private and public sectors are pro­
moting research in these many areas.

For many material scientists, the sports industry is one of their most Figure 12.5 
valued connections. This might seem surprising to many, but the This golf ball is engineered with nanoparticles to
high-end segments of the sports industry have long supported spin less and reduce slices and hooks. (Courtesy
innovative developments in materials designed to provide that of Nanodynamics.)
extra measure of real or perceived performance valued by customers
who are willing to pay extra premiums for it. Though many parts of
the sports industry cater to mass markets with costs being as critical
as in other fields, there has always been a market for products that
push performance envelopes that can be paid for by individuals and
organizations with largely disposable funds. (In this way this sector
is surprisingly similar to the market for luxury goods—an analogy
that would no doubt pain many sports lovers.) Examples abound
and range from specially designed tennis racquets and golf clubs to
high-performance racing bicycles or sailboats. It is open to discus­
sion whether a super-sophisticated golf club actually improves the
play and scores of a marginal golfer, but it would in the hands of
an expert, and this, in turn, renders the club a desirable artifact for
anyone interested in the game (see Figures 12.5 and 12.6).

Design qualities that are needed in sports equipment vary widely
according to the sport and the role of the material object. Driving
factors invariably hinge around performance increases, although
for some products visual characteristics that suggest high perform­
ance are important as well. For many sports products, user safety

522 CHAPTER 12 The Broader Context

Figure 12.6  concerns are a significant driver. Costs are always relevant, but
Carbon nanotubes are used to form achieving minimum possible costs is rarely a driver. Environmental
nanocomposite materials used in hockey sticks, and other issues are currently by and large less significant than in
baseball bats, and other sports gear. (Courtesy of other industries. (Arguments largely promoted by the industry for
Baytubes.) not having a high priority placed on these concerns include the
basic notion that overall material quantities produced are low com­
pared to products associated with other industries.)

In general, many qualities sought after in materials for the sports
industry have to do in one way or another with the mechanical
properties of materials. By and large, light weight is desirable—
especially so in many products such as high-end racing bicycles.
Reduced weight typically means reduced energy expenditure on the
part of the sports user, and this available energy can be captured for
increased performance by the user. Utilizing high-strength materials
is commonly one way to achieve reduced weight, and nanocompos­
ite materials can clearly be appropriate for use here. High stiffness
might or might not be a desirable characteristic. It certainly is in
some circumstances but is a design variable in others. Depending on
the specific golf club type being designed as well as user characteris­
tics, for example, varying degrees of stiffness are usually needed.
Thermal properties can be important in many materials—certainly
for outdoor trekking and camping gear. Light weights can be also be
important in this area. Clothing and coats that have high insulative
capabilities while allowing “breathing” in the material fabrics already
use high-technology material products (e.g., various materials that
are waterproof but allow breathability, or materials that control body
temperatures by use of phase-change phenomena). Nanoporous
materials such as aerogels are starting to find uses in outdoor coats
because of their thermal properties combined with lightness. Depend­
ing on the sport, many other qualities can be important.

While the reality of potentially improved performances via the
use of sports equipment based on nanotechnologies is positively
there, there are also fewer areas that have contributed so much to
the hype surrounding nanomaterials. The promise of improved
performance via nanomaterials is a common advertising theme
for products that might or might not have actually benefited from
the use of nano-based materials and technologies. Understanding
exactly what is meant can be surprisingly difficult. A material can
be advertised as a nanocomposite and highly touted, but finding
out the relative percentage by weight of nanomaterials present or
what weight or stiffness reductions have been achieved can be virtu­
ally impossible and can easily cause informed customers to become
suspicious.

A Closing Comment 523

12.5 A Closing Comment Date The Nano
Age
In an opening chapter of this book, a timeline showing various 2000 AD
material “ages” was illustrated (Figures 2.1 and 12.7). On the figure, 1980 AD Age of
traditionally defined eras such as the Stone Age and the Iron Age 1960 AD Silicon
were delineated. Near the top of the timeline and beginning in our 1940 AD Age of
own time, the term The Nano Age was noted. Anyone picking up 1920 AD Polymers
a book like this undoubtedly has both an interest and a fascina­ 1900 AD
tion with nanomaterials, and probably the defining of an age of 1850 AD Age of
nanomaterials was not really questioned or given much thought. 1800 AD Steel
Perhaps it is now time to revisit that definition.
Iron Age
To name something as an age in this way indicates that the mate­
rial has assumed the mantle of being the most advanced material Bronze Age
technology of the time. The naming also implies widespread use Copper Age
as well as being the material of choice for artifacts that demanded
high performance. This by no means suggests that other materi­ Stone Age
als ceased being used, for older materials obviously continued in
use. Iron axe heads were a huge improvement over stone or bronze
ones because of their ability to retain sharp cutting edges and
their overall strength and durability, but humans continued to use
wooden hafts for hundreds of years. Only recently has the wooden
haft been challenged by newer materials, but even now the wooden
haft remains.

Is the naming of our time as the beginning of the age of nano­ 1500 AD
materials warranted, or is the mystic of nanomaterials pushing an
overly optimistic interpretation of their importance? One of the 1000 AD
goals of this book is to demystify nanomaterial and nanotechnolo­
gies and to critically examine their real potentials as well as their 500 AD
real limitations. In doing so the unique properties of nanomaterials
again and again showed through as having true value. There is little 0 BC / AD
doubt that often-stated expectations about the prospect of ever-
accelerating uses of nanomaterials in many industries are on the 1,000 BC
mark, but certainly more so in some industries than in others. In
many instances nanotechnologies were found to be clearly poised 10,000 BC
to become “disruptive” technologies in the sense that they could
potentially literally change the face of a valued process or product. 100,000 BC
Disruptive technologies normally occur within the context of par­ Figure 12.7 
ticularly high-value objects or artifacts for which high performance Materials timeline.
is at a premium. As it was with the disruptive technology of the iron
axe head with its vastly improved cutting capability, so it can be
with nanotechnologies in many products and processes in the elec­
tronics, medical, and drug delivery industries. Remarkable develop­
ments can be expected to occur in other industries as well. Gains

524 CHAPTER 12 The Broader Context

Figure 12.8  will be selective, however, since not all products will see dramatic
Fullerene gears. (Courtesy of NASA.) changes in their character or basic use of materials. The equivalent
of the wooden haft will remain with us.

In many applications across several industries, truly disruptive
technologies associated with the use of nanomaterials and nan­
otechnologies might not occur at all; rather the term continuous
improvement is perhaps a better way of couching potential impacts.
This couching by no means detracts from the importance of nano­
material and nanotechnology contributions within these contexts.
Many valuable and highly functioning technologies have reached
mature stages of development where forward progress has slowed
and where nanomaterials and nanotechnologies can help achieve
new levels of development.

Another aspect of the question of the appropriateness of naming a
material age is whether impacts have a long life. Might nanomateri­
als and nanotechnologies be here today and gone tomorrow? In an
earlier discussion on the possible evolutionary path of computing
“chips” that are so essential to our technological world as we know
it, nanotechnologies were argued as being the next major step
forward in increasing speed and computing power while always
decreasing in size. Yet in the same discussion it was noted that
within a time frame of 20 to 30 years, chips based on ideas of “elec­
tron spin” would come to the fore, thus driving the size scale even
further downward from the nanoscale to the atomic scale. Does
this negate the idea of a nanomaterials age if anticipated near-term
technologies might be described in other terms?

This is a difficult question, since predicting the technological future
has long known to be a risky enterprise at best. It does appear that
some technologies will indeed move further down the size scale
into the molecular and atomic scale. Many chemical and biologi­
cal processes and actions already operate on this scale, to be sure,
and there is every expectation that further developments will occur
along these lines. The often pictured image shown in Figure 12.8
of the “molecular motor” (a spinning assembly of nanotubes with
projecting elements that form elemental gears) provides yet another
illustration of this direction and provides an icon of a high-technol­
ogy future based on very small things indeed—but these might or
might not be the technologies needed for the amazingly diverse
array of functions, sizes, and operations in the multitude of prod­
ucts and processes that will be used by industries and consumers
alike in the future. Many work best at the nanoscale. As discussed
in Chapter 3, many holistic products also need to exist at larger

Further Reading 525

scales for them to provide their function. For many products, the
nanoscale will be the right long term scale. The continued extensive
use of nanomaterials to achieve very high levels of performance is
anticipated. There is every expectation that nanomaterials or nan­
otechnologies will become and continue to be a common part of
the many things will make our society of the time what it is.

Perhaps one of the most interesting arguments is that the Age of
Nanomaterials is indeed here to stay relates to a sea change in the
way materials themselves are designed. Until the present, the quest
for improved material properties in many of our most commonly
used materials has had to be done indirectly, such as heat treat­
ments for manipulating the properties of steel to give them nano­
scaled structures. Now we have tools for direct intervention at the
nanoscale. This is a remarkably important point of departure for
the future. Until history proves otherwise, suggesting that there is
indeed an age of nanomaterials appears a sound bet.

Further Reading

Paolo Gardini, Sailing with the ITRS into nanotechnology, International
Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors, 2006.

C. Laurvick and B. Singaraju, Nanotechnology in aerospace systems, Aero­
space and Electronic Systems Magazine, IEEE,Volume 18, Issue 9, Sept.
2003

NanoRoad: Nanomaterials Roadmap 2015: Roadmap report concerning
the use of nanomaterials in the automotive sector, 6th Framework Pro­
gramme, European Union, 2007.

NanoRoad: Nanomaterials Roadmap 2015: Roadmap report concerning
the use of nanomaterials in the aerospace sector, 6th Framework Pro­
gramme, European Union, 2007.

NanoRoad: SWOT Analysis concerning the use of nanomaterials in the au­
tomotive sector, 6th Framework Programme, European Union, 2007.

Juan Pérez, Laszlo Bax, and Carles Escolano, Roadmap report on nanoma­
terials, 6th Framework Programme, European Union, 2007.

Alan Taub, Automotive materials: Technology trends and challenges in the
21st century, MRS Bulletin, Vol. 31, April 2006, ppf. 336.

Index

0.2% proof stress, 107 nanoporous sound insulation Analytical tools, 294–295
0-D nanomaterials. See zero-dimensional materials, 374 Ancillary elements, 517
Angle dependence of colors, 346,
nanomaterials noise control, 367–369 347f
1-D nanomaterials. See one-dimensional overview, 364–365 Anions, 97–98
sound sources, 376–377 Anisotropy energy, 222–223
nanomaterials space acoustics, 369–372 Anodes, 385–387
2-D nanomaterials. See two-dimensional Acoustics, concert hall, 78–85 Antibacterial fabric, 451, 451f
Activated carbon, 493 Antiferromagnetic coupling, 226
nanomaterials Active structural systems, 295–296, Antiferromagnets, 130–131, 131f
3-D nanomaterials. See three-dimensional Antifogging, 427
306–307 Antimicrobial materials, 407–412,
nanomaterials Additive combination of colors, 339 419–423, 440, 456, 458f
Adhesives, 443–446 Antipollutant concrete, 416–418
A Adsorption systems, 493 Antireflection, 348–350, 427, 435
Aerogel, 319–321, 320f–323f, 374 Antiscratch coatings, 441f
a (thermal diffusivity), 114–115 Aerosols, 460–461 Anvils, amorphous metal based, 301
α (thermal expansion), 115–116, 117f, Aerospace industry, 391–392, 519–520 Apatite, 27, 28f
AFM (atomic force microscope), 281– AR (absorbing antireflective) materials,
151–152 348–349
α (thermal expansion coefficient), 114, 284, 283f–284f Arc-discharge technique, 234–235, 234t
Agglomeration of nanoparticles, 240–241 Arches, 42–43, 43f
115f, 218 Aging, VIP, 321 Architecture, 55, 452–453. See also
Abalones, 9, 9f, 24–25, 24f Air cleaning and purification, 458, 458f, building design
Absorbance, 228–230, 229f Armchair nanotube, 233, 236f
Absorbed light, 337 491–494 Art, nanomaterials in
Absorbers, nanotextile, 458 Air pollution reduction, 417–418, 418f, conservation, 32–38
Absorbing antireflective (AR) materials, examples, 29–32
494–495 Aspen Aerogel products, 321f–322f
348–349 Allotropic transformations, 97, 97f Assemblies, 59, 61–65, 67–70
Absorption Alloys, 19, 87, 201–202, 201f–202f, Associative qualities of materials,
44f–45f, 45–46
optical behavior, 134 263–264 Astronomical scale, 12f
sound, 81f, 141–142, 366–368, 373 Alpha prototypes, 74 Atomic bonding
Absorption edge, 228–229 Alternating copolymers, 99f chemical bonding, 93
Absorptivity, 133 Alternative energy, 379 covalent bonding, 94
Acid paper, 36, 36f Aluminum, coefficient of thermal hydrogen atom, 92–93
Acoustic properties ideal strength, 109–110, 109f
material property charts, 154, 155f expansion, 218 ionic bonding, 93
nanomaterial, 232 Aluminum alloys, 201–202, 201f–202f metallic bonding, 94–95
overview, 141 Aluminum-based metal-matrix overview, 92
radiation of sound energy, 143–144 Van der Waals bonding, 95
sound management, 141–143 composites, 299 Atomic force microscope (AFM),
sound velocity and wavelength, 141 Amorphous materials, 199–200, 200f, 281–284, 283f–284f
sound wave impedance, 143–144 Atomic scale, 12f 527
Acoustic waves, 13, 14f 207–211, 265–266, 300–301,
Acoustical environments 302f
applications of nanomaterials, 372, Amorphous matrix, 252–253
Amorphous silicon dioxide layers,
378–379 216–217
damping and isolation, 374–376 Amplitude, 365–366
fundamental characteristics of, Analytical models, 81
Analytical techniques. See specific
365–367 techniques by name
manipulating properties, 372–373
musical instruments, 377–378

528 Index

Atomic structure Boston Symphony Hall, 78f Calorimetry, 113–114, 114f
Bohr model, 89–90 Bottom-up approach, 3, 7–9, 264, 264f, Capacitors, 119–120, 120f
exclusion principle, 91 Capillarity effects, 190–191
overview, 89 267 Carbon dioxide levels, 306
periodic table, 91–92 Bragg’s law of diffraction, 287–288, 287f Carbon materials, 376–377
quantum mechanics, 90–91 Brain, 28–29, 29f Carbon nanotubes (CNTs)
Branched polymers, 99, 100f
Atoms Bravais lattices, 95–96, 96f agglomeration of, 243f
See also atomic bonding; atomic Breakdown potential, 120, 126–127 in bicycles, 298f
structure Bright-field images, TEM, 279, 280f in carbon-fiber composites, 297
ferromagnetic, 130–131 Brightness, acoustic, 154, 155f conductivity of, 220–221
substitutional, 100–101 Brightness-contrast terms, 341, 341f cost of, 399–401, 399f
surface, 14–15, 15f, 102, 190–191, 190f Brinell test, 107f dampening properties, 375
Bronze Age, 18f, 19 functionalized forms, 399
Attribute limits, 157 Brownian motion, 4–5 making of, 261
Attribute meanings, 341–342 Bubble charts in metal-matrix nanocomposites, 299
Audible sound, 364–365 in nanocomposites, 398–399
Automobile design, 333–334, 391–392 acoustic attributes, 154, 155f overview, 233–239
Automotive industry, 502–510 exchange constants, 169f polymer-matrix nanocomposites, 297
modulus-density, 147–149, 159–160, production of, 397f
B purity of, 398
160f–161f reinforcement of nanocomposites,
Backscattering mode, SEM, 276 modulus-relative cost, 149–150, 158,
Bacteria 242–246, 250
159f self-assembly, 7, 7f
antimicrobial materials, 419 penalty functions, 167f Carbon sequestration, 493–494
magnetotactic, 9–10, 9f strength-density, 150–151 Carbon-fiber composites, 297
Bakelite, 45–46, 46f tactile attributes, 152–154 Cascades, 126, 126f
Band gaps, 123–124, 123f, 194–196, thermal expansion and thermal Cast iron, 19, 45f
Casting defects, 102–103
195f conductivity, 151–152 Catalysts, 424–426, 450
Bands, 122–124 tradeoff strategies, 165f–166f Catalytic materials, 485, 490–492,
Bar charts, 147–149 Buckminster fullerenes, 233
Barium technique, 34f, 35–36 Buffers, thermal, 322–323 505–506
Barriers Building design Cathodes, 385, 387
architecture, 55 Cations, 97–98
sound, 368 assemblies, 59, 61–65, 67–70 Cavitation, 240–241
thermal, 322 building engineering, 55 Cell phones, 332
Batteries, 385, 386t, 388f civil engineering, 55 Cell-phone cases, amorphous metal, 302f
Baytubes production facility, 397f design and development context, Cellulose, 36
BCC (body-centered cubic) unit cells, Center for Colloid and Interface Science
55–58
96–97, 96f development (CSGI), 35–37
Beach House, 412f Centimeter scale products, 70f
Beachamwell Church, 423f overall process, 70–74 Ceramic materials, 30–31, 32f, 87–88,
Beams, 103–104, 105f structured processes, 74–76
Behavior, nano, 11–15 unstructured processes, 76–78 97, 107, 107f
Bending stresses, 43f environments, 59–61 Ceramic-matrix nanocomposites, 251–
Beta prototypes, 74 material selection, 48
Bioclothing, 458–459, 459f modular, 67–70 252, 299–300
Biofilters, 458 systems, 59, 61–65, 67–70 CES material selection software, 160–161,
Biofouling, 489 types of, 58
Bio-identification, gold particles for, 10 unitary, 67–70 162f
Biolabels, 468–469 Building engineering, 55 Cesium chloride structure, 97, 98f
Biomaterials, 21, 88–89 Building industry, 510–518 CFD (computational fluid dynamics)
Biopolymers, 88 Buildings, textiles for, 452–453
Biosensors, 330–332, 468–469 Bulk defects, 102–103 models, 316–317
Biotechnology, 8 Bulk modulus, 105–106, 106f, 295 Channels, 236–237
Block copolymers, 98–99, 99f Bulk nanomaterials, 178f, 179–180, Characterization of nanomaterials, 271–
Blue paint, Mayan, 31–32, 32f–33f
Body, chemical composition of, 1, 2t 180f–184f, 182 288. See also electron microscopy;
Body components, automotive, 507 Bulk nanostructured materials, 186f, specific microscopes by name; specific
Body-centered cubic (BCC) unit cells, spectroscopy techniques by name
263–264, 264f, 272f–273f Charts. See material property charts
96–97, 96f Burger’s vector, 111, 111f Chemical absorption systems, 493–494
Bohr magnetons, 130 Byssus, 25, 25f Chemical adhesive mechanisms, 443–444
Bohr radius, 227–229, 228t Chemical bonding, 92–95
Bonding, atomic. See atomic bonding C Chemical composition of human body,
Bone, 27–28, 28f, 471–472 1, 2t
Calcium fluorite structure, 98, 98f Chemical environments, 61f
Calcium hydroxide, 35–37, 36f–37f

Index 529

Chemical functionalization, 243–244 Concept development, 72 Corrosion protection, 302
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD), 234– Conceptual design proposals, initial, Cosmetics, 459–464, 478–481
Cost
235, 234t, 347–348 79–80
Chemochromics, 429 Concern-driven forces for change, 46, 47f of CNTs, 399–401, 399f
Chemoluminescent technologies, 355 Concert hall design, 78–85 of electronics technology
Chip technology, 329 Concrete, 45f, 66f, 302–306, 416–418,
Chiral nanotube, 234, 236f development, 331
Chirality, 233, 236f 484, 494–495 minimizing, 164
Chloroplasts, 23–24, 24f Condensers, 119–120, 120f of nanomaterials, 396–401, 400f
Chromics, 352–355 Conduction electrons, 196, 196f Cost chart, modulus-relative, 149–150,
Chromogenic materials, 344 Conductive heat loss, 314
Circadian systems, human, 341 Conductive materials, 317–322 158, 159f
Cité de la Musique et des Beaux-Arts, Conductivity Coulomb blockade, 221–222, 222f
Coulomb islands, 9
417f electrical, 118–119, 122–124 Covalent bonding, 94
Civil engineering, 55. See also building thermal, 114, 116–117 Cp (heat capacity), 113–115, 114f, 116f,
Conductors, 122–124, 123f, 194–195,
design 154, 218
Classes of materials, 87–89 195f Cracks, 102–103, 305–306
Classical effect, 218 Confined electrons, 195–196 Crack-tip bridging, 251
Classification of nanomaterials, 177–182, Conflicting objectives Crazes, 139
Cross-functional parts or components, 62
186f design, 81–82 Cross-linked polymers, 99, 100f
Cleaning actions, 407–412. See also self- overview, 162–163 Cryomilling, 266
penalty functions, 166–167 Crystal lattices, 95–96
cleaning materials systematic methods, 164–165 Crystalline nanoparticles. See
Climatic conditions, and building design, tradeoff strategies, 165–166
values for exchange constants, nanocrystalline materials
57 Crystallization, 259–260, 264–265
Clock of life, Earth’s, 23f 167–170 Crystals
Closed domain structure, macroscopic weight factors, 163–164
Conflicts, system, 73 imperfections, 110–111
ferromagnetic material, 223f Confocal scanning light microscope, 274, in Mayan blue paint, 33f
Cloth, 450–451. See also textiles reducing scale of, 202
Clubs, amorphous metal based, 301 274f–275f sizes of, 199–200
CMR (colossal magnetoresistance), 227 Conservation, of art, 32–38 structure of, 95–98, 183f
CNTs. See carbon nanotubes Consistency, design, 70–71 vacancy defects, 100
Coarse-grained copper, 202–203 Consolidation, nanostructured particle, CSGI (Center for Colloid and Interface
Coatings, 300–301, 348–350, 433–436,
267 Science), 35–37
441f, 454, 456 Constant-current mode, STM, 281–283, Cubes, surface-to-volume ratio for, 184–
Coercive field, 128–129
Coercivity field, 224–225, 224f 283f 187, 186f
Cognition levels, 393–394, 393f Constant-height mode, STM, 281–283, Cubo-octahedrons, 188–189, 188f, 190t
Coherency, design, 70–71 Culturally dependent properties of
Cold drawing, 107 283f
Collagen fibrils, 27, 28f Constituent systems, 64 materials, 43, 45–47, 45f
Color, 139–140, 339–340 Constraints, 154–156, 156t Culture, nanomaterials in
Color-changing materials, 352, 429 Construction industry, 82, 510–518. See
Colossal magnetoresistance (CMR), conservation, 32–38
also building design examples, 29–32
227 Constructive interference, 345–346, Cv (heat capacity at constant volume),
Columns, 103–104, 105f
Communication systems, 513 346f 113–114
Complexity, product, 53–54 Consumer appeal, 164 CVD (chemical vapor deposition), 234–
Composite materials, 88, 103 Contact angle, 409–410
Composite technology, 20–21 Contact mode, AFM, 283–284, 284f 235, 234t, 347–348
Compression, 42–43, 43f, 104–105 Context, of materials, 45 Cylinders, surface-to-volume ratio for,
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) Continuous improvement, 524
Contrast enhancement, 348–350 184–187, 186f
models, 316–317 Control systems, 513
Computer-aided selection, 160–161 Convection, 308–309 D
Computer-based control systems, 307 Conventional engineering, 12f
Computers, 310–311 Convex surface curvature, 190–193, 191f, D (dissipation factor), 121
Computers-based lighting simulations, Damage monitoring, 306–307
193f Damage-tolerant design, 175t
343 Cooling devices, 325–327 Damping, 154, 374–376, 430–431
Computers-based sound simulation Copolymers, 98–99 Dark-field detectors, 280–281
Copper, 202–203, 203f, 328, 420 Dark-field images, TEM, 279, 280f
models, 371 Copper Age, 17, 18f DB (decibels), 141
Concave surface curvature, 190–193, Copper-nickel nanolaminates, 206, DCPD (dicyclopentadiene), 424–425,

191f, 193f 206f 425f
Core textile materials, 454 Deacidification, 36–37, 36f–37f
Decibels (dB), 141

530 Index

Defects Dicyclopentadiene (DCPD), 424–425, Edge dislocations, 101–102, 103f, 110f,
bulk, 102 425f 194
casting, 102–103
dislocations, 99 Dielectric behavior, 117–122, 125 EDM (micro electro-discharge
interfacial, 102 Dielectric breakdown, 126–127, 126f machining), 268, 268t
linear, 101–102 Dielectric breakdown potential, 118
overview, 99–100 Dielectric constant, 118, 222 EDS (energy dispersive spectroscopy),
point, 100–101 Dielectric loss, 121, 121f, 126 284–285
Dielectric loss factor, 118
Deflection control devices, 306–307 Dielectric strength, 120 EELS (electron energy loss spectroscopy),
Deformation, bone, 27 Dielectrics, light passing through, 284–286, 285f
Demagnetization energy, 223
Dendrimers, 469 138–139 Elastic moduli, 103, 106f, 294
Density Diffraction, Bragg’s law of, 287–288, 287f Elastic waves, 116–117
Diffraction aperture, TEM, 278–279, 278f Elastomers, 88
dislocation, 101–102 Diffraction contrast, TEM, 279–280 Electric fields (E), 119
of materials, 207–211, 208f–210f Diffuse reflection, 134, 134f Electrical conductivity, 118–119, 122–124
of states, 196, 196f Diffusivity, 192–193, 192f Electrical environments
symbol for, 173t Dilatation, 105, 106f
Desalinization processes, 489–490 Dipole moments, 125, 125f electronic materials, 328
Design Dipoles, 95, 95f general trends, 328–331
building Directly conflicting design objectives, impacts, 331–334
Electrical properties
architecture, 55 81–82 conductivity, 118–119
assemblies, 59, 61–65, 67–70 Discrete nanoobjects, 186f dielectric behavior, 119–122
building engineering, 55 Dislocation density, 101–102 nanomaterial, 218–222
civil engineering, 55 Dislocation line, 110–111 overview, 117–118
design and development context, Dislocations physics of, 122–127
resistivity, 118–119
55–58 crystalline imperfection, 110–111 varying, 430–431
environments, 59–61 edge, 101–102, 103f, 110f, 194 Electrical resistance, 124–125
modular, 67–70 movement of caused by stress, Electrical resistivity, 118–119, 119f
systems, 59, 61–65, 67–70 Electrical symbols, 173t
types of, 58 111–112 Electrochemical capacitors, 388, 388f
unitary, 67–70 overview, 101 Electrochemical cells, 385, 385f
development strain confinement, 194 Electrochromic materials, 354–355, 354f
overall process, 70–74 strengthening mechanisms, 112–113 Electrodeposition, 266
structured processes in relation to Dispersion hardening, 112–113, 112f Electroless nickel, 266, 266f
Displays, 360–363 Electroluminescence, 140–141, 355–356
materials, 74–76 Disruptive technologies, 523–524 Electrolytes, 385, 387–388
unstructured processes, 76–78 Dissipation factor (D), 121 Electromagnetic (e-m) radiation, 12–13,
focus of, 47–49 Dives in Misericordia church, 416–417,
materials in, 41–49 13f, 336. See also optical
product 417f properties
characterizing, 50–52 Documentation, 75f, 154–155, 156f, Electromagnetic environments, 61f
complexity and performance, 53–54 Electromagnetic spectrum, 336
overview, 49–50 157–158 Electromechanical design, 176t
production volumes, 52 Domain walls, 131–132, 132f Electron backscattering diffraction
value, 52–53 Domains, 131–132 (EBSD), 276
textiles in, 450–453 Doping, 140, 140f Electron beam lithography, 6
of thermal environments, 312–315 Drains, 236–237 Electron beam machining (EBM), 268t,
vignette, 78–85 Drexler, K. E., 3 269f
Design development and engineering Driver, amorphous metal, 301f Electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS),
Drug delivery, 459, 470–471 284–286, 285f
phase, 72–73, 80–81 Ductility, 107, 302 Electron microscopy
Destructive interference, 345–346, 346f AFMs, 283–284, 283f–284f
Detail development phase, 72–73 E EBSD, 276
Development electron sources, 275
E (electric fields), 119 electron spectroscopy, 284–287, 286f
building, 55–58 Earth’s clock of life, 23f FIM, 281, 282f
overall process, 70–74 Easy axes, 222–223 overview, 274–275
structured design processes, 74–76 Easy-cleaning materials, 418–419 SEM, 275–276, 276f–277f
unstructured design processes, 76–78 EBM (electron beam machining), 268t, STEM, 280–281, 282f
Diagnostic techniques, 469–470 STMs, 281–283, 282f–283f
Diamonds, 45–46 269f TEMs
Dichroic filters, 437 EBSD (electron backscattering contrast mechanisms, 279–280
Dichroic glasses, 350, 350f diffraction aperture, 278–279, 278f
Dichroics, 350–351 diffraction), 276
Echolocation, 365
Economic qualities of materials, 46
Ecoproperty symbols, 173t

Index 531

electrons used in, 275 Environmental impact, 164, 170, sound and acoustical
image of, 277f 482–485 acoustical damping and isolation,
modes, 278 374–376
overview, 275–278 Environmental issues, nanotechnology applications of nanomaterials, 372,
platinum nanoparticles, 281f air cleaning and purification, 378–379
schematic diagram of, 278f 491–494 fundamental characteristics of,
types of images, 279, 280f air pollution reduction, 494–495 365–367
Electron spectroscopy. See specific types by environmental monitoring, 486 manipulating properties, 372–373
general risks, 496–498 musical instruments, 377–378
name overview, 467–468, 481–499 nanoporous sound insulation
Electron tunneling, 221–222 reducing impact, 482–485 materials, 374
Electron-beam lithography, 270 remediation and treatment, noise control, 367–369
Electronic assists, concert hall, 84–85 485–486 overview, 364–365
Electronic magic numbers, 189–190 soil remediation, 495–496 sound sources, 376–377
Electronic materials water cleaning and purification, space acoustics, 369–372
486–491
general trends, 328–331 workplace sources and exposures, thermal
impacts, 331–334 498–499 basic heat transfer, 308–309
overview, 88, 328 nano-based applications, 317–327
Electronic papers, 360–363 Environmental monitoring, 486 overview, 307–308
Electronic systems, automotive, 509–510 Environmental qualities of materials, 44f, in products, 309–312
Electronic water purifiers, 491, 491f in spaces, 312–317
Electronics industry, 518–519 46
Electrons Environmental safety, 82 Equiangle extrusion, 266
See also atomic bonding Environments Ethylene, 98, 98f
atomic configurations for, 91f Evolutionary perspective
color, 139–140 See also mechanical environments;
electrical conductivity, 122–124 structural environments history of materials, 17–23
electrical resistance, 124–125, 124f nanomaterials
electroluminescence, 140–141 in building design, 59–61, 61f, 65f
energy, 90–91 electrical and magnetic in art, 29–32
exclusion principle, 91 conservation, 32–38
ferromagnetic atoms, 130–131 electronic materials, 328 and nanostructures in nature,
fluorescence, 140–141 general trends, 328–331
light and dielectrics, 138–139 impacts, 331–334 23–29
nontransparency of metals, 137–138 energy, 379–388 Exchange bias, 226–227
phosphorescence, 140–141 industry perspectives, 515–516 Exchange constants, 164–165, 167–170
quantum effects, 194–196 interactive, smart, and intelligent Exchange energy, 130–131
valence, 92 characterizing, 392–395 Exchange stiffness, 224
Electrophoretic technologies, 362 nanotech applications, 395–396 Exciton radius, 227–229, 228t
Electrorheological material, 306–307, 430 responsive environments, 389–392 Excitons, 227–229, 228f
Electrostatic paint, 439 light and optical Exfoliated polymer nanocomposites,
Electrostatic precipitators, 494 antireflection, transmission, and
Electrostriction, 121–122 247–248, 247f
Elongation, 107 contrast enhancement, 348–350 Expansion, thermal, 115–116
E-m (electromagnetic) radiation, 12–13, applications of nanomaterials, Exposure, 475–476
Extrusion, 244–245
13f, 336. See also optical 344–345
properties chromics, 352–355 F
Embodiment design stage, 72 color, 339–340
Emissions, automotive, 505–506 dichroics, 350–351 Fabric, 450–451. See also textiles
Emulsions, 460–461 displays, screens, and electronic Face-centered cubic (FCC) structure, 188–
Enclosure systems, 513–515, 514f
Energy, 379–388, 450, 483–484 papers, 360–363 189, 188f, 189t–190t
Energy bands, 194–196, 195f fundamentals of light, 336–339 Face-centered cubic (FCC) unit cells, 96–
Energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), light control films, coatings, and
284–285 97, 96f
Energy generation devices, 329–330 sheets, 347–348 Facial recognition, 333–334
Energy states, atomic, 90–91, 90f luminescence, 355 Fashion items, amorphous metal based,
Energy storage devices, 329–330 luminous environments, 342–344
Engineering, and scale, 12f nanophosphors in lighting, 301
Engines, internal combustion, 505 FEGs (field emission guns), 275, 275f
Enhancement, sound, 364, 373 355–356 Femto-second laser machining (LBM),
Envelopes, smart, 431 nano-related phenomena, 345–346
other technologies, 363 268t, 269f
overview, 334–336 Fermi energy, 219–220
polarizing films and glasses, Fermi level, 122–123
Ferrimagnetic materials (ferrites), 128,
351–352
solid-state lighting, 357–360 131, 131f
visual perception, 340–342 Ferroelectric materials, 121–122
nanomaterials costs, 396–401 Ferromagnetic atoms, 130–131
overview, 291–293 Ferromagnetic materials, 128

532 Index

Ferroni-Dini technique, 34f, 35–36 Frequency, 365–366 Grosser Musikvereinssaal concert hall,
FETs (field-effect transistors), 221–222, Frescoes, 33 78f
Fresnel’s construction, 136
222f, 236–237, 237f Friction, nanocomponent, 4–5 Ground-heat transfer modeling,
Feynman, Richard, 1–3 FTIR (Fourier transform infrared) 315–316
FIB (focused ion-beam) machining, 268,
spectroscopy, 286, 286f Group velocity, 215
268t, 270f Fuel cells, 237–238, 382–383, 382f, 388f Guidelines, selection, 159, 160f
Field emission, 239 Fullerene gears, 524–525, 524f
Field emission emitters, 275 Function, 156t H
Field emission guns (FEGs), 275, 275f Functional surfaces, 63f, 64, 65f
Field ion microscopy (FIM), 281, 282f Functionalized carbon nanotubes, 399 HAADF (high-angle annular dark-field)
Field-effect transistors (FETs), 221–222, Functionally defined roles, 291 detector, 280–281, 282f
Functions, nanomaterial
222f, 236–237, 237f Hairs, gecko, 25–26, 26f
Figure of Merit, 326–327, 327f, 379–380 antifogging, 427 Hall-Petch constant, 204
Filtering membrane technologies, 488– antireflection, 427 Hall-Petch equation, 204–205, 205f
cleaning and antimicrobial actions, Hard magnets, 129–130
490, 488f Hardness, 107–108, 302. See also
Filtration systems, air, 492–493 407–412
FIM (field ion microscopy), 281, 282f overview, 403–406 strength
Finishes, textile, 454–455 self-cleaning HCP (hexagonal closed packed) unit
Fire retardancy, nanotextile, 456
Flash sintering, 267, 269f antimicrobial materials, 419–423 cells, 96–97, 96f
Flat-panel displays, 239, 239f and antipollutant concrete, 416–418 Health issues, nanotechnology
Flowcharts, design, 70–71 easy-cleaning materials, 418–419
Flow-through capacitors, 491, 491f glasses and tiles, 412–414 debate over nanocosmetics,
Fluorescence, 140–141, 355 paints, textiles, and others, 414–416 478–481
Flux density, 127 self-healing, 423–427
Foams, 103 smart behaviors effects, 476–478
Focused ion-beam (FIB) machining, 268, color changing, 429 health concerns, 472–481
overview, 427–429 medical and pharmaceutical
268t, 270f shape changing, 429–430
Forced convection, 308–309 smart skins and envelopes, 431 applications, 468–472
Forces for change, 46, 47f varying other properties, 430–431 overview, 467–468
Forms, nanomaterial primary considerations, 475–476
G Health qualities of materials, 44f, 46
multilayers and nanofilms, 436–438 Heat, 113–117. See also thermal
nanoadhesives, 443–446 Gas permeation resistance, 298
nanocoatings, 433–436 Gears, molecular, 7f environments
nanocosmetics, 459–464 Geckos, 25–26, 26f, 444–445, 444f–445f Heat capacity at constant volume (Cv),
nanopaints, 438–441 Generative factors for design, 77–78
nanoporous materials, 446–450 Geomembranes, 453 113–114
nanosealants, 441–442 Geometric characteristics of buildings, Heat capacity (Cp), 113–115, 114f, 116f,
nanotextiles
315 154, 218
bioclothing, 458–459 Geotextiles, 453 Heat exchangers, 323–325
biofilters and absorbers, 458 Gesture recognition, 333–334 Heat pipes, 310–311, 323–325
fire retardancy, 456 Giant magnetoresistance (GMR), 225– Heat transfer, 308–309, 323–325
nanotechnology in textiles, 453–455 Heating devices, 325–327
optical qualities, 457 227, 227f Heinserberg Uncertainty Principle, 90
photovoltaic textiles, 457–458 Gibbs free energy, 191–192 Hexagonal closed packed (HCP) unit
sensing, 459 Gilding, 261
strength, 455–456 Glass, 29–30, 30f, 66f, 207, 412–414. See cells, 96–97, 96f
surface characteristics, 456 High-angle annular dark-field (HAADF)
textiles in design, 450–453 also amorphous materials
thermal properties, 458 Glass temperature (Tg), 113 detector, 280–281, 282f
overview, 403–406, 431–433 Glass transition temperature (Tg), 241 Holistic design approaches, 68–69, 68f
Fouling, 488–489, 488f Global temperatures, 379, 379f Hollow-fiber membranes, 489f
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) Gloves, 323 Hollow-tube approach, self-healing, 426,
GMR (giant magnetoresistance), 225–
spectroscopy, 286, 286f 426f
Fracture healing, bone, 27–28, 29f 227, 227f Homopolymers, 98–99
Frame components, automotive, 507 Gold, 10, 261, 261f Horns, rhinoceros, 26–27, 27f–28f
Free electrons, 214 Government funding for nanotechnology, Human body, chemical composition of,
Free layer, 226–227
Free variables, 155–156, 156t 10, 10f 1, 2t
Free-jet expansion, 258 Graft copolymers, 99f Human brain, 28–29, 29f
Frenkel defects, 100, 102f Grain boundaries, 102, 103f–104f Human circadian systems, 341
Grains, 202–205, 204f, 224–225 Human scale, 11–12, 12f
Greenhouse gases, 379 Hydrogen atom, 90–93, 90f, 92f
Hydrogen storage, 237–238
Hydrogen storage, automotive, 505
Hydrophilic action, 407–410, 407f
Hydrophobic action, 407–409, 407f–

408f, 410f
Hydrostatic pressure, 104–105, 106f

Index 533

Hysteresis, 224–225, 224f Intercalation solvent-based process, 247, antireflection, transmission, and
Hysteresis loop, 128–129, 129f 247f contrast enhancement, 348–350

I Interconnects, 235–236, 329 applications of nanomaterials,
Interfacial defects, 102 344–345
Ideal strength, 109–110, 211, 211f Interiors, automotive, 509
IF (infrared) spectroscopy, 286 Intermediate processes, 264, 264f, chromics, 352–355
Imaging techniques. See electron color, 339–340
266–267 dichroics, 350–351
microscopy; specific microscopes Internal combustion engines, 505 displays, screens, and electronic
by name Internal structure of materials, 89–103
Impact sounds, 368–369 Interphase boundaries, 102 papers, 360–363
Impedance, 143–144 Interstitial atoms, 100–101 fundamentals of light, 336–339
Imperial units, 11, 12f Intrinsic characteristics of materials, 43– light control films, coatings, and
Implants, 472
Impurities. See defects 44, 44f sheets, 347–348
In situ fabrication, 249 Intrinsic thermal properties, 113–115 luminescence, 355
In situ polymerization, 247 Ionic bonding, 93–94, 93f luminous environments, 342–344
Inclusions, 102 Ionic conduction, 122 nanophosphors in lighting, 355–356
Index of refraction, 134–135 Ions, 97 nano-related phenomena, 345–346
Indices IR (infrared) spectrum, 286, 286f other technologies, 363
examples, 171–172 Iridescence, 345–346, 345f–346f overview, 334–336
overview, 157 Iron, 97, 97f polarizing films and glasses, 351–352
plotting on material property charts, Iron Age, 18f, 19 solid-state lighting, 357–360
158–161 Isolation visual perception, 340–342
ranking on charts, 159–160 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs), 335, 335f,
Industry perspectives acoustical, 374–376
automotive, 502–510 sound, 141–143, 368–369 344–345, 357–358, 357f
building and construction, 510–518 Isotropic ionic bonding, 93 Lighting environments, 60, 61f, 515–516
other industries, 518–522 Lighting simulations, 343
overview, 501–502, 523–525 J Lighting standards, 343–344
Inert-gas condensation, 257–258 Light-sensitive adhesives, 443–444
Inert-gas expansion, 258, 259f Jewelry, amorphous metal, 302f Li-ion batteries, 385–388, 386t, 387f
Inertia, 89, 295 Jubilee Church, 416–417, 417f Lime mortars, 423–424, 423f–424f
Information and display systems, 512 Lime water, 35–36
Infrared (IF) spectroscopy, 286 K Limits, plotting on material property
Infrared (IR) spectrum, 286, 286f
Infrastructure engineering, 12f Keratin, 26–27 charts, 158–161
Initial conceptual design proposals, Keratin hairs, gecko, 25–26, 26f Line tension, 112–113
79–80 Kurakuen house, 42f Linear defects, 101–102
Initial magnetization curve, 129, 129f Linear polymers, 99, 100f
Initial runs, 74 L Lipids, 463
Instruments, musical, 377–378 Liposomes, 463
Insulation L (loss factor), 121 Liquid crystal displays (LCDs), 361–362,
sound, 141–142, 374 λ (thermal conductivity), 114, 116–117,
thermal, 66f, 312, 317–322, 448–449 361f
Insulators, 117–118, 122–124, 123f, 116f, 151–152, 318, 323f, Liquid/solid interface, 211–214, 212f,
194–195, 195f 324–325
Integrity, design, 70–71 Landscape architecture, 453 214f
Intelligent environments Langmuir-Blodgett technique, 260, 261f Lithography, 5–7
characterizing, 392–395 Laser CVD (LCVD), 263 Lizards, gecko, 25–26, 26f
nanotech applications, 395–396 Laser surface melting, 265, 265f lm (mean-free path), 116–117, 318
responsive environments, 389–392 Laser vaporization, 234t Loading, modes of, 103–104
Intelligent systems, 333–334 Lattice parameters, 193–194, 194f Local curvature, 190–192
Interactive display systems, 390–391 Layered silicates, 246–249, 297 Localized surface plasmons, 231, 231f
Interactive environments Layers, antireflection coating, 349–350, Location dependency in building design,
characterizing, 392–395 349f
nanotech applications, 395–396 LBM (femto-second laser machining), 57
responsive environments, 389–392 268t, 269f Longitudinal plasmons, 232
Interactive systems, 333–334 LCDs (liquid crystal displays), 361–362, Lorentz force, 132
Intercalated polymer nanocomposites, 361f Loss factor (L), 121
247–248, 247f LCVD (laser CVD), 263 Loss tangent (tanδ), 121, 121f
Intercalation, 32 Lead-acid batteries, 386t
LEDs (light-emitting diodes), 335, 335f, Lotus Effect®, 407–408, 408f, 439–440
344–345, 357–358, 357f
Life on Earth, 23f Lotus flowers, 407–408, 408f
Light control films, coatings, and sheets, Loudspeaker design, 376–377
347–348 Lubricants, 301–302
Light environments Lumens, 342–343
Luminance, 342–343
Luminescence, 230, 355
Luminous environments, 336, 342–344

534 Index

Luminous flux, 342–343 systematic methods, 164–165 nanolaminates, 206–207
Luminous intensity, 342–343 tradeoff strategies, 165–166 scale, 199–201
Lusterware, 30–31, 32f values for exchange constants, overview, 103–108
Lycurgus cup, 30, 31f strain, 105
167–170 strength
M weight factors, 163–164 crystalline imperfection, 110–111
screening, 154–155, 157 and ductility, 107
Magic numbers, 187–190 strength-density chart, 150–151 ideal, 109–110
Magnetic environments tactile attributes, 152–154 strengthening mechanisms, 112–113
thermal conductivity, 151–152 stress and dislocations, 111–112
electronic materials, 328 thermal expansion, 151–152 stress, 104–105
general trends, 328–331 translation, 154–156 stress-strain curves and moduli,
impacts, 331–334 Materials
Magnetic induction, 127 See also nanomaterials 105–106
Magnetic nanoparticles, 10 acoustic behavior, 141–144 Mechanical response, scale-dependent, 14
Magnetic properties classes of, 87–89 Mechanical symbols, 173t
magnetic fields in materials, 128 in design, 41–49, 60–61 Mechanochromics, 429
magnetic fields in vacuum, 127 electrical behavior, 117–127 Medical applications, 468–472
measuring magnetic properties, history of, 17–23, 18f Megapascals (MPa), 104
internal structure of, 89–103 Melt spinning, 265, 265f
128–130 magnetic behavior, 127–132 Melting temperature (Tm), 113, 211–214
nanomaterial, 222–227 mechanical behavior, 103–113 Membrane structures, 452
overview, 127 optical behavior, 132–141 Membranes, filtering, 449, 488–490,
physics of, 130–132 strength of versus nanomaterials,
varying, 430–431 488f
Magnetic susceptibility, 128 295–296 Memory units, 329
Magnetization, 128–129, 128f, 132, 250, structured design processes in relation MEMS (microelectromechanical systems),

301 to, 74–76 5, 5f, 69, 69f–70f, 469–470, 469f
Magnetoresistance, 225–226 thermal behavior, 113–117 Mers, 88, 98, 98f–99f
Magnetorheological devices, 375–376 unstructured design processes, 76–78 Metal dusting, 234–235
Magnetorheological fluids, 306–307, Mathematical models, 81 Metal organic CVD (MOCVD), 263
Matrix materials, cosmetic, 460–461 Metal organic frameworks (MOFs), 384–
307f, 430 Maximum service temperature (Tmax),
Magnetorheological materials, 391 385, 481f
Magnetotactic bacteria, 9–10, 9f 113 Metal-insulator-metal junction, 221f
Makeup, 460 Mayan blue paint, 31–32, 32f–33f Metallic alloys, 87
Manufacturing exposure, 498–499 Mean-free path (lm), 116–117, 318 Metallic bonding, 94–95, 94f
Mass Mechanical adhesive mechanisms, Metallic materials, 87
Metallic particles, 33f
stiffness-limited design at minimum, 443–444 Metal-matrix nanocomposites, 249–250,
173t Mechanical alloying, 266
Mechanical environments 299
strength-limited design at minimum, Metals, 17, 19, 96–97, 106f, 107,
174t analysis techniques, 294–295
material strength, 295–296 137–138
Mass, minimizing, 164 nano-based applications Meter scale products, 70f
Mass law, 142 Metric system, 11–12, 12f
Mass-thickness contrast, TEM, 279 amorphous materials, 300–301 Mica, 246–247
Material indices ceramic-matrix nanocomposites, Micelles, 259–260
Micro electro-discharge machining
examples, 171–172 299–300
overview, 157 concrete, 302–306 (EDM), 268, 268t
plotting on material property charts, damage monitoring, 306–307 Microcar, 5, 5f
metal-matrix nanocomposites, 299 Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS),
158–161 overview, 296
ranking on charts, 159–160 polymer-matrix nanocomposites, 5, 5f, 69, 69f–70f, 469–470, 469f
Material property charts Microencapsulated phase-changing
acoustic attributes, 154 297–298
documentation, 154–155, 157–158 responsive structures, 306–307 materials, 323
modulus bar chart, 147–149 surface hardness, 302 Micromachining, 266–268
modulus-density bubble chart, tribological applications, 301–302 Microprocessing units, 328–329
overview, 293–294 Microscopy. See electron microscopy;
147–149 Mechanical properties
modulus-relative cost chart, 149–150 hardness, 107–108 specific microscopes by name
overview, 147–154 modes of loading, 103–104 Millimeter scale products, 70f
plotting limits and indices on, nanomaterial Milling, 266, 267f
amorphous materials, 207–211 Miniaturization, 69, 70f
158–161 nanocrystalline solids, 202–205 Minimum service temperature (Tmin),
ranking, 154–155, 157 nanodispersions, 201–202
resolving conflicting objectives 113
Mitigation, sound, 364–365, 368–369
overview, 162–163
penalty functions, 166–167

Index 535

MOCVD (metal organic CVD), 263 polymer-matrix, 297–298 Nanoporous materials, 217, 374,
Models, analytical, 81 properties of, 239–253 446–450
Moderate temperature CVD (MTCVD), in thermal sprays, 322
Nanocosmetics, 459–464, 478–481 Nanoprofiling, 267–271, 272f
263 Nanocrystalline iron, 218 Nanoscale layered silicates, 247–248
Modes of loading, 103–104 Nanocrystalline materials, 182, 182f– Nanoscale products, 70f
Modular design, 67–70 Nanoscale silicates, 298
Modulus bar chart, 147–149 183f, 188–189, 188f, 199, 200f, Nanosealants, 441–442
Modulus of elasticity, 297 202–205, 265, 302 Nanosilica particles, 304–305
Modulus-density bubble chart, 147–149, Nanodispersions, 201–202 Nanostructures in nature, 23–29
Nanoelectronics, 9 Nanotechnology. See also specific
151, 159–160, 160f–161f Nanoeletromechanical systems (NEMS),
Modulus-relative cost chart, 149–150, 469–470 applications by name
Nano-engineered concrete, 304f Nanotextiles
158, 159f Nanofillers, 397–398
MOFs (metal organic frameworks), 384– Nanofilms, 215–217, 216f, 273f, 346, bioclothing, 458–459
347f, 436–438 biofilters and absorbers, 458
385, 481f Nanofluids, 324–325, 325f, 470 fire retardancy, 456
Mold, 422–423 Nanofoam, 319–320, 449f nanotechnology in textiles, 453–455
Molecular chemistry, 7–8 Nanogel-filled panels, 66f optical qualities, 457
Molecular entities, stability of, 4–5 Nanolaminates, 206–207, 211, 211f photovoltaic textiles, 457–458
Molecular motors, 524–525, 524f Nanolayers, 272f sensing, 459
Molecular scale, 12f Nanomaterials strength, 455–456
Molecular self-assembly, 259–260, 261f See also electron microscopy; forms, surface characteristics, 456
Molecular structure, 98–99 nanomaterial; functions, textiles in design, 450–453
Moment of inertia, 295 nanomaterial; size effects; specific thermal properties, 458
Monitoring, environmental, 486 microscopes by name; specific Nanotribology, 301–302
Monitoring systems, 468–469, 513 nanomaterials by name; specific Nanotubes. See carbon nanotubes (CNTs)
Moths, 348–349 spectroscopy techniques by name Nanowires, 260–261, 273f
MPa (megapascals), 104 acoustic properties, 232 National funding for nanotechnology, 10,
MTCVD (moderate temperature CVD), angular dependence of colors of,
346 10f
263 in art and culture Natural convection, 308–309
Multidimensional properties of materials, conservation, 32–38 Natural polymers, 88
examples, 29–32 Nature, nanomaterials and
81–82 characterization of, 271–288
Multifunctionality, 62, 329, 331–332 classification of, 177–182 nanostructures in, 23–29
Multilayer nanocomposite films, 253 costs, 396–401 Navier-Stokes formulations, 316
Multilayer nanocomposites, 252 defined, 89 Near-field scanning optical microscope
Multilayers, 436–438 in design, 41–49
Multireflective optical films, 351f electrical properties, 218–222 (NSOM), 273–274, 273f
Multiwalled nanotubes (MWNTs), 234, magnetic properties, 222–227 NEMS (nanoeletromechanical systems),
mechanical properties
234f, 243–245, 398 amorphous materials, 207–211 469–470
Musical instruments, 377–378 nanocrystalline solids, 202–205 Net flux model, 117, 117f
Musician Angels, The, 34f nanodispersions, 201–202 Net structures, 452
Mussels, 25, 25f, 445–446 nanolaminates, 206–207 Network polymers, 99, 100f
MWNTs (multiwalled nanotubes), 234, scale, 199–201 Neurons, 29f
and nanostructures in nature, 23–29 Ni-Cd batteries, 386t
234f, 243–245, 398 optical properties, 227–232 Nickel, 205–206, 205f–206f
optical properties of, 346 Ni-MH batteries, 385, 386t
N overview, 1–10 Nippondenso Co., 5, 5f
strength of versus other materials, Nitric oxide (NOx), 417, 417f
Nano, 3–4, 14–15 295–296 Noise control, 367–369
Nano engineering, 12f systems and assemblies, 66f Noise mitigation, 365
Nanoadhesives, 443–446 thermal properties Noncontact mode, AFM, 283–284, 284f
Nano-age, 18f, 21–22, 22f melting point, 211–214 Nondominated solutions, 165–166,
Nanoclay nanocomposites, 248–249 thermal transport, 214–218
Nanoclusters, 272f Nanomedicine, 9–10 165f
Nanocoatings, 302, 322, 433–436 Nanopaints, 438–441, 508–509, 508f Nontransparency of metals, 137–138
Nanocomposites Nanoparticles, 22f, 177, 179f, 272f–273f Nonwoven textiles, 450–451
Nanophosphors, 344–345, 355–356 NOx (nitric oxide), 417, 417f
in automotive industry, 507–508 NSOM (near-field scanning optical
bio/inorganic materials, 253
ceramic-matrix, 299–300 microscope), 273–274, 273f
CNTs in, 398–399
in instruments, 378 O
large-scale, 184f
matrix-reinforced and layered, 183f Objectives, 75–76, 79, 81–83, 154–156,
metal-matrix, 299 156t. See also conflicting objectives
overview, 182, 296
Odor-free clothing, 421, 422f

536 Index

OLED (organic light-emitting diode), Overall heat transfer coefficient, 313–314 Photovoltaics, 379–382, 380f, 385,
359–360, 362–363 Oxide particles, 33f 457–458

One-dimensional (1-D) nanomaterials P Physical designs, modular, 67–68
electrical properties, 220–221 Physical vapor deposition (PVD)
making, 260–263 PACVD (plasma-assisted CVD), 263
overview, 178–179, 178f–179f, 181f, Paints, 66f, 414–416, 508–509, 508f ion plating, 262
186f Panels, aerogel, 320–321 overview, 347–348
processes for making of, 258f Paper, 36, 36f plating, 262
quantum confinement, 214–215 Paramagnetic materials, 130–131, 131f sputtering, 262
Pareto set, 165–166 Physics
Opaque materials, 133 “Particle in the box” problem, 195–196 of electrical behavior, 122–127
Open domain structure, macroscopic Particles, 90 of magnetic behavior, 130–132
Patterned 2-D nanomaterials, 182, 185f of optical behavior, 136–141
ferromagnetic material, 223f Patterns, 342 of thermal properties, 115–117
Opportunity-based forces for change, 46, PCMs (phase-change materials), 322– Piezoelectric devices, 307
Piezoelectric materials, 121–122
47f 323, 324f Pigment, 340
Optical environments PDMS (polydimethylfiloxane), 270 Pilkington Activ™, 412–413
PE (polyethylene), 99f Pinholes, 274
antireflection, transmission, and PECVD (plasma-enhanced CVD), 263 Pipes, heat, 323–325
contrast enhancement, 348–350 PEMFCs (polymer membrane fuel cells), Pitch, 154, 155f, 365–366
Plasma panels, 362–363
applications of nanomaterials, 382–384, 383t Plasma-assisted CVD (PACVD), 263
344–345 Penalty functions, 164–167 Plasma-enhanced CVD (PECVD), 263
Perceived value, 170 Plasmons, 230–231, 285–286. See also
chromics, 352–355 Perceptual properties of materials, 43–45
color, 339–340 Percolation in polymer nanocomposites, surface plasmon phenomenon
dichroics, 350–351 Plasticity, 110–111
displays, screens, and electronic 241, 241f Plastics, 88
Performance, product, 53–54 Platform products, 51
papers, 360–363 Performance indices. See material indices Platinum (Pt)-alloy nanoparticles, 383,
fundamentals of light, 336–339 Permeability of vacuum, 127
light control films, coatings, and Permeable membranes, 449 383f
Pf (power factor), 121 Plotting limits and indices on material
sheets, 347–348 Pharmaceutical applications, 468–472
luminescence, 355 Phase contrast, TEM, 280 property charts, 158–161
luminous environments, 342–344 Phase-change materials (PCMs), 322– PMMA (Poly(methyl methacrylate))
nanophosphors in lighting, 355–356
nano-related phenomena, 345–346 323, 324f polymer nanocomposites,
other technologies, 363 Phonons, 116–117, 117f, 214–216 240–241
overview, 334–336 Phosphorescence, 140–141, 355 P-n semiconductor junctions, 357–358,
polarizing films and glasses, Phosphors, 355–356 357f
Photocatalytic oxidation, 492, 492f Pneumatic structures, 452
351–352 Photocatalytic processes Point defects, 100–101
solid-state lighting, 357–360 Poisson’s ratio, 295
visual perception, 340–342 antimicrobial materials, 421, 422f Polarization, 125–126
Optical films, 66f antipollutant concrete, 417–418, Polarized light, 336–337, 337f
Optical illusions, 341–342 Polarizing films and glasses, 351–352
Optical properties 418f Pollution prevention, 483–484
absorption, 134 defined, 407 Pollution reduction, air, 494–495
diffuse reflection, 134 due to surface roughness, 410f Polycrystalline materials, 199
interaction of materials and radiation, overview, 407f, 410–411 Polycrystalline silicon films, 216–217,
water purification, 490–491 217f
133 Photochromics, 352–353, 429 Polydimethylfiloxane (PDMS), 270
nanofilms, 437–438, 437f Photoconductive materials, 363 Polyethylene (PE), 99f
nanomaterial, 227–232 Photoelectric phenomenon, 363 Polymer membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs),
nanotextiles, 457 Photolithography, 5–6, 269–271 382–384, 383t
overview, 132–133 Photoluminescence, 230f, 252, 355 Polymer nanocomposites, 375, 397–398
physics of, 136–141 Photonics, 334–335 Polymeric composites, 359
refraction, 134–136 Photons Polymeric membranes, 489
specular reflection, 134 color, 139–140 Polymer-matrix nanocomposites, 239–
transmission, 134 light and dielectrics, 138–139, 138f 240, 248–249, 297–298
Optical quality, 133 nontransparency of metals, 137–138, Polymers
Optimization, design, 83–84 increasing thermal conductivity in,
Optoelectrical technologies, 329–330 138f 318
Organic light-emitting diode (OLED), radiation, 137 molecular structure, 98–99, 99f
Photorheological materials, 363
359–360, 362–363 Photosynthesis, 3–4, 4f, 23–24, 24f
Organic photovoltaic cells, 381–382,

385
Organic/inorganic nanocomposites, 253
Osteocytes, 27–28

Index 537

overview, 88, 199–200, 200f, 207 Purification Remodeling, bone, 27–28
stress-strain curve, 107, 107f air, 491–494 Requirements, design, 71–72, 75f, 79
thermoplastic, 297 water, 486–491 Resistance, electrical, 124–125
used with CNTs, 244f Resistivity, electrical, 118–119, 119f
Polymers, Age of, 18f, 20–21 PVC (polyvinyl chloride), 99f Response time, 14
Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) PVD (physical vapor deposition). See Responsive environments, 389–392
Responsive materials, 427–428
polymer nanocomposites, physical vapor deposition Responsive structures, 306–307
240–241 Pyroelectric materials, 121–122 Reverberation time, 80–81, 81f, 83,
Polypropylene (PP), 99f, 248–249
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), 99f Q 370–371
Polyurethane/nanoclay nanocomposites, Reversal mechanism, magnetization, 225
248–249 QLEDs (quantum light-emitting diodes), Reverse osmosis, 489, 489f
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 99f 335, 344–345, 357–360 Rheological materials, 430–431
Porosity, 217, 318–320, 488 Rhinoceros horns, 26–27, 27f–28f
Porous materials, 446–450 Quantum confinement, 214–215 Ribosomes, 8, 23, 23f
Potential well, 219, 219f Quantum dot-based field-effect transistor, Ringlike electron diffraction, 279, 279f
Powder milling, 267f Rock salt structure, 97, 98f
Powder-pressing, 267 221–222, 222f Rockwell test, 107f
Power factor (Pf), 121 Quantum dots, 7–8, 8f, 357–360 Roughness, surface, 409
Power-to-weight ratio, 164 Quantum effects, 4–5, 194–196, 218 R-value, 313–314
PP (polypropylene), 99f, 248–249 Quantum light-emitting diodes (QLEDs),
Precedent studies, 79–80 S
Preliminary design, 72, 80 335, 344–345, 357–360
Prespecified dimensional arrays, 67–68 Saint Dominic in Adoration Before the
Pressure-sensitive adhesives, 443–444 R Crucifix, 34f
Primary systems, 61
Principal quantum number n, 90–91, 90f Racquet, amorphous metal, 301f Sanderson, Kevin, Dr., 413
Process-intensive products, 51–52 Radiant color films, 351, 351f Saturation magnetization, 128–129,
Product design Radiant floor-heating systems, 323
characterizing, 50–52 Radiation, 12–13, 13f, 308–309. See also 128f–129f, 223, 224f
complexity, 53–54 Scale
development optical properties
overall process, 70–74 Radiation factor, 143–144, 144t length, 11–15
structured processes in relation to Radiosity, 343 mechanical properties, 199–201
materials, 74–76 Raman scattering, 286–287, 287f nano, 3–4, 3f
unstructured processes, 76–78 Raman spectroscopy, 286–287 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM),
material selection, 48 Random copolymers, 99f
modular, 67–70 Ranking 275–276, 276f–277f
overview, 49–50 Scanning probe microscopes (SPMs), 8
performance, 53–54 indices on charts, 159–160 Scanning probes, 8
production volumes, 52 material property charts, 154–155, Scanning transmission electron
systems and assemblies, 61–65
unitary, 67–70 157 microscopy (STEM), 275, 280–281
value, 52–53 materials using objectives, 75f Scanning tunneling microscope (STM), 8,
Product size, 332 overview, 156f
Production processes, 73 Rapid solidification, 264–266 8f, 281–283, 282f–283f
Production volumes, 52 Ray tracing, 343 Scattering, 139
Products, thermal environments in, 309– Rayleigh scattering, 286–287 Scattering centers, 124
312. See also product design Reactive adhesives, 443–444 Schottky defects, 100, 102f
Propagating surface plasmons, 231, 231f Rechargeable batteries, 385 Screening, 75f, 154–155, 156f, 157–158
Property-changing materials, 427–428 Reflected light, 337–338 Screens, 360–363
Proposals, initial conceptual design, Reflection Scrubbing, 493–494
79–80 of light, 134–136 Sealants, 441–442
Propulsion systems, automotive, 503–505 sound, 81f, 366 Secondary bonding, 95, 95f
Prototypes, 74 Reflective properties, textile, 457 Seebeck effect, 325–327
Pseudocapacitors, 388 Reflectivity, 133 Selection
Psychophysical responses to light, 341 Refraction, 134–136, 337–338
Pt (platinum)-alloy nanoparticles, 383, Refrigerators, 311 computer-aided, 160–161
383f Reinforced concrete, 302–303, 305 using charts for, 154–158
PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene), 99f Reinforcement, metal-matrix Selection guidelines, 159, 160f
Pulsed electrodeposition, 262, 262f Self-assembly, 7–8, 259–260
nanocomposites, 299 Self-cleaning materials
Relative permeability, 128 and antipollutant concrete, 416–418
Relative permittivity, 118 concrete, 66f, 495
Reliability, 164 environmental issues, 484
Remanence, 128–129, 129f, 250 glass, 66f, 412–414
Remanent magnetization, 128–129, 129f paint, 66f, 439–440, 439f
Remediation textiles, 414–416, 456, 457f
tiles, 412–414
general, 485–486
soil, 495–496
Remnant magnetization, 224, 224f

538 Index

Self-cleaning surfaces, 395 Smart environments Specular reflection, 134, 134f, 338
Self-damping mechanisms, 391–392 characterizing, 392–395 Spheres, 184–187, 186f, 212–213, 224
Self-healing, 27–28, 28f, 305–306, nanotech applications, 395–396 Spider webs, 26, 27f
responsive environments, 389–392 Spiral-wound membranes, 490f
423–427 SPMs (scanning probe microscopes), 8
Self-interstitial point defects, 100, 101f Smart materials, 352, 391–392 Sports industry, 521–522, 521f–522f
Self-repairing materials, 305–306 Smart skins, 391–392 Sprays, thermal, 322
SEM (scanning electron microscopy), Smart systems, 333–334 Springs, amorphous metal based, 301
Smectic clays, 246–247, 246f Sputtering, 262–263
275–276, 276f–277f Smell qualities of materials, 44f Stability of molecular entities, 4–5
Semiconductors, 194–195, 195f, 325 Smog-eating concrete, 494–495 Stain resistance, textile, 456
Sensing, nanotextile, 459 Snell’s law, 135–136, 338 Stained glass, 29–30, 30f
Sensory technologies, 330–331, 333–334, Sodium chloride, 93, 93f Stamping, 270–271, 271f
SOFCs (solid-oxide fuel cells), 382–384, STC (sound transmission class), 367
394–396 Steel, 302–303, 305, 312
Shafts, 103–104, 105f 383t, 384f Steel, Age of, 18f, 19
Shape changing, 429–430 Soft lithography, 6–7, 270–271, 271f STEM (scanning transmission electron
Shape factor, 288 Soft magnets, 129–130
Shape versus surface-to-volume ratio, Soil remediation, 495–496 microscopy), 275, 280–281
Solar cells, 381, 381f Stiffness, 103
182–187 Solar concentrators, 381, 381f Stiffness-limited design at minimum
Shear mixing, 242 Solar energy, 379–380
Shear modulus, 105–106, 106f, 295 Sol-gel deposition, 259 mass, 173t
Shear strain, 105, 106f Sol-gel processing, 260f STL (sound transmission loss), 367
Shear stress, 104, 106f Solid-oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), 382–384, STM (scanning tunneling microscope), 8,
Shells, 103–104, 105f
Shock absorbers, automotive, 506 383t, 384f 8f, 281–283, 282f–283f
Short-range forces, 89 Solid-state lighting, 357–360 Stone, 42–43, 43f
Silica aerogel, 320 Solution strengthening, 112–113, 112f Stone Age, 17, 18f
Silica fume, 304–305 Solutions, 165–166, 165f Strain
Silicon, 328–329 Sonication of CNTs, 242
Silicon, Age of, 18f, 21 Sonochemical processing, 258–259 confinement, 194
Silver, 218, 420 Sonoluminescence, 378–379 defined, 103
Silyation processes, 320 Sound energy, radiation of, 143–144 overview, 105, 106f
Simulation models, sound, 371 Sound environments stress-strain curves and moduli,
Single-crystal silicon monolayers, 216–
acoustical damping and isolation, 105–106
217, 217f 374–376 Strength
Single-layer nanocomposite materials, 252
Single-layered nanoscale thin films, 215– applications of nanomaterials, 372, concrete, 303
378–379 copper, 203f
216, 216f crystalline imperfection, 110–111
Single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs), 233– fundamental characteristics of, defined, 103
365–367 and density, 207–211, 209f
236, 234f, 243–244, 398 and ductility, 107
Sintering, 193, 193f, 267, 268f manipulating properties, 372–373 ideal, 109–110, 211, 211f
Size effects musical instruments, 377–378 of materials versus nanomaterials,
nanoporous sound insulation
magic numbers, 187–190 295–296
quantum effects, 194–196 materials, 374 nanolaminates, 207
strain confinement, 194 noise control, 367–369 nanotextiles, 455–456
surface curvature, 190–194 overview, 61f, 364–365 nickel, 205f
surface-to-volume ratio versus shape, sound sources, 376–377 overview, 293–296
space acoustics, 369–372 and reduced grain size, 203–205
182–187 Sound management, 141–143 strengthening mechanisms, 112–113,
Size of products, 332 Sound qualities of materials, 44f
Skin, 28, 461–462, 478–480, 479f Sound quality, 44, 370–371 202
Skin-care products, 460 Sound sources, 376–377 stress and dislocations, 111–112
Skins, smart, 431 Sound transmission class (STC), 367 use of nanostructuring, 201–202
Skis, 307, 391–392 Sound transmission loss (STL), 367 Strength-density chart, 150–151
Slip directions, 111 Sound velocity and wavelength, 141 Strengthening mechanisms, 112–113
Slip planes, 111–112, 111f Sound-absorption coefficient, 142 Strength-limited design, 174t
Slip vector, 111, 111f Sources, 236–237, 482–485 Stress
Smart behaviors Space acoustics, 369–372 defined, 103
Spaces, thermal environments in, and dislocations, 111–112
color changing, 429 overview, 104–105, 106f
overview, 427–429 312–317 Stress-strain curves and moduli, 105–106
shape changing, 429–430 Spatial environments, 60–61, 313f Stringed instruments, 377–378, 377f
smart skins and envelopes, 431 Speaker design, 376–377, 377f Strong confinement, 229
varying electrical, magnetic, and other Specific heat, 113–115, 114f, 116f, 154

properties, 430–431

Index 539

Strucksbarg housing project, 415f, 439f Surface ductility, 302 Thermal barriers, 322
Structural analysis process, 294–295 Surface hardness, 302 Thermal behavior, 113–117
Structural design process, 294 Surface nanofeatured materials, 186f Thermal buffers, 322–323
Structural environments Surface plasmon phenomenon, 30–32, Thermal conductivity (λ), 114, 116–117,

analysis techniques, 294–295 230–232, 231f, 346 116f, 151–152, 318, 323f, 324–325
material strength, 295–296 Surface roughness, 409 Thermal design, 176t
nano-based applications Surface-to-volume ratio versus shape, Thermal diffusivity (a), 114–115
Thermal environments
amorphous materials, 300–301 182–187
ceramic-matrix nanocomposites, Surfactant-assisted processing, 243 basic heat transfer, 308–309
Suspended particle displays, 362, 362f nano-based applications
299–300 Suspension systems, automotive, 506
concrete, 302–306 Swarf, 266–267 heating and cooling devices,
damage monitoring, 306–307 SWNTs (single-walled nanotubes), 233– 325–327
metal-matrix nanocomposites, 299
overview, 296 236, 234f, 243–244, 398 heat-transfer devices, 323–325
polymer-matrix nanocomposites, Synthesis of nanoscale materials and insulating and conductive materials,

297–298 structures 317–322
responsive structures, 306–307 making 0-D nanomaterials, 257–260 thermal barriers, 322
surface hardness, 302 making 1-D and 2-D nanomaterials, thermal buffers, 322–323
tribological applications, 301–302 overview, 60, 61f, 292, 307–308
overview, 293–294 260–263 in products, 309–312
Structural health monitoring systems, 306 making 3-D nanomaterials in spaces, 312–317
Structural magic numbers, 187–190 Thermal expansion (α), 115–116, 117f,
Structural systems, 516–517 bottom-up approach, 267
Structure intermediate processes, 266–267 151–152
internal, of materials, 89–103 nanoprofiling methods, 267–271 Thermal expansion coefficient (α), 114,
nano, 11–15, 288 overview, 263–264
Structure-borne sounds, 368–369 top-down approach, 264–266 115f, 218
Structured design processes, 48–49, overview, 257 Thermal insulation, 66f, 448–449
Synthetic polymers, 88 Thermal loads, 314–315
74–76 Systematic methods for resolving Thermal properties
Subassemblies, 62, 67f
Sub-atomic scale, 12f conflicting objectives, 164–165 nanocomposites, 248–249
Subproblems, design, 71–72 Systems nanomaterial
Substitutional atoms, 100–101, 102f
Subsystems, 61, 67f See also environments melting point, 211–214
Sugar, 94 in building design, 59, 61–65, 67–70 thermal transport, 214–218
Sunscreens, 460, 462, 463f, 478–481 industry perspectives, 512–518 nanotextiles, 458
Superalloys, 19 overview, 291 Thermal resistance, 313–314
Supercapacitors, 238, 238f, 388, 388f Systems approach, 73, 73f Thermal response, 14
Superconductors, 21 Thermal sprays, 322
Supercritical drying processes, 320 T Thermal symbols, 173t
Superheating, 213–214 Thermal transport, 214–218
Superhydrophobic surfaces, 408f–409f, Tactile attributes, 44, 44f, 152–154 Thermionic emitters, 275
Tanδ (loss tangent), 121, 121f Thermochromics, 353, 353f, 391, 429
409 Technical properties, 43–44, 44f Thermoelectric devices, 325–327,
Superparamagnetic materials, 224 Technology-driven products, 50–51
Supramolecular chemistry, 7–8 TEM. See transmission electron 326f–327f
Surface applications, building, 514–515, Thermoelectric materials, 379–381
microscopy Thermomechanical design, 176t
514f Temperature, 379, 379f. See also thermal Thermoplastic olefin (TPO), 508
Surface atoms, 14–15, 15f, 102, 190–191, Thermoplastic polymers, 239–240, 297
environments Thermosetting polymers, 239–240
190f Temperature control technologies, 333 Thin films, 318, 318f, 432–433, 432f,
Surface characteristics Tempered spatial environments, 307–308
Templates, 448 436–438
See also self-cleaning materials Tensile strain, 105–106, 106f Three-dimensional (3-D) nanomaterials
functional characteristics Tensile strength, 207–211, 210f, 295f
Tensile stress, 104–106, 106f bottom-up approach, 267
antifogging, 427 Terrestrial scale, 12f classification, 179–180
antireflection, 427 Textiles electrical properties, 219
cleaning and antimicrobial actions, intermediate processes, 266–267
See also nanotextiles overview, 263–264
407–412 dealing with noxious gases, 494 self-cleaning, 182
overview, 406–427 industry perspectives, 520–521, 521f top-down approach, 264–266
self-healing, 423–427 overview, 66f Thylakoids, 23–24, 24f
nanotextiles, 456 self-cleaning, 414–416 Tie rods, material index for, 171–172
overview, 63f, 64, 65f Tg (glass temperature), 113, 241 Ties, 103–104, 105f, 412–414
Surface curvature, 190–194 “There Is Plenty of Room at the Bottom”, Tilt boundaries, 102, 103f
Tires, automotive, 506–507
1–2

540 Index

Tm (melting temperature), 113, 211–214 second-phase, 246–247 W
Tmax (maximum service temperature), 113 thermal properties of, 215
Tmin (minimum service temperature), 113 in three-dimensional space, 181f Wall paintings, 33
Tooling, amorphous metal based, 300 Waste, 483
Tools, analytical, 294–295 U Water, 95, 95f
Top-down approach, 5–7, 264–266 Water cleaning and purification, 486–491
Total internal reflection, 135, 135f, Ultracapacitors, 388 Wave fronts, 136
Ultraviolet exposure, 494 Wavelengths
338–339 Unit cells, 95–96, 95f
TPO (thermoplastic olefin), 508 Unitary design, 67–70 light, 336–337, 339–340
Tradeoff strategies, 165–166 Unpolarized light, 336–337 quantum dot, 358–359
Tradeoff surface, 165–166, 165f Unstructured design processes, 48–49, sound, 365–366, 373
Transistors, organic molecules as, 9 Waves, electromagnetic, 136, 136f
Translation 76–78 Weak confinement, 229
U.S. funding for nanotechnology, 10, Wear, nanocomponent, 4–5
of design requirements, 75f Weight, 171–172
material property charts, 154–156 10f Weight factors, 163–164
Translucent materials, 133 User-driven products, 50–51 Welding defects, 102–103
Transmission U-value, 313–314 Wet adhesion, 445–446
optical behavior, 134, 348–350 White light, 339, 358–359
sound, 366 V Wireless technologies, 359
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) Wood preservation, 36–37, 37f
contrast mechanisms, 279–280 Vacancy defects, 100, 101f, 191–193 Work hardening, 112–113, 112f
diffraction aperture, 278–279, 278f Vacuum, magnetic fields in, 127 Workplace sources and exposures,
electrons used in, 275 Vacuum-insulated panels (VIPs), 321–
image of, 277f 498–499
modes, 278 322, 323f Wound-healing process, 28
overview, 275–278 Valence electrons, 92
platinum nanoparticles, 281f Value, product, 52–53, 54f X
schematic diagram of, 278f Van der Waals bonding, 95, 95f
types of images, 279, 280f Variable range-hopping (VRH) X-ray diffraction, 287–288, 287f–288f
Transmittability, 133 X-ray lithography, 6, 270
Transmittance, 241–242, 242f mechanism, 241
Transmitted light, 337 Vasa galleon, 36–37, 37f Y
Transparency, lack of in metals, 137–138 Velocities, sound, 141
Transparent aerogels, 320 Vibration control, 306–307, 368–369, Yield strength, 107, 207–211, 209f
Transparent materials, 133 Young’s modulus, 105–106, 106f, 110f,
Treatment, environmental, 485–486 374
Tribological applications, 301–302 Vibrational spectroscopies, 286 213–214
Tulipomania display, 390, 391f Vibration-limited design, 175t
Tunneling detection, 284 Vickers test, 107f Z
Two-dimensional (2-D) nanomaterials Vinyl flooring, 45f
classification of, 178f, 179 VIPs (vacuum-insulated panels), 321– Zeeman energy, 223
electrical properties, 219–220 Zeolite, 493
making, 258f, 260–263 322, 323f Zero-dimensional (0-D) nanomaterials
multilayers, 180f Visible electromagnetic spectrum, 132–
nanocopper interconnects, 186f electrical properties, 221
overview, 180–182, 181f–183f, 185f 133, 133f, 336 making, 257–260
patterns of features, 185f Visual noise, 342 overview, 177, 178f, 181f, 186f
quantum confinement, 214–215 Visual perception, 340–342 quantum confinement, 215
Visual qualities of materials, 44, 44f Zero-loss peak, 285–286
Vitreloy, 301f Zigzag nanotube, 233, 236f
Volume, minimizing, 164 Zinc blend structure, 97, 98f
Volume defects, 102–103 Zinc oxide, 218, 462, 463f
Volumetric strain, 105, 106f ZT values, 379–381
VRH (variable range-hopping)

mechanism, 241