BI GRAMMAR

 Some common irregular verbs have a past participle that is different from the
simple past tense.

Irregular Simple Past

Verb Past Form Participle Example

be was been Anna has been my best friend for years.
break broke broken I’m sorry, I’ve broken your pencil.

do did done Jack has already done his homework.
draw drew drawn We’ve drawn a picture for you, Mom.

drink drank drunk Have you drunk all your orange juice?

eat ate eaten Someone has eaten all the chocolates.

fall fell fallen One of the pictures has fallen off the wall.
go went gone I’m sorry, but your train has already gone.
know knew known I’ve known Michael for two years.

see saw seen Kathleen has already seen that movie.

speak spoke Miss Hill has spoken to the principal about the
spoken problem.

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6. DETERMINERS

 Determiners are words such as this, those, my, their, and which.
 They are special adjectives that are used before nouns.

DEMONSTRATIVE DETERMINERS

 The words this, that, these and those are also special pronouns called
determiners.

 They are used to point out which thing or person you mean.
 These words are called demonstrative determiners, or demonstrative adjectives.
 Use this and these to point to people or things near you.

Use this with singular nouns. Use these with plural nouns
This car belongs to my mom. I don’t like these comics.
Does this key fit the lock? These biscuits don’t taste very good.
This book is my favorite. I bought these apples for lunch.
Who gave you this money? Is there an adult with these children?
This cheese tastes funny. These are my English exercise books.

 Use that and those to point to people or things that are far from you.

Use that with singular nouns Use those with plural nouns

This chair is mine and that chair is yours. I gave my sandwiches to those boys.

That animal is making a funny noise. Those children go to a different school.

These shoes are mine and those shoes

Would you pass me that book, please? are yours.

These apples look fresh but those

Who is that man talking to Dad? apples look rotten.

How much is that dress? Those people are from Africa.
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INTERROGATIVE DETERMINERS

 Use the words what, which and whose before nouns to ask about people or things.
 These words are called interrogative determiners or interrrogative adjectives.
Examples :
What time is it?
Which school do you go to?
Whose footprints are these?

QUANTIFYING DETERMINERS

 Words such as many, much and several tell about quantity without giving an exact
number. They are called quantifying determiners.

 Some quantifying determiners are used only with plural nouns. They are few, a
few, fewer, many, several and both.

Examples :
Few people have been to the moon.
A few children are absent today.
I have fewer CDs than you.
We went to Europe many years ago.
Several friends went with me.
Both brothers have dark hair.

 Some quantifying determiners can be used with plural nouns and nouns that show
no exact number. They are all, half, some, enough, a lot of, lots of, more,
most, other and plenty of.

Examples :
All children seem to like chocolate.
Jenny spends half her time watching television.
Some girls like to play football.
I don’t have enough material to make a dress.
A lot of people like burgers.
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You will gain weight if you eat lots of ice cream.
There’s more space in my room than yours.
Most teachers enjoy teaching.
They had never tasted other food.
Plenty of my friends have seen the Harry Potter movies.

 Some determiners can be used only with nouns of no exact number. They are
little (meaning not much), a little (meaning some), much and less.

Examples :
We have little time to play.
There’s a little rice left.
Does the teacher give you much homework?
I’ve got less ice cream than you.

 Some quantifying determiners can only be used with singular nouns. They are
another, every and each.

Examples :
I need another pencil.
He likes every child in the class.
Each house is painted a different color.

 The quantifying determiners either and neither refer to two people or things.
Examples :
I don’t like either drink.
Neither sister has long hair.

 Some quantifying determiners are used with singular, plural, or nouns of no exact
quantity. They are any, no, no other and the other.

Examples:
There wasn’t any space in the cupboard.
There were no pencils in the drawer.
There is no other way of solving the problem.
Do you like this picture or the other picture?

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POSSESSIVE DETERMINERS

 The words my, your, his, her, its, our, their are called possessive determiners or

posessive adjectives.
 Use these words before nouns to say who something belongs to or to show

ownership.

SINGULAR PLURAL

First person my our

Second person your your

Third person his their

her

its

 This table will help you remember how to use possessive determiners.

Singular Personal Possessive Plural Personal Possessive

Pronoun Determiner Pronoun Determiner

I (subject pronoun) my we (subject pronoun) our
me (object pronoun) my us (object pronoun) our
you (subject/object
you (subject/object pronoun) your your
he (subject pronoun) his pronoun) their
him (object pronoun) his their
she (subject pronoun) her they (subject pronoun)
her (object pronoun) her them (object pronoun)
its
it (subject/object pronoun)

Examples :
They are siblings. Is this their house?
Karthik, your handwriting is difficult to read.
Pugel is showing his tortoise to his friends.

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My sister lost her way in the city.
The lion is chasing its prey.
NUMBERS

 Numbers are determiners, too.
 Numbers are often used before nouns to tell you exactly how many people or

things there are.

Our family has two dogs. There are twelve months in the year.
We bought three pizzas. My grandfather lived for a hundred years.

USING DETERMINERS TOGETHER

 Can use quantifying determiners with each other and with numbers.
Some people like winter but many more people prefer summer.
There’s a little less space in this cupboard than in that one.

 Use of between a quantifying determiner and another kind of determiner.
I don’t like any of these drinks.
Some of my friends don’t like country music.
Each of the boys answered the question correctly.
I’ve had enough of your bad behavior!
Five of these girls are taller than any of the boys.

 The quantifying determiner all may be used with or without of.

We ate all of the food in the fridge. / We ate all the food in the fridge.
He spends all his time playing football.
He spends all of his time playing football. / She likes all my friends.

She likes all of my friends. /

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7. ADJECTIVES

 An adjective is a word used to describe nouns and pronouns.
 They give us more informations about people, places, and things.
 Sometimes, though, the adjective appears after the noun, later in the sentence.
 Examples :

Beautiful house, Tall man, a busy street, a dark corner,

a deep sea, a large bed, It is windy.

 Some adjectives describing what something is made of and some nouns can be

used like adjectives.
 For example, if you have a chair that is made of plastic, you can use the noun

plastic as an adjective and say that the chair is a plastic chair. If you have a watch

that is made of gold, you can say it is a gold watch.
 But the nouns wood and wool can’t be used like this. To make adjectives of these

nouns you have to add en.

NOUN ADJECTIVE EXAMPLE

wood wooden a wooden door
wool woole a woolen jumper

 Some adjectives describing what something is like.
 There’s another way to make adjectives from nouns.

 Suppose we want to say that something is like a certain material, although not

made of it.
 To make these adjectives, add -en to some nouns and -y to other nouns.

NOUN ADJECTIVE EXAMPLE
gold golden a golden sunrise ( bright yellow like gold )

silk silky or silken silky skin ( as soft as silk )

lead leaden a leaden sky ( dark gray like the color of lead )

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KINDS OF ADJECTIVES

KINDS a beautiful rainbow EXAMPLES
Qualities of nouns a difficult question a clever monkey
a kind lady the happy children
my lovely parent

Place or country English language French flag
Indian Temple
something belong Italian car
green apples
to ( adjectives of

origin.)

Colours blue sea brown shoes

Size of the nouns a big hat broad shoulders a high mountain

they describe. a large ship a long bridge a low ceiling

Numbers tell us four siblings nine coins

how many people, fifteen frogs nineteen lizards

animals, or things. sixteen snails twenty butterflies

seventeen kittens eighteen ants

Something about a little ice cream a little rice

quantity without not many people too much salt

giving you the lots of insects plenty of money

exact number. some food is there any milk?

Some adjectives a plastic folder a stone wall
a metal box
tell what things are a paper bag a silk dress
a wooden spoon
made of.They refer a cotton shirt

to substances. a gold ring

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THE ORDER OF ADJECTIVES

 Sometimes several adjectives are used to describe a single noun or pronoun.
When we use two or more adjectives, the usual order is:
size, quality, color, origin, substance.

For example:

Small green plastic box
Size Color Substance
Stylish red Italian car
Quality Color
Origin

More examples : a tall white stone building
a large Indian temple a long Chinese silk robe
a colorful cotton shirt an old graceful Japanese lady
delicious Spanish food a short handsome English man
crunchy Australian apples

 Adjectives of quality sometimes come before adjectives of size.
beautiful long hair
elegant short hair

 But adjectives of size always come before adjectives of color.
beautiful long black hair
elegant short red hair

 If we use any adjective of substance, it comes after the color adjective.
a beautiful long black silk dress

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ADJECTIVE ENDING

Adjectives have different endings.

Some adjectives end in -ful a beautiful dress

Some adjectives end in -less. a careless driver

Some adjectives end in -y. a dirty street

Some adjectives end in -ive. an expensive necklace

Some adjectives end in -ing. my loving parents

Some adjectives end in -ly a costly diamond ring

Here are some adjectives with the childish behavior

endings -able, -al, -en, -ible, -ish and - a national costume

ous a comfortable chair

a musical instrument

a dangerous place

a terrible mess

a foolish act

a woolen sweater

 Some adjectives end in -ful. These adjectives describe noun or pronouns that are
full of something or have a lot of something.

a beautiful face a painful injury a careful student
a cheerful baby a joyful smile a helpful teacher
a powerful machine a wonderful time playful children
a skillful player a useful book colorful clothes

 Some adjectives end in -ous.

a famous writer a courageous soldier

a mountainous area an adventurous explorer

a dangerous job a poisonous snake

a humorous film a generous gift

mischievous children marvelous results

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
 Some adjectives end in -y.

a messy room a sleepy dog a muddy path an easy test
a noisy car dirty hands a cloudy sky thirsty children
a sunny day stormy weather a lazy worker juicy fruit

 Some adjectives end in -less. These adjectives describe a person or thing that
does not have something.

a cloudless sky a meaningless word
a sleeveless dress a fearless fighter
a careless driver homeless people
a joyless song seedless grapes
a useless tool harmless animals

 Some adjectives end in -al.

a national flag personal possessions
musical instruments a traditional costume
electrical goods magical powers
a coastal town medical equipment

 Here are some adjectives that end in -ic, -ish, -ible, -able, -ive and -ly.

a fantastic singer a terrible mess an imaginative story
an energetic dog a sensible answer expensive jewelery
basic grammar horrible smells talkative children
enthusiastic shouting visible footprints a creative artist
a selfish act a likeable child friendly teachers
foolish behavior comfortable clothes a lovely dress
stylish clothes valuable advice a lively cat
childish talk suitable colors an elderly man

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 Many adjectives end in -ing.

loving parents an interesting book a caring nurse a disappointing result
a flashing light
a boring story an outstanding swimmer a smiling face an exciting ride

chattering monkeys a gleaming car shocking news

 Many of adjectives end in ed.

a closed door satisfied customers boiled eggs worried passengers

wasted time escaped prisoners a painted wall excited students

reduced prices invited guests

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

THE COMPARATIVE FORM

 To compare two people or things, use the comparative form of an adjective.
 The comparative form is usually made by adding er to the adjective.
 The word than is often used to compare two things or people.
 Example : Mr. Lee is taller than Philip.

ADJECTIVE COMPARATIVE FORM
dark darker
light lighter
high higher
low lower
old older
young younger
rich richer
poor poorer
tall taller
small smaller

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soft softer
hard harder
warm warmer
cold colder
fast faster
slow slower

THE SUPERLATIVE FORM

 When you compare three or more people or things, use the superlative form of an
adjective.

 The superlative form is usually made by adding est to the adjective.
 The word the is often used before the superlative form.
 Example: A bee is a small insect. A ladybird is smaller, but an ant is the smallest.

ADJECTIVE SUPERLATIVE FORM
dark darkest
light lightest
high highest
low lowest
old oldest
young youngest
rich richest
poor poorest
tall tallest
small smallest
soft softest
hard hardest
warm warmest
cold coldest
fast fastest
slow slowest

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 If the adjective ends in e, add -r to form the comparative and -st to form the
superlative.

ADJECTIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
nice nicer nicest
close closer closest
large larger largest
rude ruder rudest
safe safer safest
wide wider widest

 Suppose the adjective have only one syllable, end with a consonant, and have a
single vowel before the consonant.

 Just double the last consonant before adding -er to make the comparative and -est
to make the superlative.

ADJECTIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
dim dimmer dimmest
mad madder maddest
sad sadder saddest
wet wetter wettest
slim slimmer slimmest
thin thinner thinnest
big bigger biggest

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
 Suppose the adjective has two syllables and ends in y. Just change the y to i and

add -er to make the comparative and add -est to form the superlative.

ADJECTIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
busy busier busiest
easy easier easiest
heavy heavier heaviest
funny funnier funniest
lovely lovelier loveliest
dirty dirtier dirtiest
pretty prettier prettiest
noisy noisier noisiest
tidy tidier tidiest
happy happier happiest

friendly friendlier friendliest
naughty naughtier naughtiest

tiny tinier tiniest

 Use more and most to compare most other two-syllable adjectives.
 Use more and most with all adjectives that have more than two syllables.
 We use more to make the comparative form, and most to make the superlative

form.

ADJECTIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
famous more famous most famous
precious more precious most precious

handsome more handsome most handsome
exciting more exciting most exciting
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful

expensive more expensive most expensive
comfortable more comfortable most comfortable

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delicious more delicious most delicious
interesting more interesting most interesting

difficult more difficult most difficult
active more active most active
charming more charming most charming
cheerful more cheerful most cheerful

IRREGULAR COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE FORMS

 A few adjectives don’t form their comparative and superlative forms in any of the
usual ways.

 The comparative and superlative forms of these adjectives are different words,
called irregular forms.

 Example:
My painting is good, Uma’s painting is better, but Shanthini’s painting is the best.

ADJECTIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
good better best
bad worse worst
little less least
many more most
far
few farther / further farthest / furthest
less least

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ADJECTIVE PHRASES

 Phrases can be used like single adjectives to describe nouns and pronouns.
 Phrases that are used in this way are called adjective phrases.
 Most adjective phrases come after the word they describe.
 Examples in sentences :

Who is the girl with long hair?
My friend lives in the house across the street.
Mrs. Balu is tall and slim.
This is the road to Sungai Petani, Kedah.
The lady in the bookshop is a friend of mine.

 Some adjective phrases come before the word they describe.
 The words in these phrases are often joined with hyphens.

a long-legged bird an eight-year-old child
a well-dressed lady a ten-cent coin
a fun-loving teenager a twenty-story building
user-friendly equipment a large-sized shirt

‘

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8. ADVERBS
 An adverb is a word that describes a verb which modifies the meaning of a verb,

adjective or another adverb.
 It tells you about an action, or the way something is done.
 A lot of adverbs end in -ly.

ADJECTIVE ADVERB
beautiful beautifully
brave
bright bravely
fierce brightly
happy fiercely
heavy happily
loud heavily
peaceful loudly
slow peacefully
sound slowly
sweet soundly
careless sweetly
cheap carelessly
clear cheaply
close clearly
correct closely
different correctly
playful differently
safe playfully
selfish safely
skillful selfishly
smart skillfully
smartly

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Examples :
The dog is barking fiercely.
Alice skated beautifully.
The Prince and the Princess lived happily ever after.
The birds are singing sweetly. I
t is raining heavily.
The dog and the cat live together peacefully.
The soldiers fought bravely.
The sun is shining brightly.
The old man walked slowly.

 Adverb phrases are groups of words that functions as single adverbs to describe
the action of the verb.

Examples :
Are you sitting in a comfortable chair?
Mr. Dickson always dresses in fashionable clothes.
He draws cartoons like a real cartoonist.
The train arrived on time.

 Some adverbs describe the way something is done. They answer the question
“How?” They are called adverbs of manner.

Examples :
Maria is behaving selfishly.
The man drove carelessly.
The twins liked to dress differently.
She played skillfully.

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 Some adverbs describe when something happens. They answer the question
“when?” They are called adverbs of time.

Examples :
Can I do my work later?
Paul has just arrived.
He often swims in the evening.
Lisa is always cheerful.
Sometimes I ride my bike to school.
Everyone arrived early.
David arrived late.
It’s snowing again.
She will finish it tomorrow.
John’s shoes were too big for him last year.

 Some adverbs tell you where something happens and answer the question
“where?” They are called adverbs of place.

Examples :
Please put the books there.
The workers are moving the rubbish away.
The miners are working underground.
They are going abroad to study.
There are trees everywhere.
Alice lived next door.
The children are playing downstairs.
It’s raining. Let’s go inside.
Where’s Shamika?

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 Some adverbs and adverb phrases answer the question “how often?” They are
called adverbs of frequency.

Examples :
Katy practices the piano regularly.
The children always go to school on the bus.
I’ll never make that mistake again.
Have you ever been to Japan?
We’ve been to Disneyland twice.
The shops are often very busy.
The newspaper is delivered daily.
We walk home from school every day.

 Some adverbs and adverb phrases answer the question “how long?” They are
called adverbs of duration.

Examples :
The library is temporarily closed.
We’re staying in a hotel overnight.
The teacher left the classroom briefly.
The snow lasted for three days.
Mom was away a very long time.

 We have seen that most adverbs describe verbs, but remember that some
adverbs also describe adjectives or other adverbs.

 They are usually used to add emphasis which known as Adverb of Emphasis.

Examples :
Anna can run really fast.
That’s a very good drawing.
The film was just terrible.
Your excuses are completely unbelievable.
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These old tools are totally useless.
9. PREPOSITIONS

 A preposition is a word which shows the relation between the noun or pronoun
and other words in the sentence.

 A preposition is a word that connects one thing with another, showing how they
are related.

 If the word is followed by a noun or a pronoun
 Some prepositions show where something happens called prepositions of

place or positions.
Examples:
The boy is in the room.
The book is on the table.
The school is near the park.
The horse jumped over the hurdle.
Jane is jumping into the pool.
The books fell off the shelf.

 Some prepositions show when something happens. They are called prepositions
of time.

Examples :
We get up in the morning.
We go to bed at night.
They were married in 1990.
Joe arrived after me.
It has not rained at all for two weeks.
Breakfast is served at seven o’clock.
Kevin and Joe have been in the same class since first grade.
Dad gets home about six in the evening.
The trees lose their leaves during winter.
We always wash our hands before meals.
Many shops close on Sundays.
We watched the World Cup game until 2:00 A.M.

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 Some prepositions show where something is going. They are called prepositions
of direction.

Examples :
The boys chased after each other.
The football rolled down the hill.
A man was walking his dog along the riverbank.
The freeway goes right through the city.
We were travelling towards Miami.
A girl went past them on a bike.
This road leads away from the stadium.
They watched the train pull out of the station.

PREPOSITIONS WITH SPECIAL USES

 Many prepositions are used in other ways. Here are some of them.

of

I bought a bag of rice and a quart of milk.
Would you like a glass of orange juice?
Kathleen is a member of the chess club.
I need three pieces of paper.
Most of the children in my class like school.
There are several ways of cooking meat.

for

I made this bookmark for Mom.
Is there room for me on this seat?
I’d like a new computer for Christmas.
We’re going downtown for a meeting.
What’s this bag for?
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This word is too difficult for me to spell.
with

He pounds nails in with a hammer.
Mix the flour with water.
She painted the picture with her new paints.
Would you like to come with us to the arcade?
I can do difficult problems with help from Mom.
Who is the man with the beard?
Michael came home with dirty hands.
Cross the busy street with care.

except and instead of

I like all kinds of food except pasta.
Everyone likes chocolate except Tom.
We go to school every day except Saturday and Sunday.
You should eat fruit instead of candy.
Dad is coming to the theater with us instead of Mom.
We could watch TV instead of reading our books.

like, as and than

The words like, as and than are used to compare things.
Seetha looks like her dad.
Arif smiles like his mother.
Farah sings like a professional singer.
Are these shoes the same as those?
Sue is nearly as tall as the teacher.
My backpack is bigger than John’s.
Dad is taller than all of us.
This painting is more beautiful than that one.
The neighborhood streets are less busy than downtown streets.
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PREPOSITIONS WITH ADJECTIVES, VERBS OR NOUNS

 Prepositions are used with some adjectives.

Dad was angry with us.
We were afraid of the big dog.
She’s not very interested in sports.
Thivya is very good at drawing.

 Prepositions are used with some verbs.

I’m looking for my pencil. Have you seen it?
Can you think of another word for ‘pleased’?
Does this book belong to you?
We’re listening to CDs.
I agree with you.
I lent my skateboard to Sue.
Tell me about the show you saw.
Cut the cake into five pieces.
They borrowed money from the bank.

 Prepositions are used with some nouns.

What’s the answer to this question?
Is there a reason for this delay?
What’s the matter with you?
Here’s an example of good behavior.
Congratulations on winning the competition!
Traffic can cause damage to the environment.

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10. CONJUNCTIONS

 A conjunction is a linking word. such as and, or, but, because, so, although, if.
 Conjunctions are used to connect words or sentences.
 A conjunction is a word which joins to sentences to complete their meaning.

 Use and to link words that are similar.
We buy fruit and vegetables at the grocery store.
The president visited towns and cities across the country.
The house is warm and comfortable.
The weather was cold and windy.
There were several cars and trucks in the street.

 Use but to link words that are different and do not normally go together.
He works quickly but neatly.
The teacher is firm but fair with the children.
The musicians are young but very talented.
The weather was sunny but cold.
Karate is tiring but fun.
We want a vacation that's interesting but relaxing.
Some animals are big but gentle.

 Use or to talk about choices.
You can have a soda or lemonade.
Would you like pasta or rice?
Who is cooking the dinner, Mom or Dad?
Does the sauce taste or sweet or sour?
Do we turn right or left?
Is your sister older or younger than you?
Should the children bring bikes or skateboards?

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 The word or is often used with not and other negative words.
She does not like apple juice or orange juice.
I didn’t see or hear anything strange.
He can’t sing or dance.
They’ve never been to Europe or Asia.

CONJUNCTIONS WITH LISTS

 Use the conjunctions and and or with lists of words.
 Remember to put a comma between the words.
 Then use and or or between the last two words.
 Examples :

We bought milk, eggs, cheese and butter.
My favorite teachers are Mr. Lee, Mrs. Carter and Mr. Park.
In the morning I get up, take a shower, eat breakfast and brush my teeth.
Muthu didn’t have any paper, pens or pencils.
People travel to work by car, bus or train.
I haven’t eaten breakfast, lunch or dinner.

CONJUNCTIONS THAT JOIN SENTENCES

 Conjunctions are also used to join two sentences to make them one.

Mom is working in the garden. Dad is busy in the kitchen.
Mom is working in the garden and Dad is busy in the kitchen.

I switched on the TV. There were no interesting programs on.
I switched on the TV, but there were no interesting programs on.

Would you like to go to the movies? Shall we go for a burger?
Would you like to go to the movies or shall we go for a burger?

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Other Words for and
 There are other words for and that also join two sentences.

Dad washed the car. He polished it.
Dad not only washed the car, but he also polished it.

Sally baked the cake. She decorated it.
Sally not only baked the cake, but she decorated it as well.

John did his homework. He cleaned his room.
John not only did his homework, but he cleaned his room, too.

They visited Sydney. They also visited Hong Kong and Tokyo.
They visited Sydney, as well as Hong Kong and Tokyo.

Sam ran faster than Kim. He ran faster than David too.
Sam ran faster than both Kim and David.

Other Words Used for but
 There are other words for but that also join sentences.

Grandpa is old but very fit.
Although Grandpa is old, he’s very fit.

The weather was sunny but cold.
Even though the weather was sunny, it was cold.

The bus is slower than the train but it’s cheaper.
While the bus is slower than the train, it’s cheaper.

This computer is very old but reliable.
Though this computer is very old, it is very reliable.

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Other Words for or
 There are other words for or that name choices or join two sentences.
The movie wasn’t funny. It wasn’t interesting.
The movie was neither funny nor interesting.
You can do your homework now. You can do your homework after dinner. ]
You can do your homework either now or after dinner.
We could walk. We could take a taxi.
We could walk, or else take a taxi.

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CONJUNCTIONS OF TIME
 The conjunctions before, after, since, until, when, while, as and as soon as

are used to say when something happens. They are called conjunctions of
time.

Examples :
I always brush my teeth after I’ve had my breakfast.
Look both ways before you cross the street.
We went inside as soon as it started to rain.
Joe listened to music while he was doing his homework.
Miss Lee was smiling as she walked into the class.
Don’t leave until you’ve finished your work.
Joe first met his wife when he was studying in London.
Tom and Joe have been friends since childhood.

CONJUNCTIONS OF PLACE
 The conjunctions where and wherever are used to talk about places. They are

called conjunctions of place.

Examples :
Does anybody know where Mr. Carter lives?
The dog follows Andrew wherever he goes.

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CONJUNCTIONS OF REASON
 The conjunctions because, since, as and in case tell why someone does

something. They are called conjunctions of reason.
Examples :
I sat down because I was feeling tired.
Since you have finished your homework, you can help me make dinner.
As you’re my best friend, I’ll lend you my new bike.
Take an umbrella in case it rains.

CONJUNCTIONS OF PURPOSE
 The conjunctions so, so that and in order to tell what the purpose of something

is. They are called conjunctions of purpose.
Examples :
John finished his homework before dinner so he could watch his favorite TV
program.
John took a map so that he wouldn’t get lost.
She goes jogging every morning in order to keep fit.

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11. INTERJECTIONS

 An interjection is a word that expresses a sudden, emotion or strong feeling
such as surprise, pain, or pleasure.

 An exclamation point (!) is often used after interjections.

Examples :
Hello!,
Hurray!,
Cheers !,
Oh dear!,
Wow!,
Ssh!,
Happy Birthday!,
Watch out!,
Look out!,
Goodness!,
Ouch!,
Good!,
Oh no!,
Hooray!,
Thanks!,
Help!,
Good luck!,
Well done!,
Gosh!,
Hey!,
Merry Christmas!,
Happy New Year!,
Shut up!,
Aww!,
Oops!,
Aargh!

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12. PUNCTUATION

 Punctuation marks are important in both written and spoken English.
 In written English, the correct usage of these symbols helps to express the

intended meaning of the sentence.
 use them in sentences to make the meaning clear.

Period / Full Stop- (.)

 Usually used at the end of a sentence.

 The full stop is the strongest punctuation in the English language.

 It indicates, when used at the end of a sentence, a strong pause.

- Let’s go there. - I like this laptop.

- Read this book. - I will go home.

 This is the most common and obvious use of the full stop but it is also used in

some other situations.

After abbreviations like etc., a.m., p.m.
After words like “Goodbye.” “All right.” “Hi.”

- Goodbye. I will see you soon.

- Hi Amit. How are you?
- All right. Let’s finish this by Thursday.

After titles like Mr., Mrs., Dr. etc.

After decimal points like:

- The sales fell by 6.3% this week.

- The share market index rose by 5.1% this quarter.

An Ellipsis (...)
 An ellipsis is often used to indicate a pause, an unfinished sentence or when
trailing off into silence.
 It is also a handy tool when you’re quoting and want to omit certain words.
- He drank and drank...and then drank some more.
- “At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will
awake to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but
rarely in history,...”

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Question Mark- (?)
 Usually used at the end of an interrogative sentence to form a question.
 The question mark (?) is an important part of the English language and was

developed sometime around the 18th Century.
 Like the full stop (.), this punctuation mark is used mainly at the end of an

interrogative sentence.
 Many people use it incorrectly or don’t use it when required.
 The most obvious and common use of the question mark is to end a direct

question.

- Where are you going? - What is this?

- Are you mad? - Is this the place?

 Most people don’t know that the question mark has other uses as well.

A. To indicate uncertainty.

1. He lived till 1990(?) and was buried near his house.
2. Gandhi ji, 2nd October 1869(?) – 1948, was a great Indian leader.

B. In a series of questions.
1. What? He isn’t coming? When did you speak to him?
2. He’s been hospitalized? Why didn’t you tell me? Is he better now?
3. This is your car? When did you buy this? How much did it cost?

C. To end a tag question (a statement followed by a question).
1. His phone was stolen, wasn’t it?
2. She’s a great painter, isn’t she?
3. He’s lost his job, hasn’t he?

 Many times, people use questions marks even when they’re not required.
 One such situation would be indirect questions; these do not require a

question mark.
- Rohit asked Nidhi to marry him.
- His father wondered whether the car was fine.

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Comma- (,)
 Usually used to denote a pause in a sentence.
 A comma is a punctuation used to denote a pause in the sentence.
 A comma is used to structure a sentence and helps the reader understand
the meaning of the sentence.
 The following are the most common usages of the comma in the English
language.

1. To separate a series of words (nouns, adjectives, verbs or adverbs) in a
sentence.
Ramesh, Shravan, Dilip and Radha went for the meeting.
Sheeta is an intelligent, loyal and hardworking employee.
You must complete the assignment honestly, correctly and quickly.
Manish ran, swam and cycled to complete the athletic event.

2. To separate a series of phrases in a sentence.
Amit completed his homework, packed his bags, polished his shoes and went to
sleep.
I went to the market, bought the present, got it gift wrapped and came to the birthday
party.

3. To separate the parenthetical elements (a part of a sentence that can be
removed without changing the meaning of the sentence).
M.S. Dhoni, India’s cricket captain, hit a six to win the match.
Vishnu, the head boy of the school, has been absent for the last three days.

4. To separate the quoted parts from the rest of the sentence.
The great leader told the crowd, “I will fast till death until our demands are met.”
“Please go back to your houses,” said the policeman to the crowd.

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5. Use a comma after yes and no, and before please in sentences. You also
use a comma before or after the name of the person you are speaking to.
No, it has stopped.
Good morning, sir!
Can you tell me what time it is, please?
Yes, it’s a quarter past three, George.

6. Commas are used to show where there is a brief pause.
Unfortunately, she injured her knee skiing.
She was in the bedroom, listening to music on the radio.

Exclamation Mark- (!)
 Used to denote shock, surprise, anger or a raised voice.
 The exclamation mark is a punctuation used to express strong feelings or

emotions.
 It is commonly used after interjections or exclamations.
 It is one of the most misused punctuation marks in the English language.
 We tend to use exclamation marks more often than what is required.
 The exclamation mark should be mainly used to demonstrate shock, surprise,

anger or a raised voice.

- Hurray! - Help! - Shut Up!

- Go away! I don’t want to talk to you!

 In addition, the exclamation mark can also be used in very informal writing or

to express irony, humour or sarcasm.

Colon – (:)
 Used to indicate what is to follow next
 In the majority of the cases, the colon is used to introduce a list of things
- I have packed my cricket kit with the equipment I need: bats, gloves and
pads.
- A man needs three things to survive: air, water and food.

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Semi Colon (;)
 Used to link two independent clauses not joined by a conjunction or used to
separate two independent clauses in place of comma.
 Semi colon is used to separate sentences where the conjunction has been
left out.
- Sumit likes to play cricket; Amit likes to play soccer.
- I drank lemonade; Manish drank tea.

Apostrophe- (')
 Used to show possession or for contraction of word.
 The apostrophe is an important punctuation mark in the English language
which is often used incorrectly.
 Here are some common incorrect usages of the apostrophe
- Your’s shoes are red.
- I went to their’s house.
- The book’s are on the table.
- The flower’s are in the vase.
 The apostrophe has two distinct uses in English

A. Used to show possession ( to show who owns something. )
 The ’s is added after singular nouns or names.
Bat owned by Ravi – Ravi’s bat
Doll owned by Ragini – Ragini’s doll
 For plural nouns that end in -s, put the apostrophe after the –s
Birds’ beaks are all different shapes and sizes.
Miss Lee is marking her pupils’ work.
This is my parents’ wedding photo.
 Some plural nouns do not end in -s. Just add ’s to these plural nouns.
There are slides and swings in the children’s playground.
The men’s changing room is occupied.
Doctors look after people’s health.

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B.Used to show contractions of words:
It is so hot today – It’s so hot today
I have not done my homework – I haven’t done my homework

Quotation Marks ( “ ”)

 Use quotation marks around the exact words that someone says.
 Put the mark “ at the beginning of the words, and the mark ” at the end.

 Use a comma before the last quotation mark, to separate the words from the

rest of the sentence.

“This bike is mine,” said Susan.

“I would like some apple juice, please,” said the little boy. “Let’s play computer

games,” said James.

 Suppose the exact words that someone says come after the rest of the
sentence. In this case put a period before the last quotation mark.

Dad said, “Come inside and have lunch.”
“John,” said Mom, “please turn your music down.”

 Put question marks and exclamation points in the same place as periods,

before the last quotation mark.
“Is this the way to the station?” the man asked.
Sam said, “Can I borrow your pencil?”
“Don’t do that!” said Mom.
John said, “What a great movie!”

Dash
 A dash ( – ) usually indicates a break in thought.
I’ll have a hot dog with mustard – no, make that ketchup.

Hyphen
 A hyphen ( - ) separates syllables to make a word easier to read.
co-ordinate re-elect pray-er
 A hyphen also separates syllables when it’s necessary to continue a word
on the following line.

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Parentheses ( )
 Parentheses or a pair of dashes contain extra information.
John (my brother) is coming to the party.
John – my brother – is coming to the party.

Capital Letter
 Use a capital letter as the first letter of the first word in a sentence.


Dogs have wet noses.
That isn’t fair!
This is my brother.
You need a racket if you’re going to play tennis.

 Use a capital letter for the first letter of the first word in direct speech.

Sam said, “This is my brother.”
“Where is my ball?” Tom asked.
Alice shouted, “That isn’t fair!”
“You’ll need a racket if you’re going to play tennis,” said dad.

 The word I is always written as a capital letter.

I’m really pleased with your work.
Do you know what I got for my birthday?

 Use a capital letter to begin the names of people and places.

John Australia the Sphinx
the Taj Mahal
May Ling Germany the Grand Canyon
the Great Wall of China
David Beckham the United States of America the Pacific Ocean
Mount Fuji
Dr. Raj Mexico City

Miss Lee Beijing

Grandad Buckingham Palace

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Uncle David the Statue of Liberty the Rio Grande
Professor Park the Erie Canal the Himalayas

 Use capital letters after the initials in someone’s name.

T.K. Lee J.K. Rowling J.R.R. Tolkien

 The days of the week and months of the year begin with a capital letter.

Monday January July Tuesday February

August Wednesday March September Thursday

April October Friday May November

Saturday June December Sunday

 The names of holidays and special celebrations also begin with a capital

letter.

Valentine’s Day Deepavali Mother’s Day
Hari Raya Haji Halloween Father’s Day
Christmas Independence Day Teacher’s Day
Memorial Day Thanksgiving Friendship Day

 Capital letters are also used in the titles of books, films and plays.

The Lady and the Tramp
Star Wars
Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone
The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes
Alice in Wonderland
The Sword in the Stone
Hamlet, Prince of Denmark
Cats and Dogs
Universal World Atlas

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 Nationalities and languages also begin with a capital letter.

Australian German
Indonesian Korean
Spanish French
Egyptian Russian
Hindu Japanese
South African Chinese
British English
Pakistani Cantonese

PUNCTUATION RULES

Punctuation is a very important aspect of writing; good writing presupposes
correct punctuation.
Incorrect punctuation is the sign of weak writing, or carelessness.
But this sort of thing is eminently avoidable, because punctuation is quite
simple to master.
Here are some basic rules to keep in mind:

1. Every sentence must end with a full stop.

2. Proper nouns (names of people, places, brands, etc, i.e. unique instances of
a class) must always be capitalised.

3. When you use opening quotation marks, do not forget to use closing
quotation marks at the end of the quoted word or phrase.

4. Quotation marks are when quoting or sometimes to convey irony, not for
emphasis; emphasis is conveyed by emboldening or italicisation, followed
by an exclamation mark.

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5. Do not use an apostrophe when you are pluralising a word. The plural of toy
is toys, not toy’s. Apostrophes are used to form contractions (it is = it’s)
and indicate possession.

6. The ellipsis, used to indicate variously the intentional omission of a section
of text, an unfinished thought, and a trailing off into silence, consists of
only 3 dots. It is pointless to add more dots to an ellipsis. This is excessive
punctuation, which is in other words incorrect punctuation.

7. As per the rules of British English, any punctuation mark that is not part of
a quoted section of text must be placed outside the quotation marks.
However, in the case of direct speech, punctuation marks must be enclosed
within the quotation marks.

8. Do not link independent clauses with commas. Independent clauses are
groupings of words that can stand alone as sentences. For example, in He
knew how to drive, that he didn’t do it very often was a matter more nerves,
not inability both the parts before and after the comma are full sentences. In
such cases, the comma is not the correct punctuation mark of connection.
In needs to be replaced with a semi-colon (‘;’). The sentence becomes: He
knew how to drive; that he didn’t do it very often was matter of nerves, not
inability.

9. Use a comma after the introductory element of a sentence. The introductory
element is a word or a phrase that begins a sentence by providing
background, or simply modifies it. For example, Honestly I don’t know how I
managed to escape is wrong, because the word ‘honestly’ modifies the
sentence. Hence, it should be Honestly, I don’t know how I managed to
escape.

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13. SENTENCES

 A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought.
 A sentence must have a subject and a verb, but it may or may not have an

object.
 A sentence that makes a statement begins with a capital letter and ends with a

period.

SUBJECT VERB OBJECT
Sally is making a doll.
are fighting.
Wendy and Kim curled up. a book.
The hedgehog is reading
is raining. dinner.
Maggie a kite.
It cooked our breakfast.
am flying the dishes.
Dad are eating Susan’s teeth.
I are washing no children.
is examining
We
They have
The dentist screamed.
The old couple
Janet

KINDS OF SENTENCES

TYPES EXPLANATIONS EXAMPLES

Declarative Sentence makes a statement The children are swimming.

A declarative sentence The telephone rang.

ends with a period. Everyone sat down.

Interrogative asks a question Where are the twins?

Sentence An interrogative sentence Are you going shopping

ends with a question mark today?

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(?) instead of a period. What is your name?

Exclamatory It expresses a strong The silly girl!
Sentence
feeling such as surprise or What lovely weather!
Imperative Sentence
anger. How stupid I am!

An exclamatory sentence

ends with an exclamation

point (!) instead of a

period.

Use the base form of a Please sit down.

verb to give an order or Tell me the truth.

make direct requests. Speak up!

Imperatives are a very Do check these figures

direct way of telling people again.

to do something. Using do don’t change
or please before an Please

imperative is more polite. anything on

An imperative sentence my computer.

can end with an

exclamation point (!) if the

order is very firm.

THE SUBJECT AND THE OBJECT

 The subject of a sentence often does something to another person or thing.
 The person or thing that receives the action of the subject is called the object of

the verb.
 Verbs that have objects are called transitive verbs.
 The person or thing that receives the action is called the object.

SUBJECT TRANSITIVE VERB OBJECT

Susan has bought a painting.

Hannah is reading her book.

The twins climbed the hill.

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James stroked the cat.
Mom is holding the baby.
Jacob is making
They were playing a kite.
am writing football.
I crossed a story.
Emma have forgotten the street.
your umbrella.
You

DIRECT AND INDIRECT OBJECTS

 Some verbs have two objects.
 The direct object receives the action of the verb.
 The indirect object tells to whom or for whom the action is done.
 The indirect object usually comes before the direct object.

SUBJECT VERB INDIRECT OBJECT DIRECT OBJECT
The bank lends people money.
Madison is making her doll a dress.
am writing
I is reading Grandma a letter.
Grandma gave
Andrew left Diana a story.
is showing
We found his dog a bone.
Joshua
Miss Lee you some food.

us his stamps.

Alice a chair.

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VERBS WITH NO OBJECT

 Some verbs don’t have an object.
 A verb that does not have an object is called an intransitive verb.
 Here are some sentences with intransitive verbs.

Mr. Park usually walks to work. Anna talks a lot in class.
The sun is shining. It is snowing.
I don’t know. We have already eaten.
The man smiled. Dad always drives carefully.
Miss Lee always dresses very smartly. Can your little brother read?

SIMPLE SENTENCES

 A clause is a group of words that contains one subject and one verb.
 A sentence that consists of one clause is called a simple sentence.
 Here are some examples.

The girls are playing baseball.
Sally found a good hiding place.
I am eating my breakfast.
Tom is wearing his new shoes today.
Will you help me?
The sky was very cloudy.
I can hear the birds.
Everyone was happy.
Is it raining again?

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COMPOUND SENTENCES

 A compound sentence contains two clauses joined by a conjunction such as
and, or, but or so.

 Look at these examples. The verbs in the clauses are printed in color. Notice that
there are two verbs, one on each side of the conjunction.

Some people are always happy and some people are always sad.
She opened the bag and took out a book.
Do you want coffee or would you prefer lemonade?
Is that a bird or is it a plane?
John is good at English but he’s not very good at math.
Michael wants to see Star Wars but his friends have already seen it.
Tom dropped his sandwich so I gave him mine.
It started to rain so we went inside.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

 To talk about things that are possible, you often use if in a sentence.
 A sentence with if is called a conditional sentence.
 Here is an example of a conditional sentence with the if-clause printed in color.

If it rains tomorrow, we shall not go to the beach.

▲ ▲
shall/ will
simple present +
tense verb infinitive

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 In the if-clause, use a verb in the simple present tense.
 In the main clause, use shall or will and an infinitive.
 Here are some more examples. The if-clauses are in color.

If there’s no rice in the cupboard, we’ll buy some more.
If we don’t work hard, we’ll never learn.
If we leave now, we’ll arrive on time.

 You may also put the main clause before the if-clause.

We’ll play indoors if it rains.
You’ll get sick if you don’t eat good food.
Sam will do well in his piano recital if he practices regularly.

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE SENTENCES

 A positive sentence tells you about something that exists or something that is
happening.

 A negative sentence contains the word not or another negative word.
 Negative sentences tell you that something does not exist or is not happening.
 It contains a negative word like not, never, no, no one, nobody, none, or a

negative verb like isn’t or can’t or won’t.

POSITIVE ( YES ) NEGATIVE ( NO )
Peter is running. He is not walking.
We should tell the truth. We should never tell lies.
Everyone is in the garden. There is no one in the house.
The fridge is empty. There is nothing in it.
It is very cloudy. It isn’t sunny.

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QUESTIONS

 There are two kinds of questions such as yes or no questions and question-
word questions.

 When you ask a yes or no question, you want the answer yes or the answer no.
 Use the verbs be, have and do along with helping verbs such as can, will and

should when you ask these questions.
 Use the question words what, which, who (sometimes whom), whose, when,

where and how to ask for information.
 The verbs be, have and do, and helping verbs such as can, will and should

are also used in questions.

Yes / No Questions WH-Questions

 Ask a yes or no question to get yes or  Wh- questions usually include the

no as the answer. verbs be, have, do, or any of the

 Use the verbs be, have or do, or any helping verbs.

of the helping verbs, to ask yes or no  To ask for facts, use the question

questions. words what, which, who, whom, how,

Examples : when, where.
Can you swim? Yes.  The helping verbs in wh- questions

Are they coming? No. usually come before the subject.
Is it raining? No.  So does the verb be when it is used as

May I come in? Yes. an ordinary verb.

Examples :
 In questions, the helping or auxiliary Where are you?

verbs come before the subject of the What is David saying?

sentence. How did you get up here?

 When be and have are used as Why was the girl crying?

ordinary verbs, they come before the Which color do you prefer?

subjects, too. Who is she going to invite to her party?

Whom is she going to invite to her

party?

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Examples Questions & Statements: What is your problem?
Is Jim ill today? When do the stores open in the
Jim is ill today. morning?
Has she an older brother? Whose dictionary is this?
She has an older brother
Should we go now?  If the wh- question word is the subject
We should go now. of the question, it comes before the
Will it rain tomorrow? verb.
May I use your computer?
You may use my computer. Examples :
Who told you that?
What made you change your mind?

 Sometimes the wh-word itself is the subject of the sentence.
 In this case, don’t use do to form questions.

Who wants to come with me?
What caused the accident?
Which is the fastest car?
I’ve got my coat. Whose is this?

 In questions, the helping verb comes before the subject.
 The other verb comes after the subject.
 The verb be also comes before the subject when it is an ordinary verb rather

than a helping verb.

STATEMENT QUESTION
Dad is ill today. Is Dad ill today?
She has finished her homework. Has she finished her homework?
The cat doesn’t like noise. Doesn’t the cat like noise?
Michael can ride a bike. Can Michael ride a bike?
Sally could borrow your pencil. Could Sally borrow your pencil?
You may leave now. May I leave now?

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