How It Works Incredible History

FINOOTTHSETIERPS… Joseph Hooker Richard Dawkins

Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker was one of Darwin’s closest British evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins holds Charles
friends and classified the plants he collected in the Darwin as one of his major influences. Since reading
Galápagos Islands. Hooker also played a key role in the Darwin’s work at university, Dawkins has forged a career in
formulation of Darwin’s theory of natural selection, offering biology that has seen him publish numerous acclaimed titles
critical feedback during the drafting process, and was the including The Greatest Show On Earth, which claims to lay
first recognised man of science to support his radical ideas. down concrete evidence for evolution.

DID YOU KNOW? From a young age Darwin collected and performed experiments on stones and beetles with his brother

The HMS Beagle spent just five Top 5 facts:
weeks in the Galápagos Islands, Charles
but that was long enough for Darwin
Darwin’s research purposes
1Family guy
moment for Darwin – and for science as a whole. evolutionary theory specifically to human’s Darwin had ten children,
To a degree it was a bringing together of various evolution from apes. This book was incredibly though two died while still
ideas that had already been mooted by other popular from the word go, with a reprint young. Three of his sons went
biologists but unproved. While Darwin did not ordered within just three weeks of publication. on to become members of the
supply concrete evidence for evolution, the Three months after its release, 4,500 copies had Royal Society themselves.
work’s lucidity and logic meant that, towards been sold – a testament to his rising fame.
the end of the 1870s, the scientific community, 2On the money
and society as a whole, had accepted his views. Darwin died on 19 April 1882 from heart Darwin is commemorated
disease and, after a request by his colleagues, in the UK with his portrait
Darwin followed up this groundbreaking title was granted a state funeral at Westminster printed on £10 banknotes,
in 1871 with The Descent Of Man, And Selection Abbey, buried alongside other famous scientists alongside a hummingbird and
In Relation To Sex, where he applied his own John Herschel and Isaac Newton. the ship HMS Beagle.

Although some claim the 3School of thought
significance of Galápagos The school that Charles
finches to Darwin’s theories Darwin attended as a boy,
has been overblown, more Shrewsbury School, still
recent research indicates exists, but it is no longer in the
they are a good example same building, which has
of micro-evolution since become a library.

Perhaps the most famous 4Name gets around
resident of the Galápagos, Due to Darwin’s great
the giant tortoise achievements in the field of
natural history, more than 120
species and nine different
genera have been named
in his honour to date.

5No sea-lover
HMS Beagle took five
years to circumnavigate the
globe, but Darwin only spent
18 months on board. From the
day it set sail, he was afflicted
with terrible seasickness.

“The publication of On The Origin Of
Species was a landmark moment for
Darwin – and for science”

1836 1839 1858 1859 1864 1882 © Mike Cornwell

Lands back in Marries Emma Receives a letter from Publishes On The Receives the Darwin dies, aged 73, and
England on 2 Alfred Russel Wallace Origin Of Species By Copley Medal,
October and Wedgwood and who shares many of his Means Of Natural the highest is buried at Westminster.
returns home to ideas about the theory Selection, Or The accolade
Shrewsbury. has his first of of natural selection. Preservation Of from Britain’s
Favoured Races In Royal Society.
ten children. The Struggle For Life.

151

170

Thereal
Brontosaurus

PREHISTORIC

154 Age of the dinosaurs

Get to know these prehistoric

beasts with this A–Z guide

162 Prehistoric predators Prehistoric
predators
Take a closer look at some of
the largest carnivores the world 162
has ever seen

166 Biggest ever land
mammal

Find out about the
prehistoric mega-mammal,
Paraceratherium

168 Velociraptors

Despite its small size, this
scavenger was one of the most
deadly dinosaurs

170 Meet the real
Brontosaurus

Discover one of the largest

animals to ever grace the Earth

172 Ankylosaurus

Learn all about the club-

wielding giant

174 Sabre-toothed cats

Learn how the biggest of the
big cats lived and died on the
American plains

168

Velociraptors

152

166

Biggest
land

mammal

© Alamy; SPL; Jerry LoFaro 174

Sabre-
toothed cats

A17n0kylosaurus 154

Age of the
dinosaurs

153

Prehistoric

Age of the dinosaurs

154

Age of the Dinosaurs have long sparked our
dinosaurs imagination. From the Ancient
Greeks’ perception of their remains as
From birth to extinction, get to know evidence of a time when giants ruled Earth,
these prehistoric beasts inside and out right through to modern man’s pursuit of their
resurrection – be that in films like Jurassic Park
with our comprehensive A-Z guide or in laboratories via advanced DNA cloning
techniques – dinosaurs remain a tantalisingly
alien part of our world’s history.
They may no longer roam the land like they
did millions of years ago, but thanks to their
genetic legacy and preserved remains they still
remain a very real presence today.
From the fossils lying trapped in the ground
through to the descendants flying above our
heads, dinosaurs have unique tales to tell.
In this special History feature we take a
closer look at this ancient world through an A-Z
encyclopedia of all things dinosaur. You’ll learn
not just about the creatures themselves but the
tools and techniques used to study them, and
what Earth was like during their reign. This
guide truly has it all, so strap yourself in and
prepare for one wild, prehistoric ride…

Benton on a fossil dig near
Albuquerque, New Mexico

Professor Mike Benton,
palaeontologist
Mike Benton is the
Professor of Vertebrate
Palaeontology at the
University of Bristol, UK,
and is a world-renowned
dinosaur specialist. His
areas of expertise include
the diversification of life through time, the
origin of dinosaurs and the end-Permian
mass-extinction event. He can often be found
working on digs in Russia and China. He offers
some words of wisdom throughout our dino
guide, but for a more in-depth interview, head
to www.howitworksdaily.com.

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Prehistoric

Age of the dinosaurs

Amber & dino DNA

Amber is within the amber and have been
fossilised tree perfectly preserved. While one or
resin that, due two studies in the Nineties claimed
to a chemical to extract DNA from these organic
change after inclusions (as portrayed in Jurassic
burial in the Park), more recent research suggests
ground, turns this isn’t possible. Scientists at the
into a solid. Despite its stable state University of Manchester using
today, when the majority of the advanced DNA sequencing in 2013
Earth’s amber formed, it was far were not even able to find traces of
more fluid, which means many little DNA in copal (a precursor to amber)
organisms unwittingly became stuck only 10,000 years old, so they’re very
within it – including plant matter and doubtful that dino DNA could have
insects. Today these appear frozen survived from millions of years ago.

Communication in focus

Dinosaurs, much like the interesting examples comes in the form
many species of animal of the hadrosaurid (above), a duck-billed
alive today, communicated dinosaur family sporting a distinctive
in very different ways. bone crest on their heads. These crests
From complex dance-like movements were used as a resonating chamber for
to more obvious calls and scent projecting their calls. Considering the
markings, each dino marked their hadrosaur’s modest size and its wide
territory, warned of potential predators range of predators, the ability to
and relayed information regarding food amplify its calls was no doubt a
in its own unique way. One of the most valuable defensive mechanism.

“Certain Discovery Shooting in situ Clearance
kinds of
excavation Most fossils are Photography plays a crucial Once the fossilised bone
and study discovered at first part of any excavation. The has been photographed, the
out in only in part, with specimen is continuously rock around it is carefully
the field can be for just a small snapped from its discovery cleared to allow better
palaeoecology, trying fragment visible right through to removal. access to the fossils.
to reconstruct food above the surface.
webs and modes
of locomotion, or Cleaning
they can be about
looking at patterns When the fossil is freed
over time, going up from the rock, a painstaking
metre by metre in process of cleaning follows.
rock formations and
analysing fossil groups
to see how they change”

Bone secrets Tools Extraction Packed up Analysis

Dinosaur bones are one of a Clearance is achieved The fossil is cut from The fragile specimens At the research
palaeontologist’s greatest sources of with chisels, hammers the surrounding rock need to be transported lab, the fossil can
information, supplying data about and spades. The closer and removed piece by with great care, with be studied in
their age, anatomy, distribution and to the fossil the more piece, with each one fossils placed in depth, with laser
much more. The bones of dinosaurs delicate the tools. meticulously labelled. padded containers. scanning revealing
can only be found if they went in-depth detail
through the process of fossilisation, Boundary about the dinosaur.
where the tissue of the creature
dissolves and gets replaced with As soon as the fossil has
minerals under pressure beneath the been confirmed, a
ground. Finding and extracting these boundary is staked,
fossilised bones is a major challenge protecting the area so
for palaeontologists, with a carefully palaeontologists can
planned out dig site essential. work unhindered.

156

KEY 252.2 Ma 252.2 Ma 250 Ma 225 Ma 216 Ma 201.3 Ma
DATES
The Triassic period begins, The Induan, the first stage Archosauriformes, a clade An early gliding reptile The theropod Coelophysis The Triassic-Jurassic
TRIASSIC marking the beginning of of the Early Triassic, is of diapsid reptiles, evolve called Sharovipteryx flourishes on land. A extinction event wipes
the Mesozoic era. The first mirabilis evolves, able to fly out nearly 30 per cent
(*MA - MILLION YEARS AGO) characterised by a hot and and take over all between tree habitats. slenderly built carnivore
dinosaurs emerge. largely deserted world. semi-aquatic environments. that walks on two legs. of marine life.

Diplodocus: a dino titan

Of all the dinosaurs that lived on Earth few incredibly long neck and counterweight
can truly lay claim to be a terrestrial giant tail, the former used to elevate its head
– but the Diplodocus can. Built like a into the foliage of trees for food, while the
suspension bridge, the Diplodocus latter was its primary form of defence.
measured over 25 metres (82 feet) long With a typical Diplodocus estimated to
– that’s longer than five African elephants! have lived between 50 and 80 years, it
It weighed over 12 tons, roughly 170 times also had one of the longest life spans of
more than the average human. It had an any dinosaur from the Jurassic period.

Feathered “Colour in dinosaur feathers was Extinction
fiends a topic I think people thought
that we would never know the Dinosaurs perished some 65 million
Since palaeontologists began answers to. But we were able years ago in what is known as the K-Pg
uncovering dinosaur remains in the to rely on a fair number of fossil (formerly K-T) extinction event. This
19th century, our depictions of them feathers that were exceptionally well cataclysmic event at the Cretaceous-
in the flesh have been largely preserved and deep within their internal Palaeogene boundary led to 75 per
coloured by a few initial artist structure we could see colour-bearing cent of all species on Earth dying off. From the
impressions, with figures such as organelles. So by using some smart smallest ocean plankton to the largest land
Charles Knight often drawing species observations and techniques we have beasts, the K-Pg extinction event resulted in
in inaccurate postures and with proved it to be possible” devastation at every level of the world’s
factually incorrect sizes, colours and ecosystems, with all non-avian dinosaurs
features. Based on current evidence, eradicated. The current theory for the
the lack of feathers on most species catalyst of this global wipeout is an
is one of the most obvious flaws in asteroid impact in South America, but
these early depictions, with half of all the real cause for such widespread
non-avian theropods now thought to carnage was not the impact itself
have been partly feathered. The main but its knock-on effects. These
cause for these misassumptions has include plants not being able
been the lack of evidence, with to photosynthesise due to
feathers and soft tissues rarely dust blocking out the
preserved like fossilised bone. Sun plus a series of
epic tsunamis and
fire storms.

Genetic legacy

Today the study of dinosaurs is entering an
exciting new age, where we can achieve an
unprecedented level of accuracy through
cutting-edge analysis. After a T-rex’s soft
tissue was discovered within a bone
sample, we can now study things like proteins, blood
vessels and other micro-anatomy to help us
determine how individuals lived and
died, as well as how dinos evolved.

Hunting strategies

Whether dinos hunted and scavenged imprinted in the public consciousness
alone like the T-rex or in large packs like as a highly intelligent, synchronised
the Deinonychus – the model for the team hunter. However, many modern
Velociraptor in Jurassic Park – dino experts disagree with this
carnivorous dinosaurs were no doubt assumption, believing that while
the apex predators on Earth. However, Deinonychus did move and chase prey
debate rages as to how co-ordinated in groups, they did so with little
dinosaur pack hunters were. Since first co-ordination, with each individual
described in 1969 by palaeontologist simply acting out of self-interest rather
John Ostrom, the Deinonychus has been than working together like, say, lions.

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Ichthyosaurus 5 1 Eyes Large eyes were protected by

Although technically not a true 1 3 rings of bone to keep them intact at depths.
‘dinosaur’, Ichthyosaurus, or ‘fish 2
lizard’, filled the same niche in 2 Teeth The jaws were lined with rows
Earth’s oceans and was one of the 4
most dominant marine species of of sharp, conical teeth, primed for
the Mesozoic era (252-65.5 Ma) shredding soft prey such as squid.
Resembling today’s dolphins,
Ichthyosaurus measured in at 3 Fins Stunted limb-like fins were used
roughly two metres (6.6 feet) in
length and was capable of for stability and manoeuvring rather than
cruising through the water at propulsion.
around 40 kilometres (25 miles)
per hour, enabling it to catch fish 6 4 Prey Fish, squid and marine reptiles
and squid with ease. The fact that
Ichthyosaurus had a very large were the main food of choice, but the
pair of eyes protected by a pair of sharp teeth could crush shellfish as well.
bony, structural-supporting rings
has led some palaeontologists to 5 Body A streamlined body, with a
believe the species frequently
hunted at great depths where curved spine and no neck. By undulating it
pressure was very high. could alter its speed and direction.

6 Tail It had a top speed of 40km/h

(25mph) came courtesy of the bilobed,
shark-like tail.

Jurassic larkTiming problems Five factual bloopers from the famous Hollywood films Spit on a grave
No grudge match
Jurassic Park portrayed Out of proportion Feather-brained Another creative
many famous dinosaur In the third film, the addition was
species, including T-rex One thing the film’s Another massive Spinosaurus is shown Dilophosaurus’s ability
and Triceratops, but producers definitely need omission in Jurassic going toe-to-toe with its to spit out poison.
most of the animals punishing for is the Park was the lack of supposed arch-nemesis, However there is no
shown actually lived in depiction of the park’s any feathers. Most the T-rex. In reality they evidence to suggest it
the Cretaceous period, Velociraptors. Portrayed as dinosaur species, never met as they lived could do this; neither did
not the Jurassic. being as tall as a man, in especially sauropods, on different continents it have a frilled neck.
reality they barely stood had some plumage on of prehistoric Earth.
0.5m (1.6ft) off the ground. their bodies.

King of the dinosaurs Skull

While not the biggest or smartest, the Tyrannosaurus A heavy skull was adapted to
rex was no doubt the closest to a king the dinosaurs ever withstand biting and shearing
had. A colossal bipedal carnivore, the T-rex measured in forces, with particularly
at over four metres (13 feet) tall and over 12 metres (39 strong nasal bones.
feet) long, weighing over seven tons. It was no slow-
poke either, with computer models estimating that the Lungs
dino was capable of hitting a top speed of around 29
kilometres (18 miles) per hour chasing prey. When it Evidence of honeycomb
caught up it could quickly dispatch them with a single structures within its vertebrae
bite that had a force of three tons – the equivalent suggest that T-rex breathed
weight of a fully grown African elephant. Yikes! through a complex system of
pockets and air sacs.

Lufeng: a fossil Forelimbs Stomach
treasure trove
The T-rex’s front limbs were The T-rex had a hardy stomach
One of the most prolific dinosaur short and stocky, with each due to its high-meat diet and the
hotspots in the world is Lufeng in Yunnan exhibiting a thick cortical fact that it scavenged frequently
Province, China. Since 1938, 33 species, bone. They were used to from long-dead carcasses.
each with its own complete fossil, have hold on to struggling prey. Analysed T-rex dung has revealed
been found there. Some of the finds have many fragments of bone.
been record-breaking, with many of the Heart
vertebrate fossils uncovered the oldest
on record – eg, the Lufengosaurus fossil With a body bigger than a bus,
(pictured right) dates from 190 million the T-rex needed a huge pump to
years ago. Lufengosaurus was a genus of transport blood at adequate
prosauropod that lived during the Early pressure. Current estimates
Jurassic period. Tourists can see many suggest its heart was over 100
excavated dinosaur finds at the nearby times bigger than a human’s.
Lufeng Dinosaur Museum.

158

KEY 201.3 Ma 199.6 Ma 183 Ma 175 Ma 154 Ma 145 Ma
DATES
The middle period of the The large marine The Pliensbachian stage The first phase of the The famous Diplodocus The Tithonian epoch of
JURASSIC Mesozoic era, with the sauropterygian reptile ends with anoxic ocean supercontinent Pangaea’s evolves due to the the Late Jurassic ends,
Jurassic following the Plesiosaurus evolves; an waters and wide-scale with the Cretaceous
(*MA - MILLION YEARS AGO) Triassic mass-extinction. apex predator of oceans. breakup into several dominance of sauropods
marine extinctions. continents begins. in the dino kingdom. period following.

Mesozoic world Oceans &
continents
Beginning 252.2 The Mesozoic was generally warm
million years ago with a significantly smaller 1Triassic
and coming to a temperature differential between the At the beginning of the
close about 65 equatorial and polar regions – ideal Mesozoic era in the Early
million years ago, conditions for the emergence and Triassic period, all the land
encompassing the Triassic, Jurassic proliferation of flora and fauna. The on Earth was joined together
and Cretaceous periods, the Mesozoic Mesozoic was also famous for being into the supercontinent of
era truly defined the age of dinosaurs. the time period where the ancestors Pangaea, itself surrounded by
All the famous species you can think of today’s major plant and animal the superocean Panthalassa.
of lived within it. groups emerged.
2Jurassic
Nesting & Outer shell As the Mesozoic progressed
dinosaur eggs and the Triassic made way for
Dinosaur eggs were elongated and had the Jurassic period, plate
Dinos organised their nests, laying their eggs hard, brittle shells. Some of the largest tectonics split Pangaea into
in patterns suggesting complex social found to date were 0.6m (2ft) long. two mega-continents:
behaviours. Palaeontologists have identified Gondwana and Laurasia,
two main types of egg-laying strategies – Amniotic membrane separated by the Tethys Sea.
clutches and linear patterns – further divided
by the shape of the nest and distribution of Encompassing the dinosaur was a thin 3Cretaceous
eggs. For example, the ornithopod Maiasaura membrane, helping keep the embryo As the Mesozoic came to a
nests generally consisted of bowl-shaped hydrated during development. close, Gondwana and Laurasia
excavations roughly two metres (6.6 feet) had split into many of the
wide and 0.8 metres (2.6 feet) deep, the Embryo continents we know today,
opening covered by loose vegetation. Each including North and South
nest was spaced roughly seven metres (22 At the centre lay the dinosaur embryo America and Antarctica.
feet) apart and was used by their offspring that, depending on the species, could
until they were over a metre (3.3 feet) long. take weeks or months to hatch. 4Palaeogene
In the Palaeogene period
Yolk sac – the era immediately
following the K-Pg extinction
This contained proteins and fat which event – those continents
served as food for the baby dino. continued to move to their
current positions.
Palaeontology: key players

Most of our current revolutionised our understanding of

knowledge of the the dinosaurs’ legacy, such as John

dinosaur kingdom comes Ostrom who gained fame for his

courtesy of suggestion that birds were modern-

palaeontologists, who day descendants, palaeontologists

dedicate their lives to uncovering the have helped provide tantalising

secrets of their prehistoric kingdom. glimpses of the prehistoric world. One

From the earliest dinosaur hunters of the more recent palaeontologists

Pelvis such as Othniel Marsh (left), who who has helped introduce dinosaurs to

The T-rex was a saurischian discovered and named the Allosaurus, the general public is Dr Philip J Currie.

dinosaur, meaning it had a lizard Stegosaurus and Triceratops, to He helped found the prestigious Royal

hip arrangement. Its pubis bone 20th-century scientists who Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology.

pointed forward and down

rather than backward and down “Weighing something like five tons yet
like ornithischian species. walking bipedally makes the T-rex incredibly
interesting, as it pushes the absolute limits
Body

Unlike popular depictions, of what is possible. I mean, you look at an

it did not stand vertical elephant and think, ‘Wow, that’s amazing’,

on its large hind legs but however, an elephant has to walk on four legs and

leaned forward with its weighs roughly the same amount, so understanding

body approximately how T-rex functioned is a fascinating area of research”

parallel to the ground.

Queensland

Hind legs Tail If you were to visit Queensland’s more
remote regions, you may very well find
Powerful rear legs allowed A muscular tail helped yourself standing face to face with one
it to hit around 29km/h counterbalance the of many 100-million-year-old beasts.
(18mph). It was probably T-rex’s heavy skull and That’s because Queensland’s outback
poor at turning though. aided locomotion, was once part of the Great Inland Sea,
improving leg a huge swampy inland ocean that
retraction speeds. existed in the age of the dinosaurs. As
such, hundreds of fossils have been
excavated from this region and there is
even an established ‘Australian
Dinosaur Trail’ that tourists can follow.

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Prehistoric

Age of the dinosaurs

Relatives in the modern world

Massive scientific effort has been put sequenced proteins from a 68-million-
into identifying which creatures today year-old T-rex tissue sample and, much
can trace their roots back to these to their surprise, discovered that the king
prehistoric beasts. One of the best of the dinosaurs’ molecules showed
examples of this was the hunt for the remarkable similarity to the common
nearest living relative of the once-mighty chicken and that its collagen makeup
T-rex, undertaken by a research team at was almost identical. So, at least for the
the North Carolina State University in time being, the humble chicken is the
2007. To go about this the researchers rightful ruler of the Earth…

Plates

Two rows of triangular back
plates are believed to have
acted as key components of
a thermoregulatory system,
serving as organic radiators.

Skull

The skull was relatively
small, slender and low
to the ground, helping
it graze on low-growing
vegetation.

Stegosaurus Body Tail

One of the most recognisable Due to Stegosaurus The powerful tail was
dinosaurs of all time, the being vegetarian, it tipped with bone
Stegosaurus – despite its herbivorous had a large stomach spikes and could be
nature – was a formidable perfectly adapted to swung at speed as a
opponent, with its large muscular breaking down tough form of self-defence.
tail tipped with lethal bone spikes. plant matter.
With a length of about nine
metres (30 feet) and a typical Legs
weight of two to three tons, the
Stegosaurus had a rounded body and The front limbs were
heavy skull. Stegosaurus lived in the far shorter than the
Late Jurassic period around 150 Ma. hind limbs, granting
its characteristically
arched appearance.

Tall tails Velociraptors debunked

You’ll struggle to find a Unenlagia: Due to their got right – with it capable of hitting 39
dinosaur without a tail. half bird, appearance in the kilometres (24 miles) per hour at top
This is because the majority of half dinosaur Jurassic Park films, the speed and boasting amazing agility,
dinosaurs used their tails for two Velociraptor is easily being able to change direction
important roles: the first being One of the most telling links between one of the most incredibly quickly. It used this speed to
balance and the second being dinosaurs and birds is the Unenlagia, a recognisable of all species. Importantly chase down prey, which largely
genus of theropod dinosaur from the though, this image of the Velociraptor is consisted of small to medium-sized
self-defence. Large Late Cretaceous that in almost all way off the mark in terms of reality. herbivores such as Protoceratops, and
animals like the T-rex aspects, aside from flight, resembles a In contrast to the movie monster, then kill them with its nine-
and Diplodocus, thanks modern bird. It was discovered in 1997 research evidence suggests that the centimetre (3.5-inch) retractable
to their skulls or necks, and to date two species have been Velociraptor was actually a feathered claws and sharp teeth.
confirmed – U comahuensis and U dinosaur under 0.6 metres (two feet) in
were very top-heavy. paynemili – both of which share an length, with colourful plumage used in As mentioned in ‘Hunting
They needed long and almost identical pelvic structure to the mating rituals and visual displays. The strategies’ new research
heavy tails to early bird species Archaeopteryx. species also had hollow bones, much suggests that, while
counterbalance this, especially when like birds, and built large nests to sociable compared with
running. Other smaller creatures protect their offspring. other carnivorous species,
such as Ankylosaurus (left) used its The Velociraptor did impress in Velociraptors were not apex
tail when under attack, evolving a ground speed – one thing Jurassic Park pack hunters, with co-operative
large bony club at the end which kills possible but infrequent.
could painfully bludgeon assailants.

160

KEY 145 Ma 125 Ma 99.6 Ma 68 Ma 67 Ma 65.5 Ma
DATES
The Cretaceous period After 15 million years of The Albian age gives way The giant herbivorous Tyrannosaurus rex takes A massive space rock
CRETACEOUS begins with all types of marine dominance, the to the Cenomanian, made Triceratops becomes one of over as the apex terrestrial smashes into Earth,
dinosaurs dominating plesiosaur Leptocleidus famous for its dramatic, the last non-avian dinosaur predator on Earth until all resulting in the K-Pg
(*MA - MILLION YEARS AGO) dies out once and for all. dinosaurs are wiped out.
on land, sea and air. anoxic end event. genera to appear. extinction event.

Winged wonders 1 1 Beak
4
While not technically dinosaurs, Up to 90 teeth in the long beak intermeshed when the
pterosaurs were very much the winged 3 jaw was closed, and were perfect for grabbing fast prey.
wonders of the dinosaur era. Flying reptiles that 2
evolved throughout the Late Triassic and dominated 2 Wings
the skies until the Late Cretaceous, pterosaurs were 5
the earliest vertebrates currently known to have A wingspan of around 1m (3.3ft) was typical for
evolved powered flight. Pterosaurs are not related to “Microraptor was a small, four- Pterodactylus, with the wings structured in a way that
modern-day birds or bats, with the many species winged dinosaur… very close to indicates it would have flown like an albatross.
evolving earlier and separately. the origin of birds. Its remains
The genus Pterodactylus was one of the most show it had wings on its arms 3 Body
notable, with the species Pterodactylus antiquus and legs. It couldn’t fly properly,
one of the most impressive, with a toothed beak, but used its wings to glide. This shows the Not as large as depicted in fiction, Pterodactylus was
large eyes and clawed wings. In terms of wingspan origin of flight in birds and their ancestors very lightly built with hollow bones and a long neck.
P antiquus could extend its wings up to a metre was much more complex than expected”
(3.3 feet) and had a long, narrow skull packed with 4 Limbs
dozens of sharp, pointed teeth. It used these to
snap up fish and smaller reptiles. Pterosaurs evolved a unique pteroid bone on the wrists of
their forearms, used to support the forward wing
membrane located between the wrist and shoulder.

5 Tail

Unlike some other pterosaurs, Pterodactylus had a
relatively short, stubby tail.

X-raying prehistoric remains

X-ray scanners have become incredibly useful having to break it open and risking damage to
and important tools in the world of the specimen. What’s more, the researchers
palaeontology as they can reveal many fossils then made use of a 3D printer to re-create the
and features that otherwise would remain X-ray scans in solid form, allowing
hidden. For example, in November 2013, palaeontologists to pick up and handle a cast
researchers in Germany used an X-ray machine of the fossil as fine and detailed as the real
to unveil the detailed structure of a fossil thing. Modern technology is set to further our
trapped within a plaster cast, all without ever understanding of dinosaurs by no bounds.

Yucatán impact

The colossal Chicxulub crater in the
Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico, since its
discovery in the Seventies, has hinted as
to how 75 per cent of all life on Earth was eradicated
around 65.5 million years ago. The crater indicates
that a space rock – probably an asteroid – at least ten
kilometres (six miles) across impacted Earth. As a
result of the extensive damage caused by the collision
and consequently by tsunamis, dust storms and
volcanism, it caused a collapse in the world’s
ecosystems, with all non-avian dinosaurs at the top of
the death list. The impact’s link to the K-Pg mass
extinction has recently been reaffirmed with even
more detail, with researchers linking the two events in
time to within 11,000 years. That said, various
phenomena, such as dramatic climate swings, also
contributed to the end of the dinosaurs post-impact.

Zalmoxes © SPL; Thinkstock; DK Images; Getty; Corbis; University of Bristol; Alamy
sized up

Zalmoxes, a genus of
herbivorous dinosaur
from the Late Cretaceous period, is
believed by some to be one of the
earliest examples of insular
dwarfism – a condition whereby a
species undergoes a continuous
reduction in size to better suit its
environment, shrinking over several
generations. Fossils from at least
two species of Zalmoxes have been
found in central Europe and one of
its closest ancestors is thought to
be the much larger Iguanodon.

161

Prehistoric

Carnivorous kings

Prehistoric
predators

Until they were wiped out 65 million years ago
dinosaurs ruled the Earth. Among them,
monstrous beasts stamped their authority over
the menagerie, devouring all who stood in their
way. These were the dinosaur kings, the
largest carnivores the world has ever seen

Evolving from archosaurs (large “Among them, huge behemoths
lizards) in the latter part of the with skeletons over 16 metres long
middle Triassic period, dinosaurs and six metres tall, with skulls the
quickly gained a strong and prolific size of bath tubs have surfaced”
foothold all over Pangaea, the
super continent which all our continents were
once part of. Indeed, as the dominant terrestrial
vertebrates through the Jurassic and Cretaceous
periods, thousands of species of dinosaur have
been unearthed as fossils by palaeontologists all
over the world, with new discoveries being
presented every year. Among them, huge
behemoths with skeletons over 16 metres long
and six metres tall, with skulls the size of bath
tubs have surfaced and delivered a scary and
disturbing glimpse into the creatures that once
prowled the countries we still live in today.
Among the largest of these giants, a group of
massive carnivorous theropods (bipedal
dinosaurs) emerged throughout the Jurassic and
Cretaceous periods, casting a shadow over the
rest of the dinosaur population. The most famous
of these is the Tyrannosaurus Rex, as made
popular by the Jurassic Park films, however this
type of theropod was but one of a host of killers
and, amazingly, not the largest! Historically, of
course, the reign of these carnivorous kings was
cut short in the mass-extinction of the dinosaur
population at the close of the Cretaceous period,
when a 110-mile radius asteroid crashed into the
Yucatán Peninsula, setting off a chain-reaction
(tsunamis, dust clouds, temperature variation,
food-chain collapse) of events that eventually led
to their extermination.
Here, though, we explore the giddy heights of
the pinnacle of dinosaur evolution, the time
when nothing living on Earth could match these
beasts for size and strength. Better run for cover
then, as things are about to get prehistoric…

162

Long neck The shortest The fastest Feathered Velociraptor

1 The tallest of all the 2 In contrast, one of the 3 Two of the quickest of all 4 Contrary to their portrayal in 5 The Velociraptor, made
dinosaurs was the giant smallest dinosaurs to dinosaurs were the films, many dinosaurs were famous by the Jurassic
Brachiosaurus, mainly thanks roam the Earth was the Ornithomimus and actually feathered like birds, Park films, was not actually
to its giraffe-like neck, which Compsognathus, standing Gallimimus, which are with the Sinosauropteryx as big as it was portrayed,
stood at a rather impressive at a measly 1.5 feet tall estimated to have been able being the first to be un-earthed standing at six feet long
height of 50 feet. and four feet long. to reach speeds of 70mph. by palaeontologists. and only 1.9 feet high.

© Kabacchi Why the
long face?

Spinosaurus had one
of the longest skulls of

any carnivore, some
1.75m long

Snout and about

The long, crocodile-like snout
suggests it plunged its jaw into

water to catch fish

Sail of the century

The sail of Spinosaurus
was formed of very tall
neural spines growing on the
back vertebrae
Image used with kind permission of Jerry Lofaro
CARNIVORE 1 © Bugboy52.4

Spinosaurus

Step aside T-Rex, this was the
ultimate theropod…

The Statistics Bigger and arguably meaner than the Tyrannosaurus Rex, the Not a dinosaur
Spinosaurus is thought to be the largest theropod dinosaur you’d want to meet
Spinosaurus to ever roam the planet. Over 16 metres long, six metres down a dark alley…
high and weighing a monumental 12 tons, the
Height: 6 metres Spinosaurus was a relatively common animal in the
Length: 16 metres late Cretaceous period. Palaeontologists have found
Weight: 12 tons fossilised remains of the Spinosaurus in Morocco,
Head size: 1.75 metres Libya and Egypt, including a well preserved but now
Interesting fact: The spines on destroyed (blown-up in a World War II bombing run)
the Spinosaurus grew up to two specimen that included the lower jaw and vertebrae
metres tall with complete spines. Spinosaurus was
Fear factor: 9/10 typical for a large theropod but differed in
its skull and vertebrae
construction. The snout of the
1.75-metre skull was long like a
crocodile, with the nostril
openings placed well back from
the tip. Its teeth were also conical,
rounded in a cross section and did not
contain any serrations – these
features suggest that the
Spinosaurus plunged its jaw
into water in order to catch
fish. However, considering its
size, jaw strength and number
of teeth, it equally had no
trouble in hunting small,
medium and other large
dinosaurs on land.

163

Prehistoric

Carnivorous kings

CARNIVORE 2

Giganotosaurus

The dinosaur with a big name to live up The Statistics © Arthur_Weasley Ridge too far
to, but was it as colossal as it sounds?
Giganotosaurus Giganotosaurus had bony
Meaning ‘giant southern lizard’, the Giganotosaurus was roughly the ridges above the eye sockets
same size as the largest Tyrannosaurus Rexs, measuring over 12 metres Height: 4.5 metres
long, five metres tall and weighing over eight tons. The skull of the Length: 12 metres T-Rex
Giganotosaurus was adorned with shelf-like bony ridges, notably above Weight: 8 tons
the eye sockets and had low horn-like projections, while the neck was Head size: 1.80 metres Maybe not the biggest, but
considerably thicker than that of the Spinosaurus, with a stout and Interesting fact: The that didn’t stop it being the
powerful head supported by it. Giganotosaurus remains have been found Giganotosaurus had a brain half ultimate hunter
in Argentina and it has been postulated by palaeontologists that it dined the size of the Tyrannosaurus Height: 5m
mainly on medium-sized dinosaurs such as Andesaurus. Fear factor: 7/10 Length: 13m

Size comparison Who was the real king of the dinosaurs…

Giganotosaurus

It may sound big but Giganotosaurus
wasn’t at the top of the pile…
Height: 4.5m Length: 12m

Spinosaurus

Longer and heavier
than its closest
competitors
Height: 6m
Length: 16m

CARNIVORE 3 The Statistics

Carcharodontosaurus Carcharodontosaurus
Not the world’s easiest name to pronounce…
Height: 4 metres
Named in 1931, the African Carcharodontosaurus was a huge Length: 11 metres
theropod with serrated teeth similar to the great white Weight: 6 tons
shark. The skull of the Carcharodontosaurus was very Head size: 1.60 metres
narrow although it reached up to 1.6 metres in length, while Interesting fact: The
Carcharodontosaurus could run
its body was taller at the back than at the front, over 20mph
giving it a low, streamlined physicality. The Fear factor: 8/10
thigh muscles of the Carcharodontosaurus were
some of the largest of any dinosaur and this, in Shark-like teeth © F.Fonseca
partnership with its narrow streamlined frame
and ferocious sharp teeth, made chasing down© Didier Descovens 2010The serrations in the teeth are
and devouring prey elementary. Arguably the very similar to a shark’s
quickest of the carnivorous theropods, the
Carcharodontosaurus was a fearsome predator. © Arthur_Weasley
Fossilised remains have been found in Morocco,
Tunisia and Egypt

This incredible beast was named
after its deadly serrated teeth

164

DID YOU The biggest bite
KNOW?
The strength of the Tyrannosaurus’s bite is estimated
by palaeontologists to be greater than that of any other
animal ever to live on Earth.

CARNIVORE 4 © Arthur_Weasley

Mapusaurus

The Statistics The dinosaur that proved teamwork can Leg up
be the best way to get a good meal
Mapusaurus Researchers
Dating from the late Cretaceous period and stalking the area that is now believe that the
Height: 4 metres Argentina, the Mapusaurus was a close relative of the Giganotosaurus. structure of the
Length: 12 metres Despite being one of the smaller giant carnivores, with a length of 12 femur suggests a
Weight: 4 tons metres, height of four metres and weight of four tons, it was still a fearsome close relationship
Head size: 1 metre predator. Interestingly, palaeontologists believe that the Mapusaurus to Giganotosaurus
Interesting fact: Unlike other would engage in group hunting activity, allowing groups of them to take
large theropod dinosaurs, down larger foes than they would be able to achieve on their own. The
Mapusaurus’ would often hunt in remains of the Mapusaurus were first excavated between 1997 and 2001 and
groups now complete the majority of a full skeleton. Due to its connection to the
Fear factor: 6/10 Giganotosaurus, it shares many of the same characteristics.

CARNIVORE 5 A nice bit of colour… in © Thinkstock
case you didn’t spot it
Tyrannosaurus Rex running at you!

The most famous dinosaur of them all Good eyes
and the ultimate predator
The T-Rex had
The T-Rex was one of the largest terrestrial binocular,
carnivores in the world, with the estimated colour vision
strength of its bite greater than that of any
other animal that has ever existed on Earth. The Statistics
Standing at a height of five metres, measuring
over 13 metres in length and weighing over Tyrannosaurus Rex
nine tons, the T-Rex is considered to be one of
the most fearsome hunters ever. Height: 5 metres
Length: 13 metres
The body of the T-Rex was perfectly Weight: 9 tons
balanced, with a horizontal backbone Head size: 1.6 metres
positioned above the hips giving Interesting fact: The
completely equal weight distribution. The Tyrannosaurus Rex could
head was also colossal, measuring 1.6 consume 230kg of meat in a
metres long and far bulkier than any other single bite
theropod, containing 58 serrated teeth and Fear factor: 10/10
large forward-facing eye sockets giving it
acute binocular vision. From fossilised
remains of Tyrannosaurus faeces,
palaeontologists have discovered that the
T-Rex crushed bones of the prey it consumed.
The T-Rex was prolific over the entire western
North America.

Matter of Quite a bite
balance
The T-Rex had 58 serrated,
The massive skull of banana-shaped teeth
the T-Rex was
balanced by a thick,
heavy tail

165

Prehistoric

Biggest ever land mammal

Biggest ever The problems with
land mammal bone identification
Find out how this prehistoric mega-
mammal – eight times the size of a The first Paraceratherium fossil bones were
modern-day rhinoceros – used to live found in 1911 by the palaeontologist Clive Forster
Cooper. Two years later, he found more bones he
Imagine a beast taller than a giraffe mountains. As the climate changed, the dense took to be from a related genus and named the
and heavier than two elephants. tropical forests were replaced with more open animal Baluchitherium because the fossils were
Paraceratherium was the dinosaur of landscapes containing a mixture of trees and found in Baluchistan, in what is now Pakistan. In
its day. It filled the same ecological niche as the grass. These made it harder for medium-sized 1915, Aleksei Borissiak found a third set of bones
huge sauropod dinosaurs, like Diplodocus, that animals to hide from predators, so natural and named the animal Indricotherium, after the
lived 120 million years earlier, roaming through selection favoured ever-larger individuals able Indrik, a monster from Russian folklore.
lightly forested plains and eating the leaves of to fend off attacks. Along with competition None of these fossil finds were anything like a
trees, which it stripped off the branches with its between males for breeding rights, this drove full skeleton, and it can be very hard to decide
front teeth. Unlike the dinosaurs, the evolution of heavier grazing animals. The whether you have found a completely new
Paraceratherium didn’t have a long tail to culmination of this was the Paraceratherium, animal or just a larger example of an existing
counterbalance the weight of its neck and head. which weighed a whopping 20 tons. one based on a single neck vertebra. The
Instead, it had much more powerful neck scientific consensus is now that all three sets of
muscles, anchored to tall extensions at the top The largest predators at the time were a kind fossils belong to the same genus, which is called
of its spine. This brought its centre of gravity of marsupial hyena, no more than two metres Paraceratherium, because this was the first one
much farther forward, onto the front legs, (6.6 feet) long. An adult Paraceratherium was far to be described scientifically. To date, five
resulting in a much stockier shape overall. too large to be troubled by these animals. species of Paraceratherium have been identified.
Paraceratherium lived during the Oligocene Instead, they may have been eventually driven
epoch, around 30 million years ago. The climate extinct by the rise of early elephant species. Size matters
cooled suddenly during this period; Antarctica These would have knocked down the trees
developed its ice cap for the first time and the Paraceratherium relied on for food. As the How would the Paraceratherium have
Alps began to push upwards to form grasslands expanded, Paraceratherium was measured up against a person?
replaced by smaller grazing mammals.
9m

5.5m

Horn

All modern rhinos have horns for
defence, but Paraceratherium
was too big to need one.

In a galaxy far, The design for the AT-ATs
far away… in Star Wars is based on
the Paraceratherium
When Phil Tippett was
designing the special effects for
Star Wars Episode V: The Empire
Strikes Back, he needed a
reference model for the giant
mechanical AT-AT walkers that
assault the rebel base on Hoth.
Initially, his team studied
elephants to animate the leg
movements, but the final design
is much taller and more
menacing. That’s because they
are based on the
Paraceratherium. The AT-ATs
portrayed in the film are three
times as tall as the prehistoric
mammal, but the lumbering
gait and joint articulation is
probably very close to the way
the real Paraceratherium would
have moved around.

166

5TOP Toxodon Diprotodon Megatherium Deinotherium Woolly mammoth
FACTS
1 This 1.5-ton hoofed animal 2 The ‘hippopotamus wombat’ 3 This ground sloth weighed 4 Although they aren’t closely 5 At 3.4m (11.2ft) tall and
MEGAFAUNA looked like a hornless was the largest marsupial about four tons. It only went related, Deinotherium looked weighing six tons, these
rhinoceros, but had much ever. 3m (9.8ft) long and extinct 10,000 years ago like an overgrown elephant, ice age relatives of the
larger front legs than hind legs. weighing 2.8 tons, its fossils and, at the time, only the but with larger front legs and elephant had tusks up to
Herds of them roamed South may have inspired Aboriginal Columbian and woolly tusks pointing down. It lived 4.2m (13.8ft) long that could
America 20,000 years ago. legends of the ‘bunyip’. mammoths were larger. about 7 million years ago. weigh over 90kg (200lb).

DID YOU KNOW? Paraceratherium was bigger than Diplodocus; although the dino was longer, Paraceratherium was bulkier

Anatomy of a mega-mammal Mystery ears

Paraceratherium may be related to the modern rhino, but there are Soft ears don’t fossilise, but it’s possible
some sizable differences, as we highlight here… that Paraceratherium had large flapping
ears to keep cool like today’s elephants.
Long neck

A 3m (9.9ft)-long neck
brought even the topmost
branches within reach.

Shoulder hump

Extra tall vertebrae provided
attachment points for the huge
muscles supporting the neck.

Stumpy tail

Unlike the long-necked
dinosaurs, Paraceratherium
didn’t have a long tail to
counterbalance its heavy
head and neck.

Teeth

Paraceratherium had huge
incisors to strip leaves
from trees. Modern rhinos
don’t have front teeth
because they only eat
grass and plants.

Prehensile upper lip

Unlike the elephant’s trunk,
this could only be used for
eating, not sucking up water.

Pillar legs Odd toes

Most animals keep their Paraceratherium had
legs slightly bent, but three toes on each foot,
Paraceratherium had like a rhino. Elephants
straight legs to support have five toes.
its massive weight.
The statistics…
Paraceratherium © Alamy

Lived: ~30 million years ago
Lifespan: 80 years
Height at shoulder: 5.5m (18ft)
Could reach up to: 8m (26ft)
Length: 9m (30ft)
Weight: 20 tons

167

Prehistoric

Velociraptors debunked

“Velociraptor hunting
techniques revolved
largely around their

speed and agility”

Velociraptors

One of the most deadly dinosaurs, the velociraptor was
an adept predator and scavenger, but not quite the
creature Hollywood would have us believe…

Velociraptors have been ingrained in (notably Mongolia), where they built large, ground- ‘killing claw’). These traits were partnered with a
public consciousness since the 1993 based nests to protect their young. tendency to ambush prey, rather than tackle their
movie Jurassic Park showcased them as victims face on or from long range (see the ‘Slash or
the most fearsome of apex predators. Velociraptors, though often living in close subdue?’ boxout for more).
Smart, lethal and bloodthirsty, the velociraptors of proximity to one another, were largely solitary and,
the film arguably stole the show. However, the movie while certain finds suggest they could have teamed Interestingly, however, while there’s no doubt that
was famed for its indulgence of artistic licence, with up while chasing their quarry, they were not pack velociraptors hunted live prey, unearthed fossilised
palaeontologists bemoaning the lack of historical hunters, with evidence showing they would fight evidence suggests they were also incredibly active
accuracy throughout the movie. among themselves for feeding rights. In addition, scavengers, with the species frequently feeding on
So what were these dinosaurs really like? their staple diet consisted of animals of equal size carrion (pterosaur bones have been found in
Velociraptor, of which there are two verified species and weight to themselves or those smaller than velociraptor guts, for instance) and carcasses left over
– V mongoliensis and V osmolskae, was a genus of them, with very little evidence suggesting they by other predators.
dromaeosaurid (‘running lizard’) theropod dinosaur would attempt to bring down larger dinosaurs, such
that lived in the Late Cretaceous period, about 75-71 as the Tyrannosaurus rex à la Jurassic Park. Velociraptors died out along with the remaining
million years ago. They were two metres (6.6 feet) species of dromaeosauridae in the run up to, and as a
long, just under a metre (three feet) high, feathered Velociraptor hunting techniques revolved largely result of, the Cretaceous-Tertiary mass-extinction
and bipedal, running on two of their three toes per around their speed and agility. They could accelerate event that occurred approximately 65.5 million years
foot. They were native to modern-day central Asia up to 64 kilometres (40 miles) per hour and pounce ago. Despite this, elements of their anatomy and
long distances, as well as grip prey firmly with their appearance can still be seen today – albeit in heavily
unique, sickle-shaped claws (notably their enlarged evolved forms – in many species of bird.

168

F5ATCOTPS Feathered fiend Size matters Pack hunters American citizens ‘Philosoraptor’

VELOCIRAPTOR 1 Contrary to popular depictions 2 Another falsehood perpetuated 3 Velociraptors didn’t tend to hunt 4 Another myth perpetuated by 5 Unlike the super-intelligent
MYTHS of velociraptors in films such by Hollywood movies is the size in packs. Evidence suggests the Jurassic Park franchise is velociraptors depicted in
as Jurassic Park, they would of velociraptors. Far from being various individuals did chase that velociraptors lived in what Jurassic Park – eg opening
have in fact been covered in over three metres (9.9 feet) prey at the same time, but is now the Americas. In fact, closed doors with their claws –
feathers, a trait that’s been long, they were much closer to would then squabble among remains have only ever been they were likely only as smart
passed down to today’s birds. two metres (6.6 feet). each other for ‘first dibs’. discovered in central Asia. as a primitive opossum.

DID YOU KNOW? Modern-day hawks and eagles attack their prey in a similar way to velociraptors

The statistics… Slash or subdue? A fossilised claw from a velociraptor. Recent
evidence has emerged that has challenged the
Velociraptor Did velociraptors use their sickle- idea that this was used as a slashing weapon
shaped claws to disembowel
Group: Theropod prey or for some other purpose?
Family: Dromaeosauridae
Length: 2m (6.6ft) The majority of non-avian theropod dinosaurs are
Height: 0.8m (2.5ft) characterised by razor-sharp serrated teeth and talon-like
Weight: 113kg (200lb) recurved claws, the velociraptor being no exception.
Location: Asia, eg Mongolia Armed with a bounty of claws on both its hands and feet,
Period: Late Cretaceous the velociraptor at first glance seems to be the perfect
killing machine, capable of rapidly chasing down prey
This is an accurate representation of a before shredding their flesh with one of their knife-like
velociraptor, being covered in feathers tools. Well, that was at least the commonly accepted
and attacking prey smaller than itself theory among palaeontologists until late in 2011, before a
new study by a team of international dinosaur experts
suggested an entirely different use for them.

The study suggested that far from their claws –
specifically the velociraptor’s much-touted ‘killing claws’
– being used to shred and slice prey in order to kill them
prior to consumption, they were far more likely to be used
in a similar way to the talons of modern-day hawks and
eagles. This entails the birds using their talons as a
gripping tool, snaring prey of a lesser body size, pinning
them down with their own body weight and then often
consuming them live with their beaks.

This theory is seemingly backed up by the velociraptor’s
feet showing morphology consistent with a grasping
function, supporting a prey immobilisation model rather
than the originally assumed combative one.

Spine Tail Anatomy of a velociraptor

The velociraptor’s spine was Long bony projections under the What physiological features made
S-shaped and very flexible, allowing vertebrae, in partnership with this dinosaur a natural-born killer?
it to shift position and direction with ossified (semi-bone) tendons,
great agility. It also enabled it to
jump to a great height, so it could granted the velociraptor a stiffened
pounce on targets from afar. tail structure. This helped it to

keep balance and turn at speed.

Legs Claws Teeth © SPL; Ben Townsend; Matt Martyniuk

Velociraptors were bipedal dinosaurs An 8.9cm (3.5in), sickle-shaped claw was The velociraptor’s jaw was lined with 28
and ran on only their left and right foot located on the second toe of each foot. widely spaced teeth on each side, with
claws. Their legs were slender but with These, as well as its other claws, were each one strongly serrated on the back
very elastic muscles, granting them used to grip on to animals and gain
speeds of up to 64km/h (40mph). edge far more than the front – a trait that
purchase on the ground when running. helped it clamp on to prey once caught.

169

Prehistoric

Brontosaurus

Head Torso Ribs

Apatosaurus had a deep, A colossal torso that weighed many Apatosaurus possessed
slender skull filled with tons was standard containing similarly incredibly long, robust ribs
long peg-like teeth. These huge organs, including a 500-litre, compared to most other
broad, rounded teeth were four-chambered heart and two diplodocids, granting it an
excellent at stripping off 900-litre capacity lungs. unusually deep chest cavity.
leaves from branches.

Neck

As with other sauropods,
the Apatosaurus’s neck
vertebrae were deeply
bifurcated, carrying paired
spines. The neck was also
filled with many weight-
saving air sacs.

Meet the real
Brontosaurus

One of the largest animals to ever exist on Earth, the
Apatosaurus towered metres over its Jurassic rivals

Around four times heavier than an colossal bulk. However, recent evidence has Apatosaurus vs human
African elephant, five times longer demonstrated that through a combination of
than your car and almost six times the massive limb bones and a series of weight- How would this enormous dinosaur have
height of a full-grown human, Apatosaurus was reducing internal air sacs located throughout sized up to a person?
one of the largest dinosaurs of the Jurassic era the neck and spine, Apatosaurus’s home was,
and one of most gigantic to ever walk the Earth. in fact, entirely land-based, only spending 23m
As is typical with large dinosaurs of this time at water sources to drink.
period, Apatosaurus (once mistakenly known 9m
as Brontosaurus) was a herbivore, consuming Speaking of drinking, the Apatosaurus
vast quantities of foliage and grasses over the required gallons of water per day to remain
lands that now form modern-day North healthy, while it also needed to process vast
America. Interestingly, despite its size, its name amounts of food, spending a large proportion of
is derived from the Greek ‘apate’ and ‘saurus’, each day grazing. It did this with few predators,
which translate as ‘deception lizard’ – a name as only the largest carnivorous dinosaurs had
bestowed by its original discoverer, American any chance of bringing down an Apatosaurus,
palaeontologist Othniel Charles Marsh. largely thanks to its size. It also had a deadly
Prior to the 1970s, Apatosaurus, along with weapon in its tail, which was capable of being
many other sauropods, were considered largely swung at great velocity at any foes.
aquatic creatures that relied on being partially
submerged in swamps and lakes to remain Despite its defensive prowess, however, the
stable – a view seemingly confirmed by their Apatosaurus could not battle off extinction,
with it falling to a medium-sized extinction
event around 150 million years ago.

170

9m 30,000kg 154-150THE MYA
STATS
23m Up to 100yrs 1877APATOSAURUS
HEIGHT WEIGHT TIMEFRAME
LENGTH LIFE DISCOVERED
EXPECTANCY

DID YOU KNOW? Apatosaurus skeleton fragments have been found in Wyoming, Colorado, Oklahoma and Utah

Spine

The spine of Apatosaurus was interesting in its
difference to other sauropods, possessing incredibly
tall spines that made up half its total height.

Tail

Apatosaurus had a long and
slender tail that resembled a
whip. Scientists have
postulated that a whip of its tail
would produce a crack noise in
excess of 200 decibels.

Legs It is thought that
Apatosaurus evolved its
The limb bones of Apatosaurus were long tail to counterbalance
incredibly sturdy and strong, capable of its equally long neck
supporting its huge mass. It had a single claw
on each forelimb and three on each hindlimb.

The bone wars A photograph of Othniel Stamp scandal
Marsh taken between
During the beginning of the golden age 1865 and 1880 In 1989, the US Post Office decided to release a
of modern palaeontology, two special edition set of four stamps depicting
prominent American palaeontologists, famous dinosaurs. These included a © Corbis; Alamy
Edward Cope and Othniel Marsh, had a Tyrannosaurus, Stegosaurus, Pteranodon and,
falling out over excavated dinosaur interestingly, a Brontosaurus.
remains, with the men then proceeding
to attempt to beat each other to The latter was included despite the fact that, as
unearth and describe new species of noted in ‘The bone wars’ boxout, the name
dinosaur. In this rush to become the ‘Brontosaurus’ had been made officially
foremost palaeontogist of the age, redundant in the early-20th century.
Marsh described first in 1877 and then
later in 1879 two supposedly separate The fallout from this was massive, with many
species of dinosaur. He named the first palaeontologists and dinosaur enthusiasts
one Apatosaurus and called the second accusing the US Post Office of promoting
one Brontosaurus. ‘scientific illiteracy’ and re-opened a bone
war-style feud between others. Indeed, even the
Following this, the name of celebrated palaeontologist Stephen Jay Gould got
Brontosaurus became world famous, involved, writing a famous defence of the
with a complete skeleton mounted and Brontosaurus name in his Natural History
displayed in the Peabody Museum, magazine piece ‘Bully for Brontosaurus’.
Yale, under the Marsh title in 1905.
However, Marsh in his haste had made 171
a terrible mistake. The Brontosaurus
was actually just a fully-grown
Apatosaurus and, since the
Apatosaurus had been described first
in 1877, its name took precedent, with
‘Brontosaurus’ made officially
redundant in the early-20th century.
Interestingly, however, as the
Brontosaurus name had become firmly
fixed in the public consciousness, it
remained far more popular and is still in
use to this day to the chagrin of many
dinosaur experts.

Prehistoric

Ankylosaurus

Ankylosaurus Club members only
A club-wielding brute of a creature, this
tough dino had the power to break bones The well-known tail club of the Ankylosaurus
was one of the most lethal weapons sported by
Ankylosaurus was one of the largest devouring vegetation whole with little any dinosaur. The club was made from several
ankylosaurs, a genus of armoured shredding or chewing. Indeed, studies have large bone plates called osteoderms that were
dinosaurs that lived throughout North indicated that the skull and jaw of the fused into the last few vertebrae of the animal’s
America between 75 and 65.5 million years ago. Ankylosaurus were structurally tougher than tail. Behind these vertebrae several others lined
Famous for both its brutal tail-mounted club many similar, contemporary dinosaurs. with thick, partially ossified tendons completed
and its immense bone plate armour, the the club’s handle, resulting in a structure that,
Ankylosaurus was a defensive titan, capable of In fact, evidence suggests that Ankylosaurus when swung, was capable of dealing out a lot of
fending off rivals many times its size. – and ankylosaurs in general – were adept damage. Indeed, a study in 2009 suggested that
Ankylosaurus’s focus on defence was born survivors. But despite their impressive armour, the tail clubs of fully grown ankylosaurs could
out of its herbivorous nature, with its entire weaponry and sustainable diet, they could not easily crush and break bone with a force capable
body geared towards the consumption of cope with the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction of caving in an assailant’s skull. Whether or not
foliage. From its low-slung body, rows of event that wiped out all terrestrial dinosaurs the animal purposely aimed the club to cause
leaf-shaped cropping teeth, short front legs, approximately 65.5 million years ago. Only a damage remains unclear at this point.
wide feet and cavernous stomach, the few fossils of this prehistoric herbivore have
Ankylosaurus was the consummate browser, been excavated to date – most coming from the As well as a weapon,
Hell Creek Formation in Montana, USA. the tail might also

have played a role in
sexual selection

Ankylosaurus anatomy Osteoderm

Get to know the key biology of this tank-like dino Covering much of the body
Ankylosaurus sported a series of
bony plates called osteoderms
embedded in the skin.

Head Neck

The Ankylosaurus’s head The dinosaur’s head sat at
was square, flat and the end of a very short and
broader than it was long. stocky neck. This helped
The jaws featured curved support its bulky head and
rows of irregularly edged, also acted as a bracing
leaf-shaped teeth for mechanism when charging.
tearing vegetation.

Front leg Stomach Body

Powerful but short legs The only part of the dinosaur The bulk of the near-six ton
supported the front half of the that was unarmoured, the beast was contained
animal. The wide foot area of underbelly hung low to the within its low-slung body.
these forelegs granted good ground. Predators would try This was covered with
traction and stability. to tip ankylosaurs over to armoured bone plating
access this weak point. and topped with spines.
172

THE 2.5mHEIGHT 10mLENGTH LIVED 75-65.5 MYA
STATS
WIDTH 1.8m WEIGHT 4,000-7,000kg 1906FIRST FOSSIL
ANKYLOSAURUS
FOUND

DID YOU KNOW? Interestingly the earliest specimens of ankylosaurs we have found did not possess a tail club

Thou shall Ankylosaurus was tough enough to
not pass! go up against the most fearsome
dinosaurs and come out on top
The impressive, almost
bulletproof armour of the
Ankylosaurus was not magic but
rather a series of interlocking
bone plates called osteoderms.
These bone plates, which were
locked into the skin, were bone
overlaid with a tough layer of
keratin. The plates were located
over most of the body, but were
not uniform in shape nor size, with
some resembling flat diamonds –
as seen on crocodiles and
armadillos today – and others
appearing like circular nodules.
The addition of these plates on
top of the Ankylosaurus’s head,
along with a set of pyramidal
horns to its rear and a row of
triangular spikes mounted to each
side of the tail club meant that
attacking this creature – even if
you were an apex predator like the
T-rex – was not a good idea.

Spine Club

At key areas Ankylosaurus The characteristic tail club
also sported bony spines for of Ankylosaurus was made
extra protection or – in the from numerous osteoderms,
case of those mounted to the each fused to the last few
side of the tail club – greater vertebrae of the tail.
offensive capabilities.

Tail Ankylosaurus vs human

A medium-sized tail – also How would this dino have sized up to a person?
armoured with bone
plates – helped balance 10m
the weighty Ankylosaurus
and provided the power to 2.5m
cause maximum damage
with its club.

Rear leg © Alamy; Getty

Equally powerful – if not
more so – but longer than
the Ankylosaurus’s forelegs,
the rear legs reached up to
about 1.7m (5.6ft) at the hip.

173

Prehistoric

Sabre-toothed cats

Sabre-
toothed cats

How the biggest of the big cats lived
and died on the American plains

It’s a common misnomer, but the out around 500,000 BCE having been usurped us (or perhaps for Smilodon populator), this
sabre-toothed tiger never existed. by its descendant, the significantly larger sabre-toothed cat was around long enough to
What most people think of when Smilodon fatalis, an animal weighing in at see Homo sapiens appear on the scene.
someone mentions a sabre-tooth is Smilodon, a 160-280 kilograms (350-620 pounds) – about the
very successful cat of which there were three to same as today’s Siberian tiger. But its close Smilodon populator was a similarly social
five different species. Although believed to relative Smilodon populator is the biggest big carnivore to African lions and hunted in small
have originated in Africa and Eurasia, these cat on record, a whopping 220-360 kilograms, groups, but its muscular build and limb length
felines lasted the longest in the Americas, right 1.4 metres (4.6 feet) at the shoulder and up to 2.6 meant that it ambushed prey rather than
up to the end of the last ice age 10,000 years ago. metres (8.5 feet) long, with its characteristic chasing it down. It preferred the large
Smilodon gracilis was a relatively small feline upper canines reaching an eye-watering 30 mammals of the time that were common to the
weighing about the same as a human. It died centimetres (12 inches)! And unfortunately for Americas: juvenile mammoths and mastodons,
American camels, ground sloths and

174

KEY 35 MYA 32 MYA 17 MYA 5 MYA 2.5 MYA
DATES
Nimravus was an ambush cat A relative to Nimravus, There were two species of Homotherium, aka the It seems fitting that the
BIG CAT DIARY that weighed around 30kg Dinictis (right) was an Prosansanosmilus, which scimitar cat (left), was biggest sabre-tooth, Smilodon
arboreal feline that looked prowled a warmer Europe found all over Europe, populator, was the last on the
(66lb). It had a similar evolution similar to a leopard. for about a million years. Asia and the Americas. scene and the last to die out.
but wasn’t a true sabre-tooth.

DID YOU KNOW? The name Smilodon is derived from the Greek for chisel- or knife-tooth

Sabre-tooth skeleton Broad shoulders Bob tail

Explore one of these ancient feline Smilodon populator had Sabre-tooths had a tail,
predators from the inside out especially powerful but it was stubby and
more like a bobcat’s
Thick neck forelimbs, built more like than a modern lion’s.
today’s hyena, perfect for
The powerful neck was wrestling with large prey.
used to help sink its teeth

deep into its victims.

Fragile fangs Small rear limbs

The length of Smilodon’s Smilodon’s relatively
fangs meant they were smaller and weaker limbs
prone to breaking. made them less capable of
Fortunately, they had two
and even if an individual hunting agile prey. It’s
broke both, they would still partly why they died out
be useful in a pack hunt. soon after the slower giant
herbivores went extinct.
Weak jaws

Smilodon had weaker jaws
than today’s big cats, but
they could open twice as
wide to accommodate
those huge canines.

Smilodon dominated the Pleistocene Palaeontologists have Why did cats
landscape of North and South America assembled hundreds of evolve sabre teeth?
prehistoric animals from
as the apex predator. It was the the bones found at La Brea Sabre teeth are a great example of convergent
biggest cat ever to roam the planet evolution: many species evolved this same trait
Big cat boneyard independently around this time. So what was
macrauchenia (extinct llama-like mammal). the benefit of these deadly weapons? The apex
Several Smilodon would use their combined The Page Museum, Los Angeles, is located on a predators of this era were equipped with
body weight to drag prey down and subdue site of great palaeontological significance. It’s disproportionately huge fangs because, as
them, before using their sharp teeth like home to La Brea Tar Pits, an ancient death-trap simple as it sounds, the animals they hunted
daggers to inflict mortal wounds to the neck. for megafauna that roamed the area 10,000- were much bigger. Modern big cats like the
40,000 years ago. Here, subterranean bitumen African lion throttle their prey by crushing the
It’s likely that Smilodon populator preyed on leaked to the surface creating a gloopy bog of windpipe – a fine tactic to finish a dainty
early humans on occasion, but it’s just as likely tar. Mammals like the mastodon (an elephant gazelle, but if you’re attacking beasts
that the success of Homo sapiens, and our ancestor) and other giant herbivores stumbled significantly beyond your weight category – like
competition for the megafauna they hunted, into the morass and drowned. Predators such as the woolly mammoth – hanging onto their
ultimately sounded the major death knell for Smilodon were attracted by the alarm calls of throat until they suffocated wasn’t an option.
this legendary feline species. struggling prey and converged on what seemed Smilodon used their dagger-like canines like an
to be an easy meal, only to become trapped assassin, surprising its intended meal by
themselves. The asphalt from the tar pit was stabbing at the throat or ripping its soft belly,
being used by settlers 300 years ago, but it then retreating and allowing the victim to
wasn’t until 1875 that William Denton discovered weaken before moving in for the kill.
La Brea’s scientific importance. Since
excavations started in 1913, over 3.5 million © Getty; Page Museum
fossils have been found here, including 2,500
sabre-toothed cats.

175

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