The Design of Everyday Things

Airplane accidents, 164–166, 172, Baby locks, 144
178–179, 186–187, 188–189, Battery design, 125–127
314 Baum, L. Frank, 227
Beeps, 156
Air-traffic control instructions, Be-goals, 233
pilots remembering, 105–107 Behavior

Alarm clocks, mode-error slips constraints forcing desired,
and, 178 141–145

Alert, sound signifier as, 160 data-driven, 43
“’Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves,” event-driven, 42, 43
goal-driven, 42–43, 44
86 knowledge-based, 179, 180
Altair 8800 computer, 274 knowledge in the head and in
Amazon.com, 264
Andon, 192 the world and, 75–85
Annoyance of sounds, 156, 160 rule-based, 179, 180
Anti-lock brakes, rule-based skill-based, 179, 180, 206–207
technology accommodating,
mistake in using, 182
Apple, 121, 233, 250, 270, 272, 289 68–71
Apple QuickTake camera, 272 Behavioral level of processing,
Arithmetic, mental, 103–104
Automation, 185, 213–214, 248–316 51–53
Automobiles design and, 54, 55
emotional responses and, 56
activity-centered design of, relation to visceral and reflective
231–232
stages, 54–55
application of constraints to, 202 stages of action and, 55–56
auditory and haptic modalities Bell, Alexander Graham, 270
Benz, Karl, 279
for warning systems, 95 Benz & Cie, 279
door handles, 133–134 Bezos, Jeff, 264
failure of first American, 274, Big data, 224–225
Biometric devices, 128
279–280 Blame, for error, 162, 163
incremental innovation in, falsely blaming self, 61, 65–71,

279–280 167
interlocks and, 142 misplaced, 61–62
limited life span of, 292 Boats, control of, 21–22
seat adjustment control, 22 Bookmarks, 16
standardization and, 248 Books, see e-books
starting, 141–142 Brainstorming, 226
technology and changes in, British Design Council, 220
British Psychological Society, 150
267–268 Brynjolfsson, Erik, 286–287
See also Driving Budgets, product development,
Aviation
deliberate violation example, 211 237, 240
interruptions and errors in, 200 Business strategy, lock-ins as,
NASA’s safety reporting system,
143–144
193–194
use of checklists in, 189–190, 191
See also Airplane

332 Index

Cabinet doors, lack of signifiers subconscious, 44–49, 51–52, 173,
on, 134 206–207

Calendar program, using variety of technology and enhanced
formats, 70–71 human, 285–288

Cameras visceral level, 50–51, 53–55
digital, 272, 274 Coins
merger with cell phones, 265
confusion created by new design
Cane, design of, 245 of, 79–82
Capture slips, 174, 208
Carelman, Jacques, 2 types of knowledge and use of,
Carpal tunnel syndrome, 278 74–75, 77, 79–80
Carver, Charles, 233
Catalogue d’objets introuvables Communication
conceptual models and, 31–32
(Carelman), 2 design and, 8–9, 73
Causal elements, reflective level of technological change and, 283

processing and, 53 Companies, conservatism of large,
Causes of events 269

causal relations, 59–65 Competition-driven design,
need to form explanations and, 259–264

57–59 Complexity, 4–8
Cell phones, 34, 200, 265, 280. See complicated vs., 247
using conceptual model to tame,
also Telephone 247–248
Celsius scale, conversion between
Conceptual models, 10, 25–37, 40,
Fahrenheit scale and, 72, 94, 96, 98, 121, 204, 298
101–102
Change, technology as cause of, communication and, 31–32
264–268, 282, 284–285 as story, 57–59
Checklists, 189–191 and Gulfs of Evaluation and
Chess-playing machine, 286–287
Child safety caps, 144 Execution, 39, 40
Chord keyboards, 279 mental models, 26, 31
Cisco, 273 providing meaning via, 99–100
Clocks, 249, 250 to tame complexity, 247–248
Clothing industry, yearly changes for thermostat, 57–59, 68–69
in fashion, 292 Confirmation messages, 203–205
“Coffeepot for Masochists,” 2 Conscious cognition, 48, 49, 51–52,
Cognition and emotion, 49–55
conscious, 48, 49, 51–52, 53, 53, 100–101
100–101 knowledge-based behavior and,
distributed, 287–288
integration of, 47, 48–55 184
behavioral level, 50, 51–55 mistakes and, 173
design and levels of, 53–55 subconscious vs., 40, 42, 44–56,
reflective level, 50, 53–55
stages of action and levels of 67, 310
processing, 55–56 Constraints, 10, 73

applied to everyday objects,
132–141

to bridge Gulf of Execution, 40
cultural (see Cultural constraints)
on design process, 240–247

Index 333

Constraints (Continued) destination-control elevators
desired behavior and, 76, and change in, 146–149
141–145
knowledge in the world and, faucet design and, 151–152
123, 124–125 mapping and, 151–152
logical, 124–125, 130 people’s responses to changes
memory and, 82–85
minimizing chance of in, 149–150
inappropriate actions using, perceived affordance and, 145
67, 202–203 Cultural norms
physical (see Physical confusion and lack of
constraints)
semantic, 124–125, 129–130 knowledge of, 134–135
signifiers and, 132–135 conventions and standards,

Consumer economy, 291–293 130–132
Controls Culture

activity-centered, 140–141 impact of technology on, 285
device-centered, 140 mappings and, 22–23, 118–122
incorporating safety or security pace of change of, 282
Customers
in, 256 observing would-be, 222–223,
mapping and design of, 21
segregating, 203 225–226
See also Switches quality and focus on, 264
Conventions, cultural. See Cultural See also Purchasers; Users
Cybermind, 112
conventions Cyborgs, 284
Cooperative problem-solving, 185
Cost Daily Mail (newspaper), 88
Daimler, 279
as design constraint, 6, 219, 230, Data-driven behavior, 43
240, 241, 242, 245, 260, 294 Data networks, 281–282
Dead man’s switch, 142–143
feedback design and, 23–25, 68 Decision gates, 234, 235
Countersteering, 102–103 Declarative knowledge, 78
Creativity, 49, 64 Declarative memory, 47, 97
Creeping featurism, 258, 261–264 Deliberate violations, 211
Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly, 55–56
Cultural constraints, 124–125, accidents and, 169–170
Dependence on technology,
128–129
on assembly of mechanical 285–287
Description, discrimination among
device, 85
behavior and, 76 choices and, 80–82
cultural conventions and, Description-similarity slips, 174,

130–132, 146 175
standardization as, 248 Design
Cultural conventions
behavior and, 76 activity-centered, 231–234
as cultural constraints, 130–132, areas of specialty in, 4–5, 9,110,

146 302, 308
behavioral level and, 54, 55
334 Index challenge of, 34–36, 239–247

checklist, 191 universal (inclusive), 243–247
choice of metaphor and, 120–122 visceral responses and, 51
coins, of, 79–82 in the years 1988–2038, 282–288
communication and, 8–9, 73 See also Human-centered design
competition-driven, 259–264
constraints as tools for, 85 (HCD)
correct requirements/ Design error, operator error vs., 6–8
Designers
specifications and, 229–230,
234–235 advice for, 64–65
double-diamond diverge- bridging Gulfs of Evaluation
converge model, 219, 220–221
as equalizing tool, 297 and Execution, 40
error and (see Error) clients/customers, 240–241
experience, 4–5, 9, 302, 307 conceptual model and, 31–32
faucet, 115–116, 150–155 engineers as, 6–8, 10
flexibility in, 246–247 The Design of Future Things
fundamental principles of,
71–73, 298. See also individual (Norman), 185
principles Design redundancy, 210
implications of short-term Design research
memory for, 94–95
inclusive design, 243–247 market research vs., 224–226
industrial, 4–5, 9, 302, 306 observation, 222–224
interaction, 4–5, 9, 306, 309 separating from product team,
interplay of technology and
psychology in, 6–8 238–239
knowledge in the world and the Design team, 35
head and, 76–77
legacy problem, 127, 266, 274 multidisciplinary, 34–36,
management of process, 34–35 238–239, 242–243
memory-lapse mistakes and,
185–186 needs of other groups in product
moral obligations of, 291–293 process, 241–242
multidisciplinary approach to,
34–36, 238–239, 242–243 Design thinking, 219, 293–298
problem identification and, double-diamond diverge-
217–220 converge model of design,
providing meaningful structure 219, 220–221
in, 100 See also Human-centered design
reflection and, 53–54 (HCD)
rule-based mistakes and,
182–183, 184 Destination-control elevators,
security and, 90–91, 255–257 146–149
success of, 293–294
superfluous features in, 291–293 Detection of error, 194–198
theory vs. practice in, 236–239 Development cycle, 260, 268–279
Device-centered controls, 140
Different (Moon), 262–263
Digital cameras, 272, 274
Digital picture frame, 272
Digital time, 252–254
Digital watch, 27–28, 33
Discoverability, 72, 298

affordances, 10–13, 19–20
conceptual models, 25–31
constraints, 10

Index 335

Discoverability (Continued) Early adopters, 271
design and, 3–4 Edison, Thomas, 270
feedback, 23–25 Electrical standards, 249
gesture-controlled devices and, e-Books (Electronic books), 16, 143,
115–116
mappings, 20–23 286, 288–290, 319
signifiers, 13–20 Electronic games, 282
Electronic reminders, 109
Discrimination, rules for, 80–82 Elevators, destination-control,
Displays, 68
146–149
description-similarity slips and, Emotion, xiii, xv, 5, 47–56, 293–295,
175
310
mapping and design, 21 behavioral level, 50–56
metaphor and interaction with, cognition and, 47–50, 53–55
positive and negative, 10, 38, 49,
120–122
smart, 121, 265–266 63–64
touch-sensitive, 21, 140, 268–269 reflective level, 50, 53–56
Distributed cognition, 287–288 visceral level, 50–51, 53–56
Do-goals, 233 Emotional Design (Norman), 49, 54
Doors Engineers
affordances and, 3,13–16, 18, 69,
as designers, 6–8, 10
132–135, 145 as users of design team output,
designing for security, 255
handles/hardware, 18, 133–134, 241–242
Environment, attributing failure/
145
panic bars, 60, 133 error to, 61–62, 63, 168
poor design of, 1–3 Environmental cue, as reminder, 109
signifiers and, 14–16, 18, 132–135 Epic poems, memory for, 82–85
sliding, 16 Error, 66–68, 162–216
Double-diamond diverge-converge
automation and, 213–214
model of design, 219, 220–221 checklist to reduce, 189–191
Drill, goal of buying, 43–44 classification as slips or
Driver’s safety device, 142–143
Driving mistakes, 170
defined, 170–171
cell phone use while, 200 deliberate violations and,
conventions of, 131–132
left-side vs. right-side, 122 169–170
as rule-based behavior, 181 design and, 162–163, 198–211,
stages of action in, 40–41
sterile periods during, 200–201 215–216
while drunk, 211 design to prevent or lessen cost
See also Automobiles
du Maurier, George, 270–271 of, 67–68, 198–210, 202–205
Durable goods, 291 detecting, 194–198
Duryea, 274, 280 reasons for, 163–169
Dvorak, August, 278 reporting, 191–194
Dvorak keyboard, 278 resilience engineering and,

336 Index 211–213
social and institutional pressures

and, 186–191
See also Mistakes; Slips

Error messages, 203–205 characteristics of effective, 23–24
Ethnography, 222–224 communicating progress, 60
Evaluation, 38–40, 216 faucet design and, 153
prioritizing, 25
action cycle and stages of, 40–44 reducing error and, 216
Event-driven behavior, 42, 43 Feedforward, 71–72, 216
Everyday practice, scientific theory Filing cabinet, Gulfs of Evaluation

vs., 104–105 and Execution and, 37–39
Execution, 38–40, 216 Financial institutions, mistake

action cycle and stages of, 40–44 outcomes, 198
feedforward information and, Financial transactions, sensibility

71–72 checks and, 206
Expectations Fingerworks, 269–270
Fire exit lockout, 144
behavioral cognition and, 52 Fire extinguisher pins, 144
emotions and, 52–53 Fischhoff, Baruch, 197
Experience design, 4–5, 9, 302, 307 “Five Whys” analysis, 165–169, 219
Experts Flexibility, designing to
design and, 6
Jidoka and, 192 accommodate, 246–247
slips and, 7, 173, 199 Flow state, 55–56
unconscious action and, 47, Forcing functions, 141–142, 143

100–101, 173, 180, 216 deliberate disabling of, 145
Eyewitness testimony, 97 interlocks, 142–143
lock-ins, 143–144
Fahrenheit scale, conversion lockouts, 144–145
between Celsius scale and, memory-lapse slips and,
101–102
176–177
Failure reducing error and, 216
attributing reason for, 61–62 Ford, Henry, 292
Foresight ≠ hindsight, 197, 315
“fail frequently, fail fast,” 229 Frames, 129
learned helplessness and, 62–63 Freud, Sigmund, 173
learning from, 64, 229 F-22 airplane accidents, 164–166
positive psychology and, 63–65
self-blame and, 65–71, 113, Games, 256
162–169 Gated product development

Farber, Sam, 244–245 methods, 234, 235
Faucet design, 115–116, 150–155 General Electric, 30
Featuritis, xvii, 258, 261–265 Generalizations, forming, 57
Federal Aviation Authority (FAA), Gestalt psychology, 12, 22
Gestural keyboards, 278
193–194, 200 Gesture-controlled faucets, soap
Federal Communications
dispensers and hand dryers,
Commission (FCC), 250, 251 115–116
Feedback, 10, 23–25, 298 Gibson, J. J., 12
Gibsonian psychology, 12
as aid in design, 71–72
behavioral states and, 52 Index 337
to bridge Gulf of Evaluation,

39, 40

Gimli Glider Air Canada 767 activity-centered design vs.,
accident, 172, 314 231–234

Global Positioning System (GPS), design thinking and, 219
214, 281 idea generation (ideation) in,

Goal 222, 226–227
be-goal, do-goal, and motor- incremental innovation and, 281
goal, 233 iteration, 229–230, 234–236
comparing outcome with, 41 iterative design vs. linear stages,
conscious vs. unconscious, 42
stages of execution, 41, 42–43 234–236
observation/design research
Goal-driven behavior, 42–43, 44
Goffman, Erving, 129 and, 222–226
Google, 90 in practice, 236–239
Gore, Al, 290 prototyping in, 222, 227–228
GPS. See Global Positioning System role of, 9–10
spiral method, 222. See also
(GPS)
Graphical user interface, 100 Iteration
Greetings, cultural conventions testing in, 222, 228–229
Human error, See Error
regarding, 130–131 Human-machine interaction, 6,
Gulf of Evaluation, 38–40, 216
Gulf of Execution, 38–40, 216 185, 215
Hutchins, Edwin, 287
Hand dryers, gesture-controlled, HyperCard, 289
115–116
Idea generation (ideation), 222,
Handed-up technology, 297 226–227
Haptics, 95
Hassenzahl, Marc, 233 Identity theft, 90
HCD. See Human-centered design IDEO, 64, 229, 303, 307
“fail frequently, fail fast,” 229
(HCD) “if only” statements, accidents and,
Hersman, Deborah, 210
High-definition television (HDTV), 209
Iliad (Homer), 84
250–252, 272 Implanted devices, 284
Highway signs, misinterpreting, Implicit knowledge, 236
Inclusive design, 243–247
196–197 Incremental innovation, 279–281
Hill climbing, 281 Individual
Hindsight,
as focus of design, 231, 233
explanations given in, 183, technology and empowerment
197–198, 315
of, 295–297
foresight ≠ to, 197, 315 Industrial design, 4–5, 9
Hollnagel, Erik, 212 Industrial Design Society of
Homer’s Odyssey and Iliad, 84
Household appliances, 240–241, America (IDSA), 5
Industrial settings, natural
292
Human-centered design (HCD), mapping and, 117
Information pickup, 12
8–10, 137, 219–220, 221–236

338 Index

Innovation, xvii, 43, 374, 279–282, Knowledge-based behavior, 179,
397, 317 180

radical and incremental, Knowledge-based mistakes,
279–282, 319 171–172, 184–185

Inside-out display, 121–122 Knowledge in the head, 74–75,
InstaLoad battery contacts 105–109, 123

(Microsoft), 126, 127, 313 behavior and, 75–77, 79–85
Institutional pressure, accidents memory as, 86–91
in multiple heads, multiple
and, 186–191
Instruction manuals, see manuals devices, 111–113
Interaction, principles of, xii–319 prospective memory and,
Interlocks, 142–143
Interpret, in action cycle, 41 107–109
Interruptions, as source of error, remembering air-traffic control

163, 176, 199–200 instructions and, 105–107
iPod, 233 tradeoff with knowledge in the
Iteration in design, 222, 229–230,
world, 109–111
234–236. See also Repetitive Knowledge in the world, 74–75,
cycles
77–79, 123
Jidoka, 192 behavior and, 75–79
Joysticks, 21 Lego motorcycle construction
Junghans Mega 1000 digital watch,
and, 123–125
27–28 operating technology and, 216
tradeoff with knowledge in the
KAIST, wall at, 18
Kasparov, Gary, 287 head, 109–111
Kelly, David, 229 See also Constraints
Key Kuhn Rikon, 244

automobile, 141–142 Law, cultural convention codified
physical constraints and design into, 131

of, 127–128 “Law of Product Development,”
Keyboard, evolution of, 264–267, xvii, 237–239, 261

274–279, 318–319. See also Learned helplessness, 62–63
QWERTY Learned skills, 51–53
Key logger, 91 Learning
Kiss nightclub fire, 181
Kitchen organization, 247 changes in convention and new,
KLM Boeing 747 crash, 186–187 149–150
Knobs, 13, 177
Knowledge conscious thinking and, 45–46,
arbitrary, 98–100 100–101
declarative, 78
procedural, 78–79 failure and, 64
retrieval of, 97–98 knowledge in the environment

and, 78
rote, 98
Legacy problem, 127, 266, 274
Lego motorcycle, 123–125, 129, 130,

262, 263

Index 339

Leveson, Nancy, 212 Market research, design research
Levitt, Theodore, 43–44 vs., 224–226
Life cycle, product, 294
Light, stages of turning on, 40, 42 McAfee, Andrew, 287
Light controls, activity-centered, Meaning, semantic constraints and,

140–141 129–130
Light, as feedback, 23–24 Meaningful things, memory for,
Light switches, mapping and,
98–100
20–21, 135–140 Medicine
Linear stages of design, 234–236
Living with Complexity (Norman), checklists in, 190–191
electronic records, 95
14, 247 errors in, 198, 200, 206
Lizard brain, 50–51 interruptions in, 200
Location-based reminders, 109 safety reporting system, 194
Lock-ins, 143–144 Memory
Lockouts, 144–145 acoustical, 94
Locks, physical constraints and approximate methods and,

design of, 127–128 100–105
Logical constraints, 124–125, 130 for arbitrary things, 98–100
Long-term memory (LTM), 47, 95–98 constraints and, 82–85
Lord, Albert Bates, 83–84 declarative, 47, 97
distortions/falsification in, 96
Machine-people interaction, 68, knowledge in the head and,
185, 215
86–91, 105–109
Machine-readable codes, 207 long-term, 47, 95–98
Machines, characteristics of, 5–6 for meaningful things, 98–100
Management, role in design, 34–35 in multiple heads, multiple
Management review, 234, 235
Manuals, 3–4, 26, 27, 29, 180, 185, devices, 111–113
procedural, 47, 96–97
294 prospective, 107–109
system image and, 31 reflective, 53–54
Manufacturing, product success retrieval, 45–47
short-term (working), 92–95
and, 294 structure of, 91–105
Mapping, 10, 20–23, 72, 298 transactive, 111–112
use of mnemonics, 88, 93–94, 99
bridging Gulf of Execution and, See also Knowledge in the head
40 Memory-lapse mistakes, 171, 172,

culture and, 118–122 185–186, 195, 199–200
faucet design and, 151, 154 Memory-lapse slips, 171, 173,
levels of, 115
minimizing chance of 176–177, 195, 199–200
Mental arithmetic, 103–104
inappropriate actions using, 67 Mental models, 26, 31. Conceptual
natural (see Natural mapping)
Market analytics, 224–225 models
Marketing Mercedes-Benz, 22, 279
effect on design, 277–278 Metaphor, design and choice of,
product success and, 294
120–122
340 Index

Metric measurement, 149, 253, Multitouch displays, 269, 270
254 Music, technological change and, 283

accidents resulting from Names
conversion, 172, 314 identifying people by, 89–90
memory for, 98
Microsoft
flexible date and time formats, Narrative, conceptual models as
70–71 form of, 57–59
InstaLoad battery contacts, 126,
127, 313 National Academy of Engineering,
286
Microwave ovens, interlocks and,
142 National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA),
Mistakes, 170–173 193–194
classification of, 179–186
confirmation messages and, National Highway and Traffic
204–205 Safety Administration
detecting, 194, 195 (NHTSA), 157, 159–160
explaining away, 195–196
knowledge-based, 171–172, National Institute of Health (NIH),
184–185 278
memory-lapse, 171, 172,
185–186, 195 National Transportation Safety
rule-based, 171, 180–184 Board (NTSB), 135, 188–189,
See also Error; Slips 198, 210

Mitsubishi, 269 Natural mapping, 22, 113–118. See
Mnemonics, 88, 93–94, 99 also Mapping
Mode error slips, 174, 177–179,
culture and, 118–122
207 gesture-controlled devices and,
Models
115–116
approximate, 100–105 in industrial settings, 117
See also Conceptual models as knowledge in the world, 79
Modes, 177–178 light switches and, 137–140
Moon, Youngme, 262–263 reducing error and, 216
Moral obligations of design, spatial cues and, 115
stove controls and, 113–115,
291–293
Motorcycle 116–117, 118
tradeoffs, 117–118
Lego, 123–125, 129, 130, 262, Negative emotional state, 49
263 Nest thermostat, 68–69
Nickerson, Ray, 74
steering system, 102–103 Nielsen, Jakob, 229
turn signal switch, 99–100 Nielsen Norman group, 303, 317
Motor-goal, 233 Nissan, 158
Motor system, visceral response Nonstandard clock, 249, 250
Norman, Don 92
and, 50–51 “Norman doors,” 1–3
Multidisciplinary approach to Norman’s law of product

design, 34–36, 238–239, development, xvii, 237–239,
242–243 261, 309 310
Multitasking, error and, 200
Index 341

Norms, cultural, 130–132 Planned obsolescence, 291–292
Novices, mistakes and, 173, 199 Plato, 286
NTSB. See National Transportation Poetry, constraints of, 82–85
Poka-yoke, 193
Safety Board (NTSB) Porsche, 158
Nuclear power plant accident, 7, Positive psychology, 63–65
Precision, knowledge and, 76,
201
79–82
Observation, in human-centered Predictive typing, 266
design, 222–226 Price, design and competition/

Odyssey (Homer), 84 focus on, 241, 259, 260, 264
Office copiers, design constraint Problem identification in design,

for, 241 217–220
Our Choice (Gore), 290 double-diamond diverge-
Outside-in display, 121, 122
Overlearning, 45–46 converge model of design
OXO, 244–245 and, 220–221
See also Human-centered design
Paller, Ken, 96 (HCD)
Palo Alto Research Center (PARC), Problem solving, reflective, 46–47
Procedural knowledge, 78–79
227, 317 Procedural memory, 47, 96–97
Panic bars, 60, 133 Product development
Paris Métro doors, 134–135 competitive forces in, 259–264
Passwords, remembering, 86–89, cycle of, 268–279
Don Norman’s law of, 237–239
91, 312 managing, 235–236
Patents, 238 multidisciplinary needs, 34–36,
Pedestrians, and electric cars, 238–239, 241–243
process of, 221–230, 234–236
157–161 prototyping, 227–228
Penny, knowledge in the head and technology and, 258, 264–268
timing of innovation, 271–272
in the world and, 74–75, 77 Product manager, 230
People with special needs, Products
development cycle, 260, 268–279
designing for, 243–247 failure of new products, 272, 274
Perceive, as stage of evaluation, 41 life cycle of, 294
Perceived affordances, 13, 18, 19, stage gate methods, 234, 235
success of, 293–294
145. See also Signifiers Prospective memory, 107–109
Perform, as stage of execution, 41 Prototyping, 222, 227–228, 235
Personality, attributing failure to, Psychology, 27–73. See also
Cognition
61–62 causal relations (blame), 59–65
Physical anthropometry, 243 cognition and emotion, 49–55.
Physical constraints, 124–128 See also Cognition; Emotion

battery design and, 125–127
forcing functions, 141–142, 143
as knowledge in the world, 79
locks and keys and, 127–128
Pilots, remembering air-traffic

control instructions, 105–107
Plan, as stage of execution, 41

342 Index

falsely blaming self, 65–71 Rehearsal of material, 96, 100–101
fundamental design principles Reminders, 108–109
Reminding, strategies for, 106,
and, 71–73
Gibsonian, 12 107–109, 110
Gulfs of Evaluation and Remington typewriter, 275, 276, 277
Remote controller, cultural effect
Execution, 38–40
human thought, 44–49 on design of, 118, 119
interplay with technology, 6–8 Repetitive cycles of design, see
people as storytellers, 56–59
positive, 63–65 spiral design
stages of action, 40–44, 55–56, Resilience engineering, 211–213
Retention, memory and, 94
71–73, 172–173 Retrieval, memory and, 97–98
The Psychology of Everyday Things Retrospective decision making, 183
Reversing action, see Undo
(POET), xi, 283, 299–304 Rhyming, constraints of, 83
Punch (magazine), 270 Root cause analysis, 42, 43–44,
Purchasers
164–165
designing for, 241 Rote learning, 98
users vs., 117–118 Royal Majesty cruise ship, 214
See also Customers Rubin, David, 83
Purchasing process, usability and, Rule-based behavior, 179, 180
Rule-based mistakes, 171, 180–184
117–118 Rules, deliberate violation of,

Quality, focus on customer and, 169–170
264
Safety. See also Accidents; Error
Questioning, 46, 117, 226–227, 229, checklists, 189–191
230, 264, 286, 295, 310 electric vehicles, and 157–161
forcing functions, 142–145
QWERTY keyboard, 254, 266, interlocks, 142–143
275–278, 318, 319. See also lock-ins, 143–144
Keyboard lockouts and, 144–145
management, 209–210, 212–213
Radiation doses, sensibility checks NASA’s safety reporting system,
and, 206 193–194
resilience engineering, 211–213
Radical innovation, 279–280, social and institutional pressures
281–282 and, 186–189
sterile periods and, 200
Rasmussen, Jens, 179 Swiss cheese metaphor, 208–210
Reading vs. listening, 267 warning signals, 201
Reason, James, 164, 170, 208
Recycling, 294 Sayeki, Yutaka, 99–100, 102–103,
Reflection, 45 105

design and, 53–54 Schank, Roger, 128–129
relation to visceral and Schedules, product development,

behavioral response, 54–55 237, 240
stages of action and, 55–56
Reflective problem solving, 46–47 Index 343
Refrigerator temperature controls,

conceptual model and, 28–31

Scheier, Michael, 233 Sleep deprivation, error and, 210,
Schindler elevators, 147 211
Scripts, 129
Scrum method of product Sliding doors, 16
Slips, 170–171, 172–173
development, 234
Security action, 171, 173, 174, 194
capture, 174, 208
design and, 90–91, 255–257 classification of, 173–179
identity theft and, 90 confirmation messages and,
passwords as means of ensuring,
204–205
86–89, 91 description-similarity, 174, 175
Semantic constraints, 124–125, memory-lapse, 171, 173,

129–130 176–177, 195
Sensibility checks, 199, 205–206 minimizing, 206–208
Shingo, Shigeo, 193 mode error, 174, 177–179
Sholes, Christopher Latham See also Error; Mistakes
Smart displays/screens, 121,
typewriter, 275–276. See also
QWERTY 265–266. See also Touch–
sensitive displays/screens
Short-term memory (STM), 92–95, Smart phones, 265
102 Soap dispensers, gesture-
controlled, 115–116
Shower controls, design of, 73 Social interaction, 283–284, 298
Signifiers, xv, 10, 12, 13–20, 72, 298 Social pressure, accidents and,
186–191
affordances vs., xiv–xv, 14, 18, 19 Socrates, 286
applied to everyday objects, Sound, as signifier, 155–161
for electric cars, 157–161
132–141 Sound generators, for feedback,
to bridge Gulf of Execution, 40 23–24
doors and, 15, 16, 132–135 Spatial cues, natural mapping and,
external, 15 115
gesture-controlled devices and Specifications, design and correct,
234–235
lack of, 115–116 Specify, as stage of execution, 41
as knowledge in the world, 79 Speech, presenting information
misleading, 18–19 via, 201–202
perceived affordances and, 145 Spiral design, 222. See also Iteration
poka-yoke technique and, 193 in design
as reminders, 108–109 Stage gate method of product
sound as, 155–161 development, 234–235
on touch screen, 21 Stages of action, 40–44
Signs, 15, 18, 19 Stairways of public buildings,
Silence, problems with, 157–161 lockouts and, 144
Simplified models, 100–105 Standardization
Single-spout, single-control faucet, of faucet design, 153, 154, 155
individualization vs., 161
153–154
Sink drain, signifiers for, 17
Skeuomorphic, 159
Skill-based behavior, 179, 180,

206–207
Sleep, memory and, 95–96

344 Index

Standards Task analysis, 137
cultural, 130–132 Tasks
digital time, 252–254
for electric automobile sounds, activities vs., 232–234
159–160, 161 technology and changes in, 286,
establishing, 248–249
HDTV, 250–252 287–288
international, 131, 248–249 Taught helplessness, 63
necessity of, 250 Technical manuals. See Manuals
Technological aids, for knowledge
Startup companies, failure of,
269–270 in the head, 112–113
Technology
Stein, Robert, 289
“Sterile Cockpit Configuration,” accommodating human
behavior, 68–71
200
Stigler’s law, 270 adoption of, 268–269, 271, 272,
Stigma problem, 244–247 274
Story, conceptual models as form
dependence on, 112–113,
of, 57–59 285–287
Stove controls, natural mapping
design and, 257
and, 113–115, 116–117, 118 as driver of change, 267–268,
Subconscious, 48, 49. See also
282, 283–285
Cognition; Conscious empowerment of individuals
cognition
behavioral level of processing and, 295–297
and, 51–52 enhancing human cognition,
human thought as, 44–49
skilled behavior as, 206–207 112–113, 285–288
slips and, 173 handed-up, 297
Subway train doors, lack of interaction design and, 5
signifiers on, 134–135 interplay with psychology, 6–8
Susan B. Anthony coin, 79–80, meaning of, 281–282
81–82 paradox of, 32–34
Sustainability, model for, 292–293 precision and use of, 104
Swatch International Time, 254 product innovation and, 258,
“Swiss cheese model of how
errors lead to accidents,” 164, 264–268
208–210 radical innovation and, 281
Switches. See also Controls reminders and, 109
airplane landing gear, 135 self-blame and trouble using, 63
dead man’s, 142–143 skeuomorphic designs and, 159
description-similarity slips and, standardization and, 248–254
175 substituting for memory, 87
light, 20–21, 135–140 Telephone numbers, remembering,
wireless, 139
System error, 66 45, 46
System image, 31–32 Telephones, 68, 70, 156, 264–266.

See also Cell phones
Telephonoscope, 270–273
Temperature controls, refrigerator,

28–31
Temperature conversions, 101–102
Tenerife disaster, 186–187

Index 345

Ten-franc coin, 79–80 touch and gesture-sensitive
Testing, 222, 228–229 screens and, 264, 266
Text direction/scrolling, culture
Ultra-high definition television,
and choice of, 120–121 252
Thermostat
Understanding, design and, 3–4
conceptual model of, 57–59, Understanding action, feedback
68–69, 181–182
and, 71–72
control of refrigerator, 28–31 Underwater (scuba) diving
Things That Make Us Smart
accidents, 187–188
(Norman), 112, 288 Undo, 199, 203–205
Three-dimensional television, 252 Universal design, 243–247
3-D printers, 267, 296, 297 University of Toronto, 269
Three Mile Island nuclear power Usability, 117–118, 241, 295
Use, determining how to use
plant accident, 7
Tillers, 21–22 object, 38–40
Time User experience, 10, 233
Users
Australian Aborigines,
conception of, 120 conceptual model and, 31–32
designing for, 240–241
cultural differences in view of, difficulties using products and,
118–120
59–65
digital, 252–254 purchaser vs., 117–118
product development and, 236, See also Customers

238–239 Vacuum tubes, 281
Swatch International Time, 254 Valance, emotional, 52
Time-based reminders, 109 Vegetable peelers, design of,
Time stress, as cause of error, 168
Touch-sensitive displays/screens, 244–245
Vehicular control, mapping and,
21, 140, 268–269. See also
Smart displays/screens 21–22
Toyoda, Sakichi, 165 Video conferencing, 273–274
Toyota Motor Company, 165 Videophone, 270–274
Toyota Production System, 192, 193 Video recording, of test groups,
Traffic conventions, 131–132
Training and licensing, 211 228–229
Transactive memory, 111–112 Visceral level of processing, 50–51,
Transistor, 281
Transportation accidents, 54–56
investigation of, 186–187, Voyager Books, 289
188–189
Turn signal switches, 99–100 Walkers, design of, 245
Typewriters, 280 Walking, cell phone usage while,
development of keyboard,
274–279 200
Typing Wallace, Wanda, 83
knowledge in the world and, Warning signals, design of, 201–202
77–78 Washer-dryer combination

346 Index controls, 4

Watches The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (Baum),
digital, 27–28, 33–34 227
mode-error slips and, 178
technology and changes in Woods, David, 212
design of wristwatch, 32–34 Word-gesture typing systems,

Waterfall method, 234–236 266
Wegner, Daniel, 112 Working memory, 92–95, 102
Wheelchair, control of, 21 Wristwatch, 32–34
Whitehead, Alfred North, 101 Writing, 104, 106, 107, 267
Wikipedia, 112, 270, 297
Wireless switches, 139 Xerox Corporation, 227
“Wizard of Oz” prototype
Zeitgeist, 260
technique, 227–228 Zhai, Shumin, 266

Index 347