ELA-ELD Framework Ch 8 - Assessment

T h i s sec ti o n el a b o r a tes th e i ntend ed p u r p o se o f a ssessment. I t i s p a r ti c u l a r l y i mp o r ta nt to r ef er to
th i s sec ti o n w h en sel ec ti ng a ssessments o th er th a n C a l i f o r ni a ma nd a ted a ssessments ( e. g . , S ma r ter
B a l a nc ed S u mma ti v e Assessments) w h o se tec h ni c a l q u a l i ty a r e esta b l i sh ed th r o u g h r i g o r o u s stu d i es.

Elements of Technical Quality

T h e i d ea o f th e technical quality o f a ssessment r ef er s th e a c c u r a c y o f i nf o r ma ti o n y i el d ed b y
a ssessments a nd th e a p p r o p r i a teness o f th e a ssessments f o r th ei r i ntend ed p u r p o ses. T h er e a r e th r ee
i mp o r ta nt el ements r el a ted to th e tec h ni c a l q u a l i ty o f a ssessments: v a l i d i ty , r el i a b i l i ty , a nd f r eed o m
from bias (AERA, APA, and NCME 1999). Each element is described here, and figure 8.12, which
su mma r i z es th e k ey p o i nts f o r ea c h , i s i nc l u d ed a t th e end o f th i s sec ti o n.

Validity

Validity is the overarching concept that defines quality in educational measurement. It is the extent

to w h i c h a n a ssessment p er mi ts a p p r o p r i a te i nf er enc es a b o u t stu d ent l ea r ni ng a nd c o ntr i b u tes to

the adequacy and appropriateness of using assessment results for specific decision-making purposes

( H er ma n, H er i ta g e, a nd G o l d sc h mi d t 2 0 1 1 ) . N o a ssessment

No assessment is valid for all i s v a l i d f o r a l l p u r p o ses. W h i l e p eo p l e o f ten r ef er to th e
purposes. While people o en v a l i d i ty o f a test, i t i s mo r e c o r r ec t to r ef er to th e v a l i d i ty
refer to the validity of a test, o f th e i nf er enc es o r i nter p r eta ti o ns th a t c a n b e ma d e
it is more correct to refer to f r o m th e r esu l ts o f a test. V a l i d i ty i s b a si c a l l y a ma tter o f
the validity of the inferences d eg r ee; b a sed o n i ts p u r p o se, a n a ssessment c a n h a v e h i g h ,
or interpretations that can be mo d er a te o r l o w v a l i d i ty . F o r ex a mp l e, a d i a g no sti c r ea d i ng
test mi g h t h a v e a h i g h d eg r ee o f v a l i d i ty f o r i d enti f y i ng th e
ty p e o f d ec o d i ng p r o b l ems a stu d ent i s h a v i ng , a mo d er a te

made from the results of a test. d eg r ee f o r d i a g no si ng c o mp r eh ensi o n p r o b l ems, a l o w
degree for identifying vocabulary knowledge difficulties, and

no validity for diagnosing writing conventions difficulties.

S i mi l a r l y , a nnu a l a ssessments a t th e end o f si x th g r a d e h a v e a h i g h d eg r ee o f v a l i d i ty f o r a ssessi ng

a c h i ev ement o f sta nd a r d s f o r th o se stu d ents b u t no v a l i d i ty f o r a ssessi ng th e a c h i ev ement o f th e

i nc o mi ng g r o u p o f si x th g r a d er s.

F o r a n a ssessment to b e v a l i d f o r th e i ntend ed p u r p o se, th er e sh o u l d b e ev i d enc e th a t i t d o es,

i n f a c t, a ssess w h a t i t p u r p o r ts to a ssess. T est p u b l i sh er ma nu a l s sh o u l d i nc l u d e i nf o r ma ti o n a b o u t

the types of validity evidence that have been collected to support the intended uses specified for the

a ssessment.

Reliability

R el i a b i l i ty r ef er s to h o w c o nsi stentl y a n a ssessment mea su r es w h a t i t i s i ntend ed to mea su r e ( L i nn

a nd M i l l er 2 0 0 5 ) . I f a n a ssessment i s r el i a b l e, th e r esu l ts sh o u l d b e r ep l i c a b l e. F o r i nsta nc e, c h a ng es

i n th e ti me o f a d mi ni str a ti o n, d a y a nd ti me o f sc o r i ng , w h o

sc o r es th e a ssessment, a nd th e sa mp l e o f a ssessment i tems

sh o u l d no t c r ea te i nc o nsi stenc i es i n r esu l ts. Reliability refers to how

R el i a b i l i ty i s i mp o r ta nt b ec a u se i t i s a nec essa r y a d j u nc t consistently an assessment

o f a ssessment v a l i d i ty ( L i nn a nd M i l l er 2 0 0 5 ) . I f a ssessment measures what it is intended
r esu l ts a r e no t c o nsi stent, th en i t i s r ea so na b l e to c o nc l u d e to measure. If an assessment is
th a t th e r esu l ts d o no t a c c u r a tel y mea su r e w h a t th e reliable, the results should be
a ssessment i s p u r p o r ted to mea su r e. A g ener a l r u l e o f th u mb replicable.
f o r r el i a b i l i ty i s th a t th e mo r e i tems o n a n a ssessment th e

h i g h er th e r el i a b i l i ty . R el i a b i l i ty i s a ssessed p r i ma r i l y w i th

8 6 8 | C h a p ter 8 Assessment

sta ti sti c a l i nd i c es. P u b l i sh er s’ ma nu a l s sh o u l d p r o v i d e i nf o r ma ti o n a b o u t th e r el i a b i l i ty ev i d enc e f o r a n

a ssessment a nd th e r el ev a nt sta ti sti c a l i nd i c es.

A variety of factors can influence the reliability of an assessment. For example, if a test is

a d mi ni ster ed i n a n ex tr emel y h o t o r no i sy r o o m, stu d ents ma y no t b e a b l e to c o mp l ete th e test to th e

b est o f th ei r a b i l i ty . I f stu d ents a r e a sk ed to p r o v i d e a n

o r a l p r esenta ti o n w h en th e i nstr u c ti o ns o r ex p ec ta ti o ns Bias arises from tests that favor
h a v e no t b een ma d e c l ea r , th i s a f f ec ts th e r el i a b i l i ty students of a particular gender,
o f th e p er f o r ma nc e a ssessment. A nu mb er o f o th er

f a c to r s, i nc l u d i ng stu d ents’ h ea l th , l ev el o f str ess, a nd ethnicity, cultural background,
mo ti v a ti o n c a n a f f ec t th e r el i a b i l i ty o f a n a ssessment. geographic location, disability, or
T ea c h er s sh o u l d u se th ei r j u d g ment i n i nter p r eti ng primary language. An assessment
a ssessment r esu l ts w h en th ey su sp ec t stu d ents a r e no t that is free from bias produces the
a b l e to p er f o r m to th e b est o f th ei r a b i l i ti es. I t i s eq u a l l y same scores for students of the
i mp o r ta nt f o r tea c h er s to u nd er sta nd th a t a test o r same a ainment level, irrespective
p er f o r ma nc e a ssessment ma y b e r el i a b l e b u t no t v a l i d .

F o r ex a mp l e, a stu d ent ma y c o nsi stentl y d o w el l o n a n of their demographic subgroup.
a ssessment, b u t th e a ssessment ma y no t b e mea su r i ng

w h a t i t c l a i ms to mea su r e.

Freedom from Bias

B i a s c a n o c c u r i n test d esi g n o r th e w a y r esu l ts a r e i nter p r eted a nd u sed . B i a s sy stema ti c a l l y
d i sa d v a nta g es a stu d ent o r g r o u p o f stu d ents so th a t th e stu d ents a r e u na b l e to a c c u r a tel y sh o w w h a t
th ey k no w a nd c a n d o w i th r esp ec t to th e c o ntent o f th e a ssessment. As a r esu l t, th e a ssessment
results may underestimate the students’ achievement or reflect abilities that are not related to the
a ssessment’ s c o ntent ( Ab ed i a nd L o r d 2 0 0 1 ) . B i a s a r i ses f r o m tests th a t f a v o r stu d ents o f a p a r ti c u l a r
g end er , eth ni c i ty , c u l tu r a l b a c k g r o u nd , g eo g r a p h i c l o c a ti o n, d i sa b i l i ty , o r p r i ma r y l a ng u a g e. An
a ssessment th a t i s f r ee f r o m b i a s p r o d u c es th e sa me sc o r es f o r stu d ents o f th e sa me a tta i nment l ev el ,
i r r esp ec ti v e o f th ei r d emo g r a p h i c su b g r o u p .

Popham (1995) identifies two forms of bias: offensiveness and unfair penalization. Offensiveness
o c c u r s w h en th e c o ntent o f a n a ssessment o f f end s, u p sets, o r d i str esses p a r ti c u l a r su b g r o u p s, th u s
negatively influencing the test performance of these students. Items that present stereotypes of girls,
b o y s, o r p a r ti c u l a r c u l tu r es, o r th a t p o r tr a y c er ta i n g r o u p s a s i nf er i o r , c o u l d a d v er sel y a f f ec t c er ta i n
stu d ents’ p er f o r ma nc e.

Unfair penalization occurs when the test content makes the test more difficult for some students
th a n f o r o th er s. B i a s ma y o c c u r , f o r ex a mp l e, i f a test i nc l u d es v o c a b u l a r y th a t i s u nf a mi l i a r to stu d ents
b ec a u se o f th ei r c u l tu r e o r g eo g r a p h i c l o c a ti o n. B i a s ma y a l so o c c u r i f th e test c o nta i ns i ma g es th a t
a r e mo r e f a mi l i a r to o ne g r o u p th a n a no th er , o r d ema nd s l a ng u a g e sk i l l s b ey o nd th o se o f th e ta r g eted
stu d ents. F o r ex a mp l e, i f a r ea d i ng a ssessment c o nta i ns v o c a b u l a r y r el a ted to r u r a l l i f e, th en i nner
c i ty stu d ents a r e p o tenti a l l y mo r e d i sa d v a nta g ed th a n r u r a l stu d ents. I n a d d i ti o n, b i a s o c c u r s w h en
a ssessments th a t a r e b a sed o n l etter - so u nd p r i nc i p l es a r e u sed w i th stu d ents w h o d o no t h a v e a c c ess
to th e so u nd s o f l a ng u a g e ( i . e. , stu d ents w h o a r e d ea f o r h a r d o f h ea r i ng ) .

Assessment d ev el o p er s ty p i c a l l y g o to g r ea t l eng th s to ma k e su r e a ssessment i tems a r e no t
b i a sed . E x a mi ne th e p u b l i sh er ’ s ma nu a l f o r ev i d enc e th a t i tem r ev i ew s to g u a r d a g a i nst b i a s h a v e
b een c o nd u c ted .

V a l i d i ty , r el i a b i l i ty , a nd f r eed o m f r o m b i a s a r e a l l nec essa r y c o nd i ti o ns f o r a ssessment. T h ey a r e
no t i nter c h a ng ea b l e ( L i nn a nd M i l l er 2 0 0 5 ) . F o r ex a mp l e, a n a ssessment ma y o f f er c o nsi stent r esu l ts
( h i g h r el i a b i l i ty ) w i th o u t mea su r i ng w h a t w a s ta r g eted ( l o w v a l i d i ty ) ; a nd c o nv er sel y a mea su r ement
w i th a l l th e h a l l ma r k s o f v a l i d i ty ma y no t h a v e h i g h r el i a b i l i ty . T h e k ey p o i nts o f tec h ni c a l q u a l i ty a r e
summarized in figure 8.12.

Assessment C h a p ter 8 | 8 6 9

Figure 8.12. Key Points in Technical Quality of Assessments: Long- and Medium-Cycle
Assessments

T echnical Q uality K ey Points

V alidity • Assessments need to b e v a l i d f o r th e i ntend ed p u r p o se
• T h e ex tent to w h i c h th e i nf o r ma ti o n th e a ssessment p r o v i d es i s a c c u r a te,

adequate, and appropriate for a specific decision-making purpose
• W h i l e p eo p l e o f ten r ef er to th e “ v a l i d i ty o f a test, ” i t i s mo r e c o r r ec t to r ef er to

th e v a l i d i ty o f th e interpretations th a t c a n b e ma d e f r o m th e r esu l ts o f a test
• N o test i s v a l i d f o r a l l p u r p o ses

R eliability • C o nsi stenc y o f th e test r esu l ts, r ep ea ted l y a nd o v er ti me
• R esu l ts o f a test a r e r el i a b l e i f th ey a r e r ep l i c a b l e ( d esp i te c h a ng es i n test

a d mi ni str a ti o n a nd sc o r i ng , e. g . , ti me o f a d mi ni str a ti o n o r w h o sc o r es a test)
• Reliability is important because it is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition

f o r v a l i d i ty . I f a ssessment r esu l ts a r e no t c o nsi stent, th en i t i s r ea so na b l e to
c o nc l u d e th a t th e sc o r es d o no t a c c u r a tel y mea su r e w h a t th e test i s i ntend ed
to mea su r e

F reedom from Bias • I nf o r ma ti o n o r c o nd i ti o n i n a n a ssessment th a t u nf a i r l y d i sa d v a nta g es a
stu d ent o r g r o u p s f r o m sh o w i ng th ei r k no w l ed g e i n th e c o ntent

• An a ssessment f r ee f r o m b i a s p r o d u c es sa me sc o r es f o r stu d ents a t th e sa me
a tta i nment l ev el , d esp i te stu d ents’ d emo g r a p h i c s ( e. g . , g end er , eth ni c i ty ,
p r i ma r y l a ng u a g e)

• Two forms of bias: (1) offensiveness – content offends or upsets particular
subgroups, (2) unfair penalization – content more difficult for some students
th a n o th er s

I n th e nex t sec ti o n, th e i d ea s o f v a l i d i ty , r el i a b i l i ty , a nd b i a s a r e c o nsi d er ed i n th e c o ntex t o f
f o r ma ti v e a ssessment p r a c ti c e.

Technical Quality and Formative Assessment

I n f o r ma ti v e a ssessment, th e ev i d enc e g ener a ted b y a v a r i ety o f mea ns i s i ntend ed to p r o v i d e
information about students’ learning progress in relation to specific learning goals (i.e., for a lesson)
a nd to b e u sed to i nf o r m i mmed i a te d ec i si o ns a b o u t nex t step s i n tea c h i ng a nd l ea r ni ng . J u st a s
a l i g nment to g o a l s i s i mp o r ta nt f o r a nnu a l a nd i nter i m a ssessments, so i t i s f o r f o r ma ti v e a ssessment.
Teachers need to be clear about the specific learning goals (what students will learn, not w h a t th ey
w i l l d o ) a nd w h a t a su c c essf u l p er f o r ma nc e enta i l s. F o r ex a mp l e, l ea r ni ng g o a l s f o r th i r d - g r a d e r ea d er s
mi g h t b e to ( 1 ) u nd er sta nd th a t th e ma i n i d ea i s th e a u th o r ’ s messa g e a b o u t a to p i c , mi nu s a l l th e
d eta i l s; a nd ( 2 ) d eter mi ne th e ma i n i d ea o f a tex t. T h e p er f o r ma nc es o f u nd er sta nd i ng a nd sk i l l s f o r
th ese g o a l s w o u l d b e f o r th e stu d ents to ( 1 ) ex p l a i n th e ma i n i d ea o f a tex t, ( 2 ) l o c a te w h er e th e
a u th o r d i r ec tl y ex p r esses th e ma i n i d ea ( messa g e) i n tex t, a nd ( 3 ) ex p l a i n h o w th e i mp o r ta nt d eta i l s
d esc r i b e th e ma i n i d ea . T h e tea c h er a l i g ns h er ev i d enc e g a th er i ng str a teg i es w i th th e g o a l s a nd
p er f o r ma nc e c r i ter i a .

F o r a ssessment to b e f o r ma ti v e i t mu st b e b o th ti mel y a nd p r o d u c e i nf o r ma ti o n th a t c a n i nf o r m
tea c h i ng p r a c ti c e d u r i ng i ts o ng o i ng c o u r se ( E r i c k so n 2 0 0 7 ) . F o r th i s r ea so n, th e i mmed i a te o r
p r o x i ma te ti mi ng o f ev i d enc e i s a k ey c o mp o nent o f f o r ma ti v e a ssessment v a l i d i ty . I n a d d i ti o n,
f o r f o r ma ti v e a ssessment to b e v a l i d th e r esu l ti ng i nf o r ma ti o n mu st y i el d su b sta nti v e i nsi g h ts i nto
stu d ents’ c u r r ent l ea r ni ng sta tu s th a t c a n b e u sed i n su b seq u ent p ed a g o g i c a l a c ti o n ( H er i ta g e 2 0 1 3 ) .

8 7 0 | C h a p ter 8 Assessment

An i mp o r ta nt p o i nt a b o u t v a l i d i ty i n f o r ma ti v e a ssessment

For assessment to be c o nc er ns th e c o nseq u enc es o f a ssessment u se. B ec a u se
formative it must be a c ti o n r esu l ti ng f r o m th e u se o f f o r ma ti v e a ssessment
both timely and produce evidence is intended to produce benefits to student learning,
information that can inform c o nseq u enc es r ep r esent a n i mp o r ta nt c o mp o nent o f th e
teaching practice during v a l i d i ty o f su c h a ssessment. E v en i f a ssessments a r e f o r ma ti v e
its ongoing course. For this i n i ntenti o n th ey a r e no t so i n p r a c ti c e i f th ey d o no t g ener a te
reason, the immediate or f u r th er l ea r ni ng ( S to b a r t 2 0 0 6 ; W i l i a m a nd B l a c k 1 9 9 6 ) .
proximate timing of evidence
is a key component of R el i a b i l i ty f o r c l a ssr o o m f o r ma ti v e a ssessment ta k es a v er y
formative assessment validity. d i f f er ent f o r m b ec a u se er r o r s i n i nstr u c ti o na l d ec i si o ns c a n
be rectified quickly by gathering more evidence of learning
( S h ep a r d 2 0 0 1 ) . R el i a b i l i ty i n r el a ti o n to i nstr u c ti o na l d ec i si o ns
can be thought of as “sufficiency of information” (Smith 2003,
30). In other words, teachers have to be confident that they

h a v e eno u g h i nf o r ma ti o n a b o u t a stu d ent’ s l ea r ni ng to ma k e a

reasonable judgment about the current status of that learning. This idea of sufficiency of information

f o r r el i a b i l i ty a r g u es f o r mu l ti p l e so u r c es o f ev i d enc e b ef o r e a tea c h er ma k es a n i nstr u c ti o na l d ec i si o n.

T h e w i d er th e r a ng e o f i nf o r ma ti o n, a nd th e mo r e f r eq u entl y th e i nf o r ma ti o n i s c o l l ec ted , th e mo r e

accurately learning can be inferred (Griffin, and others 2010). In practical terms, this might mean

that before making a judgment about student learning on specific features of language, a teacher

h a s ev i d enc e f r o m stu d ents’ o r a l l a ng u a g e p r o d u c ti o n, f r o m a q u i c k - w r i te, a nd f r o m a tex t th a t h a s

been underlined by students to identify the specific language feature in question. The more this kind

o f ev i d enc e i s g a th er ed i n th e c o ntex t o f ev er y d a y l ea r ni ng ta sk s, th e l ess ti me i s ta k en a w a y f r o m

i nstr u c ti o n a nd th e mo r e r el i a b l e th e ev i d enc e g a th er ed a b o u t a stu d ent’ s l ea r ni ng i s ( L i nn a nd B a k er

1 9 9 6 ).

B ec a u se r ea d i ng , w r i ti ng , sp ea k i ng , a nd l i steni ng sk i l l s

d o no t d ev el o p i n l o c k step a c r o ss a l l stu d ents, f o r ma ti v e . . . teachers have to be con dent
a ssessment i s i nev i ta b l y p er so na l i z ed a nd tea c h er s need that they have enough
to emp l o y str a teg i es th a t ta p i nto i nd i v i d u a l ’ s k no w l ed g e information about a student’s
a nd sk i l l s. W h a tev er ev i d enc e so u r c es a tea c h er sel ec ts,

th ey sh o u l d a c c o u nt f o r th e r a ng e o f stu d ents p r esent learning to make a reasonable
i n th e c l a ss so th a t a l l stu d ents h a v e th e o p p o r tu ni ty judgment about the current
to sh o w w h er e th ey a r e i n th ei r l ea r ni ng a nd h a v e th e status of that learning. is idea
p r o sp ec t o f mo v i ng f o r w a r d f r o m th ei r c u r r ent sta tu s. of su ciency of information for
F o r ex a mp l e, w el l - d esi g ned q u esti o ns a nd ta sk s th a t a r e reliability argues for multiple
sufficiently open-ended give all students the opportunity sources of evidence before a
to r ev ea l th ei r l ea r ni ng . S i mi l a r l y , f o r ma ti v e a ssessment

sh o u l d no t i nc l u d e a ny el ements th a t w o u l d p r ev ent so me teacher makes an instructional
stu d ents f r o m sh o w i ng w h er e th ey a r e r el a ti v e to g o a l s. decision.
T h ese k ey p o i nts r eg a r d i ng tec h ni c a l q u a l i ty i n f o r ma ti v e

assessment are summarized in figure 8.13.

Assessment C h a p ter 8 | 8 7 1

Figure 8.13. Key Points in Technical Quality of Assessments: Short-Cycle
Formative Assessment

• Evidence gathered by the teacher is aligned to specific student learning goals
d er i v ed f r o m sta nd a r d s

• E v i d enc e g a th er ed i s ti mel y a nd c o nta i ns i nf o r ma ti o n th a t c a n i nf o r m tea c h i ng

• V a l i d i ty o f f o r ma ti v e a ssessment ma i nl y l i es i n th e u se o f ev i d enc e: i nf o r ma ti o n
g a th er ed y i el d s su b sta nti v e i nsi g h ts to stu d ents’ c u r r ent l ea r ni ng sta tu s th a t
w i l l b e u sed f o r p ed a g o g i c a l a c ti o n i n o r d er to mo v e stu d ents to w a r d a c h i ev i ng
l ea r ni ng g o a l s

• R el i a b i l i ty p er ta i ns to g a th er i ng eno u g h i nf o r ma ti o n ( e. g . , mu l ti p l e so u r c es)
a b o u t stu d ent l ea r ni ng i n o r d er to ma k e a r ea so na b l e, a c c u r a te j u d g ment f o r
su b seq u ent i nstr u c ti o na l d ec i si o ns

• T o ensu r e f r eed o m f r o m b i a s, ev i d enc e g a th er i ng i s p er so na l i z ed to stu d ents so
a l l stu d ents h a v e th e o p p o r tu ni ty to sh o w w h er e th ey a r e i n th ei r l ea r ni ng a nd
h a v e th e p r o sp ec t o f mo v i ng f o r w a r d f r o m th ei r c u r r ent l ea r ni ng sta tu s.

Conclusion

S k i l l ed u se o f a ssessment to o l s a nd p r o c esses i s c r i ti c a l f o r ensu r i ng stu d ents’ a c h i ev ement o f th e
C A C C S S f o r E L A/ L i ter a c y a nd th e C A E L D S ta nd a r d s. O nl y w h en tea c h er s a nd l ea d er s h a v e a r a ng e
o f a c c u r a te i nf o r ma ti o n a b o u t stu d ent l ea r ni ng a r e th ey i n a p o si ti o n to ma k e d ec i si o ns th a t a d v a nc e
l ea r ni ng . K ey to i nf o r mi ng th e d ec i si o ns ed u c a to r s need to ma k e i s a b a l a nc ed a nd c o mp r eh ensi v e
sy stem o f a ssessment th a t p r o v i d es d i f f er ent l ev el s o f d eta i l f o r d i f f er ent d ec i si o n- ma k i ng p u r p o ses.
W i th i n su c h a n a ssessment sy stem, d i str i c ts a nd sc h o o l p er so nnel need to str i k e th e r i g h t b a l a nc e i n
ter ms o f th e r a ng e o f a v a i l a b l e a ssessments to tea c h er s f r o m th e sta te o r d i str i c t, to th o se a d o p ted b y
i nd i v i d u a l sc h o o l s, to a ssessments emb ed d ed i n c u r r i c u l u m ma ter i a l s, to o ng o i ng d a y - b y - d a y f o r ma ti v e
a ssessment p r a c ti c es th a t tea c h er s eng a g e i n d u r i ng i nstr u c ti o n.

Assessment o p er a tes i n th e ser v i c e o f l ea r ni ng a nd i nv o l v es c a r ef u l c o nsi d er a ti o n o f th e d ec i si o ns
th a t tea c h er s need to ma k e, w h en d u r i ng th e sc h o o l y ea r th ey need to ma k e th em to ensu r e stu d ent
p r o g r ess, a nd th e a ssessment to o l s a nd p r o c esses th ey need to i nf o r m th ei r d ec i si o n- ma k i ng . I n
c o mb i na ti o n w i th th e r i g h t a ssessments f o r th e r i g h t p u r p o ses, tea c h er s’ sk i l l f u l u se o f a ssessment
to su p p o r t l ea r ni ng i s c r i ti c a l to ensu r e th a t stu d ents i n C a l i f o r ni a meet th e a mb i ti o u s l a ng u a g e a nd
l i ter a c y sta nd a r d s th a t h a v e b een set f o r th .

8 7 2 | C h a p ter 8 Assessment

Works Cited

Ab ed i , J a ma l . 2 0 0 2 . “ Assessi ng a nd Ac c o mmo d a ti o ns o f E ng l i sh L a ng u a g e L ea r ner s: I ssu es, C o nc er ns
a nd R ec o mmend a ti o ns. ” Journal of School Improvement 3 (1): 83–89.

Ab ed i , J a ma l , a nd N a nc y E w er s. 2 0 1 3 . Accommodations for English Language Learners and
Students with Disabilities: A Research-Based Decision Algorithm. S ma r ter B a l a nc ed Assessment
C o nso r ti u m. h ttp : / / w w w . sma r ter b a l a nc ed . o r g / w o r d p r ess/ w p - c o ntent/ u p l o a d s/ 2 0 1 2 / 0 8 /
Ac c o mo d a ti o ns- f o r - u nd er - r ep r esented - stu d ents. p d f ( a c c essed M a r c h 6 , 2 0 1 5 ) .

Ab ed i , J a ma l , a nd C a r o l L o r d . 2 0 0 1 . Assessment and Accommodations for English Language Learners:
Issues and Recommendations. ( C R E S S T P o l i c y B r i ef N o . 4 ) . L o s Ang el es: U ni v er si ty o f C a l i f o r ni a ,
N a ti o na l C enter f o r R esea r c h o n E v a l u a ti o n, S ta nd a r d s, a nd S tu d ent T esti ng .

Al l a l , L i nd a . 2 0 1 0 . “ Assessment a nd th e R eg u l a ti o n o f L ea r ni ng . ” I n International Encyclopedia of
Education, V o l . 3 , 3 r d ed . , ed i ted b y P enel o p e P eter so n, E v a B a k er , a nd B a r r y M c G a w , 348–352.
O x f o r d : E l sev i er .

Amer i c a n E d u c a ti o na l R esea r c h Asso c i a ti o n ( AE R A) , Amer i c a n P sy c h o l o g i c a l Asso c i a ti o n ( AP A) , a nd
N a ti o na l C o u nc i l o n M ea su r ement i n E d u c a ti o n ( N C M E ) . 1 9 9 9 . Standards for Educational and
Psychological Testing. W a sh i ng to n, D C : Amer i c a n E d u c a ti o na l R esea r c h Asso c i a ti o n.

Ames, C a r o l e, a nd J enni f er Ar c h er . 1 9 8 8 . “ Ac h i ev ement G o a l s i n th e C l a ssr o o m: S tu d ents’ L ea r ni ng
S tr a teg i es a nd M o ti v a ti o n P r o c esses. ” Journal of Educational Psychology 8 0 : 260–267.

And r a d e, H ei d i G . 2 0 1 3 . Essay Scoring Rubric. U np u b l i sh ed d o c u ment.

And r a d e, H ei d i , X i a o l ei W a ng , Y i ng D u , a nd R o b i n L . Ak a w i . 2 0 0 9 . “ R u b r i c - R ef er enc ed S el f - Assessment
and Self-Efficacy for Writing.” The Journal of Educational Research 102 (4): 287–302.

Ar ter , J u d i th A. , a nd J a n C h a p p u i s. 2 0 0 6 . Creating and Recognizing Quality Rubrics. P o r tl a nd , O R :
E d u c a ti o na l T esti ng S er v i c e.

Ar ter , J u d i th , a nd V i c k i S p a nd el . 1 9 9 2 . “ U si ng P o r tf o l i o s o f S tu d ent W o r k i n I nstr u c ti o n a nd
Assessment. ” Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice 11 (1): 36–44.

B a i l ey , Al i so n L . , a nd M a r g a r et H er i ta g e. 2 0 0 8 . Formative Assessment for Literacy, Grades K–6:
Building Reading and Academic Language Skills Across the Curriculum. T h o u sa nd O a k s, C A:
C o r w i n/ S a g e P r ess.

B a ng er t- D r o w ns, R o b er t L . , C h en- L i n C . K u l i k , J a mes A. K u l i k , a nd M a r y T er esa M o r g a n. 1 9 9 1 .
“ T h e I nstr u c ti o na l E f f ec t o f F eed b a c k i n T est- l i k e E v ents. ” Review of Educational Research 6 1 :
213–238.

B el l , B ev er l ey , a nd B r o nw en C o w i e. 2 0 0 0 . “ T h e C h a r a c ter i sti c s o f F o r ma ti v e Assessment i n S c i enc e
E d u c a ti o n. ” Science Education 85: 536–553.

B l a c k , P a u l J . , a nd D y l a n W i l i a m. 1 9 9 8 . “ Assessment a nd C l a ssr o o m L ea r ni ng . ” Assessment in
Education: Principles, Policy, and Practice 5 (1): 7–73.

B l a c k , P a u l , C h r i sti ne H a r r i so n, C l a r e L ee, B eth a n M a r sh a l l , a nd D y l a n W i l i a m. 2 0 0 3 . Assessment for
Learning: Putting It into Practice. N ew Y o r k , N Y : O p en U ni v er si ty P r ess.

B o ek a er ts, M o ni q u e. 2 0 0 6 . S el f - R eg u l a ti o n a nd E f f o r t I nv estment. I n Handbook of Child Psychology:
V o l . 4 . Child Psychology in Practice, 6 th ed . , ed i ted b y K . A. R enni ng er a nd I . E . S i eg el , 345–377.
N ew Y o r k : W i l ey .

Bowles, Melissa, and Charles W. Stansfield. 2008. A Practical Guide to Standards-Based Assessment
in the Native Language ( N L A— L E P P a r tner sh i p ) . http://www.ncela.us/files/rcd/BE024208/A_
P r a c ti c a l _ G u i d e. p d f ( a c c essed J u ne 1 0 , 2 0 1 3 ) .

B r o o k h a r t, S u sa n M . 2 0 1 3 . How to Create and Use Rubrics for Formative Assessment and Grading.
Al ex a nd r i a , V A: AS C D .

Assessment C h a p ter 8 | 8 7 3

B u nc h , G eo r g e C . , Ama nd a K i b l er , a nd S u sa n P i menta l . 2 0 1 2 . “ R ea l i z i ng O p p o r tu ni ti es f o r E ng l i sh
L ea r ner s i n th e C o mmo n C o r e E ng l i sh L a ng u a g e Ar ts a nd D i sc i p l i na r y L i ter a c y S ta nd a r d s. ”
I n Understanding Language: Commissioned Papers on Language and Literacy Issues in the
Common Core State Standards and Next Generation Science Standards, ed i ted b y K enj i H a k u ta
and M. Santos, 1–16. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University.

B u tl er , D eb o r a h L . , a nd P h i l i p H . W i nne. 1 9 9 5 . “ F eed b a c k a nd S el f - R eg u l a ted L ea r ni ng : A T h eo r eti c a l
S y nth esi s. ” Review of Educational Research 65 (3): 245–281.

C a l i f o r ni a D ep a r tment o f E d u c a ti o n ( C D E ) . 2 0 1 3 a . California Common Core State Standards:
English Language Arts and Literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects.
S a c r a mento : C a l i f o r ni a D ep a r tment o f E d u c a ti o n. h ttp : / / w w w . c d e. c a . g o v / b e/ st/ ss/ d o c u ments/
finalelaccssstandards.pdf ( a c c essed Ap r i l 5 , 2 0 1 3 ) .

— — — . 2 0 1 3 b . M emo r a nd u m “ C a l i f o r ni a E ng l i sh L a ng u a g e D ev el o p ment T est: T r a nsi ti o ni ng to th e
English Language Proficiency Assessment for California.” Sacramento: California Department of
E d u c a ti o n.

— — — . 2 0 1 4 California English Language Development Standards. S a c r a mento : C a l i f o r ni a D ep a r tment
o f E d u c a ti o n.

C a r neg i e C o u nc i l o n Ad v a nc i ng Ad o l esc ent L i ter a c y . 2 0 1 0 . Time to Act: An Agenda for Advancing
Adolescent Literacy for College and Career Success. N ew Y o r k : C a r neg i e C o r p o r a ti o n o f N ew
Y o rk .

C h a p p u i s, J a n, R i c k J . S ti g g i ns, S tev e C h a p p u i s, a nd J u d i th . A. Ar ter . 2 0 1 2 . Classroom Assessment
for Student Learning: Doing It Right – Using It Well. 2 nd ed . P o r tl a nd , O R : P ea r so n Assessment
T r a i ni ng I nsti tu te.

C h r i sti e, F r a nc es, ed . 1 9 9 9 . Pedagogy and the Shaping of Consciousness: Linguistic and Social
Processes. L o nd o n, U K : C a ssel l Ac a d emi c .

C o h en, N i c o l e, T r a c ey E . H a l l , G e V u e, a nd P a tti G a nl ey . 2 0 1 1 . “ B ec o mi ng S tr a teg i c R ea d er s: T h r ee
C a ses U si ng F o r ma ti v e Assessment, U D L , a nd T ec h no l o g y to S u p p o r t S tr u g g l i ng M i d d l e S c h o o l
R ea d er s. ” I n New Frontiers in Formative Assessment, ed i ted b y P end r ed E . N o y c e a nd D a ni el T .
Hickey, 129–140. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.

Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) Formative Assessment State Collaborative. 2006.
Definition of Formative Assessment. Washington, DC: Council of Chief State School Officers.

C r o o k s, T er enc e J . 1 9 8 8 . “ T h e I mp a c t o f C l a ssr o o m E v a l u a ti o n o n S tu d ents. ” Review of Educational
Research 58: 438–481.

D er ew i a nk a , B ev er l y . 2 0 1 1 . A New Grammar Companion for Teachers. S y d ney , N S W : P r i ma r y E ng l i sh
T ea c h i ng Asso c i a ti o n.

D w ec k , C a r o l S . 1 9 9 9 . Self-Theories: Their Role in Motivation, Personality and Development.
P h i l a d el p h i a , P A: P sy c h o l o g y P r ess.

— — — . 2 0 0 6 . Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. N ew Y o r k : R a nd o m H o u se.

E r i c k so n, F r ed er i c k . 2 0 0 7 . “ S o me T h o u g h ts o n ‘ P r o x i ma l ’ F o r ma ti v e Assessment o f S tu d ent L ea r ni ng . ”
Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education 106: 186–216.

F a ng , Z h i h u i a nd Z h u j u n W a ng . 2 0 1 1 . “ B ey o nd R u b r i c s: U si ng F u nc ti o na l L a ng u a g e Ana l y si s to
E v a l u a te S tu d ent W r i ti ng . ” Australian Journal of Language and Literacy 34 (2): 147–165.

G er sten, R u ssel l , D o na l d C o mp to n, C a r o l M . C o nno r , J o sep h D i mi no , L a na S a nto r o , S y l v i a L i na n-
T h o mp so n, a nd W . D a v i d T i l l y . 2 0 0 9 . Assisting Students Struggling with Reading Response
to Intervention and Multi-Tier Intervention for Reading in the Primary Grades. W a sh i ng to n,
D C : N a ti o na l C enter f o r E d u c a ti o n E v a l u a ti o n a nd R eg i o na l Assi sta nc e, I nsti tu te o f E d u c a ti o n
S c i enc es, U . S . D ep a r tment o f E d u c a ti o n.

8 7 4 | C h a p ter 8 Assessment

G i b b o ns, P a u l i ne. 2 0 0 9 . English Learners, Academic Literacy, and Thinking: Learning in the Challenge
Zone. P o r tsmo u th , N H : H ei nema nn.

Griffin, Patrick. 2007. The Comfort of Competence and the Uncertainty of Assessment. Studies in
Educational Evaluation 33: 87–99.

Griffin, Patrick, Leanne Murray, Esther Care, Amanda Thomas, and Pierina Perri. 2010. “Developmental
Assessment: L i f ti ng L i ter a c y T h r o u g h P r o f essi o na l L ea r ni ng T ea ms. ” Assessment in Education:
Principles, Policy and Practice 17 (4): 383–397.

H a c k er , D o u g l a s J . , J o h n D u nl o sk y , a nd Ar th u r C . G r a esser , ed . 1 9 9 8 . Metacognition in Educational
Theory and Practice. M a h w a h , N J : L a w r enc e E r l b a u m.

H a r l en, W y nne. 2 0 0 7 . “ F o r ma ti v e C l a ssr o o m Assessment i n S c i enc e a nd M a th ema ti c s. ” I n Formative
Classroom Assessment: Theory into Practice, edited by J. H. McMillan, 116–135. New York:
T ea c h er s C o l l eg e P r ess.

H a r l en, W y nne, a nd R u th D ea k i n C r i c k . 2 0 0 2 . A Systematic Review of the Impact of Summative
Assessment and Tests on Student Motivation for Learning. L o nd o n: E P P I - C entr e, S o c i a l
S c i enc e R esea r c h U ni t, I nsti tu te o f E d u c a ti o n. h ttp : / / ep p i . i o e. a c . u k / c ms/ L i nk C l i c k .
aspx?fileticket=Pbyl1CdsDJU%3D&tabid=106&mid=1967 ( a c c essed F eb r u a r y 2 0 1 3 ) .

H a r l en, W y nne, a nd M a r y J a mes. 1 9 9 7 . “ Assessment a nd L ea r ni ng : D i f f er enc es a nd R el a ti o nsh i p s
b etw een F o r ma ti v e a nd S u mma ti v e Assessment. ” Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy and
Practice 4 (3): 365–379.

H a tti e, J o h n, a nd H el en T i mp er l ey . 2 0 0 7 . “ T h e P o w er o f F eed b a c k . ” Review of Educational Research
77 (1): 81–112.

H er i ta g e, M a r g a r et. 2 0 1 0 . Formative Assessment: Making It Happen in the Classroom. T h o u sa nd
O a k s, C A: C o r w i n P r ess.

— — — . 2 0 1 3 . Formative Assessment in Practice: A Process of Inquiry and Action. C a mb r i d g e, M A:
H a r v a r d E d u c a ti o n P r ess.

— — — . 2 0 1 4 . F o r ma ti v e Assessment a s th e K ey to I nstr u c ti o na l P r a c ti c e. W eb i na r p r o v i d ed b y th e
R eg i o na l E d u c a ti o na l L a b o r a to r y , M i d - Atl a nti c . J u ne 1 9 , 2 0 1 4 .

H er ma n, J o a n L . 2 0 1 0 . Coherence: Key to Next Generation Assessment Success. L o s Ang el es, C A:
U ni v er si ty o f C a l i f o r ni a , N a ti o na l C enter f o r R esea r c h o n E v a l u a ti o n, S ta nd a r d s, a nd S tu d ent
T esti ng ( C R E S S T ) . h ttp : / / w w w . c se. u c l a . ed u / p r o d u c ts/ p o l i c y / c o h er enc e_ v 6 . p d f ( a c c essed
M a rc h 6 , 2 0 1 5 ).

H er ma n, J o a n L . , P a mel a R . Asc h b a c h er , a nd L y nn W i nter s. 1 9 9 2 . A Practical Guide to Alternative
Assessment. Al ex a nd r i a , V A: AS C D .

H er ma n, J o a n L . , a nd M a r g a r et H er i ta g e. 2 0 0 7 . Moving from Piecemeal to Effective Formative
Assessment Practice: Moving Pictures on the Road to Student Learning. P a p er p r esented a t th e
Council of Chief State School Officers Assessment Conference, Nashville, TN.

H er ma n, J o a n L . , M a r g a r et H er i ta g e, a nd P ete G o l d sc h mi d t. 2 0 1 1 . Developing and Selecting
Assessments of Student Growth for Use in Teacher Evaluation Systems. L o s Ang el es, C A:
C R E SS T.

H er ma n, J o a n L . , E l l en O smu nd so n, a nd R o na l d D i etel . 2 0 1 0 . Benchmark Assessment for Improved
Learning ( AAC C R ep o r t) . L o s Ang el es, C A: U ni v er si ty o f C a l i f o r ni a .

I nter na ti o na l R ea d i ng Asso c i a ti o n. 2 0 0 0 . Teaching All Children to Read: The Roles of the Reading
Specialist: A Position Statement of the International Reading Association. h ttp : / / w w w . r ea d i ng .
o r g / L i b r a r i es/ p o si ti o n- sta tements- a nd - r eso l u ti o ns/ p s1 0 4 0 _ sp ec i a l i st. p d f ( a c c essed M a r c h 5 ,
2 0 1 5 ).

Assessment C h a p ter 8 | 8 7 5

J enk i ns, J o sep h R . 2 0 0 3 . Candidate Measures for Screening At-Risk Students. P a p er p r esented a t th e
N a ti o na l R esea r c h C enter o n L ea r ni ng D i sa b i l i ti es R esp o nsi v eness- to - I nter v enti o n S y mp o si u m,
K a nsa s C i ty , M O .

J o sep h , L a u r i c e M . 2 0 0 2 . “ B est P r a c ti c es i n P l a nni ng I nter v enti o n f o r S tu d ents w i th R ea d i ng P r o b l ems. ”
I n Best Practices in School Psychology IV, ed i ted b y Al ex T h o ma s, a nd J ef f G r i mes, 803–816.
B eth esd a , M D : N a ti o na l Asso c i a ti o n o f S c h o o l P sy c h o l o g i sts.

K–12 Center at ETS. 2014. “The Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium.” Diagram created by
E d u c a ti o na l T esti ng S er v i c e. h ttp : / / w w w . k 1 2 c enter . o r g / r sc / p d f / k 1 2 _ c enter _ sma r ter _ b a l a nc ed . p d f
( a c c essed O c to b er 2 , 2 0 1 4 ) .

K l u g er , Av r a h a m N . , a nd Ang el o D eN i si . 1 9 9 6 . “ T h e E f f ec ts o f F eed b a c k I nter v enti o ns o n P er f o r ma nc e:
A H i sto r i c a l R ev i ew , a M eta - Ana l y si s, a nd a P r el i mi na r y F eed b a c k I nter v enti o n T h eo r y . ”
Psychological Bulletin 119: 254–284.

L a ne, S u z a nne. 2 0 1 3 . “ P er f o r ma nc e Assessment. ” I n Sage Handbook of Research on Classroom
Assessment, edited by James H. McMillan, 313–331. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

L i nn, R o b er t L . , a nd E v a L . B a k er . 1 9 9 6 . “ C a n P er f o r ma nc e- B a sed S tu d ent Assessment B e
P sy c h o metr i c a l l y S o u nd ? ” I n Performance-Based Assessment: Challenges and Possibilities:
Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, ed i ted b y K enneth J . R eh a g e, J o a n
B o y k o f f B a r o n, a nd D enni e P a l mer W o l f , 9 5 ( 1 ) : 8 4 - 1 0 3 ) . C h i c a g o , I L : U ni v er si ty o f C h i c a g o P r ess
f o r th e N a ti o na l S o c i ety f o r th e S tu d y o f E d u c a ti o n.

L i nn, R o b er t L . , a nd M i c h a el D a v i d M i l l er . 2 0 0 5 . Measurement and Assessment in Teaching. U p p er
S a d d l e R i v er , N J : P ea r so n E d u c a ti o n.

L i nq u a nti , R o b er t. 2 0 1 4 . Supporting Formative Assessment for Deeper Learning: A Primer for
Policymakers. P a p er p r ep a r ed f o r th e F o r ma ti v e Assessment f o r S tu d ents a nd T ea c h er s/ S ta te
C o l l a b o r a ti v e o n Assessment a nd S tu d ent S ta nd a r d s. W a sh i ng to n, D C : C o u nc i l o f C h i ef S ta te
School Officers.

L o d i c o , M a r g u er i te G . , E l i z a b eth S . G h a ta l a , J o el R . L ev i n, M i c h a el P r essl ey , a nd J o h n A. B el l . 1 9 8 3 .
“ T h e E f f ec ts o f S tr a teg y - M o ni to r i ng T r a i ni ng o n C h i l d r en’ s S el ec ti o n o f E f f ec ti v e M emo r y
S tr a teg i es. ” Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 35 (2): 263–277.

M c M a nu s, S a r a h . 2 0 0 8 . Attributes of Effective Formative Assessment. P a p er p r ep a r ed f o r th e
F o r ma ti v e Assessment f o r S tu d ents a nd T ea c h er s/ S ta te C o l l a b o r a ti v e o n Assessment a nd S tu d ent
Standards of the Council of Chief State School Officers. h ttp : / / w w w . c c sso . o r g / R eso u r c es/
P u b l i c a ti o ns/ Attr i b u tes_ o f _ E f f ec ti v e_ F o r ma ti v e_ Assessment. h tml ( a c c essed M a r c h 6 , 2 0 1 5 ) .

N a ti o na l Asso c i a ti o n o f S ta te D i r ec to r s o f S p ec i a l E d u c a ti o n ( N AS D S E ) . 2 0 0 5 . Response to
Intervention: Policy Considerations and Implementation. Al ex a nd r i a , V A: Au th o r .

N a ti o na l R esea r c h C o u nc i l . 1 9 9 9 . Improving Student Learning: A Strategic Plan for Education Research
and its Utilization. W a sh i ng to n, D C : T h e N a ti o na l Ac a d emy P r ess.

— — — . 2 0 0 1 . Knowing What Students Know: The Science of Design and Educational Assessment.
W a sh i ng to n, D C : T h e N a ti o na l Ac a d emy P r ess.

— — — . 2 0 1 2 . Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st
Century, edited by James W. Pellegrino and Margaret L. Hilton. Committee on Defining Deeper
L ea r ni ng a nd 2 1 st C entu r y S k i l l s, B o a r d o n T esti ng a nd Assessment a nd B o a r d o n S c i enc e
E d u c a ti o n, D i v i si o n o f B eh a v i o r a l a nd S o c i a l S c i enc es E d u c a ti o n. W a sh i ng to n, D C : T h e N a ti o na l
Ac a d emy P r ess.

N a ti o na l R esea r c h C enter o n L ea r ni ng D i sa b i l i ti es ( N R C L D ) . 2 0 0 6 . Progress Monitoring. h ttp : / / w w w .
l d a o f k y . o r g / R T I / R T I % 2 0 M a nu a l % 2 0 S ec ti o n% 2 0 2 % 2 0 - % 2 0 P r o c ess% 2 0 M o ni to r i ng . p d f ( a c c essed
M a rc h 6 , 2 0 1 5 ).

8 7 6 | C h a p ter 8 Assessment

O r g a ni sa ti o n f o r E c o no mi c C o - o p er a ti o n a nd D ev el o p ment ( O E C D ) . 2 0 0 5 . Formative Assessment:
Improving Student Learning in Secondary Classrooms. C entr e f o r E d u c a ti o na l R esea r c h a nd
I nno v a ti o n. h ttp : / / w w w . o ec d . o r g / d a ta o ec d / 1 9 / 3 1 / 3 5 6 6 1 0 7 8 . p d f ( a c c essed M a y 9 , 2 0 1 3 ) .

P a l m, T o r u l f . 2 0 0 8 . “ P er f o r ma nc e Assessment a nd Au th enti c Assessment: A C o nc ep tu a l Ana l y si s o f th e
L i ter a tu r e. ” Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation 13 (4): 1–11.

P enno c k - R o ma n, M a r i a , a nd C h a r l ene R i v er a . 2 0 1 1 . “ M ea n E f f ec ts o f T est Ac c o mmo d a ti o ns f o r E L L s
a nd N o n- E L L s: A M eta - Ana l y si s o f E x p er i menta l S tu d i es. ” Educational Measurement: Issues and
Practice 30 (3), 10–28.

P er i e, M a r i a ne, S c o tt M a r i o n, a nd B r i a n G o ng . 2 0 0 9 . “ M o v i ng T o w a r d a C o mp r eh ensi v e Assessment
S y stem: A F r a mew o r k f o r C o nsi d er i ng I nter i m Assessments. ” Educational Measurement: Issues
and Practice 2 8 (3): 5–13.

P er r y , N a nc y , K a r en O . V a nd eK a mp , L o u i se K . M er c er , a nd C a r l a J . N o r d b y . 2 0 0 2 . “ I nv esti g a ti ng
T ea c h er - S tu d ent I nter a c ti o ns th a t F o ster S el f - R eg u l a ted L ea r ni ng . ” Educational Psychologist
3 7 ( 1 ) : 5–15.

P i ntr i c h , P a u l R . 2 0 0 0 . “ T h e R o l e o f G o a l O r i enta ti o n i n S el f - R eg u l a ted L ea r ni ng . ” I n Handbook of Self-
Regulation, edited by Monique Boekaerts, Paul R. Pintrich, and Moshe Zeidner, 451–502. San
D i eg o , C A: Ac a d emi c P r ess.

P o p h a m, W . J a mes. 1 9 9 5 . Classroom Assessment: What Teachers Need to Know. B o sto n: Al l y n a nd
B a c o n.

— — — . 2 0 1 0 . Transformative Assessment. Al ex a nd r i a , V A: AS C D .

P o p p er s, Au d r ey E . 2 0 1 1 . “ I d enti f y i ng C r a f t M o v es: C l o se O b ser v a ti o n o f E l ementa r y S tu d ents’
W r i ti ng . ” I n New Frontiers in Formative Assessment, ed i ted b y P end r ed E . N o y c e a nd D a ni el T .
Hickey, 89–107. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.

Puckett, Margaret B., and Deborah Diffily. 2004. Teaching Young Children: An Introduction to the Early
Childhood Profession. 2 nd ed . C l i f to n P a r k , N Y : D el ma r L ea r ni ng .

R esni c k , L a u r en B . , a nd D a ni el P . R esni c k . 1 9 9 2 . “ Assessi ng th e T h i nk i ng C u r r i c u l u m: N ew T o o l s f o r
E d u c a ti o na l R ef o r m. ” I n Changing Assessments: Alternative Views of Aptitude, Achievement
and Instruction, edited by Bernard R. Gifford and Mary Catherine O’Connor, 37–76. New York:
K l u w er / S p r i ng er S c i enc e+ B u si ness M ed i a .

R u i z - P r i mo , M a r i a A. , a nd E r i n M . F u r ta k . 2 0 0 4 . Informal Assessment of Students’ Understanding of
Scientific Inquiry. P a p er p r esented a t th e a nnu a l meeti ng o f th e Amer i c a n E d u c a ti o na l R esea r c h
Asso c i a ti o n, S a n D i eg o , C A.

———. 2006. “Informal Formative Assessment and Scientific Inquiry: Exploring Teachers’ Practices and
S tu d ent L ea r ni ng . ” Educational Assessment 11 (3 and 4): 237–263.

— — — . 2 0 0 7 . “ E x p l o r i ng T ea c h er s’ I nf o r ma l F o r ma ti v e Assessment P r a c ti c es a nd S tu d ents’
Understanding in the Context of Scientific Inquiry.” Journal of Educational Research in Science
Teaching 44 (1): 57–84.

S a d l er , D . R o y c e. 1 9 8 9 . F o r ma ti v e Assessment a nd th e D esi g n o f I nstr u c ti o na l S tr a teg i es. Instructional
Science 1 8 : 119–144.

S c h u nk , D a l e H . , a nd B a r r y J . Z i mmer ma n. 2 0 0 8 . Motivation and Self-Regulated Learning: Theory,
Research, and Applications. M a h w a h , N J : L a w r enc e E r l b a u m.

S h ep a r d , L o r r i e A. 2 0 0 0 . “ T h e R o l e o f Assessment i n a L ea r ni ng C u l tu r e. ” Educational Researcher 2 9
(7): 4–14.

— — — . 2 0 0 1 . T h e R o l e o f C l a ssr o o m Assessment i n T ea c h i ng a nd L ea r ni ng . I n Handbook of Research
on Teaching, 4th ed., edited by Virginia Richardson, 1066–1101. Washington, DC: American
E d u c a ti o na l R esea r c h Asso c i a ti o n.

— — — . 2 0 0 5 a . “ L i nk i ng F o r ma ti v e Assessment to S c a f f o l d i ng . ” Educational Leadership 63 (3): 66–71.

Assessment C h a p ter 8 | 8 7 7

— — — . 2 0 0 5 b . Will Commercialization Enable or Destroy Formative Assessment? ( O r i g i na l ti tl e:
F o r ma ti v e a ssessment: C a v ea t emp to r ) . P a p er p r esented a t th e E T S I nv i ta ti o na l C o nf er enc e
2 0 0 5 : T h e F u tu r e o f Assessment, S h a p i ng T ea c h i ng a nd L ea r ni ng , N ew Y o r k .

S ma r ter B a l a nc ed Ac c essi b i l i ty C o nso r ti u m ( S B AC ) . 2 0 1 3 a . h ttp : / / w w w . sma r ter b a l a nc ed . o r g /
( a c c essed M a r c h 6 , 2 0 1 5 ) .

— — — . 2 0 1 3 b . Smarter Balanced Accessibility and Accommodations: Meeting the Needs of All
Students. h ttp : / / w w w . sma r ter b a l a nc ed . o r g / w o r d p r ess/ w p - c o ntent/ u p l o a d s/ 2 0 1 2 / 0 7 /
S ma r ter B a l a nc ed _ Ac c essi b i l i ty _ F a c tsh eet. p d f ( a c c essed M a r c h 6 , 2 0 1 5 ) .

— — — . 2 0 1 4 . Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium: Usability, Accessibility, and Accommodations
Guidelines. h ttp : / / w w w . sma r ter b a l a nc ed . o r g / w o r d p r ess/ w p - c o ntent/ u p l o a d s/ 2 0 1 4 / 0 8 /
S ma r ter B a l a nc ed _ G u i d el i nes. p d f ( a c c essed M a r c h 6 , 2 0 1 5 ) .

S mi th , J ef f r ey K . 2 0 0 3 . “ R ec o nsi d er i ng R el i a b i l i ty i n C l a ssr o o m Assessment a nd G r a d i ng . ” Educational
Measurement: Issues and Practices 22 (4): 26–34.

S o l ter o - G o nz a l ez , L u c i nd a , K a th y E sc a mi l l a , a nd S u sa n H o p ew el l . 2 0 1 2 . “ C h a ng i ng T ea c h er s’
P er c ep ti o ns Ab o u t th e W r i ti ng Ab i l i ti es o f E mer g i ng B i l i ng u a l S tu d ents: T o w a r d s a H o l i sti c
B i l i ng u a l P er sp ec ti v e o n W r i ti ng Assessment. ” International Journal of Bilingual Education and
Bilingualism 15 (1): 71–94.

S p y c h er , P a mel a . 2 0 0 7 . “ Ac a d emi c W r i ti ng o f E ng l i sh L ea r ni ng Ad o l esc ents: L ea r ni ng to U se
‘ Al th o u g h . ’ ” Journal of Second Language Writing 14 (4):238–254.

S p y c h er , P a mel a , a nd K a r i n L i nn- N i ev es. 2 0 1 4 . R ec o nstr u c ti ng , D ec o nstr u c ti ng , a nd C o nstr u c ti ng
C o mp l ex T ex ts. I n The Common Core State Standards in English Language Arts/Literacy for
English Language Learners: Grades K–5, ed i ted b y P a mel a S p y c h er . Al ex a nd r i a , V i r g i ni a : T E S O L
P r ess.

Stansfield, Charles W., and Melissa Bowles. 2006. “Study 2: Test Translation and State Assessment
P o l i c i es f o r E ng l i sh L a ng u a g e L ea r ner s. ” I n State Assessment Policy and Practice for English
Language Learners: A National Perspective, edited by Charlene Rivera and Eric Collum, 177–313.
M a h w a h , N J : L a w r enc e E r l b a u m/ R o u tl ed g e.

S to b a r t, G o r d o n. 2 0 0 6 . “ T h e V a l i d i ty o f F o r ma ti v e Assessment. ” I n Assessment and Learning, ed i ted b y
John Gardner, 133–146. London, UK: Sage.

U nd er sta nd i ng L a ng u a g e. 2 0 1 3 . Instructional Unit: Persuasion Across Time and Space. P a l o Al to ,
C A: S ta nf o r d U ni v er si ty . http://ell.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/ela_archives/understanding_
l a ng u a g e_ ma ter i a l s_ J a n2 0 1 3 . p d f ( a c c essed M a r c h 6 , 2 0 1 5 ) .

V enn, J o h n J . 2 0 0 0 . Assessing Students with Special Needs. 2 nd ed . U p p er S a d d l e R i v er , N J : M er r i l l .
W i l i a m, D y l a n. 2 0 0 6 . Does Assessment Hinder Learning? P a p er p r esented a t th e E T S I nv i ta ti o na l

S emi na r a t th e I nsti tu te o f C i v i l E ng i neer s, L o nd o n, U K .

— — — . 2 0 0 7 . “ K eep i ng L ea r ni ng o n T r a c k : C l a ssr o o m Assessment a nd th e R eg u l a ti o n o f L ea r ni ng . ” I n
Second Handbook of Mathematics Teaching and Learning, edited by Frank K. Lester Jr., 1053–
1 0 9 8 . G r eenw i c h , C T : I nf o r ma ti o n Ag e P u b l i sh i ng .

— — — . 2 0 1 1 . “ W h a t i s Assessment f o r L ea r ni ng ? ” Studies in Educational Evaluation 37: 3–14.

W i l i a m, D y l a n, a nd P a u l J . B l a c k . 1 9 9 6 . “ M ea ni ng s a nd C o nseq u enc es: A B a si s f o r D i sti ng u i sh i ng
F o r ma ti v e a nd S u mma ti v e F u nc ti o ns o f Assessment? ” British Educational Research Journal
22 (5): 537–548.

8 7 8 | C h a p ter 8 Assessment