SAFETY IN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 1

ISO 9001: 2015 OrganizationS
Session – Safety in Chemical Industry

ADIS
SAFETY

IN
CHEMICAL INDUSTRY

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ISO 9001: 2015 OrganizationS

Session – Safety in Chemical Industry

Session - 1

SAFETY IN CHEMICAL AND PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY

U.N. Classification of Hazardous Material:

Safety in Chemical Industry:

1. Study and identify chemical hazards using material safety data sheet (MSDS) and a
system of classification, packaging and labeling should be developed.

2. Select safer technology.
3. Select safer sitting of chemical industry for minimum loss to men, material,

environment etc.
4. Take all safety precautions at Design and construction stage.
5. Workplace hazards inside the factory should be controlled by good engineering

controls, (SOPs) safe operating procedure and using personal protective equipment.
6. All requisite safety devices, fittings, instruments, equipment, machines etc., must be

provided and well maintained.
7. Workers must be properly Educated & trained for safe operation of the plant such as

proper Warning signs, color codes, Safety Work Permit Systems, firefighting.
8. Conduct Mock-drills of MAH Unit & Potential Emergencies due to Chemical Hazards

to know everybody their role in emergency planning and control.
9. Safe Storage, handling & transportation of hazardous chemicals within and out-side

factory premises.
10. Safe Storage, disposal of hazardous wastes within and outside factory

premises.(Sewage &Haz-Sludge)
11. Well monitoring and control of hazardous substances/Waste at work places

(Inspection, Audit & Analysis / ETP & STP) and of occupational ill-effects and diseases
by pre and periodical medical examinations of the workers.

Criteria for siting & Layout of Chemical and Petrochemical Plants:

SITING CRITERIA: There are 4 Siting Criteria as under:

General Guidelines:

1. Land availability and its cost.
2. Raw material availability.
3. Labour availability (Also the quality of labor-Strike).
4. Infrastructure availability (Different for different Products & even Models).
5. Access to market. (Not in Andaman Nicobar)
6. Transport facilities.
7. Drinking and process water facilities. (Igatpuri Plant laid down pipeline from a river

for making water available)
8. Sewage and Drainage.
9. Place for solid and liquid waste disposal. (Govt. approved facility distance like Taloja,

Pune Ranjangaon)
10. Interlinking with other plants.(Suppliers & Venders & Purchasers)
11. Surrounding population density and distance from the public.(In case of nuclear plant
or

MAH Units like one in Manmad Petroleum unit)
12. Distance from highway and railway and from transport centers.(Cost cutting Factor)

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ISO 9001: 2015 OrganizationS

Session – Safety in Chemical Industry
13. Suitability of climate, environment and factors related to ecology, geology, and micro&

macro biology.
14. Government policy advantages like subsidies (M&M Haridwar –Some taxrelaxation),

incentives and zoning (area reservation e.g. SEZ) if prescribed.
15. Other techno-economic criteria.

 Rules of zoning and town planning should consider above factors.

Environmental Guidelines:

Rule 5 of the Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986, gives following siting criteria to
be considered by the Government while prohibiting or restricting the location of industries in
different areas.

1. Standards for quality of environment laid down for an area.
2. Maximum- allowable limits of pollutants (including noise) for an area.
3. Likely emission from the proposed industry.
4. Climatic features of an area.
5. Biological diversity of the area to be preserved.
6. Environmentally compatible land use.
7. Adverse environmental impact likely to be caused by the industry (EIA is required).
8. Proximity to a legally protected area.
9. Proximity to human settlements.
10. Any other relevant factor.

Site Appraisal Committee u/s 41A of the Factories Act, while considering any site
application, may go through above criteria.

The Industrial Policy Statement of July 1980 recognized the need for preserving
ecological balance and improving living conditions in the urban centers of the country. On
the basis of this Policy,' indiscriminate expansion of the existing industries and setting up of
new industrial undertakings within the' limits of metropolitan cities and the larger towns are
restricted.

To prevent air, water and soil pollution arising out of industrial projects, the Industrial
Licensing procedure requires that the entrepreneurs before setting up the industry should
obtain clearance from Central/ State Air and Water Pollution Control Board.

Following conditions are also to be fulfilled:
1. The State Director of Industries confirms that the site of the project has been
approved fromenvironmental angle by the competent State Authority.
2. The entrepreneur commits both to the State Government and Central Government
that he willinstall the appropriate equipment, implement and the prescribed measures
for the prevention and control of pollution.
3. The concerned State Pollution Control Board 'has certified that the proposal meets
with the environmental requirements and that the equipment installed or proposed to
be installed are 'adequate and appropriate to the requirement.

The entrepreneur will be required to submit half-yearly progress report on installation of
pollution control devices to the respective State Pollution Control Boards.

Depending on the nature and location of the project, the entrepreneur will be required to
submit comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessment Report, and Environmental
Management Plans.

Refer the latest EIA (Environment Impact Assessment) notification from the
MoEF.

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ISO 9001: 2015 OrganizationS

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Siting Guidelines:
In a selected site, the following factors must be recognized.

1. No forest land shall be converted into non-forest activity for the sustenance of the
industry.

2. No prime agricultural land shall be converted into industrial site.
3. Within the acquired site the industry must locate itself at the lowest location to remain

obscured from general sight.
4. Land acquired shall be sufficiently large to provide space for appropriate treatment of

waste water still left for treatment after maximum possible reuse and recycle.
Reclaimed (treated) wastewater shall be used to raise green belt and to create water
body for aesthetics, recreation and if possible, for aquaculture. The green belt shall
be ½ km wide around the battery limit of the industry. For industry having odor
problem it shall be a. kilometer wide.
5. The green belt between two adjoining large-scale industries shall be one
kilometer. Green belt should also be provided within factory premises.
6. Enough space should be provided for storage of solid wastes so that these could be
available for possible reuse.
7. Layout and form of the industry, that may come up in the area must conform to the
landscape of the area without affecting the scenic features of that place.
8. Associated township of the industry must be, created at a space having physiographic
barrier between the industry and the township.
9. Each industry is required to maintain three ambient air quality measuring stations
within 120-degree angle between stations.

Meteorological Aspects:
While selecting a site, climatic conditions should also be considered. High or Low
temperature, more moisture, high or low wind velocity, frequent raining, cloudy atmosphere,
nearby seashore, effect of long-time sunrays etc. have considerable effect on raw materials,
products and processes.

Global warming and greenhouse effect should be decreased by preventing emissions
of CO2, and O3, depleting substances.MoEF guidelines provide further information.

Plant Area Classification:

Separation Distances: from 5 areas:

Government guidelines are as under:

Safety distances to be maintained in siting industries, care should be taken to
minimize the adverse impact of the industries on the immediate neighborhood as well as
distant places.

Some of the natural life sustaining systems and some specific land uses are sensitive
to industrial impacts because of the nature and extent of fragility. With a view to protecting
such industrial sites, the following distances from the areas shall be maintained:
1. Ecologically and/or otherwise sensitive areas: at least 25 km; depending on the geo-

climatic conditions the requisite distance shall have to be increased by the appropriate
agency.
2. Coastal Areas: at least Vi km from high tide line.
3. Flood Plane of the Riverine Systems: at least ½ km from the flood plain or modified
flood plain affected by dam in the upstream or by flood control systems.

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ISO 9001: 2015 OrganizationS

Session – Safety in Chemical Industry
4. Transport/Communication System: at least ½ km from highway and railway.
5. Major Settlements (3, 00,000 population): distance from settlements is difficult

to maintain because of urban sprawl. At the time of sitting of an industry if any major
settlements notified limit is within 50 km, the spatial direction of growth of the
settlement for at least a decade must be assessed and the industry shall be sited at
least 25 km from the projected growth boundary of the settlement.
Separation distances are either between two units or a single unit and a source of ignition.
It is normally between the adjacent edges of the units and not from centre to centre.

Factors to determine separation are
(1) Explosion effect
(2) Radiant heat from a burning material
(3) Ignition of a vapour escape and
(4) Heavy concentration of a toxic gas.
Normally 15m (50 ft) is suggested for the storage of petroleum products excluding LPG. For
LPG a smaller distance is allowable if radiation walls and/ or water drench systems are
provided. From an ignition source, for ethylene storage, 90 m is suggested for pressure
storage and 60 m for refrigerated storage. Risk of failure of pressure storage is higher than
that of refrigerated storage.

1
600 stack size (t) 3

300

In above separation distances no restriction category B development, category C

restricted and within about 2/3 of the distance, category A is restricted. Categories are as

under:

Cat A - Residential houses, hotels, flats.

Cat B - Industrial, factories, warehouses.

Cat C - Special, schools, hospitals, old peoples' homes.

These distances are tentative and may be slightly modified under local circumstances.

If they are found unacceptably large, quantified risk assessment (QRA) should be carried out

to assess distance.

Instead of using such fixed distance criteria, another approach is to calculate the
hazard range by using formulae for gas dispersion or fire/explosion effect.
Diversion walls can be used to divert vapour flows to a safe area. Firewalls can be used: to
protect from radiant heat and explosion (blast) wall to protect from the impact of explosion.
Steam curtains or drenches are used to provide separation from fire or ignition.
U.N. Classification of Hazardous material

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ISO 9001: 2015 OrganizationS
Session – Safety in Chemical Industry

INSTRUMENTATION FOR SAFE PLANT OPERATION:
Chemicals are classified as under:
1. According to their Physical Statei.e. solid, liquid or gases. Fine particles of solid

like powder, dust, fumes and smoke are called particulate matter. Their suspension
in air or gas also exists. Liquids are classified as acid; alkali, solvent, suspension,
liquid mixture, aerosols etc. Gases are classified as inert (N21 C02), reactive, toxic,
irritant, corrosive etc.
2. Noxious Gases:
(1) Irritant gases – Cl2, NH3, SO2, NO2, COCL2, Aldehydes etc.
(2) Systemic poisons – C6H6, CS2, PH3, Stibine, Mn, Nickel carbonyl, Arsine,

Halogenated hydrocarbons etc.
(3) Simple asphyxiants – N2, CH4, CO2 etc.
(4) Chemical asphyxiants - CO, H2S, HCN etc.
3. Dust (Particulate Matter):
(1) Causing pneumoconiosis - Coal, Silica, Asbestos etc.
(2) Causing Asthma - Cotton, Flour, TDI etc.
(3) Causing allergy - fungal spores, bird fanciers, lung, bagassation etc.
(4) Causing lung cancer - Chromium, Asbestos, Benzene etc.
4. Biological Agents and Diseases:
(1) Virus Rickettsia - Psittacosis, rabbis etc.
(2) Bacteria - Anthrax, Wool sorter’s disease, Leptospirosis or Weal's disease,

Brucellosis, Tetanus etc.
(3) Fungi - Ringworm, Moniliasis etc.
(4) Parasites - Hookworm
(5) Plant products - Dermatitis due to mango tree and cashew seed processing.

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ISO 9001: 2015 OrganizationS
Session – Safety in Chemical Industry

Session – 2

HAZARD IN UNIT PROCESS & UNIT OPERATION

Fertilizer Industry

Fertilizers are natural (manure) or artificial. Artificial fertilizers are produced in
chemical plants and they may be organic or inorganic, nitrogenous, phosphatic, potash and
trace element fertilizers. In the warehousing stage, phosphate. Potassium-salt and other
dusts are released. In chemical processing plant, air pollution by toxic gases (Fluorine
compounds, H2SO4, NO, HCI, CO and NH3, gases) and dust, high air temperature and noise
are noticed. Closed and efficient ventilation is necessary. In finishing processes, weighing,
bagging and storing, gaseous emissions and fluorine compounds are released. Phosphates
and other raw materials contain 10% or more free silica which may cause pneumoconiosis.
The dust of soluble fertilizers causes irritation. The safety measures include:
1. Mechanizations and automation of production processes, provision of remote control,

careful assembly and safe operation of equipment and heat insulation.
2. Process segregation and walls and floor covering to absorb fluorine compounds.
3. Gen. Ventilation, exhaust ventilation of enclosed plant, cleaning of exhaust air and
waste water.
4. Education and personal hygiene.
5. Use of PPF and safety showers.
6. Safety and sanitary supervision.
7. Pre and post medical examination including radiographs of the locomotors system and
lungs.
IS : Fertilizer - Glossary 1304, sampling and tests 6092, bagged, handling and storage 5985,
mixtures 7863, 9024, effluents - tolerances 2590, treatment and disposal 9841, application
equipment glossary 9855, Metering mechanism plate type 12599, feed roller type 12613,
Urea ammonium phosphate based 8359, nitro phosphate based 7131, seed drills 6316, 6813,
Phosphatic fertilizer industry. Limits of emissions 8635. –

PESTICIDE INDUSTRY (INSECTICIDE):

Pesticide is a chemical used to destroy an organism detrimental to human interest. It includes

insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, rodenticides, bactericides, miticides, nematocides,

moUuscicides. They are generally halogenated(Cyclodienes, Bischlorophenyls,

Cycloparaffins, Organo-chlorines and Chlorinatedterpenes) or Organophosphorus (Parathion,

malathion, TEPP, OMPA, DDVP, abate, ciodrin etc.) type. They are classified as extremely

hazardous, highly hazardous, moderately hazardous, slightly hazardous etc. For these

classifications and their details including Lethal Dose values see Reference No. 1 given at the

end of this Chapter. Strict safety rules are necessary during their processing, handling,

packaging etc. Exhaust ventilation and use of PPE are essential.

Statutory Provisions:
Schedule 15, Rule 102, GFR, Sch.l5, Rule 114, MFR and Sch.29,Rule 95, TNFR give statutory
provisions for manufacture and handling of dangerous pesticides listed in Appendix-1 to that
Schedule. Appendix-11 gives cautionary placard.

The measures include prohibition of employment of women and young persons, air
space of 500 m3 or more per person, efficient exhaust draft on charging, discharging,

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ISO 9001: 2015 OrganizationS

Session – Safety in Chemical Industry
blending and powder or liquid preparation, sound and sloping floor with gutters and drainage,
daily washing, workbenches of stainless steel, waste container with lid and waste disposal by
burning, safe disposal of empty containers, no manual or direct handling, protective clothing
and their daily washing, medical facilities including doctor and antidotes and medical
examination - pre employment, quarterly examination and record in Form 20, GFR additional
rest interval of 10 minutes before each meal and before the end of the day's work, washing
and bathing facilities with at least 50% bathrooms and 1 place for 5 workers with clean
towels, soap and nail brushes, prohibition of food and drink in workrooms, cloak room for
clothing and PPE, mess room with in charge person and prior permission of the CIF to start
manipulation of a new pesticide i.e. not listed in Appendix 1.Sch.l5, u/r 102, GFR defines
"pesticides" as agents used for the purpose of destroying or arresting the growth or increase
of harmful organism and defines "dangerous pesticides" as those listed in Appendix-1

Appendix-1, List of Dangerous Pesticides Mercury compounds
(Under GFR & MFR both) Methyl bromide
Cyanides
Prathion Chlordane
Diazinon Endrin
Hexaethyltetraphosphate Aldrin
Tetrathyl pyrophosphate Dieldrin
Tetraethyl ditripyrophosphate Texaphene
Demeton (systex) Dinitro-o-cresol
Schradan (OMPR) Arsenical compounds
Para-Oxon (E. 600) Cryloite
Methyl Parathion Pentachlorophenol
Dimefox Carbojuran
Sulphotepp
EPN
Nicotine or its compounds

This list gives commonly better to refer the exhaustive Insecticides Act. used
pesticides. It is list u/s 3(e) of the

Sch.l5, u/r 114, MFR, defines "dangerous pesticides" as those defined in Sec. 3(e) of
the Insecticides Act 1968 or any other substance declared as such by the CIF in writing. List
of Insecticides u/ s 3(e) of the Act is very long with addition from time to time.

Sch.29, u/r 95, TNFR does not give Appendix1 i.e. a list of dangerous pesticides but
defines dangerous pesticides' as any product proposed or used for controlling, destroying or
repelling any pest or for preventing growth or mitigating effects of such growth including any
of its formulations which is considered toxic under and is covered by the Insecticides Act,
1968 and the rules made there under any other products as may be notified from time to
time by the State Government.

"Manipulation" includes mixing, blending, formulating, filling, emptying, packing or
otherwise handling.

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ISO 9001: 2015 OrganizationS

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Cautionary Placard:

 Pesticides are generally poisonous substances. Therefore, in rooms where these are
handled(a)do not chew, eat, drink or smoke; keep food or drink away from pesticides.
(b) use the protective wear supplied e.g. gloves, aprons, clothes, boots, etc.

 Before meals or when any part of the body has come in contact with the pesticides,
wash with soap and water.

 Before leaving the factory, take a bath and change your clothing.
 Do not use any container that has contained a pesticide as a pot for food or drink.
 Do not handle any pesticide with bare hands; use a handled scoop.
 Avoid spilling of any pesticide on body, floor or table.
 Maintain scrupulous cleanliness of body and clothing and of your surroundings.
 In case of sickness like nausea, vomiting or giddiness, inform the manager who will

make necessary arrangements for treatment.

Effects and Controls:
Pesticides and agrochemicals enter into the body through inhalation, ingestion or skin

absorption. They are classified as toxic, harmful, corrosive, irritant, flammable, explosive or
oxidizing. Toxicity is mostly denoted by LD, or LC, values. All agrochemicals should be
labelled, transported safely and correctly stored in a room (locked and cool). Containers
should be opened only after wearing correct respirator (positive air pressure), neoprene or
plastic hand gloves, aprons, boots etc. Protective clothing is always essential while handling
pesticides. Inhalation of vapour should be avoided. Contact with skin, eyes and clothing
should also be avoided. Contaminated clothing should be immediately changed, the entire
body should be thoroughly washed with soap and water. After working with pesticides,
shower bath should be taken and clothing should be changed. Contaminated equipment
should be cleaned with soap or soda ash.

Local exhaust ventilation on filling line must be effective.
Types of effects may be acute (immediate) or chronic (prolonged or slow delayed). Some
common symptoms are - dizziness, headache, shaking and weakness. More toxic effects may
cause convulsions, irrational behavior or unconsciousness.

First-aid treatment includes - removal of affected person to a safe, clean and airy place,
washing of the part affected and to put the person in recovery position (slipping on shoulder).
On swallowing, vomiting should be induced if person is in consciousness. Medical charcoal
and plenty of water may also be 'given.
Effect of organophosphorus pesticides is to reduce cholinesterase level in body and it can be
noticed by pin-point in pupils (eyes).

Blood cholinesterase activity test should be carried out every 15 days. If the level is
found less than 62.5%, the worker must be transferred to another place where no exposure
is possible. After medical treatment and safe report, he can be put back to his plant. But
meantime the engineering controls should be provided or revised to eliminate the exposure.
Leakage and spillage must be removed. Defect in PPE should be checked and removed.

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ISO 9001: 2015 OrganizationS

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An Office Circular dated 27-7-1995 of Factory Inspection Office, Bharuch, sent to
pesticide factories, seems to be more important and suggests following safety measures:
1. For filling bottles or small containers of liquid, granules or powder, automatic filling
machines with closed chamber and attached local exhaust ventilation must be used.
Weighing, plugging and sealing operations and conveyor movement should also be
automatic and under suction chamber so that a worker has not to touch Anything and
no spillage, vapour or dust shall touch his body.
2. To fill barrel or big container a chamber with exhaust hood and ventilation should be
used.
3. To contain or collect leaking liquid small bund and pit shall be provided. Spilled
pesticide should be neutralized or washed with dry clean cloth and stored in a dust-
bin with spring-lid. Then it should be safely disposed or burnt out.
4. Workers engaged to shift, move, clean or pack the filled (plugged) container or to
clean any spillage, shall be given goggles, long sleeved shirt and pent, good quality
rubber hand gloves, waterproof suit or apron, gumboot and air-line respirator. Safety
showers and bathrooms shall be provided.
5. Illiterate, untrained and temporary contract workers are exposed to more risk.
Therefore, such training should be given to them so that they can read or understand
the necessary precautions.
6. Pedestal or positive air fan removes the vapour or dust from one worker to another.
Therefore, it is inadvisable. Exhaust or negative air suction and air-line respirators
are the effective remedies. Exhaled air should be passed through carbon bed filter or
effective absorber and final vent discharge should be within safe limit.
7. Regular air monitoring at work place, ppm record and leakage checking are necessary.
8. A record of full name, address, signature, date of joining and photograph of all the
workers at the time of first employment are useful to detect cases of delayed effects
or after-service effects.
9. If pre-employment and subsequent medical examination shows blood cholinesterase
level less than 62.5%, that worker should not be employed in pesticide work. If RBC
level is also low, the worker should be kept away for 3 months from such process.
Sufficient stock of PAN, Atropine etc. (antidotes) should be kept in the factory first-
aid centre.
10. The workers must be aware that in case of symptoms (dizziness, headache, vibration,
vomit etc.), which doctor they have to approach. They will follow the medical advice.
11. In each shift, qualified and trained supervisor shall strictly supervise the working
conditions, work habits, methods, use of PPE, washing, cleaning and no smoking,
eating or drinking in work area.

Specified Medical Treatment:
In case of skin contact of-organo-phosphorous, it should be immediately treated with solution
of 5-10% ammonia or 2-5% chloramine.

1. Give injection Atropine sulphate according to age, 2 to 4 mg intravenous or
intramuscular. Continue this injection every 5 to 10 minutes till pupils’ size and heart
beats become normal.

2. Give injection PAM (2-Pyridine AldoximeMeth chloride) in glucose slowly. Toxogonin

is a condensation product of Pyridine aldoxime and dichlorodimethyl ether.

3. Maintain fluid and electrolyte balance.

4. Give antibiotic medicine to prevent secondary infection.

5. Give Frusemide if lungs are swallowed or water filled.

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ISO 9001: 2015 OrganizationS

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6. If breathing stops, artificial respiration must be tried till doctor comes. The patient

should be kept in a cool and quiet place. Give oxygen if difficulty is in breathing. If

breathing trouble is more, the victim should be shifted to hospital and put on

ventilator.

Personal hygiene - to wash hands and mouth before and after lunch and bathing and changing
clothes at the end of the work - is highly essential.

Protective Equipment and other Facilities for Workers (R. 37 to 44) :All persons
engaged in handling, dealing or otherwise coming in contact with insecticides during
manufacture/formulation or spraying shall be medically examined before employment and
then periodically once in a quarter by a qualified doctor who is aware of risks of pesticides
and report be kept in Form XXII given below. For persons working with organophosphorus or
carbonate compound, their blood cholinesterase level shall be measured monthly. The blood
residue estimation shall be done yearly of persons working with organo-chlorine compound.
Any person showing symptoms of poisoning shall be immediately examined and given proper
treatment.

First-aid treatment shall always be given before the physician is called. IS 4015 part
I and II shall be followed in addition to any other books on the subject. The workers shall be
educated regarding effects of poisoning and the first-aid treatment to be given.

Protective clothing which shall be washable (to remove toxic exposure) and not
allowing penetration by insecticide shall be given to workers. A complete suit shall consist –
(a) Protective outer garment/overalls/ hood/hat,
(b) rubber gloves extending half-way up to Fore-arm
(c) dust-proof goggles and
(d) boots.

For prevention of inhalation of toxic dusts, vapours or gases, the workers shall use -
(a) chemical cartridge respirator,
(b) supplied air respirator.
(c) demand flow type respirator
(d) full or half face gas mask with canister as per requirement. In no case the exposure in
air should exceed the maximum permissible level.Sufficient stocks of first-aid tools,
equipment, antidotes, medicines etc. should be kept.The workers shall be trained for safety
precautions and use of safety equipment.The packages and surplus materials shall be safely
washed and disposed to prevent pollution. The packages shall not be left outside to prevent
re-use. They shall be broken and buried away from habitation.

POLYMER PLANTS:

In organic chemistry certain giant molecules such as starch, rubber, plastic or resin,
synthetic fibres, cellulose, proteins are called polymers and plants manufacturing them are
polymer plants. Thus, rubber manufacturing plant, synthetic yarn (nylon, terylene etc.) unit,
plastic, resin or silicon making factory or a starch manufacturing factory can be called a
polymer plant.

The polymer (bigger) molecules are built up of smaller units joined together and form
a repeating structure. The repeating structure or the recurring unit in a given molecule is
called the monomer, and the entire molecule composed of several such repeating units is
called a polymer. Thus, we can say that rubber is a polymer of isoprene, starch of a-glucose
and cellulose of (3-glucose).

Polymerization process is of three types –

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ISO 9001: 2015 OrganizationS

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(1) Addition polymerization i.e. the combination of monomers either of the same kind or
different kind by a process of addition involving no loss of fragments, for example, ethylene
- polythene.
(2) Copolymerization involves two different types of monomers, for example, vinyl chloride
with vinyl acetate.
(3) Condensation polymerization means the combination of monomers by a process involving
loss of a simple fragment or a molecule of water. The terminal units of the polymer chain
may be different from the units inside. For example, polyester from a dialcohol and diacid.
The alkyd resins are such polymers obtained from phthalic acid and glycol or glycerol. Linear
polymers are thermoplastic and cross-linked polymers are thermosetting. Proteins, starch
and cellulosic fibres, plastics and resins are used to make thousands of industrial products.
The variety and names of polymers are many, only a few are mentioned below:

Hazards and Controls:
Mostly the polymerization processes are carried out in totally enclosed system and

therefore the hazards are reduced to much extent. Machinery is also mostly enclosed. The
hazards are possible from exposure to raw materials, leakage and spillage, dusts and fumes,
hot surfaces and radiant heat, noise and vibration and heat and humidity.

Chemicals like formaldehyde andcaprolactam cause burning in eyes, nose and throat.
High temperature and pressure of thermic fluid (e.g. Dowtherm) in oil heating system may
cause burn and sometimes fire. Extrusion machines have hot surfaces which need insulation
to prevent burn injury and hopper feeder to prevent hand contact with screw conveyor inside.
Cutting machines for plastic, rubber and other hard substances need safety guard on cutting
blade and machine drives. Charging of toxic materials (powder or liquid) need enclosed
system with local and room exhaust fans and necessary respirators.

Polyamides used to manufacture epoxy resin are skin irritant. Acrylonitrile used in
polyacrylonitrile (PAC or acrylic) fibre is toxic, skin irritant and carcinogenic. This effect was
noticed in polymerization workers. Another chemical dimethyl formamide (DMF) causes
digestive effects, abdominal pain, skin effect and pancreatitis to workers exposed to it. (e.g.
spinning bath and solvent tanks).

Styrene monomer, acetone (used in cleaning) and organic peroxide catalysts used in
making polyester resins may cause fire and explosion. Styrene vapour may cause narcosis
(effects on head, nose and throat).

To control such vapour, dilution ventilation and spray booth are necessary. TLV is
more critical than the LEL of styrene. (Styrene monomer-phenyl ethylene or vinyl benzol –
C8H8 TLV 50 ppm or 215 mg/ m3 STEL 100 ppm or 425 mg/m3, LEL 1.1%, UEL 6.1%, FP-33
°C, VD 3.6, poison via oral, ivn). The inhalation dose of styrene can be measured by analysis
of exhaled air (gas chromatography).

Solvent storage should be kept away, covered metal containers should be used to
collect solvent wastes, electric fitting should be flameproof and smoking must be prohibited.
Direct contact of peroxide catalysts should be avoided. Neoprene or plastic gloves are not
affected by solvents.

Itching from fibrous glass particles can be minimized by good housekeeping,
ventilation, use of long sleeves, barrier creams and frequent washing with soap and water.

Ethylene, propylene and other olefin members to make polyolefins (polymer) are weak
anesthetics at a concentration above 60%. Freezing burns due to liquid propylene and
hyperplasia due to prolonged exposure to diolefins have been reported. Aluminum alkyls are
flammable in air and explosive in water, their fumes may cause lung damage and in solution
it causes burns. Adequate body PPE should be given to workers.

Ethylene, propylene and butylene are gases at room temperature, highly flammable
or explosive when mixed with air or oxygen and large fires of olefins are difficult to extinguish.
In case of fire, their supply should be stopped, fire should be allowed to burn out and adjacent
structures be cooled by water. Small fires may be controlled with CO2 or DCP extinguishers.

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Polystyrene is made by polymerization of styrene and other monomers. They are
flammable. Polymerization process is highly exothermic and uncontrolled reaction may reach
explosive stage. Cooling and pressure relief devices on vessels are essential. Foamed
polystyrene is also flammable. Most of the chemicals are toxic. Therefore, leakage should be
prevented by quick maintenance and enclosed system. Female workers exposed to
polystyrene production showed disturbed menstrual cycles, sexual activity, disturbed
pregnancy and child birth. Biological indicators are blood styrene level and styrene
metabolites in urine. Polystyrene dust may cause weight loss and erythrocyte, leucocyte or
hepatic changes.Polystyrene process should be fully enclosed, automated or remote-
controlled. Manual handling should be replaced by mechanical one, leakage should be
stopped, local exhaust ventilation on air contamination, respiratory and other PPE to the
workers and their medical examinations are necessary.
In making various types of synthetic rubbers, solvents like hexane, styrene,
butadiene, chloroprene, acrylonitrile, toluene diisocyanate (TDI) and other isocyanates in
making elastomers, ethylene dichloride (EDC), methyl chloride, ethylene, propylene etc. are
used. Safety measures are required depending on properties of these dangerous chemicals,
their splashes and leakage, pressure release, machine parts, entry into vessels, cuts and
burns, fall from height and on the floor.Health hazards are possible in handling raw rubber
containing extender oil and carbon black. During fire CO hazard is also possible.
Workers should be made aware of all these hazards and properly trained. Gas
detectors with alarms, welding permit, vessel entry permit, exposure measurement, good
ventilation, rubber gloves, eye protection, hearing protection and washing facilities are also
required.
Thus, depending on a type of polymer plant, a variety of control measures are applicable.

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ISO 9001: 2015 OrganizationS

Session – Safety in Chemical Industry

Session - 3

PRECAUTIONS IN THE PROCESS AND OPERATIONS

Process Safety
Process safety focuses on preventing fires, explosions and accidental chemical releases in
chemical process facilities or other facilities dealing with hazardous materials such as
refineries, and oil and gas (onshore and offshore) production installations.
Occupational safety and health primarily covers the management of personal safety. Well-
developed management systems also address process safety issues. The tools, techniques,
programs etc. required to manage both process and occupational safety can sometimes be
the same (for example a work permit system) and in other cases may have very different
approaches. LOPA (Layers of Protection Analysis) or QRA (Quantified Risk Assessment) for
example focus on process safety whereas PPE (Personal Protective Equipment) is very much
an individual focused occupational safety issue.
A common tool used to explain the various different but connected systems related to
achieving process safety is described by James T. Reason's Swiss cheese model. In this
model, barriers that prevent, detect, control and mitigate a major accident are depicted as
slices, each having a number of holes. The holes represent imperfections in the barrier, which
can be defined as specific performance standards. The better managed the barrier, the
smaller these holes will be. When a major accident happens, this is invariably because all the
imperfections in the barriers (the holes) have lined up. It is the multiplicity of barriers that
provide the protection.
Process safety generally refers to the prevention of unintentional releases of chemicals,
energy, or other potentially dangerous materials (including steam) during the course of
chemical processes that can have a serious effect to the plant and environment. Process
safety involves, for example, the prevention of leaks, spills, equipment malfunction, over-
pressures, over-temperatures, corrosion, metal fatigue and other similar conditions. Process
safety programs focus on design and engineering of facilities, maintenance of equipment,
effective alarms, effective control points, procedures and training. It is sometimes useful to
consider process safety as the outcome or result of a wide range of technical, management
and operational disciplines coming together in an organized way.

Process safety chemists will examine both:
1. Desired chemical reaction, using a reaction calorimeter: this will allow a good measure
of not only the reaction heat to be ascertained, but also to examine how much heat
is "accumulated" during the various additions of chemicals (i.e. How much heat could
be evolved if anything went wrong. The chemist will then (if necessary) vary the
reactions conditions to arrive at a process that the proposed plant can control (i.e.
the heat output is significantly less than the cooling capacity of the plant), and has
low accumulation (meaning that in the event of any problem, the current addition can
be stopped without any danger of overheating)
2. Undesired chemical reaction, using one or more of:
 Differential scanning calorimeter
 Reactive screening device
 Adiabatic calorimeter
These instruments are typically used for examining crude materials that are intended
to be purified by distillation - these results will allow the chemist to decide on a
maximum temperature limit for a process, that will not give rise to a thermal runaway.

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ISO 9001: 2015 OrganizationS

Session – Safety in Chemical Industry

Session - 4

RECEIVING, STORING AND HANDLING OF CHEMICALS

General Rules for Chemical Storage
First, identify any specific requirements regarding the storage of chemicals from (1) local.
State, and Central regulations and (2) insurance carriers.

Criteria for Storage Area:

1. Store chemicals inside a closeable cabinet or on a sturdy shelf with a front-edge lip to
prevent accidents and chemicals spills; a ¾ - inch front edge lip is recommended.

2. Secure shelving to the wall or floor.
3. Ensure that all storage areas have doors with locks.
4. Keep chemical storage areas off limits to all persons.
5. Ventilate storage area adequately.

Organization:

1. Organize chemicals first by compatibility - not alphabetic succession.
2. Store alphabetically within compatible groups.

Chemical Segregation
1. Store acids in a dedicated acid cabinet. Nitric acid should be stored alone unless the
cabinet comes with a separate compartment for nitric acid storage.
2. Store highly toxic chemicals in a dedicated, lockable poison cabinet that has been
labeled with a highly visible sign.
3. Store volatile and odoriferous chemicals in a ventilated cabinet.
4. Store flammables in an approved flammable liquid storage cabinet.
5. Store water sensitive chemicals in a watertight cabinet in a cool and dry location
segregated from all other chemicals in the laboratory.

Storage Don'ts
1. Do not place heavy materials, liquid chemicals, and large containers on high shelves.
2. Do not store chemicals on top of cabinets.
3. Do not store chemicals on the floor, even temporarily.
4. Do not store items on bench tops and in laboratory chemical hoods, except when in
use.
5. Do not store chemicals on shelves above eye level.
6. Do not store chemicals with food and drink.
7. Do not store chemicals in personal staff refrigerators, even temporarily.
8. Do not expose stored chemicals to direct heat or sunlight, or highly variable
temperatures.

Proper Use of chemical Storage containers
1. Never use food containers for chemical storage.
2. Make sure all containers are properly closed.
3. After each use, carefully wipe down the outside of the container with a paper towel
before returning it to the storage area. Properly dispose of the paper towel after use.

Transportation of Hazardous Material:
Transportation is by road, rail, water or air. Containers are mostly standardized to

ensure safety during transit. When a truck or tanker meets with accidents or leaks on the

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way, creates problem. Fire or explosion can cause harm to public or property. Corrosive or
toxic chemical can cause harm to public, animals, birds and environment. Sometimes grave
emergency is created. Warning to public, speedy rescue operation, evacuation and calling
helping hands may become necessary.

While considering transportation of chemicals one has to consider the physical and
chemical properties of the product being handled, whether it is a solid, a powder, a liquid or
a gas under pressure; the type of packing, hazards, and the mode of transport available.

Before transfer or transportation of chemicals, their modes of packaging should be
considered.

Modes of Packaging:

(1) Glass bottles and carboys are some of the oldest packaging available for corrosive liquids,
solvents etc. Some of the bulk industrial materials still being transported in bottles are
Bromine, Mercury etc. The laboratory reagents and pure grade chemicals are also transported
in glass bottles of various sizes. Many corrosive chemicals like Nitric acid, Sulphurylchloride,
Thionylchloride etc., are transported in glass carboys holding 25-50 kg of the material. These
glass bottles and carboys have to be properly protected against shocks. Wooden crates for
carboys, plastic or paper packing for bottles is usual. Dangerous chemicals are further
protected by packing in clay or other absorbent material so that in case the bottle breaks,
the chemical is absorbed and causes least damage.
(2) Plastic bottles, jars, carboys and drums: These could be constructed out of polythene
either of low density or high density, PVC or other materials. Quite a lot of chemicals ranging
from laboratory chemicals to industrial raw material are being packed and transported
in plastic containers. These containers may be further protected by wooden cases. The
material must be correctly chosen. Several tragedies have occurred because, on long storage
the plastic containers became brittle and the chemical leaked out.
(3) Steel drums in various sizes have been used for storage and transportation of solvents
and chemicals. Even corrosive chemicals like chlorosulphonic acid are shipped in steel
containers. This is quite a common packing for chemicals of all description; and quite
economical too. Recently polythene and PVC liners, as well as polythene lined drums, have
been made available and these are used for packing even highly corrosive materials like
hydrochloric acid. Proper sealing of the drums is essential.
(4) Bags of various types: Jute bags and paper bags are used for the innocuous chemicals
like Soda ash, Salt, Kieselguhr, etc. Polythene lined jute bags have been used for the
materials which need to be protected against moisture. Woven high density polythene bags
are being used for packing corrosive and water sensitive materials like Caustic Soda and.
Caustic Potash. Obviously, this packing cannot stand piercing and must be well protected and
handled such that the bags are not damaged. In transport, the bags must be properly stacked
and secured.
(5) Gases under pressure in cylinders: Quite a few gases like Chlorine,Sulphurdioxide.
Ammonia, Ethylene oxide. Oxygen etc., are sold in cylinders containing quantities ranging
from 50-100 Kgs. Steel cylinders are the commonest, but various kinds if linings are also
given for special products. The rules governing the design, testing and filling of cylinders are
quite elaborate and must be followed.
(6) Tank cars for bulk transport of chemicals are very common, particularly for petroleum
products, solvents, acids and alkali solutions. Tanks can be made of various materials of
construction such as steel, stainless steel, rubber lined FRP or FRP lined, lead-lined or any
other special construction. The tank cars could be in various sizes, holding 5-10 tons for road
transport or 20-50 tons or more for rail transport. Now a days long tankers/trailers have
been used to carry more weight.

The tank cars should be properly designed and fabricated to meet the service
condition. Contamination should be avoided, as it could be dangerous for the product as well

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Session – Safety in Chemical Industry
as the tanker. Good arrangement for receiving the chemical as well as discharging should be
provided. Vent valves and arrangements to prevent static electricity build up when handling
solvent, are a must. Gases under pressure such as liquefied natural gas, chlorine, etc. are
also transported by tank cars. Then FFE and PPE should be carried with the vehicle and their
safety rules should be followed.

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ISO 9001: 2015 OrganizationS

Session – Safety in Chemical Industry

Session - 5

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR TRANSPORTING

Railroad Transportation:
It accounts for quite a large proportion of the chemical’s transportation. The greatest

hazard in this mode of transportation is that because of the far-flung operations, it is not
possible to train everyone connected with the operation in the proper care to be taken. Proper
labeling of hazards involved is a help. Derailment and accidents are other hazards.

The preventive measures are:
(a) Improved design of the tankers and the couplers,
(b) Limitations on the size of the tanks,
(c) Positioning of the hazardous chemicals away from the locomotive
(d) Avoiding hunching together of hazardous chemicals
(e) Proper labeling of content and the hazardous nature of the chemicals.

A serious risk is that an accident may occur at a place which is not easily accessible
and where competent guidance may not be available. In the USA Dan organization
(CHEMETREC) has been set up to deal with such cases.

Transportation of Explosives by Rail:

Such rules (Railway Red Tariff Rules 62 to 74) are as under:
1. No explosives other than safety fuses and fireworks shall be transported by rail except
in the van specially constructed for the carriage of explosives and approved by the
Chief Controller of Explosives and the Railway Board.
2. Label 'Explosive' on each side of the carriage shall be affixed.
3. Carriage containing explosives shall be kept away from the engine (other than electric
locomotive) and close coupled to the adjoining carriage not loaded with explosives or
other flammable or hazardous substances
4. Not more than 10 carriages containing explosives shall be attached to any one train.
Not more than 5 carriages of explosives shall be loaded oi unloaded at any one time
at any railway station.
5. No explosive shall be transported by any passenger or mixed train.
6. Safety fuses for blasting, explosives of the third class (nitro compounds) in the form
of cartridges and not exceeding 2.5 kg in weight, detonators up to 200 (each weighing
up to 225 gms) and sporting powders and propellants in double packing as prescribed,
can be transported by passenger or mixed trains.
7. Explosive consignment shall be received at the specified railway premises only, during
sunrise and sunset and by an authorized railway servant only.
8. Shunting of carriages containing explosives shall be carried out under the supervision
of authorized officer. Shunting speed shall not exceed 8 km/hi and no loose shunting
will take place.
9. The packages shall be removed by the consignee within 12 hours of day light following
their arrival. The Station Master shall keep the packages at a safe distance and
covered with tarpaulins or other suitable material.
10. No explosive shall be carried except by rail across any railway bridge. This rule is not
applicable to carry safety fuses or gunpowder or nitro compound up to 5 kg or
ammunition Class-6, Division 2 and 3.

International Regulations concerning carriage of dangerous goods by rail (RID) and British
Railways list of dangerous goods and conditions of acceptances also provide rail transport
guidelines.

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Session – Safety in Chemical Industry
Road Transportation:

Road tankers are constructed in a wide variety of materials like steel, stainless steel,
lined material and FRP construction. Sometimes they need to be heated or cooled.

Road tankers and their fastenings should be capable of absorbing following
forces -

1. In the direction of travel-twice the total weight.
2. Vertically downwards-twice the total weight.
3. Vertically upwards-total weight.
4. Horizontally at right angles to direction of travel-total weight.
The service equipment such as valves, fittings, gauges etc. should be protected
against impact. Three types of independent stop valves - internal, external and blind flange-
are required. For certain gases like HF, shell opening at bottom is not permitted. Fusible plug
to operate below 93 °C is suggested in case of petroleum tanker. Spark arrester on exhaust,
a portable fire extinguisher, TREMCARD emergency kit and instructions to driver are also
necessary.
Display of class labels on goods package (e.g. box, drum) and carriage (e.g. vehicle,
truck, tanker) are compulsory u/r 129 and 134 respectively.

UN, DOT, ADR, or SOLAS-74 Classification
The hazardous chemicals/dangerous goods are divided by the United Nation

Committee of Experts on the Transport of dangerous goods into the following classes:

CLASS 1: Explosives

Division 1 - Substances and articles which have a mass explosion hazard.
Division 2 - Substances and articles which have a projection hazards but not
a mass explosion hazards.
Division 3 - Substances and articles which have a fire hazard and either a
minor blast hazard or a major projection hazard or both, but not a mass
Division 4 explosion hazard.
Division 5
hazard. - Substances and articles which present no significant hazard.
- Very insensitive substances which have a mass explosion

CLASS 2 : Gases compressed, liquefied, dissolved under pressure or deeply
refrigerated.
CLASS 3 :Inflammable liquids.
CLASS 4
: Inflammable solids, substances liable to spontaneous combustion;

substances which, on contact with water, emit inflammable gases.

Division 4.1 - Inflammable solids.

Division 4.2 - Substances liable to spontaneous combustion.

Division 4.3 - Substances which on contact with water emit

inflammable gases.

CLASS 5 : Oxidizing substances; organic peroxides.

Division 5.1 - Oxidizing substances.

Division 5.2 - Organic peroxides.

CLASS 6 :Poisonous (toxic) and Infectious substances.

Division 6.1 - Poisonous (toxic) substances.

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Division 6.2 - Infectious substances.

CLASS 7 :Radioactive substance.

CLASS 8 :Corrosives.

CLASS 9 :Miscellaneous dangerous substance.

See IS: 1446 for classification of dangerous goods.

Arrangement for loading and unloading of the liquid has to be well designed. It is
preferred to load toxic and flammable material from the bottom. It is preferable to provide a
discharge pump on the tank.

Drums, crates and cylinders are also transported by trucks. The-important thing to
see is that the chemical is securely packed so that spillage do not occur on the road and the
toxic vapors are not released. The cylinders or drums should be securely lashed so that they
do not fall off the truck and cause danger. The driver and the attendant should be fully
conversant with the nature of the material and the hazards involved.

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ISO 9001: 2015 OrganizationS

Session – Safety in Chemical Industry

Session - 6

PRECAUTIONS FOR WORKING ON PIPELINES:
Before commencing any work (including minor repairs) on Pipe Lines/Installations, or opening
any pipe Line for the same, the Engineer/Supervisor In-Charge of the work must ensure that:
The Liquid or Gas Supply to the line is stopped, the control valve is properly closed & Liquid
or Gas line is properly and effectively blanked.
The Liquid or Gas line has been purged/flushed with nitrogen, other similar gas or
steam/water, as the case may be.
In case of flammable Liquid &Gas, the operations involving open flames, sparks, welding etc.
are stopped. Hot lines in the vicinity of the job have been screened. Sigris, burners etc. are
removed.
A Fire Fighting Team of two persons with two fire extinguishers is standing-by near the job
site. After completion of work the Liquid or Gas valve is opened only by an authorized person.
The provisions of Rule 73-C of the Maharashtra Factories Rules 1963 are fully complied with.
Transfer of chemicals by Pipelines:
(within and outside installations, above and underground and submarines)

Pipeline Transfer:
Pipelines are required to carry a variety of materials such as water, steam, air, oil,

gas (inert or toxic, vapour or compressed), brine, solvent and other liquid and gaseous
chemicals. From storage tanks to process vessels, from process vessels to product tanks
and from there to filling (loading) points, pipelines are required. They may be above
ground, underground or as per requirement. Some 20 to 30% costing is estimated in
pipelines and their fittings like flanges, valves, gauges, nipples, glands, bends, elbows,
plugs, reducers, joints, couplings, ferules, vents, drains etc. Pipework may be of cast iron,
mild steel, stainless steel, lead, copper, plastic i.e. PVC, PP, HDPE, rubber, canvas, glass,
FRP, glass lined, rubber lined, Teflon-coated, asbestos cement, RCC, stone, ceramic etc.

Criteria for Piping Installation:

Main factors are - material of construction, design and layout, supports and clamps,
welding or flange joints, packing and gaskets, valves and other fittings, easy approach and
working platform and testing and maintenance.

Material of construction is selected depending on nature (corrosively, toxicity,
flammability etc.), quantity (weight, flow, pressure) and other parameters like
temperature, viscosity, colour, expansion etc. Thickness of pipe, its quality, welding
pattern, flanging is to be considered while selecting for high pressure and temperature. For
extremely hazardous chemicals, pipes are tested for inter granular corrosion and certified
before used. Insulation is applied to preserve heat and tracing (contact tubing) for
supplying heat to the inner material.

Various Codes like Indian Standards (hundreds of Indian Standards are prescribed
for variety of pipes, their fittings, couplings, threads, colour-code etc., see BIS Handbook),
ASME (American Code), British Standards (e.g. BS 1710, 1319, 537, 4159). and
International Standards ISO R 508 for colours for pipes for inland installations and on-
board ship. Indian Boiler Regulations also provide details for pipe selection, design,
fabrication and testing for boiler purposes.

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Safety Aspects of Pipe work:

Generally, probability of leakage from pipelines is proportional to the length of pipelines,
number of joints, valves, vents, bleeds, drains etc. and complexity such as number of pump
connections, recycle streams, hours of working, etc.

Therefore, it is advisable to:

Minimize pipe length, branches and joints, and flanges on vacuum lines.Provide welding
joints for highly flammable or toxic chemical, good gaskets and gland packing, flange guard
to deflect leak downward, flexibility to allow thermal expansion, bellows subjected to axial
movement, drains and traps at visible places, removable plugs on sample points, adequate
pipe supports, walkways, platforms or working place, proper slopping for draining,
overhead clearance for vehicle movement (about 6 m), ergonomic design for valves to be
operated and gauges to be seen, earthing and bonding to remove static charge due to flow,
overflow return from measuring vessel to a storage tanks, painting with colour coding
(IS:2379) and cathodic protection where required.
More pipework in dyke is not desirable, particularly with hazardous chemical, as it may be
trapped in fire in the dyke. Similarly pipelines of flammable or toxic chemical should not be
laid in tunnel, as its leak may spread from one area to another. Electric cables or hot lines
and flammable gas or liquid lines should not run side by side. Solvent line should not be laid
below the corrosive line. Seam joints of rubber lined pipes should be kept upward.

Piping arrangement should be such that in case of failure at any point, the system
can be quickly isolated by closing valves, without disturbing the rest of the system.
Flushing arrangement should be provided for easy start up and maintenance. Pipe alleys
should not run over the walking alleys, normal layout should be near the walls or in sides.
To allow for thermal expansion special joints or loops should be provided.

Emergency control valves should be easily accessible. By-pass valves should be
within easy reach. Auto control valve should have bypass or manual valve which may be
required in the event of failure of auto control valve. Particularly at the outlet of bulk
storage of hazardous chemicals, manual and remotely controlled auto isolation valve both
should be provided as near as possible to the outlet. Pressure relief device, liquid seal,
manual vent valve etc. should be provided to depressurize the system where necessary.

Many different types of valve exist. It is essential to choose the type best suited for
the particular operation it has to perform. For instance, if ball valves are to be fitted in a
high-pressure position, they should be trunnion mounted. Where positive segregation of
products is required, say at a multi-product manifold, it is essential to provide block and
bleed valves for continuous monitoring of valve seats and seals. For positive isolation some
form of soft seat with a wedge gate action is desirable.

Pumps must be designed not only to suit the immediate pipeline requirements, but
should take into account future developments. Thus, it may be necessary to stipulate a
pump casing pressure much higher than the pump can generate, if series or boosting
pumping is envisaged. Care should be taken to ensure that additional or larger impellers
can be fitted as the system demand grows. The maximum operating pressure for the pump
mechanical seals should match the pump capabilities. It may be necessary to provide
product filtration to protect the minimum clearance of the pump moving parts, particularly
on modern high efficiency pumps.

Flexible pipes, joints and hoses should be safe, sound and properly tested. Bolted
clips are preferred to jubilee clips. Proper supports or hangers are necessary.
Glass piping, equipment or gauge needs external protection to protect against external
impact or internal bursting and flying fragments coming out.

Layout drawings of piping and fittings should be maintained and corrected when any
changes are incorporated.

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Use of plastic piping is increasing. When it is used for hazardous gas like hydrogen,
LPG, chlorine etc., utmost care is required to ensure safe joint. Normally metal compression
fittings (rings and nuts) are used. Softer ring is preferred over hard compression ring. Nut
should not be loosened. It should be frequently checked for leakage. When any leakage is
noticed, first the supply cylinder valve should be closed instead of operating any electric
switch or spark generating device.
Semi-conductive material for hoses preferred over non-conductive or good conductive
material to avoid static electricity. The conductance should be between in 10-4 to 10-8 mho.
Failure of packing in valves, stems or flange gaskets, opening the wrong valve or
failure to depressurize the system before opening the joint and un insulated steam or hot
lines can cause accidents. Remedial measures are splash guard, replacement of gasket,
tagging and work permit procedure, colour coding and proper training and supervision.
In above ground pipe work, which remains isolated during normal operations, thermal
relief system should be provided to protect against increasing ambient temperature.

Underground Pipelines:

Petroleum products, crude oil, and natural gases are some of the more important
products transported by underground pipelines. The size may vary anywhere up to 50"
diameter and pressure up to 1200 psi. Pipelines are laid for long distances, often across
national boundaries. Booster stations are largely automatic stations requiring very fail-safe
devices. The pipelines are usually buried about 1-meter underground and must be
protected against corrosion. Leakage is likely to occur. The pipelines have to be checked
constantly. The biggest danger to pipeline comes from outside sources like unauthorized
digging and from corrosion.

Pipelines should be given special additional protection at various points along the
route as road and river crossings. Generally, they may be placed at a greater depth beneath
rivers and ditches to allow for dredging or ditch deepening. Concrete protection slabs may
be placed above the pipe to warn anyone who may excavate in the area. If the ground is
particularly stony or rock filled, sand may be imported to cover the pipeline or a special
protective wrap may be used.
During construction of a pipeline, all welds are visually examined. Generally, a percentage is
radio graphed to ensure that there is no cracking or undue slag intrusion and that there is
suitable fusion between the weld and the parent metal. The pipeline is wrapped to protect it
against corrosion once it is buried. The wrapping is normally tested by a 15,000-volt pressure
test to ensure there are no holes in it. Additionally, an impressed current cathodic protection
system is superimposed to protect against subsequent wrapping damage due to stones,
roots, etc.

Pipeline control systems should be capable of recognizing and measuring leak
conditions and initiating the appropriate action to shut down the system and minimize the
amount of product leaked.

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Pressure Relief Devices:
If pressure inside a tank rises due to any reason, it may burst the tank from its weakest part
or cause leakage from where it is possible. The content thus coming out is a material loss
and in addition, it may create fire, explosion or toxic hazard. Therefore, to avoid such
situation a pressure relief device is necessary.

A safety valve is a common pressure relief device. It can be set to a predetermined
(desired) pressure and when pressure exerted on it exceeds that pre-set value, it
automatically opens and allows the pressure to release in the atmosphere or in a
catch-pot or drowning tank if the content coming out is hot or hazardous. It
automatically closes down also, after release of the excess pressure. Safety valves
are of four types - spring loaded, weight lever, solenoid and pilot. Safety valves are
used to release gas or vapour but not the liquid.

A Rupture Disc is required for the fast release or more flow from a bigger size hole
or if internal pressure is too high or too rapid or the material is sticky and chokes the
safety valve.
This disc is selected based on many parameters (e.g. type of chemical, working
pressure, temperature, reaction, material of the tank, viscosity, corrosivity, toxicity
and flammability of the content etc.) One disc can be used for one pressure i.e. its
set-pressure cannot be changed like safety valve, and after rupture the same disc
cannot be reused. Once opened, it cannot reset at the lowered pressure like safety
valve, and will allow the whole mass to come out till the hole is closed or the disc is
replaced. This is its disadvantage. Therefore, it is inadvisable on tanks containing
flammable gases or liquids. Rupture disc can be used in conjunction with a safety or
relief valve. Then the disc will burst first without affecting the valve. If pressure is
further built up, then the valve will open. Pressure gauge is provided between the disc
and the valve to indicate that the disc has opened and what is the bursting pressure.
Imperfections in manufacture, installation or caused by corrosion can result in
premature failure of the disc. The rupture discs are used to release gas, vapour or
liquid.

Relief valves do not full open at set pressure like safety valve, but open slightly and
then open further as the pressure increases. They are of two types - spring loaded or
power actuated by electric, air, steam or hydraulic power activated by a pressure
sensor in upstream of the valve. Manually operated relief valves (like vent valve) are
also possible but they are to be operated after seeing the pressure in the pressure
gauge or after hearing an alarm. Relief valves are used for liquid discharge and not
for gas or vapour.

Safety-relief valves can be used either as a safety valve or a relief valve,
depending on the application. They are used for gas, vapour and liquids.

Fusible plug is a fitting filled with an alloy that melts at a predetermined
temperature (not pressure) and gives way to the material to come out. Fusible plugs
are used in boilers, domestic pressure cookers and compressed gas cylinders to
prevent violent bursting. They are used for gas, vapour and liquids of high
temperature.

Fire or Explosion Relief is provided by making the seam between the shell and the
roof of the tank deliberately weak so that it may rupture first and the shell stays
intact.

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Vacuum breaker is also a type of pressure relief device and works like a spring-
loaded safety or relief valve but in the reversed direction. The outside atmospheric
air pressure being higher than that inside the vessel, opens it to break the vacuum.
This is required when the vacuum may increase to collapse the vessel. This device is
used for air only.

Thus, a relevant pressure relief device can be selected from above discussion. Double
Safety Valves are required for bulk storage tanks of chlorine, ammonia, LPG, ethylene
oxide etc., for the purpose of double safety. In that case there should be slight difference in
their pressure settings so that functioning of both the valves can be verified by their one by
one opening or no need arising to functioning by the second valve as the first opened
safety valve works efficiently.
Where two or more safety valves are provided, their isolation valves are also provided to
replace them while keeping at least one on the line. In such case, isolation valves on the
line should be kept ‘locked open’ so that they cannot be closed unknowingly or without
authority.
If addition is controlled, pressure can also be controlled. In nitration process addition of
nitric acid should be at a slow or controlled rate, otherwise rapid pressure rise can burst the
vessel. Safety valve may not be useful in that event. An efficient flow controller (automatic
regulator) or an excess flow valve with a middle valve (for fine control) should be utilized in
such condition, along with the pressure relief device.
It is better and safer to keep the pressure under control by controlling heat source,
temperature or the rate of reaction.

Safe Entry Procedures to Confined Spaces (Including Reaction Vessels):

Before entering into any Confined Space for any repairs (including minor repairs), the
Engineer/Supervisor/Person-In-Charge of the work must ensure that:

a) Main Switch is put ‘OFF’.
b) Fuses of the switch are removed and a Board Displayed (“MACHINE UNDER REPAIRS

– DO NOT SWITCH ‘ON’).
c) Supply of Flammable Liquid / Gas is completely shut off and valve locked.
d) Doors etc. are locked properly in open position.
e) Physical stopper has been provided.
f) Door operation air valves etc. are locked.
g) Confined Space is completely free of toxic and poisonous substances/fumes.
h) Sufficient air circulation and ventilation is provided.
i) There is no deficiency of oxygen.
j) Hand Lamp used is of 24 volts.
k) Precautions for any welding work required to be done must be taken as mentioned

in the work permit for welding.
l) Proper arrangements for reaching the space such as ladders etc. are provided.
m) One experienced Supervisor is present near the Confined Space, supervising the

work.
n) Use of Safety Equipment such as Safety Belt, Helmet and Safety Goggles by the

person entering Confined Space must be ensured.
o) The Life Line of the Safety Belt is held by another person outside the Confined

Space, to enable pulling out of the person from the Confined Space, in case of any
emergency.
SAFETY IN PREVENTIVE AND EMERGENCY MAINTENANCE OPERATION

Preventive Maintenance for Repair of Guards:

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Section 21 of the Factories Act states that the guards shall be constantly maintained and
kept in position. Such maintenance is necessary because a machine running without guards
or with inadequate guard can cause Injury. Regular inspection of guards by Supervisor can
detect the guard removed, damaged or requiring repairs. A guard removed for repair
should be fitted at the earliest possible and meanwhile temporary guard should be installed
or the machine be stopped. Good maintenance increases the life of guards and vice versa.
A guard should be so designed or fitted that it is not to be opened for oiling/greasing or
nearby maintenance work. The parts needing regular service should be located outside the
guard. If oil/grease fittings are inside the guard, an extension through the guard should be
provided.
Interlock type guard ensures that the machine cannot be operated unless all guards are in
position. Such planning helps maintenance without disturbing guards.
If a guard is not able to control flying particles, fume, dusting etc., additional ventilation
should be provided. Large guards should have self-closing doors for cleaning. Space should
be provided in surrounding for repair and maintenance. As a code of Standard & Practice
Dangerous part of the machinery is given red colour whereas Guard is shown by Green colour.
Where green colour is not visible due to less light, yellow colour is preferable.

Work on Machinery in Motion for Maintenance Purpose:

Only trained person shall work on machinery in motion for maintenance purpose

During maintenance of a machine, normally a guard is removed and observation for fault,
alignment, repairing or oiling/greasing is carried out in unguarded condition. Such condition
may kill or injure' an untrained or unknowing person. See foregoing Part 1.2, para 'Work on
or near machinery in motion' for statutory requirement u/s 22 of the Factories Act.

Preventive Welding Work on Fuel Tank:

a) No welding work shall be allowed to be carried out on the tanks containing
flammable oils, fuel unless the material & fumes inside the tanks are completely
removed below explosive limit.

b) Nylon clothes not allowed. Provide cotton clothes.

Preventive Work near Dry Grinding, Dry Turning, Welding or Gas-cutting of

Metals, Breaking of Stones, Slag:

Suitable goggles or screen shall be worn to avoid chips, hot burrs, UV & AV rays sand
particles.

Preventive Maintenance on Electrical Installation:

a) Skilled & trained person shall be allowed to work on electrical Installation.
b) Do not work on live equipment to avoid electric shock
c) For Live line maintenance, follow electrical LOTO system after using rubber shoes,

gloves & mats
d) Ensure proper grounding. &earthing
e) Switches, Circuit breakers, isolators, shall be locked key should lie with the

responsible person
f) Testing equipments shall be calibrated for genuineness.
g) No outside material shall be left inside
h) During maintenance even a small bolt is to be replaced if missing

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i) Damaged insulation has to be replaced
j) Insulation is required of proper resistant
k) Loose contacts shall be corrected
l) Corroded, damaged elements should be changed
m) In oil circuit breakers the oil in which the arcing takes place shall be replaced
n) Earthing shall be checked for continuity periodically

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Session - 7

COLOUR CODING IDENTIFICATION OF CONTENTS
Indian Standards:

IS to be followed are: Code of practice for safety colours and safety signs 9457,
Pipelines, identification, colour code 2379, Standard colours for building and decorative
finishes 1650, pipelines in thermal power plants 9404, Identification for canisters and
cartridges 8318 and Gas cylinders and related medical equipment 3933.

Colours to Identify Hazards:

Colour coding is most desirable and useful for safety purposes. Standard colours are
used to identify hazards as follows:

Red - Fire protection, prohibition, danger, emergency stops on
machines, red cross on medical facilities.

Yellow - Risk, danger or caution, hazards of slipping, falling, striking etc.,
flammable liquid storage, yellow band on safety cans, material
handling equipment viz. lift trucks, cranes, crane hooks, caution,
transport equipment, obstructions, change in floor level, stair
nosing etc.

Green - Safety equipment not identified elsewhere, safety board, safe
condition.

Blue - Warning and information signs, bulletin boards, rail road uses. It
indicates safety colour only if used with a circular sign.

Orange - Dangerous parts of machines or energized equipment such as
exposed edges of cutting devices, inside of movable guards,
enclosure doors, transmission guards, electric installations.

Purple - Radiation Hazards

Black & White - Housekeeping and traffic markings. Also used as contrast
colours.

White is a contrast colour for red, green and blue. Black is a contrast colour for yellow.The
piping in a plant may carry harmless or hazardous contents. Therefore, it is highly desirable
to identify them.

The proper colour may be applied to the entire length of the pipe or in bands 20-25
cm wide near valves, pumps and at repeated intervals along the line. The name of the
specific material should be stenciled in black at readily visible locations such as valves and
pumps. Piping less than 3/4-inch diameter is identified by enamel on metal tags. Anti-
resistant colours should be used where acids and other chemicals may affect the paints.

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Following colour coding is also useful in identifying pipelines (IS:2379):

S. No. Material Colour

1. Water Sea green

2. Steam Aluminum, IS 2339

3. Air Sky blue

4. Acids Dark violet

5. Alkalis Smoke grey

6. Gases Canary Yellow

7. Hydrocarbons/ organic compounds Dark admiralty grey

8. Mineral, vegetable and animal oils, combustible liquids. Light Brown

9. Other liquids / gases which do not need identification Black

Entire length or a portion, more than 30 cm, of a pipeline should be painted so that it
should not be mistaken for a colour band. The colour bands are superimposed on the
ground colour, applied at start, near valves, joints, bends and end points. For a longer pipe,
interval may be 50 m. Minimum width of colour band should be as under:

Accident Prevention Signs:

Accident prevention signs arc most widely used safety measures in industry. Their
uniformity in the colour and design of sign are essential. Employees may be unable to read
English or may be colour-blind and yet react correctly to standard sign.

Sign Colour

Danger Red oval in top panel; back or red lettering in lower
panel.
Immediate and grave danger or
peril.

Caution Yellow background colours; black lettering.

Against lesser hazards.

General Safety Green background on upper panel; black or green
lettering on lower panel.

Fire and Emergency White letter on red background. Optional for lower
panel; red on white background.
Information Blue for bulletin boards.
In-plant Vehicle Traffic Standard highway signs.
Exit Marking See Life Safety Code, NFPA 101, Section 5-10.

Painting of Plant and Machinery:

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No lighting scheme can be fully effective unless well-chosen (and well-maintained)
finishes are provided on main interior surfaces such as ceilings, walls, plant and equipment.
The main object is to use colours which will reflect rather than absorb light. Diffused light
thrown back in this way can contribute substantially to the total illumination on the work. It
also improves the quality of the lighting by softening shadows and minimizing harsh
contrasts in the field of view, thus contributing to visual comfort and efficiency.

Because of full reflection of light, to paint the plant and everything by white colour is
not advisable, because 'only white' premises and equipment cause fatigue and boredom
and are no incentive for active or creative work if there is no combination of other colours.
Any extreme should also be avoided.

For ceilings, the reflection factor should be at least 75% which means white or near-
white. A matt finish is preferable. Aluminum paint is not recommended.

Furniture should preferably have a reflection factor of at least 20%, and the modern
blond (pale yellow) wood finishes and light grey paints for steel cabinets are preferred to the
old-fashioned dark stained wood and dull olive-green finishes. On desk and table tops which
form a background to the work, it is important to guard against distracting reflections.

Floors should not be too dark. Practical considerations usually govern the nature of
the floor finish, but 20-25% or so is generally a satisfactory figure. Floor finishes which are
very much lighter than this should be treated with caution since they can sometimes cause
glare (e.g. particularly well-lit office interiors).

A well painted machine inspires feeling of personal pride and proper maintenance is
encouraged. Under the General Code of Practice for Machine Guarding it has been provided
that:

Colour schemes for machines be so selected as to cause least visual disturbance to
the operator. Colour schemes should provide quite finishes of medium reflectance and should
separate critical from non-critical areas of the machine. Critical 'areas are those which might
constitute danger points or which need to be instantly visible. These should be painted in
local colours i.e. colours which command attention (Red, Orange, Yellow). Non-critical areas
are those which should be kept in the background. These should be painted in "Static" colours
(Cream, Stone Grey, Pale Green, Pale Blue). Control areas should be painted in suitable
colour to provide a neutral background for coloured indicator plates.

Guards should be regarded as part of the machine and should be painted in the
same colour as the colour of the machine. Coloring recessed surface of machines with
lighter shade than used for the outer surfaces help to minimize the effect of shadows on
the inner surfaces (Example: Static grey for outer surfaces, static stone for recessed
surfaces).

Identification colours on machines should be reserved for things which really matter,
such as stop buttons and other safety tripping devices which must be found quickly in an
emergency. "Safety colours" must also be used with great restraint. Dangerous moving
parts should be guarded, not coloured, and when guarding is impossible, colour should be
used to highlight the actual hazard and not merely as a general warning.

For paints IS: 5 and for building and decorative finishes IS: SP 1650 are relevant.

Preventive Maintenance Work in Confined Space:

a) Work permit to be drawn before commencing the job
b) Material creating unwanted, harmful fumes inside the confined space shall be

removed.
c) Oxygen % inside the confined space shall be measured. It shall be same as outside

the confined space in the atmosphere.
d) Size of manhole shall be adequate to come out of the confined space.
e) B.A. Set to be provided to a person entering the confined space.

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f) Safety Harness to be provided with a life line to be held by another person outside

the Confined space.
g) Outside person shall keep watch on the person working inside the confined space with

some signs.
h) Work shall not be started in the Furnaces until the workplace is much cool to work

safely for a person.
i) Safe Start-up & Shutdown Procedures:
j) Start-up or restart operation after a short or long shutdown and shutdown procedures

need special precautions. Starting sequence should be well defined, written and
known to the workers involved in this work. Starting in sequence of utilities like water,
air, power; purging, charging, slow and gradual heating, monitoring of pressure,
temperature, flow and reaction rate, cooling if necessary, starting of exhaust system,
scrubber or condenser etc., observing noise, vibration, speed, alignment,
synchronizing etc. are all important.
k) During start-up if drains remain open, vent valves remain closed, wrong valves are
operated, unwanted material enters e.g. oxygen instead of nitrogen as blanketing
over flammable reaction, water where it is incompatible, air instead of steam or steam
instead of air, excess or less charging of material or catalyst, delayed cooling or
heating, not starting of any pump or instrument, no indication or alarm due to failure
or malfunctioning of instrument in the beginning, no starting of local exhaust or
scrubber when it is essential and failure of interlock or trip resulting in unwanted
mixing or reaction, mixing of air with hydrocarbons, contacting hot oil and water,
thermal or mechanical shocks etc. are some of the examples of possible disorders.
l) Correct identification of pipelines, valves and gauges, correct sequence of control
operation, correct charging or addition-rate and instead of relying on instruments only
Counter-check of other parameters and strict manual observation and satisfaction are
requisite precautions for safe start-up procedure.
m) Attention should be paid on preparatory activity, verifying content, removal of air or
venting, purging and disposal of purged material, removal or addition of water, slow
and sequential starting of heating or cooling, gradual reaching of working
parameters and normal operation.
n) Other points needing attention in start-up are removal of shutdown blinds, providing
running blinds, opening of scrubber or discharge line valve, opening of isolation
valve before safety valve, starting of local exhaust ventilation, pump cooling and
priming, readiness of Fire Fighting equipment, leak detection, opening vents and
drains before allowing steam in the system, partial opening of steam valves,
introducing steam from the bottom part, observance of level and overflow if any,
safe increase in loading, avoidance of incompatible material, avoidance of moisture
and impurities in breathing air, purging of blow down tanks and flare, removing air
from vacuum equipment, inspecting joints and valves for leakage, verifying steam
traps working for condensate discharge, safe displacement of steam, water or purge
gas after their use, removing residual water before, introducing hot oil (initially cold
oil should be introduced), using heat-exchanger for indirect and gradual heating or
cooling etc.
o) Shutdown operation needs sequential steps like cooling and de-pressuring, pumping
out, removal of residual content e.g. hydrocarbons, corrosive or toxic chemicals,
water, oil, pyrophoric catalyst, disposal of effluents and sludge, drainage and
blinding and isolation activities. Heat source should be cut off, cooling may be
continued till required, where vacuum is possible due to cooling, inert gas or air (if
compatible) should be introduced to maintain atmospheric pressure, pumping out
material after cooling and de-pressuring and pumped out hot oil should be cooled
below its flash point. Residual hydrocarbons can be removed by purging with steam,
water or water followed by steam. After purging, air should be allowed into the

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system. Residual water should be removed. Lastly running blinds should be removed
and shutdown blinds should be installed.
p) If the shutdown is required due to any fault, the cause of the fault should be found,
studied and removed before restarting the plant.

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Session - 8

USE OF MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS
A safety data sheet (SDS), material safety data sheet (MSDS), or product safety data sheet
(PSDS) are documents that list information relating to occupational safety and health for
the use of various substances and products. SDSs are a widely used system for cataloging
information on chemicals, chemical compounds, and chemical mixtures. SDS information
may include instructions for the safe use and potential hazards associated with a particular
material or product, along with spill-handling procedures. The older MSDS formats could
vary from source to source within a country depending on national requirements; however,
the newer SDS format is internationally standardized.
A Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) is a document that contains information on the
potential hazards (health, fire, reactivity and environmental) and how to work safely with
the chemical product. It is an essential starting point for the development of a complete
health and safety program. It also contains information on the use, storage, handling and
emergency procedures all related to the hazards of the material. The MSDS contains much
more information about the material than the label. MSDSs are prepared by the supplier or
manufacturer of the material. It is intended to tell what the hazards of the product are, how
to use the product safely, what to expect if the recommendations are not followed, what to
do if accidents occur, how to recognize symptoms of overexposure, and what to do if such
incidents occur.

There are nine (9) categories of information that must be present on an MSDS. These
categories are specified in the Controlled Products Regulations and include:

1. Product Information: product identifier (name), manufacturer and suppliers’ names,
addresses, and emergency phone numbers

2. Hazardous Ingredients
3. Physical Data
4. Fire or Explosion Hazard Data
5. Reactivity Data: information on the chemical instability of a product and the

substances it may react with
6. Toxicological Properties: health effects
7. Preventive Measures
8. First Aid Measures
9. Preparation Information: who is responsible for preparation and date of preparation

of MSDS

The Controlled Products Regulations prescribes what information must be present in more
detail.
Always be familiar with the hazards of a product BEFORE you start using it. You should look
at a MSDS, match the name of the chemical on your container to the one on the MSDS,
know the hazards, understand safe handling and storage instructions, as well as
understand what to do in an emergency.
Employers must make sure that all controlled products have an up-to-date (less than three
years old) MSDS when it enters the workplace. The MSDSs must be readily available to the
workers who are exposed to the controlled product and to the health and safety committee
or representative. If a controlled product is made in the workplace, the employer has a
duty to prepare an MSDS for any of these products.
Employers may computerize the MSDS information as long as all employees have access to
and are trained on how to use the computer, the computers are kept in working order, and
that the employer makes a hard copy of the MSDS available to the employee or safety and
health committee/representative upon request.

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Session - 9

WORK PERMIT SYSTEM

Permit to Work (PTW) refers to management systems used to ensure that work is done
safely and efficiently. These are used in hazardous industries and involve procedures to
request, review, authorize, document and most importantly, de-conflict tasks to be carried
out by front line workers. Permit to work is an essential part of control of work (COW), the
integrated management of business critical maintenance processes. Control of work is
made up of permit to work, hazard identification and risk assessment (RA), and isolation
management (IM). Permit to work is a core element of integrated safe system of work
(ISSOW) systems, that along with risk assessment and isolation planning, enable as low as
reasonably practicable (ALARP) reduction of unsafe activities in non-trivial work
environments. Permit to work adherence is essential in process safety management.

Instructions or procedures are often adequate for most work activities, but some require
extra care. A permit to work system is a formal system stating exactly what work is to be
done, where, and when. A responsible person should assess the work and check safety at
each stage. The people doing the job sign the permit to show that they understand the
risks and precautions necessary.

Permits are effectively a means of communication between site management, plant
supervisors and operators, and those who carry out the work. Examples of high-risk jobs
where a written permit to work procedure may need to be used include hot work such as
welding, vessel entry, cutting into pipes carrying hazardous substances, diving in the
vicinity of intake openings, and work that requires electrical or mechanical isolation. It is
also a means of coordinating different work activities to avoid conflicts.

A permit to work is not a replacement for robust risk assessment, but can help provide
context for the risk of work to be done. Studies by the UK Health and Safety Executive
have shown that the most significant cause of the maintenance related accidents in the UK
chemical industry was a failure to implement of effective permit to work systems.[1]
Common failures in control of work systems are a failure to follow the permit to work or
isolation management procedures, risk assessments that are not suitable and sufficient to
identify the risks, and/or the control measures and a combination of the two

Implementation
Permit to work implementations usually use incompatible operations matrices. For example,
to preclude one workgroup welding or grinding in the vicinity of another venting explosive
or flammable gases. The permit to work system is for work being performed in accordance
with pre-approved procedures and that has been macro scheduled, the purpose is to
prevent conflicting short-term activities of different workgroups to prevent hazardous
interference.
Once a permit to work has been issued to a workgroup, a lock-out tag-out system is used
to restrict equipment state changes such as valve operations until the work specified in the
permit is complete. Since the permit to work is the primary de-confliction tool all work
activities in high risk environments should have a permit to work, specific hazardous
operations will then have a second permit for activities such as confined space or hot work.
Here the hot work permit is minimizing the risk of the individual task, the permit to work is
minimizing the risk of simultaneous incompatible activities.

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Permit to work systems that permit authorization and its traceability are necessary if they
are to be beneficial. Ideally one person should be delegated with this responsibility at any
one time and all workers at the facility should be fully aware of who that person is and
when the responsibility is transferred.

A permit to work form typically contains these items.

 The work to be done, the equipment to be used and personnel involved
 Precautions to be taken when performing the task
 Other workgroups to be informed of work being performed in their area
 Authorization for work to commence
 Duration that the permit is valid
 Method to extend the permit for an additional period
 Witness mechanism that all work has been complete and the worksite restored to a

clean, safe condition
 Actions to be taken in an emergency.

Confined Space Entry Program

Confined spaces may contain hazards that can injure workers or quickly lead to death.
Untrained and ill-equipped rescuers can easily become victims themselves. UW
departments, supported by EH&S, must follow the requirements of the Confined Space
Entry Program to ensure personnel working in or near confined spaces are protected from
harm.

The Confined Space Entry Program applies to any UW department that has space(s) that
may potentially be hazardous when entered. A confined space is one configured so that a
person can fully enter and work, but is not designed for continuous human occupancy and
has restricted or limited means of entry or exit.

Examples of confined spaces at UW may include, but aren't limited to:

 Boilers  Sewers

 Vessels and Tanks  Attics, plenums and crawlspaces

 Storage bins  Lift stations

 Utility vaults  Air handling units

 Sumps and pits  Cooling towers

 Excavations  Tunnels and pipelines

Confined spaces may contain a hazardous atmosphere, engulfment hazards or other
hazards, such as electrical, mechanical and fall from a height. These spaces require entry
permits that address the hazards, mitigations and required approvals.

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Hazards may also be introduced by activities performed inside the space. Use of chemicals,
painting, cleaning, grinding or sanding all create atmospheric hazards that can cause injury
or illness without adequate ventilation or other controls. Hot work (e.g., welding, cutting,
grinding, or brazing) in a confined space may release toxic gases or fumes.

Elements of the Confined Space Entry Program include:

 A written Confined Space Entry program document
 Inventory of permit-required confined spaces and hazards determination
 Development of department-specific confined space entry plans
 Roles and responsibilities for confined space entry supervisors, entrants and

attendants
 Confined space signage requirements
 A UW permit system for confined space entry including preparation, use and

cancellation of permits
 Methods for hazard mitigation, including air monitoring and use of entry equipment
 Rescue and emergency procedures
 Training of employees
 Contractor requirements
 Audit and inspections of the program

UW departments that do not expect to enter any confined spaces are not required to
develop a confined space entry plan. If a department or its contractor needs to enter a
confined space, they can contact the controlling department, or EH&S, for more information
about the space.

Ways to Stay Safe
 Always be current with your confined space training and ask questions if unsure
about any hazards in a confined space, hazards introduced from doing work in a
confined space, entry procedures or potential problems that may occur.
 Never enter a confined space if you are unsure of the hazards, procedures and
equipment, or if you feel ill.
 As an entrant, communicate frequently with your attendant(s) about the status of
your work in the confined space and how you feel.
 Understand and communicate to others not to enter spaces that are posted with
confined space signage.
 If you suspect a space meets the definition of a permit-required confined space, do
not enter the space. Complete the Confined Space Evaluation form and submit it to
EH&S for evaluation.

Work Permit for Hot Work
Hot work is a process that can be a source of ignition when flammable material is present
or can be a fire hazard regardless of the presence of flammable material in the workplace.
Common hot work processes involve welding, soldering, cutting, brazing burning and the
use of powder-actuated tools or similar fire producing operations outside of designated hot
work areas. When flammable materials are not present, industrial processes such as
grinding and drilling become cold work processes.

A hot work permit is a permit that is needed in some countries, and on some jobsites, in
order to perform work that involves a source of ignition when flammable materials are in
the vicinity or that can be considered a fire hazard. Welding, soldering, cutting and brazing

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are all considered hot work, as is grinding and drilling in the presence of flammable
materials.

Session - 10

FIRE AND EXPLOSION

Fire Definition: Fire is a chemical chain reaction (Oxidation Process) initiated by factors
such as Combustible materials, Air & Heat source with ignition temperature exerting heat,
light and poisonous gases/ smoke/ CO2 gas due to combustion.

CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE AND EXTINGUISHERS

Table A and B give the classes of fire (A to E) and portable fire extinguishers necessary
for them.

Table A: Classes of Fire and Extinguishers

Class of Description Extinguishing IS No.
fire
A Medium

B Fires involving ordinary combustible Water type 934

C materials like wood, paper, textiles, (Soda acid)
C
D fibres and vegetables etc. where the Water type (gas 940

cooling effect of water is essential for pressure)

the extinction of fires. Water type 6234

(constant air

pressure),

Anti – freeze types

and

Water buckets

Fire in flammable liquids like oils, Chem. Foam 933

grease, solvents, Petroleum products, Carbon dioxide 5507

varnishes paints etc. where a 10474

blanketing effect is essential. 2878

8149

Dry Powder 2171

4308

Dry Powder 10658

Mechanical foam 10204

Halon 1211 11108

Sand buckets

Fires involving gaseous substances Carbon dioxide 2878

under pressure where it is necessary 8149

to dilute the burning gas at a very fast

rate with an inert gas or powder.

Fires involving gaseous substances Carbon dioxide 2878

under pressure where it is necessary 8149

to dilute the burning gas at a very fast Dry powder 2171

rate with an inert gas or powder. Dry powder 4308

Halon 1211 11108

Fire involving metals like Dry powder 2171

magnesium, aluminum,zinc, Special dry powder 4861

potassium etc., where the burning for metal fire 11833

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metal is reactive to water and which Sand buckets

requires special extinguishing media

or technique.

E Fires involving electrical equipment Carbon dioxide 2878

where the electrical non-conductivity Dry chemical 2171

of the extinguishing media is of first powder 4308

importance. Halon 1211 11108

When electrical

equipment is de-

energized, same as

for Classes A & B

Sand buckets.

* Class E is omitted is some literature (e.g. IS: 2190)

Class K is suggested for fire involving cooking oils.

Table B: Types of Extinguishers and suitability for Fire (IS:2190)

Type of Extinguisher IS No. For type of Fires

1. Water type (Soda acid) 934 ABC D
4406 NS
2 Water type (gas cartridge) 940 S NS NS
3 Water type (stored pressure) 6234 NS
4 Chemical foam type 933 ** NS
5507 NS
5 Mechanical foam type 10474 S NS NS
6 Dry powder type 10204 NS
2171 S NS NS NS
7 Dry powder type 10658
8 CO2 type 11833 NS S NS S
2878 NS
9 Halon 1211 type 8149 NS S NS
* S = Suitable, NS = Not Suitable 11108 NS S NS NS

NS NS NS

NS S S

NS S S

NFPA classification of Fire Extinguishers

Class A : Fires in ordinary combustible material, such as wood, cloth, paper,
Class B: rubber and many plastics, that require the heat-absorbing coolant
Class C: effect of water or water solutions, the coating effects of certain dry
chemicals that retard combustion, or the interruption or the combustion
chain reaction by the dry, chemical or halogenated agents.

Fires in flammable or combustible liquids, flammable gases, grease and
similar material that must be put out by excluding air (oxygen), by
inhibiting the release of combustible vapor with AFFF or FFFP agents,
or by interrupting the combustion chain reaction.

Fires in live electrical equipment. The operator's safety requires the use
of electrically non-conductive extinguishing agents, such as dry
chemical as halon. When electric equipment is de-energized,
extinguishers for class A or B fires maybe used.

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Class D: Session – Safety in Chemical Industry
Fires in certain combustible metals, such as Mg, Ti, Zr, Na, & K that
require a heat absorbing extinguishing medium that does not react with
the burning metals.

Class K: Class K fires involve cooking oils. This is the newest of the fire classes.

Common Causes of Industrial Fire:

One study of more than 19000 fires in industrial plants revealed the following causes of fire:

Causes of Fire %

Electrical 19

Friction 14

Foreign Substance 12

Open flames 9

Smoking & matches 8

Spontaneous ignition 8

Hot surfaces 7

Not determinable 7

Combustion sparks 6

Miscellaneous 5

Overhead materials 3

Static electricity 2

100%

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Another study of more than 25000 fires reported to the Factory Mutual Engineering
Corporation from 1968 to 1977 gives following causes:

Causes of Fire % Share

Electrical 22

Incendiaries (deliberate 10
fire)

Smoking 9

Hot surfaces 9

Friction 7

Overheated materials 7

Cutting & Welding 7

Burner flames 6

Spontaneous ignition 5

Exposure 4

Combustion sparks 3

Miscellaneous 3

Mechanical sparks 2

Molten substances 2

Static sparks 2

Chemical action 1

Lightening 1

Total 100

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Above percentage indicates the frequency of fire causes. It is not indicative of their relative
importance at particular plant, place or property. These are old figures and old causes.
Change in causes is always possible.

These causes can be subdivided in many sub-causes as under:

Sparks may be mechanical, electrical, static, due to cutting and welding etc.
Hot surfaces may be due to bearings and shafting, stoves, heaters and small appliances,
petrol, kerosene, LPG, acetylene or alcohol torches, potable furnaces, blow torches, smoke
pipes, chimneys, flues and stacks, stationary heating devices, gas fired appliances viz.
stoves, heaters, boilers, salamanders etc.

Spontaneous ignition is due to oxidation of fuel where air is sufficient but
ventilation is insufficient to carry away the heat as fast as it is generated. Exposure to high
temperature and, presence of moisture increases the tendency toward spontaneous
ignition. We unslaked lime and sodium chlorate, rags or wash saturated with linseed oil or
paint, sawdust, hay grains etc., and finally divided metals promote spontaneous ignition.

Hazardous chemicals and metals like phosphorous, sodium, potassium, oxidizing
materials nitro-cellulose film and pyroxylin plastics, fuels solvents, lubricants, wood,
paper, cloth and rubber products, sprays and mists, LPG and other flammable or explosive
gases are known for fire hazards.

Hyperboles, pyrophoric substances, adiabatic compression, radiation, catalytic
action, natural sources, lightening, cooking equipment, electrical distribution and
installation, static electricity, arson, rubbish, playing with fire, hand tools, pallet material
storage and explosive dust, gas, vapour or air mixture are all causes contributing to fire.

Fire Load Determination:
After fire detection and alarm system and before fire suppression or extinguishing system,
it is necessary to know the fire load so that based on that, amount of fire extinguishing
system can be designed and number of fixed and portable fire extinguishers can be
calculated.

Fire load is the concentration or amount of combustible material in a building per
sq. mt. of floor area. It is defined as the amount of heat released in kilo calories by the
fuel per square meter area of the premises. Fire loads are useful to calculate the water
requirement to quench the fire, as when water comes in contact with burning surface it
absorbs heat. 1 cc of water absorbs 1 cal. of heat when the temperature is raised by 1°C.
The fact should also be considered that all the fuel does not burn at a time and all the
water does not absorb heat as it flows away.

Bombay Regional Committee (BRC) on fire has prescribed rules for fire load
calculation. Fire loads are calculated to assess potentiality of fire hazard, need of amount
of fire prevention and protection systems (e.g. water or other agent) and amount of
premiums required for fire insurance.

Fire load classification is as follows:

Low fire load - Less than 1 lakh B.Th.U.

Moderate fire load - Between 1 to 2 lakhs B.Th.U.

Higher fire load - More than 2 lakhs B.Th.U

See Rule 66A(11) of the Gujarat Factories Rules for area calculation by ABCD formula.

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WORKED EXAMPLES:

Fire Load Calculation:

For the purpose of solving examples, following information needs to be understood.An
important factor in establishing the basis for the assessment of the fire risk pertaining to
any building is the concept of 'fire load' which indicates the quantity of heat liberated per
unit area when a - building and its contents are completely burnt.All occupancies/buildings,
etc. can be graded according to their fire hazard and are to be provided for with suitable
fire precautions on the basis of the fire load.Hence, grading of buildings according to both,
fire load and fire resistance, can be made.

The formula for calculating fire load is as under:

Fire load= (combustibles in kg) x calorific value in kcal/kg

Floor area in square meters

 Fire grading of the structures:Structural elements of buildings are graded
according to the time factor which is nearly equal to but does not exceed the test
period which the element fulfills its specified requirements.

Accordingly, all structural elements have been graded under the following five
categories depending upon their fire resistance, viz.,

Grade 1......... 6 hours
Grade 2......... 4 hours
Grade 3......... 2 hours
Grade 4......... 1 hours
Grade 5......... 0.5 hours

Occupancies of High fire load:
Go-downs, warehouses, etc. This category as per I.S. specifications exceeds the fire load
by 550,000 kcal/sq.mtr, but does not exceed an average of 1,100,000 kcal/sq.mtr of floor
area. A fire resistance of 4 hours for these types of occupancies is considered sufficient.

(For reference, the maximum for this type in F.P.S. system is 4,00,000BTh.U/sq.ft
exceeding an average of 2,00,000 B.Th.U/sq.ft).

Occupancies of Moderate fire load:Retail shops, bazaars, stalls, factories, etc. Here the
fire load exceeds 2,75,000 kcal/sq.mtr, and is up to 550,000 kcal/sq.mtr. Occupancies of
this type should have a fire resistance of two hours.

Occupancies of Low fire load:Ordinary buildings for residential purposes, hotels, offices,
schools, etc. or occupancies having a fire load not exceeding 2,75,000 kcal/sq.mtr of net
floor area of any compartment, nor exceeding an average of 550,000 kcal/sq.mtr on a
limited isolated area. (for reference, the maximum for this type in F.P.S. system is
1,00,000 B.Th.U/sq.ft)

The fire resistance required by buildings of this category to withstand the complete
burn-out of their contents without collapse is I hour as has been found after tests.
Extensive investigations carried out in Switzerland and Germany have shown that the fire
load in offices varies from 10 kg to 30 kg/sq.mtr wood equivalent to 43,356 to 130,068
kcal/sq.mtr. This type of occupancy has a one-hour rating with maximum fire loading up
to 60 kg/sq.m. Equivalent to 270,978 kcal/sq.mtr

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Fire Resistance of Building Materials:

In flammable area when building materials and paints are used, they should have
good fire resistance. Steel and masonry are fire resistant materials. Fire resistive structural
material should be selected depending upon the type of fire possible.

There are three types of materials:
(1) Non-flammable viz. metals, brick, clay, asbestos, concrete, cement, gravel, ceramics,
sand etc.
(2) Hardly flammable viz. straw brick, dry gypsum plaster, fibre-board, linoleum etc.
(3) Flammable viz. organic origin such as wood, cardboard, felt, paper etc.
As far as possible non-flammable material should be selected.

Fire or flame resistance is the capacity of structural element to perform its load-
bearing and enclosing functions i.e. to retain its strength and ability to withstand action of
fire, for a particular time during fire.

The fire resisting limits of buildings should be high to ensure safety and escape in
case of fire. Such limits are measured in terms of time (h) from the start of the fire to the
indication of any crack or loss of load carrying capacity (collapse) or rise of excessive
temperature. The fire resisting limits also depend on the size (thickness and cross section)
and the physical properties of the building material. For example, 12 cm thick wall can
withstand fire for 2.5 h and a 25 cm thick wall for 5.5 h. Fire retardant coatings on wood
and flame proofing of fabrics are useful to some extent.

IS-.1642, 3079, 3594, 3808, 3809 and 6329 provide further details.

Design of Fire Safety of Building Plant and Exits:
The building should be protected both horizontally and vertically from spread of fire
through floors, stairs, walls, ventilating ducts etc. Fire resistant barriers can be used for
this purpose. A fire stopping is a fire-check wall of nonflammable material with a fire
resistance limit of at least 2.5 h. It may be blind or with fire resisting doors or gates.
Stopping can be internal, external, roof and separate (stand-alone) fireproof walls. They
are constructed to intersect the floors, ceilings and roofs with fiberboard of 30 cm over
roofs from non-flammable materials. Fire-resistance limit of doors and gates in stopping
should be more than 1.5 h. The total area of such openings should not be more than 25%
of the total surface area of the stopping.
Where the construction of stopping is not possible, fire check-zones (strips of non-
flammable materials) should be provided to divide floors and walls into sections more than
6 m wide. Ventipanes or smoke escape windows should be provided to facilitate smoke
removal during fire. Exits and escape ways should be as per statutory requirement. Width
of escape should be more than a meter and should increase depending upon the maximum
persons likely to use it.

High fire risk areas; storage, packing and dispatch areas, boiler and fuel rooms,
transformer room, kitchen and car parks should be separated by fire resistant
construction. Storage of flammable liquids and gases should be minimum possible. Gas
cylinders should be stored either in open air with shade or in a room of non-flammable
construction and ventilated permanently to the external air. Fire hazards of storage of
explosive and flammable substances, electrical equipment, static electricity, heating
processes, painting, sparkling etc., should be foreseen and fully protected.

Lightening protection of buildings is most important as the heavy electric charge
(up to 150000 KV and 200 KA) may prove destructive causing fire and explosion in the
ground structure. Appropriate lightening arrester (protector) should be fitted higher than
the highest object and covering the lightening protected zone. The resistance of the
grounding device should be less than 10 or 20 ohms depending upon its category.

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Fire safety should be well thought of from sitting: and location stage to the maintenance
stage as follows:

a) Sitting and Location: sufficient space, water and emergency facilities, effects of
past disasters, location of process areas for quick vapour dispersal and location of
control rooms.

b) Plant Layout: Segregation of hazardous processes and storage, drainage and
compliance of statutory standards.

c) Design and Construction: Relief valves, by-passes, rupture discs, explosion
vents, safety interlocks, flame arresters, flameproof fittings, selection of material,
fire resistant construction, Under Ground storage

d) Plant Operation: Limited storage of flammable materials, good housekeeping,
good ventilation, work permit system, emergency action plan and training of
employees.

e) Plant Maintenance: Reliability and monitoring procedures, inspection, testing and
preventive maintenance, spares availability and maintenance of fail-safe safety
devices.

IS-.1642, 3594, 6329,1646 and 15:2190 must always be followed for material and details
of construction of buildings, storage and use of portable fire extinguishers.

Causes of Fire & Remedial Measures:

Cause Remedial Measure

1 Electricity Standard and safe wiring, over load protection, double
insulation and earthing on portable equipment, ELCB and
waterproof cord in wet environment, use of proper flameproof
equipment in hazardous area and periodical inspection.

2 Bad house Storing rubbish, waste, oil, grease etc. in a waste-bin with

keeping closed cover, regular cleaning and inspection, bund (dyke) to

storage tanks of flammable liquid dust collectors, safe

disposal, incineration.

3 Bidi-Cigarettes No-smoking notices, separate smoking booths, checking of
match box, lighter etc. at security gates.

4 Hot Surfaces Good insulation, fencing, ducting for smokes and flue.

5 Friction Good lubrication, proper belt tension, alignment, dust
removal, inspection and maintenance.

6 Excessive Heat Cooling, temperature controls trained operators and
supervisors.

7 Welding Cutting Special place or partition, heat resistant floor, spark control,
keeping flammable substance away, hot work permit,

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flammability test in tank before hot work, use of proper
equipment.

8 Flame and Proper design, operation and maintenance, sufficient

Combustion ventilation and ignition safety, heater insulation, hood,

chimney, keeping flame away, trips and interlocks.

9 Self-ignition Keep environment cool and dry, necessary ventilation and
protection, keeping ducts and passages of waste and smoke
clean, separate store of highly flammable materials, not to put
oil-soaked rags on hot surfaces, lagging and cladding, small
vessels, good house keeping.

9 Self-ignition Keep environment cool and dry, necessary ventilation and
protection, keeping ducts and passages of waste and smoke
clean, separate store of highly flammable materials, not to put
oil-soaked rags on hot surfaces, lagging and cladding, small
vessels, good housekeeping.

10 Exposure Barrier wall, sprinklers on fire path, wire glass in windows.

11 Ignition sparks Proper equipment, closed combustion chamber, spark arrester
on flammable vent and vehicle exhaust, flare, trip.

12 Mechanical Machine guarding to avoid entry of foreign particle, fencing,
sparks magnetic separator, non-sparking tools.

13 Molten Hot Proper equipment with handles, better operation, and

Substance maintenance.

14 Static electricity Grounding, bounding, ionization and humidification, vehicle

(Due to belt earthing while transfer through pipeline, earthing of vessel,

drive, paper/ equipment and piping, flow rate reduction, avoiding flammable

plastic reeling, atmosphere, splashing and settling, using earthed probe,

human body, antistatic device, conductive shoes and flooring, copper

fluidized bed, earthing with earth resistance less than 10 Ohm additive to

pneumatic change liquid resistance, keeping filters away from storage

conveying, dust tanks, extending inlet pipe up to bottom to avoid free fall of

handling, liquid liquid, non-conductive parts and earthing of l4evel gauges,

mixing, flow in avoiding oil drops in water, small size of non-conducting

vessel or pipe plastic containers, using N2 instead of CO2 as inert gas,

agitation etc. electrostatic eliminators on paper / plastic reeling machines,

use of radioactive ionization etc.

Control of Fire and Explosion in Flammable Substances:
Fire or explosion in flammable substance is possible only when it leaks and forms vapour
in explosive range. Therefore, the first step necessary is to regularly check the tank,
container, piping, equipment etc. for leakage and to stop it.

Depending on the vapour density, ventilation should be provided at bottom or
upper level to remove accumulation of flammable vapour. If because of heating or cooling,

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the vapour density is changeable, the ventilation/exhaust system should be designed for
operating conditions and not for MSDS value.

Natural ventilation openings can be provided near floor, near ceiling or both. Local
exhaust ventilation with explosion-proof electrical equipment is the best measure.

Un-burnt gases or flammable vapour in combustion chambers of heater, ovens,
boilers, furnaces may form an explosive mixture. Therefore, in the event of flame failure,
proper venting or purging time should be allowed or a timed precognition purge cycle
should be followed.

a) A gas detector can be used to check explosive range in the suspected area.
b) Gas valves and joints should be frequently checked for leaks. If gas is present,

ventilation should be allowed before restarting.
c) Source of ignition is another contributory factor for fire or explosion. Use of

flame/smoke detector, flameproof electric equipment, proper earthing to discharge
static electricity, checking of spark or heat generating processes and their control,
hot work permit etc. are the remedial measures.

 Fighting Fires of Pesticides:

Pesticides when bum emit toxic fumes and when dissolve in fire water; it cannot be allowed
to run anywhere as its contact will become poisonous and birds and animals may die if
they drink it. Effect depends upon its toxicity and concentration in air or water. Hazard is
also faced by the fire fighters, and the people in vicinity. Therefore, utmost care is required
while fighting fire of pesticides.
Design of pesticide storage is most important in this regard. Fire detectors and automatic
sprinklers should work avoiding human need. Water inside must flow on well-designed
slope to go to retention basin and from there to the specific collection pond or tank to
collect polluted water. Such pond/tank should have proper fencing to keep away people
and animals. After the control of fire, this contaminated water must be treated for safe
discharge.

If fire takes place in open, persons fighting fire should wear self-breathing
apparatus, should not face the wind direction, feet, hands and body should be protected,
water should be safely diverted to a safe place and covered by sand, lime or any
inactivating media.

In case of solvent based liquid pesticide, foam and DCP may be more useful.

Other precautions include prohibition of smoking, keeping flammable pesticide
away from sun, heat and source of ignition, keeping people away from risk, calling help if
needed and cleaning up area and clothing after extinguishing the fire. Medical attention
and treatment without loss of time are necessary if any person is adversely affected.

 NFPA Classification of Fire Extinguishers

NFPA 10 classifies fires and fire extinguishers into the following 4 types:

Class A: Fires in ordinary combustible material, such as wood, cloth, paper,
Class B: rubber and many plastics, that require the heat-absorbing coolant
effect of water or water solutions, the coating effects of certain dry
chemicals that retard combustion, or the interruption or the
combustion chain reaction by the dry, chemical or halogenated
agents.
Fires in flammable or combustible liquids, flammable gases, grease
and similar material that must be put out by excluding air (oxygen),

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Class D:
Class K: Session – Safety in Chemical Industry
by inhibiting the release of combustible vapor with AFFF or FFFP
agents, or by interrupting the combustion chain reaction.
Fires in live electrical equipment. The operator's safety requires the
use of electrically non-conductive extinguishing agents, such as dry
chemical as halon. When electric equipment is de-energized,
extinguishers for class A or B fires maybe used.
Fires in certain combustible metals, such as Mg, Ti, Zr, Na, & K that
require a heat absorbing extinguishing medium that does not react
with the burning metals.
Class K fires involve cooking oils. This is the newest of the fire
classes.

Foam System: It uses fixed foam apparatus either automatic or manual. It may consist
of one or more portable foam extinguishers suspended in such a way that flame or heat
releases a cord or fusible link to operate the extinguisher automatically. Discharge rate
may vary from 15 to 4000 gpm. Foams are of two types - chemical and mechanical.
Chemical foam is produced by a chemical reaction of CCX, bubbles and a foaming agent.
Mechanical foam is created when air and water are mechanically agitated with a foam
solution.

Firefighting foam (gas-filled bubble solution) is lighter than most flammable liquids.
Therefore, it forms a floating blanket on burning liquid, cuts off oxygen supply and also
cools the fuel.

Foam system is generally used to protect fuel tanks, oil and paint storage rooms,
asphalt coating etc. It can be injected on the liquid surface in a tank to provide blanketing
effect and to cut off flames and vapours.

Foam is of two types - Low expansion and High expansion foam. Low expansion
foam is of four types Chemical foam, Mechanical -or air-generated foam, Protein foam and
Synthetic (fluorinated surface-active agent) foam. Foam generators of different types are
available.

Foam-water sprinkler and spray systems use mechanical foam equipment with a
deluge sprinkler system.

High-expansion foam is best suited for class A and B fires in confined spaces
such as sewers, basement. It is made by mixing a small amount (@ 1.5%) of foam liquid
into a foam generator where water and large quantities of air are mixed. Accumulated
foam can act as an insulating barrier for the surface not involved in fire. Thus, it prevents
fire spread.

Ventilation is necessary to vent the displaced air and gases when foam is being
applied.

Carbon Dioxide Systems: These are fixed, local or flood type. They are generally useful
for electrical, liquid and gas fires.CO2 system may be of high-pressure or low-pressure
type. In the high-pressure system, CO2 is kept in a compressed gas cylinder at normal
temperature, while in the low-pressure system, it is stored in an insulated pressure vessel
at —18 °C and 300 psi by mechanical refrigeration. At such low temperature more CO2,
can be stored economically. Safety valves are provided to take care of refrigeration failure.
Liquid CO2 can be delivered through nozzles at 15 kg/sec. In both the systems, CO2 can
be released manually or automatically through nozzles close to the expected source of fire.
Unlike water or chemical, CO2 does not spoil the stock or equipment.
In a room, compartment or small building, total flood system can be used where wall
openings can automatically be shut when the gas is released. Warning alarm to alert
people working nearby is necessary. Sufficient time must be allowed to evacuate the area.

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ISO 9001: 2015 OrganizationS

Session – Safety in Chemical Industry
In a confined place, the area should be well ventilated and checked for 0, content after
the fire is extinguished.

Dry Chemical Powder (DCP): Dry Chemical Powder is neither toxic nor conductor of
electricity, nor does it freeze. It is stored in an inert gas cylinder under pressure.
Installations can be provided for simultaneous closing of fire doors, windows, ventilating
ducts, operating valves, shutting off fans and machinery and actuating alarms.

The dry chemical piped systems are developed for fast extinguishment in a confined
area or for localized application. They are useful on flammable liquid and electrical hazards
and can be operated manually, automatically or remotely. The agent is kept in a
pressurized container fixed or mounted on vehicles.

Action of extinguishment is to interrupt the chain reaction of fire by the dry
chemical agent. Dry chemicals include Sodium bicarbonate as standard dry chemical.
Potassium bicarbonate. General purpose powder (ABC) and Monnex powder. If electrical
equipment is not involved, foam can be used to follow DCP application.

Fixed Fire Installations:

Fixed automatic fire installations are desirable from the design stage, as they can
be used for longer time and are more effective than the portable type.

(1) Fire Hydrants: Fire hydrants are economical and should be installed freely around
the plant. They should be kept accessible, unobstructed and protected for safety. Indicator
posts are advisable.

Fire hydrants, hoses, nozzles and couplers are part of the system. Fixed nozzles
are single or double-headed. Monitor nozzles are on swivel joint and can be turned as
desired and to clear any obstruction. Hose nozzles can be extended and laid (i.e. more
flexible) wherever required. They are of fixed flow type, adjustable flow (variable
discharge) type and a combination type.

The number of hydrants needed depends on the fire exposure and the hose-laying
distance to the built-up areas. The discharge ports should be at least 18 inches (45 cm)
above the ground level.

Fire Hose and Nozzles of standard size, double jacketed rubber-lined should be
stored in hose boxes and should be subjected to a full pressure test once a year. Space
around hose lines and control valves should be clear. Aisles and doorways should be wide
enough and clear to allow rapid use of hose reel cart or mobile equipment.

Monitor Nozzles are used in yards and large congested areas where it is difficult to lay
hose line in an emergency. The nozzle is so positioned to direct a high pressure water
stream over desired area and height.

Water Reservoirs are necessary for the supply of fire water at good pressure and
volume. They should not be used for other purposes such as process requirement. If the
reservoir is common, suction pipe (its bottom end) for process water should be at a higher
level than the suction pipe for fire water into the bottom of the reservoir to maintain the
level of reserved water for fire protection.

Water Supply from reliable sources is essential. Reservoirs, overhead tanks,
pressure tanks, pumps, pipes and connections must be maintained well. Flow discharge
may vary from 10 to 40 litres per second and pressure from 7 to 10 kg. /cm2.

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ISO 9001: 2015 OrganizationS

Session – Safety in Chemical Industry

TAC Guidelines for Water Supply for Hydrants:

Water for the hydrant service shall be stored in any easily accessible surface or
underground lined reservoir or above ground tanks of steel, concrete or masonry. The
effective capacity of the reservoir(above the level of the foot valve seat in case of negative
suction and above the level of the top of the pump casing in case of positive suction) for
the various classes of occupancies (as per rule 7.2) and size of hydrant installations shall
be as indicated in Table C hereunder:

Note 1: Reservoirs of and over 2,25,000 litres capacity shall be in two interconnected
compartments to facilitate cleaning and repairs.
Note 2: Large natural reservoirs having water capacity exceeding ten times the
aggregate water requirements of all the fire pump drawing there from may be left unlined.

Note 1: The capacity of the reservoir for Ordinary and High Hazard Class Occupancies
may, at the discretion of the Committee, be reduced by 2 hours' inflow from a reliable
source (other than a town's main) but in no case shall the reservoir capacity be less than
60% of that mentioned above.

Note 2: In case of Light Hazard Class Occupancies the minimum capacity of the reservoir
shall be increased to 2,25,000 litres if the highest floor of the building is more than 15 mt
above the surroundings ground level.

The capacity for hydrant service shall be determined by the class of occupancy and
size of installation as per Table D.

This provision will apply only in cases where the hydrant service has been hydraulically

designed as per NB 3(13) u/r 7.5.10.

Note: In case of Light Hazard Occupancies, the pump delivery pressure will need

to be 7 kg/ cm2 if the highest floor of the risk is at a height exceeding 15 mt above the

surrounding ground level:

Proper drainage facility shall be provided to drain the fire-fighting water out of the

basement.

Storage of material in the open shall be protected as under:

Metals, Metallic goods, Machinery and One single hydrant for every 60m. of the

goods, Machinery and other non- storage periphery located beyond 2 m., but

hazardous storage. within 15 m. of storage area.

Coal or Coke One single hydrant for every 45m. of the
storage periphery located beyond 2 m., but
within 15m. ofstorage area.

Other storage One double hydrant for every 45 m. of the
storage periphery located beyond 2 m., but
within 22.5m. of storage area.

Note 1: In case of open storage areas of following materials, at least 50% of hydrants
shall be replaced by fixed monitors having nozzle bore of 38 mm diameter if the individual
stack height is more than 6 m. and total storage exceeds 5000 tonnes.
Bamboo Bagasse.
Grass/Hay Timber.

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ISO 9001: 2015 OrganizationS

Session – Safety in Chemical Industry
Note 2: Where hydrants/monitors located along one longer side of a storage area are
more than 90 m. from those along the other longer side, such a storage area shall not
be deemed to be protected.

Protection for Combustible/Flammable Liquid Storage Tanks:

Note 1: In case tanks are located more than 22.5 m. from the dyke walls, one double
hydrant or two single hydrants shall be replaced by a 38 mm monitor.
Note 2: Where the distance of tank from the monitor exceeds 45 m. in addition to
provisions of Note I, the tank shall be protected by Fixed Foam or Medium Velocity Water
Spray System having prior approval of the Committee.
Note 3: Hydrants/Monitors shall not be installed within dyked enclosures nor can the
hydrant main pass through it.
Note 4:Fixed roof type storage tanks, floating roof type storage tanks exceeding 30 m. in
diameter and Bullets/Spheres containing products having flashpoint below 32 °C shall be
protected by Medium Velocity Water Spray System conforming to relevant regulations.
However, manually-operated systems shall also be acceptable.
Water spray systems shall not be insisted for Insulated Vessels/Spheres.
Water spray protection for small size tanks up to 10 meters. diameters in ordinary and
high hazard risks shall not be insisted upon.
(2) Automatic Water Sprinklers: They are of six types. Wet pipe, dry pipe, pre-action,
deluge, combined dry pipe and pre-action and sprinklers for limited water supply system.
Automatic alarms operated by the flow of water should be a part of sprinkler installation.
Such an alarm may be connected to a central fire station. The sprinklers should be
regularly checked to avoid their failure to work. Automatic sprinklers are most efficient
and widely used. It reduces insurance premium considerably.

Its basic function is to spray water automatically to a fire, the system can also work
as a fire alarm. This can be done by installing an electrical water flow alarm switch in each
main riser pipe.

Sprinklers should be selected on the basis of temperature rating and occupancy.
Their types are Either heat-element or chemical melts or expands to open the sprinkler.
Normal detector setting is 68 °C. Sprinklers heads normally cover 12 m3 per head. Amount
of water required depends on risk protected, flow range being 0.04 to 0.514 I/m'.

In deluge system, water is admitted to sprinklers that are open at all times. Deluge
valves (water supply valves) can be operated manually or automatically by an automatic
detection system.

Maintenance and inspection of water supply valves, system piping for obstruction,
nozzles and water supply tests etc. are necessary.

(3) Water Spray System: Water spray system uses water in small droplets through
special nozzles giving various pressures. The system is supplemented to and not a
replacement for automatic sprinklers. It should be checked that the water should not be
reactive with the material burning.

The system is similar to the deluge system except that the open sprinklers are
replaced by spray nozzles. The system is generally applied to flammable liquid and gas
tanks, piping and equipment, electrical equipment such as oil filled transformers, switches
and motors. To avoid short circuit, current should be cut off before applying tile spray.

The spray nozzle holes are smaller than those in ordinary sprinklers, therefore they
can be choked. To avoid this, strainers (filter or screen) are required in water supply lines.
The nozzles having the smallest holes, have their own internal strainer in addition to the
supply line strainer.

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