Unusual Patterns of Dental Calculus Deposits in Skeletal ...

Unusual Patterns of Dental Calculus chewing or sucking of a vegetable substance, perhaps
Deposits in Skeletal Material from the Site coca leaves, mixed with lime.
of Manzanilla, Trinidad:
Bioarchaeological Evidence for Habitual Dental Calculus. Dental calculus is a hard, yellowish
Coca Leaf Chewing? to brownish-black deposit on teeth formed largely
through the mineralization of dental plaque by the
Hayley L. Mickleburgh calcium salts in salivary and subgingival secretions. At
the base of a plaque deposit, which is generally an
Abstract anaerobic environment, precipitation of minerals that
derive from the saliva occurs.
Three cases of unusual patterns of dental calculus
deposits were identified among skeletal material The location of the salivary ducts in the mouth
excavated at the archaeological site of Manzanilla determines the natural pattern of calculus build-up in
(SAN-1), Trinidad (A.D. 350–1400). The calculus the dentition. The teeth and roots closest to the
deposits were found to be excessive, and differed salivary ducts are affected more frequently and suffer
both in location on the individual teeth and from greater calculus accumulation than the other
distribution throughout the dental arch from the teeth. Generally, the lingual surfaces of the lower
expected natural pattern of calculus deposition. The front teeth and the buccal surfaces of the upper back
pattern corresponds to known cases of quid chewing teeth are most prone to natural calculus build-up
whereby lime powder or other alkali are added to the (Bergström 1999; Corbett and Dawes 1998; Jin and
quid of plant leaves (e.g. coca leaves) in order to Yip 2002; Parfitt 1959; Schroeder 1969; White 1997).1
facilitate the release of active ingredients. It is argued
here that that these unusually large calculus deposits A number of other factors are involved in the
are the result of habitual chewing/sucking of plant deposition of dental calculus, and can lead to
materials in combination with lime, similar to the increased or decreased formation, including: diet, age,
practice of coca or tobacco chewing in large parts of sex, fertility, hormonal imbalances, hereditary
the Americas. predisposition, salivary constitution, mineral
composition of drinking water, and fluid intake
Introduction (Hillson 1996; Lieverse 1999).

Human skeletal remains (n=21) from the Saladoid Generally speaking any factors leading to
– Aruauquinoid site of Manzanilla (SAN-1), Trinidad, increased salivation (e.g. chewing tobacco), may also
were examined by the author during the summer of lead to increased calculus deposition, as minerals in
2010, as a part of an ongoing project focusing on the saliva are responsible for the deposition of the
dietary reconstruction based on patterns of dental mineral component of dental calculus. Factors that
wear and pathology (Table 1). Three cases of unusual affect the chemical constitution of the saliva may also
patterns of dental calculus accumulation were lead to increased calculus deposition, as the amount
identified among the sample of dental material (n=21) of certain minerals present in the mouth increases
used in this study. The calculus deposits were very (Anerud et al. 1991; Bergström 1999; Kowalski 1971).
large and did not conform to the expected natural
pattern of calculus deposition. Furthermore, none of The relation between calculus build up and diet is
the other individuals in the assemblages displayed any not fully understood, and research has led to
signs of abnormal calculus deposition. Based on contradictory results. The general principle is that
similarities with cases in areas of the mainland (Leigh because high alkalinity facilitates the precipitation of
1930, 1937), and the specific pattern of calculus build minerals from the saliva, factors which increase the
up and dental wear, it is posited here that these alkalinity of the oral environment in turn lead to an
unusual calculus deposits are the result of habitual
1 The term lingual surface refers to the surface of the teeth
which faces the tongue. The term buccal surface refers to the
surface of the teeth which faces the cheeks. The latter term
applies only to the back teeth; the same surfaces in the front
teeth are indicated by the term labial, which indicates their
proximity to the lips.



Parmar et al. 2008; Langsjoen 1996; Trivedy et al. Coca and betel chewing have also been associated
2002). with the absence of dental calculus accumulation and
the presence of other (extreme) dental pathology
The following excerpts from early work by Rufus (Indriati and Buikstra 2001; Parmar et al. 2008;
Leigh (1930, 1937) describe patterns of dental Langsjoen 1996; Trivedy et al. 2002). In these cases
calculus accumulation associated with coca leaf and research has indicated that there is a relation between
betel nut chewing which are very similar to the cervical-root caries, alveolar bone loss, ante mortem
patterns identified in the Manzanilla sample. Leigh tooth loss, tooth staining (betel) and quid chewing.
describes the characteristic redundancy of one half of Some of these cases also pointed out elevated degrees
the dentition with regards to food mastication, and of calculus formation, but there was no mention of
the unusually large calculus accretions at the location deviating patterns of deposition throughout the
in the mouth where plant material and lime are held. dentition.

“Lime accretions on the facial surface of the It appears that in some cases quid use leads to a
molars particularly were increased in size over demineralization process (i.e. the formation of carious
that from salivary sources only. Not infrequently lesions), while in others it leads to a process of
skulls are seen wherein the teeth on one side mineralization (i.e. calculus deposition). As a range of
evidence afunction, without any apparent dental pathologies, including both dental calculus and
pathological cause, other than large accretions of lime caries, alveolar bone loss and ante-mortem tooth loss,
on the facial as well as the occlusal surfaces. Of course as well as stains on the teeth have all been associated
these deposits would continue as a result as well with coca and betel chewing, it seems plausible that
as a cause of afunction” [Leigh 1937:290; these differences are the result of differences in the
emphases added]. manner of preparation and/or consumption of the
plant materials in question. In most cases calcium
“People addicted to the betel-nut concoction, an hydroxide or slaked lime is added to the quid, most
ingredient of which is pulverized lime, are subject likely increasing the oral pH levels significantly
to additional deposits from this source. The teeth (normal oral pH levels rage between 6.2 and 7.4 and
of individuals in this collection under thirty-five slaked lime is approximately 12.3) (Lingappa et al.
years of age are quite free from extraneous 2011; Trivedy et al. 2002). The fact that large dental
deposits; but with advancing years the lime calculus deposits are rarely found together with the
accretions become increasingly larger, particularly other mentioned pathologies may support this
on the facial surfaces of the molars. The lingual interpretation, as the amount of slaked lime or other
surfaces of the inferior incisors are free from alkali (if any), responsible for increased minerals and
deposits in practically all cases, in contrast to the high pH in the oral environment, added to the quid
condition prevailing on these teeth in the mouths may vary. Furthermore, the manner in which a quid is
of modern people. It would appear that the locus consumed (either chewed or sucked) must make a
of the deposits is determined in part by the great difference to the effect on the condition of the
habitual position of the betel-nut quid in the teeth. The abrasive and attritional act of chewing
buccal vestibule” [Leigh 1930:468; emphasis would result in removal of plaque (and thus calculus),
added]. and increased dental wear, whereas the act of sucking
and the increased salivary flow associated with it
“Attrition was not increased by the coca-lime would promote calculus formation.
chewing habit, as the dried leaves of the coca
plant, sprinkled with lime, were held as a quid in As a matter of course, it cannot be ruled out that
the oral vestibule for considerable periods of certain food preparation techniques may also
time, rather than chewed (vide supra coca contribute to unusually large calculus accumulations.
chewing)” [Leigh 1937:287]. In some regions, the techniques used to produce for
example corn flour involve the mixture of cal or
slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) into the foodstuffs
during cooking in order to increase the nutritional
value and flavor of the final product, and to protect it

from fungi (MacKinnon et al. 1990). Adding lime to Table 1: The 21 individuals included in the
the staple food in this way must affect the mineral sample; age and sex assessments by Weston
content and pH of the oral environment, perhaps
leading to increased calculus accretion. However, Burial Sex Age Period
there is no reason to believe that this may also lead to Arauquinoid
atypical distribution of dental calculus deposits 118A Female? 18-25
throughout the dentition, as the lime is not directly Late Palo
applied to a certain location in the dentition. Male Seco?
119 46+ Late Palo
Materials and Methods Seco?
180 A Male 36-45
The human skeletal remains used in this dental Late Palo
anthropological study were excavated during the 2006 180 B Female? 18-25 Seco?
and 2007 field campaigns at the site of Manzanilla Arauquinoid?
(SAN-1), Trinidad, by a team of Dutch archaeologists 189A - 9-10
associated with Leiden University and the Arauquinoid?
Department of History of the University of the West 189B Male 26-35 Arauquinoid
Indies. The site is located on the central-eastern coast Late Palo
of Trinidad, in the county of St. Andrew, close to the 197 3-4 Seco?
small town of Lower Manzanilla. It has been known Arauquinoid
to archaeologists since the 1930s, and a number of 214A Male 18-25 ?
investigations including test-pitting preceded the
larger-scale excavation of the habitation areas and 244 Male? 18-25 Arauquinoid
burials between 1997 and 2007 by the Dutch team. Arauquinoid?
The site is classed as a multi-component habitation 251 Female 46+ Arauquinoid
site, comprising at least four habitation areas – some
of which may have been contemporaneous – 255A Male 26-35 Late Palo
occupied during both the Saladoid Late Palo Seco Seco?
period (A.D. 350-650) and Arauquinoid (locally the 256 Male? 15-16 Late Palo
Guayabitoid) period (A.D. 650-1400). A large number Seco?
of burials were found associated with both the 265 Female? 46+
Saladoid and Arauquinoid components of the site. Late Palo
The Saladoid period burials were found in and around 267 A Male? 26-35 Seco?
a midden area, while the Arauquinoid period burials Late Palo
were associated with two house structures (Boomert 267 B - 9-11 Seco?
1984, 1985; Dorst 2000, 2006, 2007; Dorst and Altena Arauquinoid
2005). 267C Male? 26-35 Arauquinoid

Of the 27 individual skeletal remains available for 267/269 Male? 26-35 Arauquinoid
study 21 were incorporated into the sample used here Arauquinoid
(Table 1). The remaining six individuals lacked dental 273 Male? 46+
material. The physical anthropological assessment of
the skeletal material was performed by Dr. Darlene A. 291 Indeterminate 14-16
Weston, and all references to age, sex and pathology
of individuals in the sample made here are derived 292 - 10-12
from the results of her research (Weston pers. comm.
2010). 294 Male 18-25

The individual teeth in the sample were labeled
according to the system introduced by the Fédération
Dentaire Internationale (FDI) or World Dental
Federation in 1971, for reasons of its widespread
international recognition and its convenient numerical
notation which is well suited to use in databases
(Fédération Dentaire Internationale 1971). The
presence and degree of dental calculus formation was
recorded per individual tooth according to the three
basic categories of severity introduced by Brothwell
(1963). Although various other methods for
evaluating dental calculus deposits have been
introduced in the field of osteoarchaeology, including
far more complex approaches than the one used here

(see Ennerver et al. 1961; Greene and Vermillion Arauquinoid period. The male was found interred
1964; Muhlemann and Villa 1967; Ramfjord 1959), together with the partial remains of a juvenile (255B,
Brothwell’s three-category system of slight, medium secondary interment) aged 2-4 years (Dorst 2007).
and considerable deposits was selected for reasons of
its widespread use in assessment of archaeological Severe calculus accumulations were found on the
material and its simplicity and speed of application. right side of the mandibular dentition, extending from
While some dental calculus evaluation methods the lateral incisor to the second molar (the third
include exact measurements of the thickness of the molar, or wisdom tooth, was present, but only
calculus deposits and also record the relative position partially erupted and impacted). Unfortunately, no
of the deposit on the tooth surface (Dobney and right maxillary teeth survived (due to post mortem
Brothwell 1987), such methods have not been proven loss), however considering the severity of calculus
entirely suitable to populations with large or variable accumulation in the lower right dentition, it seems
degrees of dental wear, as is the case for Manzanilla highly likely that these teeth were also affected by
(SAN-1), and Caribbean skeletal assemblages in large calculus deposits.
general (Mickleburgh 2007, 2011).
Deposits on the right side of the dentition are
Case Descriptions largest on the buccal surfaces, but heavy calculus
accumulations were also found on the occlusal and
The three cases of atypical calculus accretion lingual surfaces.2 Calculus accumulations on the
found among the sample of 21 dentitions from occlusal surfaces are rare, as they only form when
Manzanilla are each described below. Osteological these surfaces are redundant, or in other words, are
analysis of these individuals was undertaken by Dr. not used in food mastication. Normal use of the teeth
Darlene A. Weston as part of a larger study examining for mastication of foodstuffs prevents the formation
demographic and health patterns in the Pre- of calculus deposits on the occlusal surfaces, as
Columbian Caribbean region. The age and sex plaque is removed by the abrasive action of the food
determinations of the individuals discussed here are across the tooth. The presence of large calculus
based on Weston’s analyses (Weston pers. comm. deposits in the lower right dentition indicate that
2010). these teeth, and therefore also the occluding upper
right teeth, were not used in food mastication.
The general dental health of the Mazanilla skeletal Another explanation for such large calculus deposits
population was poor with a relatively high degree of on the lower right teeth is the ante mortem loss of the
caries, severe dental wear, and ante mortem tooth occluding upper right teeth, thus making the lower
loss. Apart from the three cases described below, teeth redundant and susceptible to calculus
calculus deposits in the remaining population were accumulation. The upper right teeth appear to have
unexceptional; reasonably large accretions of calculus been lost post mortem, however, disqualifying this
were found on the lingual surfaces of lower incisors, explanation.
however this befits the normal pattern of calculus
deposition throughout the dentition. No evidence of Calculus deposits are also present on the left side
tooth staining was found in any individuals in this of the dentition and on the lingual surfaces of the
population. Temporomandibular joint condition for lower incisors, however these deposits are much
all three individuals could not be assessed due to poor smaller and more befit the normal pattern of calculus
preservation and fragmentation of the skeletal accumulation. No occlusal calculus deposits were
material, making it impossible to assess potential found in the left part of the dentition. It is highly
pathology in the masticatory apparatus related to quid likely, therefore, that the left part of the dentition was
chewing practices. used in all food mastication activities, something
which is corroborated by the fact that the left
Individual 255A dentition shows a higher average degree of wear than
the right dentition.
This concerns the primary interment of a male
individual aged 26-35 years who probably dates to the 2 The term occlusal surface refers to the surface of the teeth
which comes into direct contact with the opposing teeth or the
food (the ‘chewing surface’).



indicate a prolonged period of accumulation. Even influence the formation of calculus by increasing the
more interesting is the lack of mastication in the side amount of available minerals and raising the pH in
of the mouth that is affected by the anomalous the oral environment. The fact that the two
calculus deposits, as evidenced by the substantial substances have a different chemical constitution
accretions on the occlusal surfaces of the molars. does not rule out possible relations between the two.
Individuals 255 and 267-269 also show more wear on
the opposite side of the mouth to the occlusal In a normal situation the mineral components of
calculus accretions, indicating that this side of the dental calculus would derive from the natural mineral
mouth performed (the bulk of) the food mastication. content in the saliva. This natural mineral content
may vary under different circumstances, but there is
Overall, the three individuals described above no indication that variation in mineral content results
present a unique pattern of dental calculus formation in atypical patterns of calculus build-up (Lieverse
that is not reflected in the other individuals in the 1999). Even in cases where the mineral content of the
sample. These others are generally affected by small saliva is greatly elevated, the distribution of resulting
calculus accretions, which in all aspects follow the calculus throughout the dentition would be expected
natural pattern of calculus deposition. The possibility to follow the natural pattern of deposition (i.e. the
that these three cases of atypical calculus deposition lingual surfaces of the lower front teeth and the
are the result of a substantially different diet or oral buccal surfaces of the upper back teeth are affected
hygiene practices seems highly unlikely, as even then sooner and to a greater degree). The introduction of
the distribution of the accretions throughout the large amounts of extrinsic minerals into the oral
dentition would be expected to follow a more natural environment, and raising the pH levels significantly
pattern. As it stands, it appears that the three through application of lime, could directly influence
individuals with unique calculus deposits may have the process of mineralization of dental plaque by both
been engaging in some form of special activity. To the facilitating the precipitation of minerals and increasing
best of the author’s knowledge, there are no other the number of minerals (Klepinger et al. 1977;
cases similar to those described here in other pre- Lieverse 1999). The fact that in this case the minerals
Columbian Caribbean sites. However, the pattern do not derive from the saliva, explains the formation
found in these individuals is very similar to the of large calculus deposits on or near the greatest
pattern found in precolumbian dental material from concentration of the lime, instead of near the salivary
Peru, where it has been associated with the practice of ducts. As quids are typically held in the cheek, or
coca leaf chewing (Leigh 1937). Leigh (1930, 1937) tucked under the upper or lower lip, applying lime
first noticed such large calculus deposits on cause in an increase of calculus in these locations,
precolumbian dental material from Peru and therefore resulting in a different pattern of calculus
prehistoric dental material from Guam. At that time deposition throughout the mouth than would
the precise relation between quid chewing and normally be expected.
anomalous calculus patterns could not be explained.
Leigh suggested that the powdered lime (calcium Taking all of the above into consideration, the
oxide) that is added to the quid must have become pattern of calculus deposition in the three individuals
encrusted upon the teeth. from Manzanilla appears to be most consistent with
patterns which have previously been associated with
We now know that the chemical composition of the chewing of coca leaves with added lime. Of
dental calculus and lime is very different (Klepinger et course, as it seems clear that the lime is the main
al. 1977; Ubelaker and Stothert 2006). The deposits of cause of the anomalous calculus formation, it cannot
calculus on teeth not encrusted deposits of lime, as be ruled out that another plant may have been
Leigh (1930, 1937) suggests. This has led some consumed instead of coca. The practice of chewing
researchers to question the relation between the use tobacco or various other narcotic plants such as
of lime in the oral environment and increased and cohoba (Piptadenia/Anadenanthera peregrina) with lime is
atypical calculus formation (Ubelaker and Stothert well known for certain regions in the Americas,
2006). However, while the dental calculus and lime or including the Caribbean islands (Elferink 1983;
other alkali clearly differ chemically, introducing large Safford 1916; Wilbert 1987). However, both tobacco
amounts of lime into the oral environment should still and cohoba are known to have been consumed in a

variety of fashions, of which most prominently the Well drained, hummus rich soil is most suitable for
inhalation of smoke and snuff, which were probably the cultivation of this variety. Other varieties, such as
the most common manners of consumption in the Erythroxylum novogranatense can be cultivated in hotter
Caribbean islands (Elferink 1983; Stewart 1967; and drier conditions, even at sea level, provided there
Wilbert 1987). Based on what is known from is some moisture in the air and there is no clear dry
ethnohistoric accounts pertaining to the Greater season (Morris 2003 [1889]:187). Some varieties are
Antilles (de Oviedo y Váldes 1959; de Las Casas 1992, known to be indigenous to (some of) the Caribbean
1994) cohoba is generally thought to have been islands, e.g. the variety Erythroxylum areolatum which is
reserved for persons with shamanic powers, limiting known to be native to Jamaica and perhaps other
its use to a small number of individuals. Its use was Caribbean islands too, however this variety contains
not documented historically for the Lesser Antilles. only very small concentrations of the narcotic
The practice of tobacco chewing has been alkaloids for which coca is consumed, and therefore is
documented for the Lesser Antilles at the time of a less likely candidate for coca leaf chewing (Morris
arrival of the Europeans. Tobacco appears to have 2003 [1889]:187-188). It is known that the
been consumed by larger numbers of individuals in Erythroxylum novogranatense (and perhaps some other
the Caribbean islands (de Oviedo y Váldes 1959; varieties) have until recently been cultivated on
Elferink 1983) – again our knowledge hereof pertains Trinidad (Nevinný 2003 [1886]:21; Walger 2003
mainly to the Greater Antilles – and there is some [1917]:145), and contains relatively large amounts of
confusion whether some ethnohistoric accounts the desired alkaloids, however there are some
describe the consumption of tobacco or coca (Wilbert indications that this variety was introduced to the
1987), but as chewing tobacco would most likely leave island through European (colonial) intervention
visible staining on both the calculus deposits and the (Walger 2003 [1917]:145). The species cultivated in
tooth enamel, it seems unlikely that the three cases at the (western) Amazon region, Erythroxylum coca var.
Manzanilla were the result of tobacco chewing. ipadu, is known to survive much hotter and drier
Considering the above and Trinidad’s proximity to conditions than the variety grown in the Andes
the mainland, where coca leaf consumption has a Mountains and foothills, however as yet there is no
lengthy and widespread tradition, I will explore the evidence that this variety has ever been cultivated in
possibility of coca leaf chewing as the cause of the Trinidad (Plowman 1981). Therefore, while it remains
patterns. possible that coca was cultivated on the island itself,
this cannot be verified at this point in time.
Coca chewing/sucking at Manzanilla?
Alternatively, the three individuals buried at
The existing evidence for coca chewing at the site Manzanilla could have obtained coca leaves from the
of Manzanilla on Trinidad raises a number of (coastal area of the) mainland, perhaps through
questions concerning how these particular individuals exchange networks for various (food) products
obtained coca leaves for consumption. Trinidad lies between both areas. The use of coca by only a small
outside the conventional area of large-scale coca number of individuals in the group may be an
cultivation and consumption, which includes large indication that this product was deemed to be quite
areas of the Andes Mountains and foothills, coastal valuable and was perhaps ascribed extra value owing
areas of western Venezuela and inland areas of the to the distance to its source, however at this point this
Amazon basin. It is important to recognize that there is mere speculation. It is known from ethnohistorical
are over 100 different species of plant in the coca sources that coca chewing was practiced in the coastal
genus, of which a small number contain the narcotic region of Eastern Venezuela, as the practice was
alkaloids which reduce feelings of hunger and fatigue witnessed by (among others) Amerigo Vespucci in
(Nevinný 2003 [1886]; Plowman 1981). In the 1499-1500:
mountainous regions Erythroxylum coca Lam. is
generally grown. This variety prefers a mild but moist “Each had his cheeks bulging with a certain green
climate between approx. 600 m and 1,500 m above herb which they chewed like cattle, so that they
sea level, with temperatures not falling below 15 ºC. could scarcely speak. And hanging from his neck
each carried two dried gourds one of which was

full of the very herb he kept in his mouth; the chewing, but they have also shown yet another
other full of a certain white flour like powdered application for bioarchaeological research in the study
chalk. Frequently each put a certain small stick of social and cultural practices.
(which had been moistened and chewed in his
mouth) into the gourd filled with flour. Each then Still, while there is some convincing
drew it forth and put it in both sides of his bioarchaeological evidence for the practice of coca
cheeks, thus mixing the flour with the herb which leaf chewing by three individuals who were buried at
their mouths contained. This they did frequently a Manzanilla, a number of questions remain
little at a time.” [Brooks 1937 vol.I:189]. unanswered. The fact that leaves from a number of
other plants could have been chewed together with
The exact location where Vespucci witnessed this lime, and thus cause similar (or the same) atypical
practice is a point of debate, as scholars have patterns of dental calculus accretion, is the foremost
identified various places as the most likely candidate, among these. Future research may offer a clarification
including Isla Margarita, the Guajira Peninsula, the however, as a collaborative project between the
Paria Peninsula, and Marajó Island in the mouth of author and Dr. Jaime R. Pagán Jiménez (University of
the Amazon (Wilbert 1987). Still, despite the Puerto Rico, Leiden University) centers on extraction
confusion on the precise location of the activities and identification of botanical microfossils (starch
witnessed by Vespucci, it remains plausible that grains) which are trapped in human dental calculus,
inhabitants of Manzanilla obtained coca leaves from thus enabling identification of plants which made up
these locations, either through exchange or by taking the vegetable component of the diet to the family and
them directly from the source. genus level (cf. Hardy et al. 2009).3 An important
requirement for the successful identification of plant
Another possibility which must be considered is a types in this manner is the presence of starch grains in
mainland origin for the three individuals with atypical the part of the plant which is consumed that have
calculus deposits at Manzanilla. Migrants to specific morphological characteristics. As yet it is
Manzanilla originating from the South American unclear whether coca leaves contain such
mainland could have (previously) engaged in coca characteristic starch grains; a matter which must be
chewing, as the practice was (and still is) widespread resolved through thorough investigation of a modern
there. Providing the migrants moved to Manzanilla reference collection of coca leaves. Other potential
after early childhood, strontium isotope analysis can research avenues are the identification of other
shed light on the numbers of locals and non-locals in botanical microfossils such as phytoliths and
the group, and may even indicate possible areas of investigating whether specific alkaloids present in
origin for non-local individuals. Strontium isotope quid plants are preserved in dental calculus.
analysis of samples of dental enamel of 15 of the 22
individuals in the skeletal assemblage from Manzanilla Assuming that the plant consumed was coca, the
is currently being undertaken by Jason Laffoon question remains how the coca leaves were obtained.
(Leiden University), as a part of a larger investigation As mentioned before, strontium isotope analysis may
into patterns of human mobility within the circum- shed light on the origin of the three individuals with
Caribbean, involving a large number of skeletal atypical calculus patterns, which in turn may shed
collections from various islands and periods (Laffoon light on the origin of the coca and the practice of
2010). Laffoon’s analysis of the Manzanilla material is chewing.
in its final stages, and therefore new insights into
mobility patterns at the site will be offered soon. Acknowledgments

Future Work This research is funded by the Netherlands
Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) as a part
The preliminary results of this research have not of its 2008 Toptalent program (“Teeth Tell Tales”
only shown that a small number of individuals buried project number 021.002.097). The recently started
at the site of Manzanilla (SAN-1), Trinidad, engaged collaborative project between the author and Jaime R.
in what appears to be the practice of coca leaf
3 In very rare cases species can also be identified.

Pagán Jiménez is funded by the Leiden University References
Fund (LUF) Byvanck grant (“Van Maalsteen naar
Tandsteen” project number 10605/Byvanck). Anerud, A., H. Löe, and H. Boysen
1991 The natural history and clinical course of
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and for providing me with all available reports and
advice during the analysis of the material. I would like Bergström, Jan
to express my gratitude to Arie Boomert for his 1999 Tobacco smoking and supragingival dental
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Thanks also to Anne van Duijvenbode and Angus Bonfiglioli, B., P. Brasili, and M.G. Belcastro
Mol for proof reading the manuscript and making 2003 Dento-alveolar Lesions and Nutritional
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Author Information

Hayley L. Mickleburgh
Faculty of Archaeology
Leiden University
P.O. Box 9515
2300 RA Leiden
The Netherlands
([email protected])