Design World Motion_Systems_Handbook August 2022

Linea guide & ail • slide & way

loads. Like profiled rail guides, ball splines can rollers, or gears — on the outer diameter of the A ROTARY BALL SPLINE CAN INCORPORATE
be preloaded to increase rigidity and provide nut. This provides rotary motion in addition to the ANGULAR CONTACT BEARINGS (AS
better support for moment loads. linear motion of the ball spline itself. SHOWN) OR CROSSED ROLLERS OR EVEN
GEARS TO PRODUCE ROTARY MOTION.
Ball splines are fixed with rotary bearings Both standard and rotary ball splines are
much like ballscrews, and the end fixity (such as offered with a hollow spline shaft, which helps
fixed-fixed or fixed-floating and so on) influences with integration into systems such as SCARA
critical speed — as do the shaft root diameter robots … allowing electrical or pneumatic lines to
and unsupported length. Accuracy grades are route through the spline shaft. In fact, one of the
also assigned to ball splines in a way that’s similar most common applications for rotary ball splines
to those assigned to ballscrews — based on: is the Z-theta axis of SCARA robots.

• Radial runout and perpendicularity Linear ball-spline rigidity — a characteristic of
of the shaft ends paramount importance in designs that need a ball
spline to execute reciprocating circular or straight
• Radial runout of the nut body strokes or withstand vibration and impacts — is
• Perpendicularity of the nut flang largely dependent on ball-bearing preload. This
preload is the removal of all mechanical clearance
(where applicable). (radial play) in the ball-spline nut’s rotational
direction … and in fact, this value is often called
However, ball-spline accuracy classes aren’t negative clearance.
based on industry standards such as DIN or JIS.
That means one manufacturer’s “top-precision” So how exactly is preload (negative clearance)
accuracy class may be similar to another introduced into a ball-spline assembly? Well in
manufacturer’s middle-of-the-road accuracy class. many cases, the manufacturer sets this value at
the factory. But where that’s the case (or the OEM
Rotary ball splines for combined linear and or end user sets the preload) essentially this is set
rotary motion: While recirculating linear bearings by introducing a slight interference fit between
provide linear motion and ballscrews provide rotary the shaft’s grooves and the nut tracks (and their
motion, rotary ball splines fill the gap between the balls) that ride these grooves. In some cases, this
two — generating both linear and rotary motion. preloading is set by the inclusion of balls that
are slightly larger than those used in otherwise
Rotary ball splines incorporate a rotating
element — angular contact ball bearings, crossed

motioncontroltips.com | designworldonline.com 8 • 2022 DESIGN WORLD — MOTION 49

Motio System Handboo

Empowering
Automation

A gripper inspired by UNLIKE THE STRAIGHTFORWARD DESIGN OF A LINEAR SYSTEM BASED ON A BALL SPLINE,
the motion of a
human finger OTHER LINEAR-BEARING TYPES OFTEN NECESSITATE TWIN RAILS OR MECHANISMS …

ADAPTIVE DESIGN WHICH IN TURN INCREASES OVERALL DESIGN COMPLEXITY AND SIZE.
Finger modules flex multiple joints to conform and
adapt to various workpieces, offering an unmatched comparable ball-spline nuts. Elsewhere, the preload is introduced
level of versatility and application potential. by the slightest of offsets between the nut’s rows of balls and the
spline’s groove crests.
CONFIGURABLE SYSTEM
Modules can be assembled in radial or parallel hub So for example, a spline shaft having three crests will receive
arrays with one to five fingers in each position. flanking by twin rows within a six-row nut for secure bidirectional
engagement … and symmetrical application of preload. This and
WIDE RANGE OF USE an appropriate shaft-to-nut contact angle impart high-torque
Suitable for both industrial and collaborative robots. moment rigidity sans angular clearance … with higher contact
angles complementing preload with the most rigidity.
Visit phdinc.com/flexion
to see FLEXION in action. Most ball-spline manufacturers publish guidelines for typical
ball-spline applications and their recommended preloading or
clearance values. Most ball-spline manufacturers also express
preload as a negative value in micrometers (μm) ranging from a
positive value of say 1 to 7 μm — which in fact indicates a small
amount of intentionally included clearance or backlash — to -1 to
-20 μm for common levels of preloading or even -25 to -40 μm for
rather heavily preloaded assemblies.

One complicating factor in the specification of ball-spline
rotational clearance is that of inertia — especially in systems subject
to various load and speeds. Axes with high moments of inertia about
the ball-spline assembly will exhibit more backlash and degradation
of positioning accuracy. Even so, there are reasons to avoid preload
in the rotational direction for some ball-spline applications: Axes
involving modest loads and force requirements and axes that always
turn in a single direction (as on instrumentation that uses spinning
or scanning functions) are some examples. Other examples of
applications needing no preload include web-winding equipment
and certain axes on automated welding robots.

Light preload (of -10 to -20 μm or so) makes sense on motion
axes for positioning precision loads — as in semiconductor
applications, die setting (in machine-tool presses), or pick-and-
place arms tasked with populating a conveyor with delicate
workpieces. Lightly preloaded ball splines are also suitable for
axes involving oscillating loads and overhung loads (moments)
and various guide-shaft applications.

Another approach to addressing ball-spline backlash is to
employ twin nuts on a single shaft.

Ball splines with moderate preload (even to -40 μm) make
sense where a design requires the maximum possible rigidity for
an axis — even when subject to vibration and impact loading.
Such applications include axes relying on single ball splines,
lathes, welding machines, and off-highway applications.

50 DESIGN WORLD — MOTION

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Motion Systems Handbook

SCREW ACTUATORS – HOW TO
KEEP BALL SCREWS IN LINE

AS A BALL-SCREW SHAFT ROTATES, IT BEGINS cost, precision like a jump rope, as it turns. This
TO WHIP – MUCH LIKE A JUMP ROPE. THIS ground ball screws, while behavior limits the maximum
BEHAVIOR LIMITS THE SCREW’S CRITICAL SPEED. lower lead accuracy and travel distance that can be
some axial play is associated
Screw drives used in power with lower-cost, rolled ball achieved when high speeds are
transmission and motion screws. Fabricated by rolling or other means, ball necessary, and vice-versa.
applications are one of two types: screws that screw shafts yield a less precise, but mechanically
rely on sliding contact such as lead screws, and efficient and less expensive ball screw. The permissible operating
those that use re-circulating balls or rollers, for Ball recirculation inside the ball nut can speed of a ball screw assembly
ball or roller screws respectively. The sliding impact precision and repeatability. Thus, ball depends on two parameters
contact design is used primarily in applications nuts are available with a range of preload — critical speed and characteristic speed.
that require corrosion resistance and self- options to reduce or remove the axial play as Characteristic speed is determined by factors
locking operation, while ball or roller screws they rotate around the screw. Minimal axial related to the ball nut, including the ball return
are mainly used where high rigidity, high duty play allows better accuracy, for example, system and the mass of the balls. However,
cycles, and position accuracy is key. because no motion is lost from the clearance in improvements in ball nut manufacturing and
the balls as they reengage. ball recirculation methods have provided most
Ball screws have a few basic components ball screw assemblies with high characteristic
including a nut, a screw with helical grooves, Focus on ball screw whip speeds, so the limiting factor is typically the
and the balls that roll between the nut, the critical speed.
screw, and the grooves when either the screw Ball screws are often the drive mechanism of For a rotating shaft, such as a ball
or nut rotates. The balls are typically made choice in applications that require high thrust screw assembly, critical speed is defined as
from either steel, ceramic, or some hard forces with excellent positioning accuracy the angular velocity that excites the natural
plastic material. The balls are routed into a and repeatability. But one of the drawbacks frequency, or first resonant frequency, of the
ball return system of the nut and travel in a of ball screw technology is that speed is assembly. If the shaft is operated at its natural
continuous path to the ball nut’s opposite inversely related to length — the longer the frequency, it can begin to resonate, causing
end. Seals are typically used on either side of ball screw shaft, the more likely it is to whip, severe damage — or even destruction — to
the nut to prevent debris from compromising the assembly.
screw operation. LEAD DEVIATION PER 300 MM DEFINES THE MAXIMUM In theory, a shaft is perfectly balanced —
RANGE OF TRAVEL DEVIATION (PEAK-TO-VALLEY) OVER that is, its mass is perfectly distributed about
Ball screws are typically classified ANY 300 MM SECTION OF THE USEFUL SCREW LENGTH. its volume — so that when it rotates, there is
according to a few key parameters including no bending of the shaft and the center of mass
lead accuracy, axial play and preload, and life/ lies along the axis of rotation. But in the real
load relationship. world, even the most precisely manufactured
and machined shafts are not perfectly
Lead accuracy refers to the degree to which balanced, so the center of mass is slightly
the shaft’s rotational movements are translated offset from the axis of rotation. In addition,
into linear movement. With lead accuracy and because the screw shaft is supported only at
axial play determined by the manufacturing
method of the ball-screw shaft and the assembly
of the nut, high lead accuracy and zero axial play
is generally associated with relatively higher-

52 DESIGN WORLD — MOTION 8 • 2022 motioncontroltips.com | designworldonline.com

Linea scre

A LOOK AT BALL SCREW ACCURACY STANDARDS
Bal scre follow industry standards such as DIN ISO 3408, JIS
a curved line when unwrapped. This curvature of the helix represents

B1192-1997, or ANSI-B5.48 for accuracy classifications. Two of the erratic motion of the screw with each individual rotation.
most common ball-screw lead accuracy specifications are lead
deviation per 300 mm and lead deviation per revolution. In DIN ISO and JIS standards, this travel deviation within one
revolution of the screw is defined by the specification ν2π, whereas the
ASTM standard refers to this specification as wobble error.

Lea deviatio pe 300 m P itionin versu transp bal scre

Lead deviation per 300 mm defines the maximum range of travel The DIN ISO and JIS standards classify ball screws as one of two types:
deviation (peak-to-valley) over any 300 mm section of the useful positioning or transport. Positioning screws are denoted with the letter
screw length. In the DIN ISO and JIS standards for ball screws, this “P” by DIN ISO, and with the letter “C” by JIS. Transport screws are
specification is denoted as ν300, while the ANSI ball screw standard denoted with the letter “T” by DIN ISO, and with the letters “Ct” by JIS.
refers to it as maximum rate error.
Each type of ball screw — positioning or transport — is further broken
Lea deviatio pe evolutio down into numerical accuracy grades, with lower numbers indicating higher
(better) accuracy. For example, P3 and T5 are both DIN ISO accuracy
A power transmission screw translates rotary motion to linear motion classes (with P3 being higher, or better, accuracy than T5), while C1 and Ct7
through a helix formed around the screw shaft. When “unwrapped” are JIS accuracy classes (with C1 being higher, or better, accuracy than Ct7).
from the screw shaft, the ideal helix thread will form a straight line that
serves as the hypotenuse of a right triangle, with the other two sides The ν300 lead accuracy specification applies to both positioning
being the circumference of the screw and the pitch, or lead, of the and transport screws, although there are slight differences between
screw. However, variations in the thread helix will cause it to produce the ν300 values for DIN ISO versus JIS versions. However, lead
deviation per revolution, ν2π, is only defined for positioning screws.

its ends, it bends somewhat under its own of mass and the axis of rotation produces approaches or reaches the natural frequency of
weight, moving the center of mass even farther centrifugal forces, which cause the shaft to the screw shaft, resonance can ensue and lead
from the axis of rotation. As the ball screw shaft deflect, or whip, like a jump rope. to increased noise, damage, and, in extreme
rotates, the discrepancy between the center cases, yielding of the shaft.
If this vibration — or ball screw whip —

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motioncontroltips.com | designworldonline.com 8 • 2022 DESIGN WORLD — MOTION 53

Motio System Handboo

FRAMELESS SERVO MOTORS, SUCH AS THE TBM2G
SERIES FROM KOLLMORGEN, ARE MOST SUITABLE FOR
ROBOTIC APPLICATIONS IN MEDICINE AND AEROSPACE
WHERE THEY OFFER HIGH-PERFORMANCE TORQUE IN A
COMPACT PACKAGE. THESE MOTORS ENABLE ROBOTS
WITH LOWER JOINT WEIGHT, HIGHER LOAD-CARRYING
CAPACITY, AND IMPROVED ENERGY EFFICIENCY FOR
FASTER AND SMOOTHER MOVEMENTS.

MOTOR OPTIONS FOR PRECISE POSITIONING

F motion applications that need Servo motors are the other common choice. and commutation is a continuous, sinusoidal
precise positioning, there are a Servo motors are used in applications where waveform. This gives synchronous ac motors
few different types of motors that are suitable precise control of position, speed, or torque is smooth performance. BLDC motors, on the other
in such cases. For instance, stepper motors required. But many different types of motors hand, have trapezoidally wound stator coils and
work for precise positioning and control can be considered servo motors — the commutation that takes place in six steps (every
with torque. Intermittent moves are what defining feature of a servo motor is that it 60 degrees), which can lead to torque ripple.
steppers output best. Stepper motors are incorporates or reads feedback in a closed-
also suitable on axes that must hold loads still loop system. In fact, although many servo BLDC mot constructio variation
for extended lengths of time, as the motors applications use synchronous ac motors, dc
can remain in one position indefinitely. With motors can also be used in servo systems. Brushless dc motors are typically constructed
proper design and damping, the motors can with a stator made from slotted steel
also output motion with minimal velocity Synchronous ac motors are typically laminations and copper windings inserted into
ripple. Additionally, stepper motors have brushless, with the exception being universal the slots. Slotted designs can be constructed
high repeatability and are reliable. From a motors, which are mechanically commutated with the rotor at the center of the motor and
cost perspective, they are often far cheaper with brushes and can run on either an ac or dc the stator surrounding the rotor (sometimes
than servomotors and can often be used in power supply. Likewise, the dc motors used in referred to as an “inrunner,” or internal rotor,
applications where servomotors are used servo systems are most commonly brushless design). This reduces the motor’s inertia and
with significant savings. However, stepper types, typically referred to as BLDC motors. allows for dynamic performance.
motors shouldn’t be used in applications with Note that brushed dc motors are capable
continuous operation. When applications of operating in a servo system, but the wear Alternatively, slotted BLDC motors can
need motors to operate nonstop, steppers and maintenance they require — due to the be constructed with the slotted stator at the
exhibit dwindling efficiency and torque. mechanical brushes and commutator — make center of the motor and the rotor magnets
them less desirable for most servo applications. surrounding the stator (sometimes referred to
as an “outrunner,” or external rotor, design).
Recall that brushless dc motors use This allows the motor to produce high torque
permanent magnets on the rotor and coils in and to be constructed with a short overall
the stator to produce rotation (and torque). length (referred to as a “flat” design), but
This configuration is similar to a synchronous at the expense of reduced dynamics due to
ac motor, but a key difference between BLDC higher rotor inertia.
motors and synchronous ac motors is in how
the stator coils are wound. In a synchronous Whether constructed with an internal or
ac motor, the coils are wound sinusoidally external rotor, slotted BLDC motors suffer
from cogging torque due to the permanent

54 DESIGN WORLD — MOTION 8 • 2022 motioncontroltips.com | designworldonline.com



Motion Systems Handbook

magnets in the rotor attempting to line up with the production for a given size), but without the
slots of the stator. The primary effect of cogging magnitude of torque production that can be
torque is that it causes motor rotation to be jerky, provided by larger, synchronous ac motors.
especially at low motor speeds. Common applications for BLDC servo motors
include robot joints, medical devices, and
A newer permutation of the BLDC motor is packaging equipment. BLDC motors are
the slotless design. This design does away with also suitable for battery-powered equipment
the slotted steel laminations and instead uses a and for applications that require direct
stator constructed of steel rings stacked together, integration of the motor into the mechanical
with the windings encapsulated in an epoxy resin. design, thanks to their numerous design
The winding is placed in the air gap between the options and the myriad ways they
stator lamination and the rotor, which resides in the can be customized.
center of the motor. The slotless design eliminates
cogging torque, reduces audible noise, and reduces NEWER BRUSHLESS SLOTTED FLAT MOTORS, SUCH AS THE 32ECF FROM
inductance, so acceleration and dynamic response PORTESCAP, FEATURE AN 8-POLE DESIGN AND HIGH-POWER DENSITY IN
are improved over slotted designs. A FLAT ARCHITECTURE. THE MOTOR DIAMETER IS 32 MM AND IT USES AN
OUTER ROTOR CONFIGURATION WITH AN AIR GAP BETWEEN THE COIL AND
BLDC motors are often used in servo MAGNETIC STRUCTURE THAT IS MANAGED RADIALLY. SUCH SMALL MOTORS
applications that require high efficiency, ARE SUITABLE FOR APPLICATIONS WHERE SPACE IS LIMITED SUCH AS IN LAB
high reliability, and good AUTOMATION AND ROBOTICS.
torque density (torque

MOTION DESIGN GUIDES
A collection of key motion control technology
topics available for download

CHECK OUT Design World’s online Motion BOOKMARK:
Design Guide Digital Library. The editors designworldonline.com/design-guide-library
of Design World produce relevant content
broken out by key technologies. Additional Design
Guides are added on
Motion Design Guide categories include an ongoing basis.
(but are not limited to):
• Linear Actuators
• Gearmotors
• Gearboxes
• Couplings
• DC Motors
• Linear Guides + more

56 DESIGN WORLD — MOTION 8 • 2022 motioncontroltips.com | designworldonline.com

Meeting Customer Needs with Diverse Product
Categories and Customized Products

Linear Piezo Motor DC Brushless Servo Motor

Canon Precision proprietary technology and internal production systems provide our partners
with micro-motor design flexibility, quality control and rapid delivery.

Canon Precision motors can also be equipped with optional gear units and encoders and can
be optimized to meet your size, speed, gear ratio and reliability requirements.

CANON U.S.A., INC.
Motion Control Products
3300 North 1st Street • San Jose, CA 95134
TEL: 1-408-468-2320 • Email: [email protected]
www.usa.canon.com/

Canon is registered trademark of Canon Inc. in the United States, and may also be registered trademarks or trademarks in other countries. All other referenced product names and
marks are trademarks of their respective owners. Specifications and availability subject to change. Not responsible for typographical errors.
©2021 Canon U.S.A., Inc. All rights reserved.

Motio System Handboo

MINIATURE SHOCK ABSORBERS.
| COURTESY OF ACE CONTROLS

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
AUTOMOTIVE AND INDUSTRIAL

SHOCK ABSORBERS

You first thought upon hearing the Springin int actio better than most how fluid dynamics govern
term shock absorber leads your the behavior of shock absorbers and that
Springs naturally oscillate when attached to a friction from pads on steel is not the only way
mind to the cylindrical tubes mounted to mass spurred into motion. The oscillation rate to convert motion into heat.
depends on the weight of the mass and the
the four corners of your vehicle’s suspension spring’s constant or spring rate. The spring Restricting fluid motion under pressure
rate defines the compressibility of the spring, offers a convenient and controllable energy
system. Other than the misnomer (“shocks”), usually described in pounds per inch. For conversion method. The kinetic energy comes
example, if 200 lb were loaded onto a spring, from the imparted inertia created when a
your correct thinking applies to the term. Even causing it to compress 2 in., the spring rate vehicle dives, pitches, rolls or hits a bump or
is 100 lb/in. A loaded spring will oscillate hole. The pressure created inside the shock
the term “shock absorber” is a bit misleading, indefinitely in a vacuum with no friction, but on absorber must go somewhere, or the entire
a vehicle, friction eventually tames the spring unit would just blow apart. Orifices inside the
and industry professionals may prefer you to until it once again achieves balance. piston of monotube “shocks” restrict flow and
convert the hydraulic energy into heat as the
call them dampers. But just as another vehicle Although spring motion is periodic, fluid passes under pressure.
meaning it will continue to oscillate until
suspension component — the anti-roll bar – is prevented from doing so, you can view this A loo a desig
motion as linear. Linear motion such as the
sullied with “roll bar,” we’ve learned to live forward travel of a vehicle will continue until Shock absorbers are essentially small-bore
acted upon by an outside force, assuming we hydraulic cylinders equipped (or drilled) with
with such colloquial terms. ignore friction. For example, a vehicle uses orifices in the piston. Those orifices’ combined
brakes to convert its inertia into heat, slowing cross-sectional area dictates the piston’s flow rate
Vehicle shock absorbers don’t even absorb the vehicle to a stop. The same effect must potential. The “compound orifice” of the drillings
shock the way you assume. A vehicle with be applied to a spring — its inertia must be equates to an overall orifice size that adheres to
only four coil springs will absorb the impacts converted to heat to slow the oscillation. any chart displaying pressure versus flow curves.
of bumps just fine — only once the spring The smaller the orifice size, the less flow across
compresses to absorb that bump, the energy Most intuitively know that shock absorbers the shock absorber piston and the higher spring
stored in that compression releases to expand slow the spring’s oscillation (and therefore the braking effect.
the spring past its previous resting point. If vehicle’s bouncing) but are unaware they do
you’ve experienced a ride in a vehicle with so by converting that motion into heat. As a Larger orifices result in a more relaxed
“blown shocks” or driven in any American-made fluid power professional, you probably know damping effect on the spring oscillation, while
sedan from the 1980s, you’ll remember the
wallowing that occurred after a large bump.
The vehicle would continue to oscillate until the
chassis settled down once again.

58 DESIGN WORLD — MOTION 8 • 2022 motioncontroltips.com | designworldonline.com

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Motio System Handboo

ELASTOMER, RUBBER PADS FOR
VIBRATION AND SHOCK REDUCING

Elastome , synthetic and

rubber pads damp vibration
and isolate shock loads. They
come in tubes, bushings,
blocks, pads and washers, to
work in heavy-duty applications
while delivering strong
cushioning for cranes, presses,
pipelines and bridges; they also excel in vibration reduction for lab and testing
equipment and aerospace.

Rubber-like materials let these padding elements satisfy specific requirements related to

natural frequency, load, and area. Because they are soft, they are also forgiving.

Predicting the natural frequency of an application lets material manufacturers target

known disturbance frequencies to dissipate energy. The lower the ratio of natural system

frequency to disturbance frequency, the more it’s possible to isolate problem vibrations.

These cushioning plates can protect machinery subsystems against impacts

INDUSTRIAL GAS and isolate vibration and structure-borne noise. For example, PAD plates
SPRINGS ARE THE
SMART WAY TO from ACE Controls withstand compressive loads to 10,000 psi or 69 N/
LIFT AND LOWER
mm2 depending on plate form and size.
• Enhance operator and
machine control through the Sorbothane (from a company with the same name)
entire range of motion without
excess strength is a thermoset that attenuates shock with near-faultless

• Perfect support of muscle memory. Deformation is elastic and not plastic, so pads
power with forces from 2 to
2,923 lbs. of the material reliably return to their original shape.

• Stainless steel options Custom pieces of the material work for vibration and
for wash down and sterile
environments acoustic damping and isolation. Sorbothane turns

• A variety of accessories allows mechanical energy into heat as the material is deformed. SORBOTHANE STANDARD PRODUCTS,
for universal application Molecular friction generates heat energy that translates ABOVE, AND ISOLATION PADS WITH

ACE Controls · Farmington Hills, Michigan perpendicularly away from the axis of incidence. FABRIC, BELOW.
www.acecontrols.com
smaller orifices reign tighter control over the accumulator. Add fixed flow control valves to
suspension movement. In real-world terms, each side of the piston, and you have a high-
you’d correctly expect a luxury vehicle to take performance shock absorber.
advantage of the relaxed damping of larger
orifice sizes. At the same time, sports cars wish The pistons are more complex than
their suspension movement highly damped the machined round slug used in hydraulic
to more quickly subdue the movement of cylinders, using multiple layers, plates
their stiffer springs. High-performance shock and disc valves. Their combination allows
absorbers use much more sophisticated different damping rates for compression
technology than the simple example described and rebound while also allowing multi-
above, ignoring modern examples such as stage damping. A low-speed orifice allows
magnetorheological dampers. easy fluid flow for shallow dips or bumps,
providing a gentle ride. When a harsh impact
A primary high-performance shock results in rapid movement, the disc valves
absorber uses a monotube design alongside close to direct fluid through the more-
nitrogen charging, making it a sophisticated restrictive orifices, attenuating suspension
hydraulic component. Imagine placing a movement more rapidly.
second floating piston in the space between
the primary piston and the cap and then Twin-tube shock absorbers previously
nitrogen charging the volume between the dominated the market, most notably because
cap and floating piston, much like a piston they became popular more quickly. Early
suspension damping technology used two

60 DESIGN WORLD — MOTION 8 • 2022

Shoc a ber • damper • ga spring

leather-covered sleaves mounted one inside the absorber assembly and the piston travels down out and back into the shock tube.
other, and clamping devices allowed mechanics the length of the shock tube, fluid exits all four Industrial shock absorbers come in
to increase the friction as the assembly wore. orifices under pressure, where a relatively light
Not a sophisticated component, modifications damping action takes place. downright tiny versions with less than 10-mm
to its design led to the twin-tube shock bore shock tubes, growing across various sizes
absorber, where a valve assembly was added to The piston covers the hole and continues and configurations up to 8 in. bore or larger.
the piston and the cap of the primary tube. past the first orifice, reducing the flow potential The smallest examples may absorb loads
across the combined orifices. As a result, the of 250 lb at a velocity of 50 in./sec or faster
Twin-tube shocks were also popular shock absorber slows further with only three (although not simultaneously). Larger bore
because of their inexpensive cost to holes to pass pressurized fluid. The same shock absorbers damp the movement of even
manufacture. Their barrel requires no precision effect occurs as the piston covers the second the most enormous loads, quickly tackling
machining, such as on the monotube design. orifice, leaving only two left to evacuate fluid, 200,000 lb of force. Remember that the spring
Without a precision-machined tube, the once again reducing the velocity of the piston. installed with the shock does the heavy lifting
floating piston designed to separate the Finally, when only the last orifice remains open, to handle a high load, and the shock absorber
nitrogen from the oil would have no chance of the load should have slowed proportionately itself simply damps the motion of the spring.
sealing. The twin tube design was also more relative to stroke length, and combined with
prone to aeration as the nitrogen gas could the increased spring force, the load will stop. I should mention that shock absorbers
quickly enter the primary tube, although some cannot simultaneously handle their maximum
modern designs now employ a bladder. Because a shock absorber is a differential shock force rating with their maximum
cylinder, you fluid power professionals are acceptable velocity. If you’re unsure, discuss
Shock absorber applications aren’t intuitively wondering where the cap side fluid has your requirements with your shock absorber
limited to automotive applications, of course. gone since you know its larger volume cannot manufacturer of choice.
Industrial shock absorbers find themselves fill the less volume taking up space around the
on material handling applications, trollies, rod. As fluid exits the shock tube, it flows into a Ultimately, automotive and industrial
conveyor systems and even amusement rides cavity between the tube and the primary cylinder. shock absorbers are dynamic orifices designed
— machines and applications where a moving A hole in the shock tube ports to the rod’s area, to transform kinetic energy into heat. That
object must slow quickly and safely without so fluid entering there helps prevent cavitation. damping may be against an oscillating load or
slamming or bouncing. The rest is absorbed by a foam accumulator and simply one piston compression stroke. Either
stored until the piston retracts, drawing the fluid example offers a peek into yet another fluid
An ideal shock absorption damping rate dynamic principle that fascinates our industry.
is linear and should neither bounce off the rod
end nor slam down against the shock absorbers’ PROVEN SHOCK, VIBRATION & MATERIAL
bump stop. The deceleration rate should NOISE REDUCING SOLUTIONS
appear on a graph as a 45° downward slope SORBOTHANE®
with the initial velocity at the top and dead INNOVATING MADE IN THE U.S.A.
stop at the bottom. Without using the shock’s SSHOOCLKU& TVIIBORANTIOSN
full stroke, you’re damping too quickly or not
quickly enough. The shock absorber should Online Design Guide
come to a rest near (but not at) the bottom of Calculators for
the stroke. working with
Sorbothane
cInodnusstrtruicatioshoc a be
800.838.3906
The construction of industrial shock absorbers
differs slightly from those used in automobiles. sorbothane.com
Both designs use orifices to meter the flow of
oil, although where the oil is metered varies by
design. The more popular multiple-orifice shock
absorber uses an ingenious yet simple method
to increase the damping response sequentially
as the device nears its bottom position.

The shock tube equivalent to the pressure
tube used in automotive looks similar until you
discover the orifice drillings in the shock tube
itself. Rather than equip disc valves and axially
aligned drillings, the industrial shock absorber
uses orifices along the tube length to increase
damping force inversely proportional to the
stroke length. For example, assume the tube
has four drillings along its length, evenly spaced
between the piston’s retracted position and the
cap. Then, as the load compresses the shock

DESIGN WORLD — MOTION 61

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Springs for motion system applications

EXTENSION SPRINGS

VERSUS TORSION SPRINGS

Extension springs (or tension springs) are springs elastic objects. It states that the force F required to extend or compress a
that can stretch in length. When extended, spring by some distance x is proportional to that distance. The rate that
the force increases will depend on the stiffness of the spring stiffness k.
these springs are under tension. Typically, each end of the extension
It should be noted that industrial-grade extension springs don’t
spring is attached to a different component and when the components strictly obey Hooke’s Law because they have some initial tension F1 that
must be overcome before any extension takes place. Therefore, a better
separate, the spring force works to pull them back together. Most approximation for the force of an extension spring is F = F1 + kx. The
initial tension F1 can be difficult to control and may vary significantly
extension springs are coiled springs manufactured from sprung steel between springs of the same part number.

spring wire. The dimensions of extension springs are normally given in their
relaxed state. They may be specified in terms of outside diameter and
Extension springs can have a hook or an eye at each end for fastening; inside diameter or wire diameter. The length of the body coils may be
variations include open hooks, extended hooks, side hooks, and double given in addition to the unloaded length inside the hooks as well as the
full loops. maximum extended length inside the hooks.

Extension springs are frequently used to create a restoring force in Typically, a sprung steel spring wire is coated with zinc, but stainless-
mechanisms such as latches and counterbalances. Because extension steel springs are also available. Rubber bands, elastic bands, or bungee
springs are under tension, they require no support along their length. cords can provide low-cost alternatives to steel extension springs.
This often makes for a mechanism that’s simpler than those based on
compression springs. Extension springs can be stretched to increase their length, causing
tension force within the spring.
Hooke’s law — F = kx — is frequently used as an approximation for

TORSION SPRINGS LIKE THESE ARE COMPONENTS MADE FROM 8 • 2022 DESIGN WORLD — MOTION 63
AN ELASTIC MATERIAL THAT (WHEN TWISTED) EXERTS A MOMENT
RESISTING THE ROTATION. COMMON TYPES OF TORSION SPRING
INCLUDE HELICAL TORSION SPRINGS, TORSION BARS, AND SPIRAL
WOUND TORSION SPRINGS. | COURTESY OF DREAMSTIME

motioncontroltips.com | designworldonline.com

COISLICSPKROINFGS? Motio System Handboo

We were too. EXTENSION SPRINGS (OR TENSION SPRINGS) ARE SPRINGS THAT CAN STRETCH IN
LENGTH. WHEN EXTENDED, THESE SPRINGS ARE UNDER TENSION. TYPICALLY, EACH END
That’s why we invented OF THE EXTENSION SPRING IS ATTACHED TO A DIFFERENT COMPONENT AND WHEN THE
the wave spring. COMPONENTS SEPARATE, THE SPRING FORCE WORKS TO PULL THEM BACK TOGETHER.

• Optimize Application Space & Weight | COURTESY OF DREAMSTIME
• Industry-Specialized Design Support
• Large Selection from Stock Anothe sprin typ : T sio spring
• Easy to Customize
A torsion spring is a component made from elastic material that
Crest-to-Crest® Wave Springs (when twisted) exerts a moment resisting the rotation. Common
types of torsion spring include helical torsion springs, torsion bars,
and spiral wound torsion springs.

Helical torsion springs are made from a material, typically
sprung steel spring wire, and formed into a helix. At each end, the
helix extends to form two straight legs through which the torque
is applied. A circular mandrill inside the coil or a circular housing
around the coil retains the spring position.

The legs typically extend tangentially, which results in the lowest
stresses — though radial and axial legs are also used at times.

A single coil version has a single leg extending from each end
of a single helix. A double coil version is, essentially, two single
coil springs that mirror one another — with the coils concentric but
of opposite-handed windings. Both coils are wound from a single
length of wire with the two central legs joined in a 180° bend.

Helical torsion springs are used in a range of applications,
with wire diameters ranging from fractions of a millimeter to over
an inch. Light-duty torsion springs are typically used as return
springs in electrical devices, whereas heavy-duty springs are used in
applications such as folding seats and door returns.

Torsion bars are simply straight bars of elastic material
that can be twisted to its elastic limit. Torsion bars are typically
constructed from steel or rubber. They are often used for heavy-duty
applications, such as the suspension of trucks and tanks.

Torsion bar suspension is extremely durable because of
its mechanical simplicity. It is also compact and allows for easy
adjustments. Light-duty torsion bars may require tension to
generate a restoring torque, which is referred to as a torsion fiber.

A spiral wound torsion spring is formed from a spring wire
or (more commonly) a thin strip of sprung steel, coiled into a flat
spiral. This configuration allows large angular deflections of many
revolutions with relatively little variation in torque during the
movement. No wonder spiral-wound torsion springs are used in
clockwork devices, clocks, and other devices that require energy to
be stored and consistently released.

Power springs are a specialty type of spiral-wound spring
that can exert a consistent torque over many revolutions. They are
sometimes referred to as clock springs or motor springs. Power
springs are wound tightly within a case to provide particularly high
energy density.

Request Free Samples at 847-719-5900 or smalley.com 64 DESIGN WORLD — MOTION

Table & stage • Cartesia obot • gantrie

A TABLETOP STAGE FOR LIQUID HANDLING AND PIPETTING MIGHT
MAINTAIN POSITIONAL ACCURACY TO 50 µm AT SPEED TO 20
MM/SEC WITH A LOAD CAPACITY OF 500 G. WITH HORIZONTAL
AND VERTICAL TRAVELS MEASURED IN A FEW DOZEN MILLIMETERS,
SOME CONTEXTS MIGHT CLASSIFY THIS AS A MINIATURE MOTION
DESIGN … WHILE OTHERS WOULD NOT.

ULTRA-PRECISION ACTUATORS
AND MULTI-AXIS STAGES

Recen decades have seen the unabated spread of To market f precisio an miniatur motio
automation continues into applications that just a
Semiconductor manufacture continues to spur many of scaled-down
decade or two ago were considered exotic, prohibitive, or downright machine designs, along with demand for pocket-sized consumer home
products and small appliances with motion functions.
impossible. Nowhere are the resulting technologies more specialized
Consider the challenging applications of semiconductor
than those for new nanopositioning and miniature linear-motion manufacturing — including backend wafer inspection. Some operations
require motion stages capable of strokes of a few hundred millimeters
designs — where a proliferating array of tiny motors, mechanical even while maintaining X and Y-direction accuracy of 1 µm. The extra
wrinkle is that some such operations (because of the need for high
components, and especially electronics have enabled nanopositioning throughput) must process wafers quite quickly — demanding stage
speeds of a couple m/sec along with accelerations to 2 g sans significant
and miniature machine designs for specialty workcells, handtools, and vibration in the focal Z axis. No wonder the stage kinematics and heat
dissipation capabilities as well as its motion-controller sophistication are
mobile robotics. These builds often rely on components pre-integrated all so critical.

into subsystems such as: In fact, the manufacture of microelectronics and silicon photonics
(ICs employing light along nano-optical structures for driving and
• Miniaturized slotless and coreless motors sporting thumbnail-sized fast and efficient data transmission) has grown thanks in part to the
drives and encoders within housings are often no larger than a pencil kinematics and controls advances for ultra-high-precision motion stages.

• Frameless motors that don’t come with their own housing, but rely Most of these ultra-high-precision motion stages are pre-integrated,
on the OEM’s component frame for protection and support as such systems do two things: They free researchers and manufacturers
in demanding fields to focus on core competencies, and they outperform
• Linear actuators that tightly integrate shape-memory alloys serial-kinematic Cartesian-type robots (often built by end users’ stacking
• Linear stages with linear rails pre-engineered into the build by linear stages into XYZ systems). Such Cartesian-type stages typically require
additional degrees of freedom — which are often had through still more
the supplier (bulky and error accumulating) addition of goniometers and rotational
• Piezo-based hexapods, stages, and other designs sans the yaw, pitch, and roll stages. In contrast, Stewart (hexapod) platforms deliver
motion dictated by the controller and not the mechanical bearings and
unavoidable bulk of copper-wire-based electromechanical actuation power-transmission linkages. A user-definable rotational center along with
lower inertia and higher stiffness are just a few benefits.
Other examples of pre-integration for compactness abound.
No matter how they’re built into systems though, nearly all motion
components come in diminutive versions that were unimaginable even a
decade ago.

Now we’ll cover some of the components that lend themselves to
precision multi-axis designs.

motioncontroltips.com | designworldonline.com 8 • 2022 DESIGN WORLD — MOTION 65

Motion Systems Handbook

ALONG WITH INSPECTION, TEST AND MEASUREMENT,
AND METROLOGICAL EQUIPMENT, AEROSPACE TOO
CONTINUES TO REQUIRE PINT-SIZED DESIGNS FOR
MAXIMAL EFFICIENCY AND FUNCTIONALITY.

Another option in some instances are lens-focusing functions of consumer and to locate and move a device inserted into
ultra-precision motion stages with clever smartphone-grade cameras and UAVs. a patient’s body. Now, automated motion
kinematics for well-placed centers of gravity In fact, the six-DOF technology delivers systems integrating tiny gearmotor, leadscrew,
and optimized system dynamics. enough precision to drive handheld surgical and nut can execute such tasks more precisely.
tools, biometric identification, and in-vitro Of course, such tools must be extremely small
Case in point: To address the issue of diagnostics. Some dc motors with diameters of and sterile and (because they’re single use)
outer axes causing a moment load on the just a few millimeters now have enough power must be inexpensive.
inner axes, certain gantry systems use two X density and reliability to satisfy technical and
axes or (in some cases) two Y and two Z axes. regulatory requirements for implantable pumps Another application example demanding
Gantries almost always have three axes … X, Y, to treat an array of conditions. increased power density and miniaturization
and Z. The load on a gantry system is located is brushless dc cannulated gearmotors —
within the gantry’s footprint and the gantry The piezoelectric micromotors in these those with gearbox-motor combinations that
is mounted over the working area. However, hexapods are complemented by miniature (among other things) allow for inline driving of
for parts that cannot be handled from above, bearing assemblies, motor mounts, flexures, Kirschner wires and pins in orthopedic surgery.
gantries can be configured to work from below. spring preloads, and miniature drive electronics Demand for cannulated gearmotors is rising
to cancel hand-tremor movements during the as orthopedic-drill designers are looking to
Perhaps the next-biggest driver use of microsurgical tools. decrease their designs’ overall size.
of miniature motion designs (after the
semiconductor industry) is the medical-device Elsewhere, miniature motion designs Where applications require tight
industry … a trend likely to grow as COVID automate processes that surgeons still do integration (as for handheld or mobile designs)
demands creative new approaches to medical manually. Consider an implant procedure in shrinking semiconductor sizes have let
manufacturing, distribution, and treatment — which a doctor must physically turn a knob miniature-component suppliers integrate ever-
including more emphasis on automated status- smaller drives and controls into smaller and
monitoring systems, distributed laboratory
operations, and home healthcare. SOME SERIES OF MINIATURE PROFILED RAILS HAVE
RAIL WIDTHS OF JUST A FEW MILLIMETERS OR
The medical-device industry necessitates SMALLER AND TWO ROWS OF RECIRCULATING
an array of miniature motion designs. BALLS. THIS ONE ALSO HAS ENCODER FEEDBACK.
Complicating matters is how FDA requirements
on medical-device makers and their suppliers
continue to include actuator and motor
manufacturers in regulatory scrutiny, so controls
on design processes continue to tighten —
usually as reverification of production lines
and test equipment. Overseas competition,
medical-device taxes, and withering Medicare
reimbursements are also forcing lower costs for
devices and the motors for these applications.

A concurrent trend in medical devices
— from medical robots to handpieces to
implantables — is that they’re ever smaller and
more compact. So medical continues to adopt
technologies from consumer electronics and
the small motor-driven designs they enable.

Case in point: Bean-sized mechatronic
hexapods employing piezomotors under
closed-loop control are indispensable in

66 DESIGN WORLD — MOTION 8 • 2022 motioncontroltips.com | designworldonline.com

Tables & stages • Cartesian robots • gantries

smaller motors for top reliability or driven by brush motors. Some mentioned, design engineers piezo actuators can reach speeds
and cost effectiveness. manufacturers have addressed should assume that traditional of 0.5 m/sec or greater, but they
the problem with alternative definitions (associated with more typically have maximum strokes
While the machines and dc-motor designs paired with mainstay machine builds) apply. In of 100 mm or less. Voice-coil
devices get smaller, in many cases quiet planetary gearing. Another fact, even the term miniature can actuators operate at speeds
they must also be increasingly example is portable oxygen refer to components and systems to 2 to 3 m/sec with strokes
precise. Consider the interest in concentrators that demand long in a broad range of footprints. that are typically to 150 mm …
making more inpatient procedures life because they run off batteries. although some variations have
into outpatient procedures. To Miniature motion designs in these Other potentially ambiguous strokes to beyond 250 mm. These
this end, surgeons are now using are increasingly efficient and motion-industry designations that specifications may not fit the
robots or motor-assist tools to power dense as well. rely on context include heavy duty, general industry definition of high-
boost accuracy. Even risky forms corrosion-resistant, and high speed. speed linear actuators. That said,
of eye and brain surgery now rely Cinadvuesatrtyotnermmoitnioonlo-gy Linear-actuator manufacturers do in considering the rapid acceleration
on motor-driven automation to let fact follow some loose guidelines required to reach these speeds in
doctors treat diseased areas in the The motion-control industry when classifying and marketing very short stroke lengths, piezo
body while avoiding healthy tissue. (like any) has its own system their actuators as high speed. These and voice coil designs are certainly
of terminology and naming guidelines are typically based on classifiable as high-acceleration
The medical industry is conventions. The nomenclature the drive mechanism, actuator type, actuator options.
also prompting electric-motor for motion components and and even primary use or industry.
innovation for smaller and less technologies are highly dependent
costly designs. For example, on the discrete-automation But those definitions of high
motor-driven tools in operating market and equipment type at speed lose their relevancy in micro
rooms must draw low voltage hand. Where nanopositioning or and nano-positioning applications
and be quiet. Here, traditional miniature design is not specifically — for which the actuators of
peristaltic pumps can be noisy, choice are often voice coil or
especially when they’re in a bank piezo technologies. Ultrasonic

motioncontroltips.com | designworldonline.com 8 • 2022 DESIGN WORLD — MOTION 67

Ad Index

MOTION SYSTEMS HANDBOOK 2O22

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Stock Drive Products/Sterling Instrument...........................5
THK America Inc............................................................. IFC
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68 DESIGN WORLD — MOTION 8 • 2022 motioncontroltips.com | designworldonline.com

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