AnswerLab_FUCHS 090319 draft

THE QUESTION

Which instructional practices can be
used by both special education and
general education teachers to improve
academic achievement among
students with disabilities?

: : Douglas Fuchs and Lynn S. Fuchs, Peabody College of Vanderbilt University
Schools across the nation are searching for a best way of educating together students with and
without disabilities. One popular approach is Response to Instruction (RTI), a way to deliver
inclusive and effective education to virtually all children. RTI’s most noteworthy feature is its
multiple tiers of increasingly intensive instruction. However, in practice, schools have had
trouble correctly implementing how students are moved along between tiers. A promising
means of addressing this problem and improving the effectiveness of RTI is known as Peer-
Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS), a suite of programs in reading and mathematics that were
validated as supplements in the general classroom.

Center on Education Policy,
Equity and Governance



THE EVIDENCE Math PALS and every month in Reading PALS. In Reading
PALS, one student in each pair is designated first reader,
PALS Overview the other as second reader. Students reverse roles half-way
The principle behind Response to Intervention is that most through each activity. In Math PALS, the students are referred
children are expected to respond adequately to classroom to as Coach and Player. Students switch roles half-way
instruction (Tier 1). Those who do not respond sufficiently in through the Coaching component (see Table 2b). Hereafter,
Tier 1 are moved to small group instruction (Tier 2). Students we refer to the tutor role as Coach and the learner role as
unresponsive in Tiers 1 and 2 are provided individualized Player. The Coach guides the Player step-by-step through
intervention (Tier 3). Despite best intentions, this approach the lesson’s activities by asking questions and providing
has proved difficult to implement partly because too many corrective feedback for each error and praise for correct
students are moved from Tier 1 to Tier 2, thereby undermining responses.
the small-group intensity of Tier 2 instruction. A means of
addressing this problem is to adopt Peer-Assisted Learning The PALS program is explicitly scripted for the Coach and
Programs in Tier 1 that have been developed and proven to Player so students have clear guidelines for their roles in
supplement core classroom instruction. the learning process. Typically, in Reading PALS, the higher-
performing student starts as Player; the lower-performing
The teacher in a PALS classroom organizes her students student, as Coach. This permits the higher-performing
in pairs to work 2-4 times per week for 20-30 minutes per student to model correct reading for the lower-performing
session. Pairs work on a highly structured set of activities student. In Math PALS, the higher-performing student begins
that provide guided-instruction and practice on academic as Coach to model correct execution of the procedure
content, including foundational-level skills and higher-order or strategy and to model productive methods for giving
strategies. PALS programs encourage teachers to establish feedback and explanations.
a classroom routine that is meant to foster productive Teacher Role
academic behavior and socio-emotional growth. These are The teacher conducts the PALS training lessons during the
supported in two ways: first 4-6 weeks. Then, as the program is implemented, she
oversees each session. She announces the start of the PALS
1. Intensive 1:1 peer interactions allow frequent lesson and directs students to move to sit next to partners. In
opportunities for students to ask and respond to the early grades, the teacher conducts a scripted overview of
questions, to obtain immediate corrective feedback, the lesson. In all grades, the teacher uses paired time to walk
to experience sustained academic engagement, and around the classroom to answer student questions, listen to
to responsibly participate in constructive peer-to-peer pairs, and provide help or feedback as needed. The teacher
social interactions. also announces when students are to switch PALS activities
and roles, and she ends the session by praising groups for
2. PALS facilitates differentiated instruction. For strong PALS interactions.
instance, PALS teachers may assign different pairs Activities, Content, Session Duration, and Number of Lessons
to simultaneously work on different levels of text or PALS shares a basic organizational structure across the
different mathematics skills, sometimes using varying grades and across reading and mathematics. However, the
levels of scaffolds or supports. activities differ by grade level and content area. Tables 1a and
1b outline the activities by content area and grade. Tables 2a
Components of Reading PALS and Math PALS and 2b outline the content, duration of lessons, and number
Manuals and Training of lessons addressed by for reading by grade within reading
A different PALS manual is provided for teachers in each grade versus math.
and content area. The manual explains the program structure
and provides the materials for implementation. Manuals PALS Research
also contain detailed scripted lessons to use in training the Scores of studies have been conducted by us and by
class to conduct PALS. As procedures/activities are taught, others examining PALS efficacy on students’ reading and
they are incorporated into the PALS sessions. New activities mathematics outcomes, as well as its effects on the social
are gradually added as students gain experience. Training is standing of students with disabilities in PALS classrooms.
completed over 4-6 weeks. This report provides references for a sample of PALS studies
Coach and Player Roles (conducted by the Fuchs Research Group). Additional studies
The teacher pairs a higher-performing student with a lower- have been conducted by researchers across the United States
performing student. Pairs are reassigned every 2 weeks in and abroad. These studies generally used the most rigorous
experimental designs.

Over the years and grade levels in which we have
conducted our evaluation studies, findings have nearly always
found that students in PALS classrooms learn more than

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those in No-PALS classrooms. This has been true for students CONCLUSIONS
with learning disabilities and students who began the year PALS can be used to supplement an array of core reading
with low, average, or high levels of academic performance. and math programs and, as shown in research, it provides a
Thus, PALS appear to benefit all types of student learners. “safety-net” for students who require additional structured
Additionally, students with learning disabilities are generally practice to achieve reading and math benchmarks. Moreover,
better known, better liked, and have more friends in PALS and not incidentally, teachers and students enjoy PALS.
than in non-PALS classrooms. Teachers report that it is easy to implement. Due to its
demonstrated effects within high-quality randomized control
That said, 10% to 20% of children in PALS classes do trials, its affordability (less than $2 per student), and its ease
not benefit from the program. Whereas PALS is appropriate of use, PALS has become a popular educational innovation
for many, including many at-risk children with and without that is used widely throughout the United States. It has been
disabilities, it is not an appropriate program for all students. translated in many languages for implementation in countries
Specifically, it is not a sufficiently intensive program for those across the globe.
with the most serious learning problems. Such children will
require strong Tier 2 or Tier 3 interventions to make adequate PALS manuals, which provide all materials for
progress. implementing PALS (except library reading material) and
scripted lessons for teachers to prepare classrooms to
implement PALS, are available for grades kindergarten and
1-6 in reading and in math. For information on obtaining PALS
manuals, go to www.peerassistedlearningstrategies.com.
The website provides additional information on PALS as well
as on validated small-group reading and math interventions
developed for Tier 2 and Tier 3 interventions.

Table 1a. PALS Reading Activities

Grade Instruction Activities Per Session

K Teacher-Led 1 Sound Play: This teacher-directed activity provides phonological awareness and decoding instruction and
Instruction introduces the lesson’s activities.
and Paired
Activities 2 Lesson: The class practices this activity together; then the activity is practiced in Coach/Player pairs. The
higher-performing student starts as the Coach, but the pair switches roles half-way through. Activities include
grapheme-phoneme correspondence, sight word recognition, decoding, and reading sentences with fluency.

3 Partner Reading: This activity is introduced about halfway through the program and is completed in pairs with
teacher-selected texts matched to instructional level of the lower-performing student in each pair. Higher-
performing students read text first; then lower-performing students re-read.

1 Teacher-Led 1 Hearing Sounds and Sounding Out: This teacher-directed activity provides phonological awareness and
Instruction decoding instruction and introduces the lesson’s activities.
and Paired
Activities 2 Paired Lesson: Activities are completed in the Coach/Player pairs. The higher-performing student always
starts as Coach; half-way through each session, students switch roles. Activities include grapheme-phoneme
correspondence, decoding, sight word recognition, and passage reading fluency.

3 Speed Game: This activity is completed individually, while the teacher leads the session. Students read words
in the Sight Words or Stories activity as quickly as possible for 30 seconds three times. The goal is to read more
words the second or third trial.

4 Partner Reading: This activity, which is introduced about halfway through the program, is completed in pairs
with teacher-selected texts matched to the instructional level of the lower-performing student in each pair.
Higher-performing students read text first; then lower-performing students re-read.

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2-6 Paired 1 Partner Reading: With teacher guidance, pairs select text to match lower-performing students’ instructional
Activities levels. Higher-performers read first, while lower performers corrects errors. Half-way through, they switch roles.

2 Retell: Lower-performers re-tell what was read during Partner Reading; higher-performers provide corrective
feedback.

3 Paragraph Shrinking: Higher-performers reads a paragraph. The lower-performing students asks Paragraph
Shrinking Questions; the higher-performing student answers questions; the lower-performing student provides
corrects errors. They continue through paragraphs until the teacher announces it’s time to switch roles, as pairs
continue on to new paragraphs.

4 Prediction Relay: Higher-performers make a prediction, reads half a page, and says whether the prediction
came true, while lower-performers correct reading errors, ask Prediction Relay questions, and provide
corrective feedback. They continue through half-pages until the teacher announces it’s time to switch roles, as
pairs continue on to new paragraphs.

Table 1b. PALS Math Activities

Grade Instruction Activities Per Session

K-1 Teacher-Led 1 Classwide Skill Introduction/Review: The teacher introduces or reviews a skill, as she introduces the game
Instruction board for that lesson. The teacher takes this time to review important concepts or terminology and helps the
and Paired students understand how each pair will use game board to structure the pair’s practice on that lesson’s skill.
Activities
2 Paired Practice: Students break into pairs and work on their game boards, taking turns as Coach and Player.

2-6 Paired 1 Coaching: Students take turn coaching each other in highly structure ways, using guided worksheets
Activities
2 Practice: Students individually complete a timed practice sheet. At the end of the 5 minutes, pairs of students
switch practice papers and check each other’s work.

Table 2a. PALS Reading Program Details

Grade First Lessons Skills Addressed Minutes Days
Level Coach/ Per Per
Player Week
Lesson 3-4
K Lower/ 72 Phonological awareness, grapheme-phoneme correspondence, decoding, sight word 25-30 3-4
Higher recognition, reading fluency 40-45 3-4
35-45
1 Lower/ 70 Grapheme-phoneme correspondence, decoding, sight word recognition, reading
Higher fluency

2-6 Lower/ 12 Reading fluency, reading comprehension strategies (summarizing, retelling,
Higher predicting)

Table 2b. PALS Math Program Details

Grade First Lessons Skills Addressed Minutes Days
Level Coach/ Per Per
Player Week
Lesson 2
K Higher/ 32 Number recognition, number magnitude, number principles, adding and subtracting 20 3
Lower concepts and operations 20 2
30
1 Higher/ 36 Number concepts, principles, magnitude, addition and subtraction concepts and 2
Lower procedures, place value, missing addends 30
2
Calculations: adding basic facts, Applications: applied computation, 30
Higher/ adding with and without regrouping, charts and graphs, counting, fractions,
2 Lower 68 subtracting basic facts, subtracting with measurement, money, number concepts,

and without regrouping names of numbers, word problems

3 Higher/ Calculations: adding, subtracting, Applications: applied computation, charts
Lower 84 multiplying basic facts, multi-step and graphs, counting, decimals, fractions,
measurement, money, number concepts,
multiplication, dividing basic facts number names, word problems

Calculations: adding, subtracting, Applications: area and perimeter, charts
and graphs, decimals, fractions, grid
4 Higher/ 88 multiplying basic facts, multiplying, reading, measurement, number concepts,
Lower dividing basic facts, dividing, adding
and subtracting fractions number names, word problems

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5 Higher/ Calculations: adding, subtracting, Applications: applied computation, charts 30 2
Lower multiplying, dividing, reducing/ and graphs, geometry, decimals, fractions 30 2
76 renaming fractions, adding and and factors, measurement, money,
subtracting fractions, adding and numeration, word problems
subtracting decimals Applications: applied computation, charts
and graphs, geometry, measurement,
Higher/ Calculations: adding, subtracting, numeration, percentages, proportions,
Lower multiplying, dividing with whole ratios and probability, variables, word
6 80 numbers, common fractions, and problems

decimals

Illustrative PALS Studies and References
Rafdal, B.H., McMaster, K.L., McConnell, S.R., Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L.S. (2011). The effectiveness of kindergarten peer-assisted learning strategies

for students with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 77, 299-316.
Kearns, D.M., Fuchs, D., McMaster, K.L., Saenz, L., Fuchs, L.S., Yen, L., Meyers, C., Stein, M., Compton, D., Berends, M., & Smith, T.M. (2010).

Factors contributing to teachers’ sustained use of kindergarten Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies. Journal of Research on Educational
Effectiveness, 3, 315-343.
Saenz, L., McMaster, K., Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L.S. (2007). Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies in reading for students with different learning needs.
Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology, 6, 395-410.
McMaster, K.L., Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L.S. (2007). Promises and limitations of Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies in reading. Learning Disabilities: A
Contemporary Journal, 5, 97-112.
McMaster, K.L., Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L.S. (2006). Research on Peer-Assisted Learning strategies: Peer mediation’s promise and limitations. Reading
and Writing Quarterly, 22, 5-25.
Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L.S. (2005). Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies: Promoting word recognition, fluency, and comprehension in young children.
Journal of Special Education, 39, 34-44.
Dion, E., Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L.S. (2005). Differential effects of Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies on students’ social preference and friendship
making. Behavioral Disorders, 30, 421-429.
Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L.S., Mathes, P.G., & Martinez, E.A. (2002). Preliminary evidence on the social standing of students with learning disabilities in
PALS and No-PALS classrooms. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 17, 205-215.
Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L.S., Thompson, A., Yen, L., Al Otaiba, S., Nyman, K., Svenson, E., Yang, N., Prentice, K., Kazdan, S., & Saenz, L. (2001). Teachers
and researchers collaborating to extend Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies to kindergarten and high school. Remedial and Special
Education, 22, 15-21.
Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L.S., Al Otaiba, S., Thompson, A., Yen, L., McMaster, K.N., Svenson, E., & Yang, N. (2001). K-PALS: Helping kindergartners with
reading readiness: Teachers and researchers in partnership. Teaching Exceptional Children, 33 (4), 76-80.
Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L.S., & Burish, P. (2000). Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies: An evidence-based practice to promote reading achievement.
Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 15, 85-91.
Fuchs, L.S., Fuchs, D., Kazdan, S., & Allen, S. (1999). Effects of peer-assisted learning strategies in reading with and without training in elaborated
help giving. Elementary School Journal, 99, 201-220.
Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L.S., Mathes, P., & Simmons, D. (1997). Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies: Making classrooms more responsive to student
diversity. American Educational Research Journal, 34, 174-206.
Math PALS
Saenz, L., Fuchs, L.S., & Fuchs, D. (2005). Effects of peer-assisted learning strategies on English language learners: A randomized controlled
study. Exceptional Children, 71, 231-247.
Calhoon, M.B., & Fuchs, L.S. (2003). The effects of peer-assisted learning strategies and curriculum-based measurement on the mathematics
performance of secondary students with disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 24, 235-245.
Fuchs, L.S., Fuchs, D., Yazdian, L., & Powell, S.R. (2002). Enhancing first-grade children’s mathematical development with peer-assisted learning
strategies. School Psychology Review, 31, 569-584.
Fuchs, L.S., Fuchs, D., & Karns, K. (2001). Enhancing kindergarten children’s mathematical development: Effects of peer-assisted learning
strategies. Elementary School Journal, 101, 495-510.

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Fuchs, L.S., Fuchs, D., Karns, K., Yazdian, L., & Powell, S. (2001). Creating a strong foundation for mathematics learning with Kindergarten Peer-
Assisted Learning Strategies. Teaching Exceptional Children, 33, 84-87.

Stecker, P.M., Fuchs, L.S., & Fuchs, D. (2000). Enhancing interactions during dyadic learning in mathematics. Swiss Journal of Educational
Sciences, 22, 467-480.

Fuchs, L.S., Fuchs, D., & Kazdan, S. (1999). Effects of peer-assisted learning strategies on high-school students with serious reading problems.
Remedial and Special Education, 20, 309-318.

Fuchs, L.S., Fuchs, D., Hamlett, C.L., & Karns, K. (1998). High-achieving students’ interactions and performance on complex mathematical tasks
as a function of homogeneous and heterogeneous pairings. American Educational Research Journal, 35, 227-268.

Fuchs, L.S., Fuchs, D., Hamlett, C.L., Phillips, N.B., Karns, K., & Dutka, S. (1997). Enhancing students’ helping behavior during peer-mediated
instruction with conceptual mathematical explanations. Elementary School Journal, 97, 223-250.

Fuchs, L.S., Fuchs, D., Karns, K., Hamlett, C.L., Dutka, S., & Katzaroff, M. (1996). The relation between student ability and the quality and
effectiveness of explanations. American Educational Research Journal, 33, 631-664.

Fuchs, L.S., Fuchs, D., Hamlett, C.L., Phillips, N.B., & Karns, K. (1995). General educators’ specialized adaptation for students with learning
disabilities. Exceptional Children, 61, 440-459.

Fuchs, L.S., Fuchs, D., Phillips, N.B., Hamlett, C.L., & Karns, K. (1995). Acquisition and transfer effects of classwide peer-assisted learning
strategies in mathematics for students with varying learning histories. School Psychology Review, 24, 604-620.

Fuchs, L.S., Fuchs, D., Bentz, J., Phillips, N.B., & Hamlett, C.L. (1994). The nature of student interactions during peer tutoring with and without
prior training and experience. American Educational Research Journal, 31, 75-103.

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