Radioactivity : Prepared by GROUP 7 NG WAI KEAN (292354) TAY WEI LIANG (293723) CHUM YAO HUI（292327） MUHAMMAD ALIF AKMAL BIN JOHARI (291912) Lecturer: Prof . Dr.Haslinda Binti Ibrahim SQQM1034-Calculus I The Mysteriousness and Mystery
PR E F ACE Radioactivity: The mysteriousness and mystery When we are talking about radioactivity or radiation, the first scene float in people‘s mind will definitely be the horrible scene or disaster incidents such as the chemical burning and the deformed children due to mutation. However, these are all actually a stereotypes made by the movie and war. In fact, radioactivity plays an essential role in science revolution after 19th century. In some particular view, the benefits obtained from the radioactivity is much more than the destroy. Here, we try to provide a new concept to the readers so that readers make a sensible and logical view to the radioactivity, A famous idiom once said, "Every coins have two sides". Usage of radioactivity must be in wise can make the progress to our human life. Greedy and individualism in the end will bring to the destruction and extinction of human. i "Nothing in life is to be feared; it is only to be understood." -Marie Curie
Table of Contents Chapter 1: The history of discovering radioactivity 1 Chapter 2: What is the radioactivite brings to us ? 2 - 4 Chapter 3: Understanding the radioactivity. 5 Chapter 4: How does radioactivity works ? 6 Chapter 5: Introduction of radioactive decay law 7 Chapter 6: Formula and Derivation of radioactivity 8 decay laws Chapter 7: Example of application using Carbon-14 9 - 10 Chapter 8: Other contribtions in different fields 11 - 12 Conclusion 13 Reference i & ii Individual Reflection iii & iv
Chapter 1: The history of discovering radioactivity: Diagram source from: APSnew In March 1896 , the French physicist named Henri Becquerel was making an experiment to investigate the properties of X-rays, which had been discovered by WILHELM ROENTGEN A few months ago. he uses the potassium uranyl sulfate or called uranium salt to study the relationship between x-rays and the fluorescence phenomena. A huge and significant finding is that he accidentally discovered that the " uranium salt spontaneously emit a mysterious radiation without any absorption of energy such as the sun. This radiation could penetrate through the paper. ---Becquerel had discovered new phenomenon, radioactivity--- 1 French Physicist: Antoine Henri Becquerel
2 CHAPTER 2 : WHAT IS THE RADIOACTIVITY BRINGS TO US?? Antoine Henri Becquerel ( 1852 - 1908) Nobel Laureate in 1903 due to the discovery of spontaneous radioactivity. The SI unit for radioactivity, the becquerel (Bq), is named after him. (defined as one nucleus decay per second) Discovery of radioactivity could be used for medicine field, which led to the development of radiotherapy or radiation therapy. Death at age of 55 on 25 August 1908, unknown cases of death, but report showed that " he had developed serious burns on his skin, likely from the handling of radioactive materials ". Marie Salomea Skłodowska–Curie (1867 – 1934) First woman of Nobel Laureate in 1903 , the first person and the only woman won the Nobel Prize in twice. (Second one is on 1911) In 1903, she shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with her husband Pierre Curie with her teacher, Henri Becquerel for their work on developing the theory of "radioactivity" and she coined the term of "radioactivity" . Marie won the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for her discovery of the elements: Polonium and Radium, using techniques she invented for isolating radioactive isotopes.("Polonium" named after the country of Marie’s birth, Poland) On 4 July 1934, she died at the age of 66. Marie Curie died of aplastic pernicious anemia, a condition she developed after years of exposure to radiation through her work without proper safety measures. The damaging effects of ionizing radiation were still unknown at the time. Diagram source from: NDE-Ed.org Diagram source from: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
3 CHAPTER 2 : WHAT IS THE RADIOACTIVITY BRINGS TO US?? The mushroom cloud over Hiroshima Diagram source from: Wikipedia.The free encyclopedia "Fat Man" ( Mark III) in Nagasaki "Little Boy" in Hiroshima The mushroom cloud aafter Fat Man exploded in Nagasaki Diagram source from: Wikipedia.The free encyclopedia On 6 August 1945, United State dropped the first atomic bomb on the city of Hiroshima during World War 2. The "little boy" is first time in human history that using the nuclear weapons.Based on the information published in 1945, there is approximately 70,000 people were killed directly and 69,000 people were injured to varying degress. Latest statistics implies that until 2019, the number of death has reached 324,129 people. After 9 days which is on 15 August 1945, Imperial Japanese armed forces declares to unconditionally surrender.On 2 September 1945,the Japanese government signed the instrument of surrender which means the war is ended. On 9 August 1945, United State dropped the second atomic bomb on the city of Nagasaki during World War 2 called "Fat Man". Even though "Fat Man" is less damaged than "Little Boy" but the total of death is greater than in the Hiroshima, approxiamately of 226,000 people being killed directly.The plan of dropping 2 atomic bomb is under "Manhattan Project" which behind of United States ,United Kingdom and Canada.
4 Diagram source from: NDE-Ed.org CHAPTER 2 : WHAT IS THE RADIOACTIVITY BRINGS TO US?? On April 26 1986, the No. 4 RBMK reactor in the nuclear power plant at Chernobyl, Ukraine, lost of control during a test at low-power, leading to an explosion and fire that demolished the reactor building and released large amounts of radiation into the atmosphere. The incident resulted 2 workers death in the initial explosion and 28 of fireman and emergency workers ( died in the first three months after the explosion from Acute Radiation Sickness and one of the cardiac arrest. This incident is the only two nuclear incidents rated as Level 7 ,the highest level of severity on the International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale (INES) . (Another one is Fukushima nuclear leaking accident due to the natural disaster on 11 March 2011, Tohoku earthquake and Tsunami) Chernobyl Nuclear disaster Negligence of workers & Inadequately trained personnel Soviet government and operators afraid of taking responsibility and lie about the truth, cause the delaying of rescue progess. Safety measure were ignored. The experienced workers and technicians are gone and only left the night shift staffs who are lacking of experience and professionality to initiate the test. The malfunction of stop button due to the act of saving money by Soviet government. The reason caused the Chernobyl accident: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. A reasearch states that the amount of the radioactive material released is equilavent to 400 times the atomic bombing in Nagasaki and Hiroshima together. The total number of casualties are approximately 93,000 persons and causes about 270,000 cases of cancer . About 2,600 square kilometers around the Chernobyl was abandoned thoroughly. 100,000 square kilometers of land was contaminated in severe .In economy, the disaster causes the lost about 68 billions. (including inflation) Gorbachev, the former general secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, once said: "The Chernobyl nuclear accident may become the real cause of the dissolution of the Soviet Union five years later". (Dissolution of the Soviet Union is on December 26, 1991 )
Radioactivity is a spontaneous and random process where an unstable nucleus can disintegrate into a more energetically stable nucleus by emitting sub-atomic particles like alpha particle or beta particle or emitting gamma ray or neutron. 5 CHAPTER 3: UNDERSTANDING THE Radioactivity What Is Radioactivity? Types of radiation Alpha Alpha particles are positively charged and intensely ionizing but it cannot penetrate a sheet of paper and also human skin. Beta Many radioactive elements release beta particles, which are fast-moving electrons, more intrusive, smaller and negatively charged (they can travel through the air) although they may still be easily blocked within a few millimeters. Gamma Rays These are energy waves that resemble light waves but have far higher energies and can travel quite far through air. They need to be protected in the job because they are very piercing. They can be stopped by thick concrete or metal (lead) plating shields. Neutron A neutron is a subatomic particle with no electrical charge, found in the nucleus of an atom. It is a hazard to human entire body. Diagram source from: https://pin.it/4oaEVR5 Diagram source from: https://pin.it/6XvhHCC
6 n unstable nucleus will spontaneously decompose, or change into a more stable structure, but this will only happen in a handful of specific ways by ejecting particular particles or kinds of electromagnetic radiation. Numerous naturally occurring elements and their synthetic isotopes both exhibit the property of radioactive decay. The rate of which a radionuclide decay depend on its half-life or the amount of time it takes for one-half of any given quantity of the isotope to decay. Half-lives for various nucleus range from more than 10 years to fewer than 10 seconds. The product of a radioactive decay process—called the daughter of the parent isotope—may itself be unstable, in which case it, too, will decay. The process continues until a stable nuclide has been formed. Each time of the disintegration of radionuclide will librate a huge amount of energy. For example, the fission of 1 gram of Uranium-235 will generate about 1 million watt of energy.This amount of energy is equivalent of 3 tons of coals in combustion. Many people exposed to the radiation every day through their work as dental assistants, medical practitioners, radiology technicians, chiropractors, etc. Radiation naturally occurs in Earth's crust as well even in the food, drinks and the air we breathe. Our own bodiesmuscle, bones and tissue - contain naturally occurring radioactive elements. Radiation can comes in multiple forms such as low energy levels (harmless) and higher energy levels (harmful). 1. 2. 3. Chapter 4: How does Radioactivity works? A 24 -23
According to the radioactive decay law , a nucleus will decay with a constant probability per unit of time regardless of the passage of time. The symbol λ "lambda" stands for this constant, which is also known as the decay constant. The many diverse decay rates that have been seen may be caused by large variations in this constant probability among various types of nuclei. The rate of radioactive decay for a given mass of atoms is exponential. So, the formula of the rate of radioactive decay is Half-lives are another unit used to express the rate of nuclear decay. A particular isotope's half-life is the time taken for the radioactive material to decay by half.For example, a radioisotope having a half-life of 14 days will have had half of its atoms decay within that time frame. The remaining half will decompose in another 14 days, and so on. For highly radioactive fission products, half-lives can range from millionths of a second to billions of years (such as naturally occurring uranium). Keep in mind that long decay constants go with short half-lives. At the moment of manufacture, radioactive material with a short half-life is substantially more radioactive, but it will inevitably lose its radioactivity quickly. No matter how long or short, the half-life is when there is less than 1% of the initial activity left after seven half-lives. 7 Chapter 5: Introduction of radioactive decay law Radioactive decay law Half-life
Rate of decay of a radioactive substance isthe number of atoms which decay per unit time. Rate of decay, number ofradioactive atoms present in the sample, N Noted that: The negative sign in the equation shows that the number of radioactive atoms in the sample decreases with time. Decay constant of a radioactive substance is the probability that a radioactive in the sample would decay in one second. The Derivation Of The Formula Half-life of a radioactive nuclide is the time taken for the number of radioactive nuclide to decrease to one-half the original number. The Derivation of the Half life & Decay constant Formulae From the definition of half life, and From , , Half-life, Decay constant, Chapter 6: Formula and Derivation of radioactivity decay laws From , 8
Years, Mass, 0 100.0000 100 98.7973 1000 88.6034 2000 78.5056 5000 54.6074 10000 29.8197 20000 8.8922 Chapter 7: Example of application using Carbon-14 Carbon-14 is one of the examples of radioactive substances that often used in the field of archaeology to figure out the age of materials containing carbon such as animal fossil or unidentified human remains. Because the life of Carbon-14 isn't affected by any external factors such as chemical composition, pressure and temperature .it consists of the properties of predictable rate of decay which will act like a clock. Hence, the archaeologists can use it making an estimation regarding date at which an organism died by measuring the amount of its residual Carbon-14 inside them using the measurement called Carbon-14 Dating. Midway through the 1940s, American physicist Willard F. Libby proposed the method of carbon14 dating and was awarded the 1960 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for it. It has proven to be a flexible method for dating artefacts that range in age from 500 to 50,000 years. ~Extra Knowledge~ Data source from Calculus : module 13 - Growth and decay Now, we are looking for the half-life of carbon 14 based on the data given. 9
Data source from Calculus : module 13 - Growth and decay From the graph above, the rate of decay of carbon-14 gradually decrease with time. Therefore, it obeys the radioactive decay law and the decay constant of the carbon-14 is 0.000121. According to the data source, the half-life of carbon-14 is 5728.49 years. However, from the article written by Walter Kutschera (2019), the half-life of carbon-14 is 5700 ± 30 years. 10 Apply the radioactive decay law, The half-life of carbon 14 is calculated as 5728.49 years.
Chapter 8: Other contributions in different fields M EDIC A L F I E LD Diagnostic imaging technetium-99m are inserted into body to create images of the bones, lungs, heart, and other organs for doctor to diagnose and monitor a wide range of conditions, including cancer, heart disease, and thyroid disorders Cancer treatment External beam radiation therapy - use of linear accelerator (LINAC) to deliver high-energy radiation beams to penetrate the tumor, damaging the DNA of the cancer cell. Brachytherapy - placing a small amount of radioactive material directly inside the body near the cancer cells. Radiopharmaceuticals - special drug that contain radioactive material and directly deliver the radiation toward the cancer cell. Eg: for thyroid cancer, patient ingests radioactive iodine which is then taken up by the cancerous thyroid cells and kill them Sterilization of medical instruments Irradiation - uses of gamma rays that produced by cobalt-60 to sterilize medical instruments by destroying microorganisms, bacteria, and other harmful pathogens A RC H A EOLOG IC A L F I E LD Radiocarbon dating carbon-14 is is used to determine the age of ancient materials such as fossils, artifacts, and organic materials like wood, charcoal, and textiles. By measuring the remain amount of carbon-14 that insert in a sample, scientists can determine how long ago the organism died and therefore how old the sample is. Luminescence dating Potassium-40, can be used used to determine the last time an object was exposed to sunlight or heat and can be used to date materials up to around 500,000 years old. Strontium isotope analysis Strontium is a chemical element that have two stable isotopes: strontium-86 and strontium-87 with slightly different atomic weight. By analyzing the strontium isotope ratios in the bones and teeth of ancient animals and humans, scientists can determine where they lived and what they ate. 11 Diagram source from: Wikipedia Diagram source from: Isotope Analysis Article
I N DUS TRY F I E LD Food Irradiation process of exposing food to ionizing radiation . radioactive substances such as cobalt-60 or caesium-137 are used This process can help to reduce the risk of foodborne illness caused by harmful pathogens such as salmonella, and listeria It also can help to preserve the nutritional value of food and prevent the spread of invasive pests. radioactive isotopes that are used to track the flow of materials and substances in various industrial processes. They work by emitting gamma rays or other forms of radiation, which can be detected by specialized instruments. Eg : in oil industry, Krypton-85 are used track the movement of oil in the reservoir, and determine the location of oil deposits. Industrial tracer A G RICUL TURE F I E LD Tracer technique radioactive isotopes as tracers to study plant growth and nutrient uptake. This can help farmers better understand the needs of their crops and improve crop yields. Eg : For carbon cycling : Researchers can insert carbon-13 into soil to study the movement of carbon in the soil-plant system. It can track the movement of carbon through the soil and into the plant. This technique can be used to study the efficiency of photosynthesis in crops. Pest control Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) - male insects are sterilized with a dose of ionizing radiation and released. They will mate with females but will not produce any offspring. This helps to reduce the population of the pest over time. 12 Diagram source from: Isotope Pakistan Science Mission Diagram source from: Mother Earth News
Conclusion In a nutshell , those discoveries of radioactivity would have profound implications on physics and chemistry as well as on archaeology, medicine, meteorology and eventually the military.The endeavour of comprehending and harnessing radioacitivity ,with of its promise and danger, was a crucial and meaningful contribution to modernity in the 20th century. The story of Becquerel's discovery can be said as the good example of an accidental discovery. Unfortunately, it appears as though this coincidence is the result of unlocking Pandora's box . Numerous well-known scientists' lives were lost in the journey of studying the radiaoactivity in physics in order to make a step forward to the truth of science.The further research in radioactivity even triggers a series of disastrous consequences like the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki .The objectives of innovation of science are being misused and violating the scientific ethics and moral. Even until now, many countries still use the nuclear as a weapon of deterrence to protect themself and threaten other countries. This strategy named as Mutual assured destruction (MAD)is a form of Nash equilibrium in which neither side has any incentive to start a war or disarm once armed. The acronym of Mutual assured destruction (MAD) ironically demonstrate the policy of holding weapons capable of destroying the whole society was irrational and mad. Sometimes, as a scientific student , it seems like all works done just like a dummy of politicians instead of improving the quality of life of human .Human is paying of alots to get the lesson from radioactivity. However, it is clearly see that people still don't aware of the history of war and sadly to said that the consequences will just come back to human soon. 13 Wish to all the reader can more understand the theory of radioactivity.Thank you~
References i The discovery of radioactivity. (2000, August 9). Henri becquerel. (2002, May 27). Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jody Bishop. (2016). Discovery of radiation roentgen (1895) discovered a mysterious form of radiation was given off even without electron beam. This radiation could pass through. Marie Curie. (2022, October 27). Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Practical uses of isotopes. (2022, March 20). BYJUS. Radioactive decay law. (2021, October 12). Nuclear Power Radioactivity history for radioactivity century and 20 years of LAPP. (1999). Walter Kutschera. (2019, April). The Half-Life of 14 C—Why Is It So Long? ResearchGate | Find and share research. Alan Chodos. (2008, March). This month in physics history. APS Physics | American Physical Society. eous%20transmutation%20of%20elements C.G. Lamm. (1979). Applications of Isotopes and Radiation in Agriculture. International Atomic Energy Agency | Atoms for Peace and Development.
Welcome to self reflection References ii Types of radioactivity: Alpha, beta, and gamma decay. (2021, January 26). Chemistry LibreTexts. Chernobyl disaster. (2002, September 3). Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Chernobyl | Chernobyl accident | Chernobyl disaster - World Nuclear Association. (n.d.). World Nuclear Association - World Nuclear Association. Dr Daniel Mathews. (n.d.). Growth and decay. AMSI. Fat Man. (2022, November 14). Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Frequently asked Chernobyl questions. (n.d.). International Atomic Energy Agency | Atoms for Peace and Development International nuclear event scale. (2022, December 29). Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Little Boy. (2023, January 12). Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Understanding radioactivity and radiation in everyday life. (n.d.). South African Government | Let's grow South Africa together.
First and foremost, I want to thank Professor that she gives us a lot of time to complete this challenging assignment. From this project, it is so cool about Calculus is always interrelated with human daily life. What I know about Calculus before is just mathematics problem-solving by using differentiation and integration methods. Now, I had explored a lot of from the project and knew that Calculus can be more fun than before. After doing this project, I have a new perspective thinking about Calculus as Calculus is not only like mathematics problem solving because it helps us a lot in our daily life and any field such as medicine, industry, engineering, and business. It is so amazing and I wish to explore more about Calculus in the next semester. Tay Wei Liang (293723) Individual Reflection iii Learning is not a destination but a journey of life. Calculus is a part of mathematics that I love the most since I knew the history of Calculus Controversy between Issac Newton and Gottfried Weihelm Leibniz. Thanks for UUM and Pro. Dr Haslinda provide me such a chance do the things that I like to do. In this project, I learn how strict in making a report and how important the design of a book so that people find fun in reading it instead of boring and frustrated. I also appreciate that my group members who patiently tolerate me and follow my path in solving this report since I have the habit of perfectionism. Wish more people can understand the beauty of mathematics. Ng Wai Kean (292354)
Individual Reflection iv Learning math is quite a diffocult thing for me, but thank to Pro. Dr Haslinda for letting me have interest in mathematics again. Through this project, i have gain a depper understanding of radioactivity. Before this project, i thought that i learned Calculus is just for course syllabus but during this project, I just realised how important the calculus can be apply in our real life. I also appreciate and thank to my groupmate that help me a lot in this project when i faced problem. Hope everyone can enjoy looking at our magazine and gain a lot of new knowledge form it. Chum Yao Hui (292327) Calculus is part of mathematics where all the theories have been created by great thinkers in the world and it makes calculus a miracle. I want to say thank you to Prof. Haslinda as a guideline for us to finish this project completely. I learned from this project 2 where we need to be innovative and creative in this project. But both of these cannot come at the right time. So, patience is required to fulfill this project. I also want to be grateful that I have good members who helped each other to finish this project and the task together. After a whole semester I learned that Calculus is not just a calculation only but we need to elaborate to people as an opinion why our calculation is correct and sometimes we have to argue to people to stand on our opinion. I hope I can still learn a lot of things regarding Calculus in the future. Muhammad Alif Akmal bin Johari (291912)