The Alps, A Natural Companion 2nd Edition

THE ALPSJim Langley & Paul Gannon
A Natural Companion
Geology | Flowers | Walks

Second Edition

With a Foreword by John Beatty



THE ALPS
A Natural Companion
Geology | Flowers | Walks

Jim Langley & Paul Gannon

Second Edition

Oxford Alpine Club

The Alps, A Natural Companion

THE ALPS

A Natural Companion

Geology | Flowers | Walks

Jim Langley & Paul Gannon
Second Edition, May 2022

Published by the Oxford Alpine Club
© 2022 Oxford Alpine Club
www.oxfordalpineclub.uk
ISBN 978-1-913167-10-3
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Jim Langley and Paul Gannon have asserted their right under the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988
to be identi ed as the authors of this work.
All uncredited photographs by Jim Langley and Paul Gannon.
Graphics and design by Lina Arthur.

Cartography by GeoGraphics
Some maps based on source data from www.openstreetmap.org.
All rights reserved

Other than in the case of brief quotations in reviews, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form without
prior written permission from the publisher. The authors and publisher accept no responsibility for any injury or loss caused as a result of
using this book. Images and text contained within this book do not necessarily represent the views or opinions of the Oxford Alpine Club.
Front cover image: Looking across alpine meadows to Johannisberg and the Pasterze Glacier, Hohe Tauern National Park, Austria.

The Authors

Paul Gannon Jim Langley

Paul Gannon is a science and technology writer. He Jim Langley is a specialist in alpine �lowers.
is the author of nine books, including the popular He has a master’s degree in conservation and
Rock Trails series about the geology and scenery land management, and holds the International
of British hillwalking areas (Snowdonia, Lakeland, Mountain Leader and Winter Mountain Leader
the Peak District, South Wales, and the Scottish quali�ications. He runs an educational consultancy,
Highlands). He also runs geology workshops in Nature’s Work (www.natureswork.co.uk), which
Snowdonia and the Lake District. provides a range of guided walks, training events,
www.paulgannonbooks.co.uk
and bespoke outdoor learning programmes.

Acknowledgments

There are many people without whose support, assistance and guidance this book would not have been
possible. Firstly, Pete Kay, who sparked my interest in alpine �lowers many years ago and, along with
Hywel Roberts, shared a passion for exploring Snowdonian relict arctic-alpine �lower communities. I

would also like to thank those whose technical knowledge and skills have proved invaluable, namely
George Manley for his wonderful illustrations of �lowers and their structures, Professor John Good for
checking �lower identi�ications and botanical names, John Rowell and Marion Waine for their assistance

with photo-editing, and Rob Collister for his kindness in reading the ecology section and making useful
suggestions but also for sharing in botanical forays. Finally, I would like to thank Edith Kreutner for joining

me on walks in Austria and for supplying photos, along with Allan Hartley, of Austrian landscapes. JL
I would like to thank Ali Rowsell, author of Switzerland’s Jura Crest Trail, for photos of the Jura and Julia
Tregaskis-Allen of Tracks and Trails (www.tracks-and-trails.com) for photos of the Subalpine Chain. I

am also grateful to Tim Matschak for his guidance on German terms, Reg Atherton for his advice on the
Tour of Mont Blanc, and Dr Alison Parker for checking the geology section. Last but not least, I would
like to thank Jim Langley for conceiving the idea of this book, and Lina Arthur and Steve Broadbent of

the Oxford Alpine Club for enthusiastically taking up and expressing our idea. PG

3

The Alps, A Natural Companion

GERMANY Kitzbühel

FRANCEGenevaLausannBeSeirSonwnBiSsasWsMEeiIigltTteeZlrElaRnGALLdaoAutrtcNZMheauDarrsrndsiiceMfhassifPPiizzQBueranttineraIvnanlssbBroHulzcaakbnicDohoMtlAoamUrmiSteTosRlGIaArdoHasoshgelToacukenrner Julian AKlaprsawanks
Triglav
Jura
ChCaSuhmbaalbCmphineaeoirnynixGrBMalnaonnPctarMadaAtistoeoMsrothnatoe Rronsa Massif Como Trento Ljubljana
Milan Verona
SLOVENIA

Trieste
Dinaric Alps
Venice CROATIA

Grenoble Dora Maira Turin
Écrins
Genoa ITALY Adriatic
Sea

Argentera

Nice Tyrrhenian Sea
Overview of the Alps, showing national borders and main towns.

Jura Helvetic Alps Engadine Hohe Tauern
Pre-Alps Penninic Alps
Eastern Alps Alps
Southern

PenniniHcelAlveptsic Alps

Simpli ed tectonic map, showing the approximate locations of the main geological units.

4

Contents

Contents

Foreword..................................................................................................................................... 6
Introduction............................................................................................................................... 8

SECTION I | GEOLOGY
1. The Geography of the Alps .......................................................................................... 11
2. The Ancient Origins of the Alps .................................................................................. 15
3. Sedimentary Rocks of the Alps................................................................................... 21
4. Thrusting the Alps Upwards........................................................................................ 29
5. Some Complexities........................................................................................................ 43
6. Mountains Come and Mountains Go ........................................................................ 49
7. Alpine Glaciation............................................................................................................ 59

SECTION II | AREA NOTES
8. The French Alps .............................................................................................................. 79
9. The Swiss Alps................................................................................................................. 95
10. The Eastern Alps..........................................................................................................113
11. The Southern Alps ......................................................................................................119

SECTION III | FLOWERS
12. Life in the Alpine Zone ..............................................................................................127
13. The Alpine Environment ...........................................................................................137
14. The Uses of Alpine Plants..........................................................................................147
15. Flower Identi cation Guide......................................................................................153

SECTION IV | WALKS
16. Walks .............................................................................................................................245

Glossary of Botanical Terms..................................................................................................300
Glossary of Geological Terms ...............................................................................................302
Bibliography of Ecology Sources.........................................................................................305
Bibliography of Geology Sources........................................................................................306
Index ..........................................................................................................................................308
Index of Flowers ......................................................................................................................312

5

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Geology

Human Geography Trekking, climbing, skiing and many other
physical activities take place in the moun-
The term ‘Alps’ derives from the label tains, as does a great deal of less active
used for the alpine pastures that were tourism, aided by a plethora of mechanical
tilled by generations of hardy mountain- means of gaining height and the enviable
dwellers who lived wherever they could railway systems, particularly in Switzerland.
�ind adequate space for crops and grazing.
When men of science �irst started enquiring Today, the Alps face many challenges due
of the locals about the names of peaks and to environmental changes. Due to climate
pointing upwards, farmers usually offered change, the glacial ice cover in the Alps is
the names of their pastures rather than the melting, with potentially signi�icant conse-
peaks, and so the name ‘Alps’ grew to cover quences for those who live and work there,
the whole mountain range. as well as for the thousands of visitors who
�lock to see the mountains’ rocky majesty.
The Alps constitute a tremendous physical
barrier between Northern and Southern For overview maps of the Alps, see page 4.
Europe, though the mountain range has also
played a unifying role in European history. For more detailed maps of the French, Swiss,
The Alps are a symbol of Europe, as well as its Eastern and Southern Alps, see pages 79, 95,
best known and most loved mountain range. 113 and 119.

Despite being one of the world’s smaller

mountain areas, the Alps are the most

densely populated mountain range on
Earth. Today, the Alps are home to 14 million
people (about the same as London and the
south-east of England combined). The bulk
of the Alpine population lives in the main
valleys that cut deep into the mountains.

A score of different dialects, including

Occitan, Romansch and Ladin, is spoken

in the Alps, though the most common
languages are German, French and Italian.

The Alps are one of Europe’s most popular Photo 1.2 | The early eastward- owing waters of the Rhine,
playgrounds. Some estimates suggest that as passing through the Rhine Gorge.
many as 120 million separate visits are made

by tourists to the Alps every year, totalling
some 220 million overnight stays. However,

these visits are very unevenly distributed, as

visitors congregate in the most popular areas,
such as Chamonix, Grindelwald and Zermatt.

14

2. The Ancient Origins of the Alps

Photo 2.0 | The ancient crystalline massif of the Aiguilles Rouges.

2. The Ancient Origins of the Alps

The creation of the Alpine mountains was not were laid down in warm, shallow seas (see
a single event. Rather, it was a long, drawn- page 24). These rocks now form some of the
out series of processes lasting many tens of most dramatically shaped mountains in the
millions of years. The choice of when to start Alpine mountain range, such as the Helvetic
this account of the process of creating the Alps in the Central and Western Alps, and the
Dolomites in the Southern Alps.
Alpine rocks and then pushing them up into a
mountain range is thus fairly arbitrary. In fact, However, these rocks were laid down on
it’s a bit like stepping onto a conveyor belt at top of a basement of preexisting rocks,
some random midpoint on its journey. Most known as ancient crystalline rocks, which
geological accounts of the Alps begin about were later thrust upwards and now consti-
300 million years ago, when great swathes
of sedimentary rocks, particularly limestone, tute many of the highest points in the Alps,

15

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Geology

including the Mont Blanc and Aar massifs. In Many interesting things happen at these col-
the context of the Alps, ‘ancient’ can mean lision points, especially mountain building.
anything more than 300 million years old Today, this is most obvious in the Himalaya,
and some of these rocks are around 800 where the Indian continent is crashing into
million years old (though even this is fairly the Asian continent at a rate of about 5 to 10
young in geological terms, given that the centimetres per year.
Earth is about 4.5 billion years old).
To put it simply, the Alps resulted from part
It would clearly be remiss of any author
writing about the geology of the Alps not of the proto-African continent crashing into
to cover the origins of the rocks of the Mont the proto-European continent. This process
Blanc massif, so to avoid leaping backwards started about 100 million years ago but its
to incorporate the earlier rocks, this account most intense phase was 40 to 25 million
starts somewhat earlier in the Earth’s years ago.
history, around 600 million years ago.
This collision is still going on today, but
Starting so long ago also allows us to much less intensely. The southern margins
introduce some basic concepts of geological of the Alps are being pushed north-west
theory, especially regarding plate tectonics, at a rate of about 1.2 millimetres per year,
that are directly relevant to the creation of while their northern limits are moving in the
the Alps. same direction at just 0.7 millimetres per
year. This means that the Alps are still con-
Plate Tectonics tracting by about 0.5 millimetres per year
as the collision pushes the Alps upwards.
The theory of plate tectonics was one However, destruction of the mountains
of the great scienti�ic revolutions of the (through weathering and erosion) is hap-
twentieth century and is fundamental to our pening more rapidly than they are currently
understanding of how mountain ranges like being pushed upwards.
the Alps are built.
The Structure of the Earth
The basic concept is that the Earth’s surface
is divided into a number of independent To understand why tectonic plates move
but interlocking tectonic plates, which
move (quite slowly, at a rate of a couple of around the Earth, and how this causes
centimetres per year) around the globe. The mountain building, we need to look brie�ly
plates can slide past one another (as they at the structure of the Earth.
do along the great San Andreas fault zone
on the west coast of North America), pull The Earth’s core is extremely hot. This heat
away from one another (as is happening in moves slowly up through the next layer of
the African Rift Valley and also, out of sight, the Earth, the mantle. The mantle makes up
in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean), or they about 60% of the Earth’s volume and extends
can collide, crashing into each other. from the core to close to the Earth’s surface.

The mantle is solid not molten, but since it is

close to its melting temperature, it is ductile

16

2. The Ancient Origins of the Alps

Tectonic Crust the layer of the Earth that we know and exist
plates Lithospheric upon, and will be the focus of our discussion
of the Alpine mountain-building processes.
mantle
To be strictly accurate, we should note that
Mantle the tectonic plates are made up of both the
crust and the outermost layer of the mantle
Liquid outer core (the lithospheric mantle). We can largely
Solid inner core ignore this, because we will mainly be
focusing on processes in the crust. However,
the lithospheric mantle will occasionally be
mentioned.

Diagram 2.1 | The composition and internal structure of the Earth. There are two types of crust – oceanic
and continental. Oceanic crust is found
(i.e. it can be deformed without being frac-
tured). This means that heat can �low through under oceans; continental crust constitutes
the mantle in great convection currents,
moving heat towards the surface. It is thought the continents and the shallow seabed
that it is these convection currents that move beside them. The key difference is that
the tectonic plates (see Diagram 2.2).
oceanic crust is thinner and more dense
The outermost layer of the Earth is known than continental crust. Oceanic crust is
as the crust. It is cool and brittle. The crust is
only about 8 kilometres thick, whereas

continental crust can be anything between
20 and 80 kilometres thick. As we shall see,

the difference in the density of the two types
of crust is signi�icant in the processes that
created the Alpine mountain range.

Eruption of lava below sea level Oceanic crust and upper mantle
creates new oceanic crust that (tectonic plate) subducts when it
spreads out in both directions
meets continental crust

Continental plate Oceanic plate Oceanic plate Continental plate

Convection currents in the Subducted plate is‘recycled’
ductile rock of the mantle and carried down by
convection currents
move rock and heat
towards the surface

Diagram 2.2 | Oceanic and continental plates.

17

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Geology

The Creation of Metamorphic crystals that make up the rock are changed
Crystalline Rocks into different minerals. Metamorphosis
(see page 46) is one of two processes that
About 600 million years ago a long, drawn-out result in the formation of crystalline rocks,
process was under way that led, by about 300 the other being igneous activity.
million years ago, to the creation of a single
massive continent called Pangaea. As the Even as the mountains are being built,
continental plates bunched together to form weathering and erosion of the mountain
the supercontinent, they were involved in range above sea level reduce the weight
several collisions, which produced mountain on the deep zone. As the mountains are
ranges (though this was many millions of reduced in height, their deep roots (and the
years before the Alps were created). metamorphic rocks formed there) move
upwards towards the surface and form the
The mountain-building episodes that lower part of the crust.
occurred during the creation of Pangaea
produced the ancient crystalline metamor- Mountain-building Episodes
phic rocks that formed the basement on
which later Alpine rocks were laid down. There were three major episodes of
mountain building that created the meta-
When two continents collide, the rocks in morphic crystalline rocks. The Cadomian
the area are crumpled and pushed upwards mountain-building episode occurred around
to form mountains. However, the mountain- 600 million years ago. The Caledonian was
building zone doesn’t just extend upwards. a period of mountain building from 450
In fact, it also stretches downwards, million years ago until 400 million years ago.
thickening the crust substantially and The Variscan mountain-building phase (pre-
creating a massive deep zone, many times viously known as the Hercynian) extended
deeper than the mountains are high. from 350 to 300 million years ago.

Within this deep zone the pressures and The areas created during the Variscan
temperatures reach high levels and existing phase include the rocks of the Vosges, the
rocks may as a result undergo some form Black Forest and the Massif Central on the
of transformation or metamorphosis, such northern and north-western margins of
as recrystallisation, in which the mineral

Continental plates move towards each other Continental plates collide and mountain building occurs
as oceanic plate is subducted away Mountain ranges

Continental Continental Continental Continental
plate plate plate plate

Subducting Suture
oceanic plate
Diagram 2.3 | Plate collisions and mountain building.

18

2. The Ancient Origins of the Alps

the present-day Alps, as well as a lot of the
ancient crystalline rocks of the Alps proper.

As a result, today Variscan metamorphic

rocks occupy vast areas of the Eastern,

Central and Western Alps (though not the
Southern Alps). The rock types include
gneiss, schist, quartzite and many other
types of metamorphic rock.

The Creation of Igneous Crystalline
Rocks

The Variscan mountain-building episode Photo 2.1 | Metamorphic crystalline rock – Aiguilles Rouges gneiss.
Photo 2.2 | Metamorphic crystalline rock – schist.
also led to the melting of sections of

the continental crust at the base of the
thickened crust. This was a form of igneous
activity as it involved the melting of the
rocks. The molten rock rose part of the way
towards the surface, slowly losing heat and

solidifying into the crystalline rock we call
granite.

This granite, created 305 to 315 million
years ago, can be found in several places

in the Alps, in particular the greater part of
the Mont Blanc massif and much of the Aar
massif. The granite intruded into the earlier
metamorphic rock so the Alpine basement

consists of both metamorphic rocks and
granite, an igneous rock.

The later Alpine mountain-building episode
that occurred between 40 and 45 million
years ago pushed some of these ancient

crystalline basement rocks up to the surface,
where they became the upper crust. Today,
ancient crystalline rocks comprise about
50% of the surface of the Alps.

Photo 2.3 | Igneous crystalline rock – granite.

19

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Area Notes

Roc de la Pêche Petit Mont Blanc Dents de la Porte a
Limestone Gypsum Limestone

Photo 8.18 | Petit Mont Blanc is formed of a mass of gypsum and surrounded by limestone and dolomite.

The Vanoise even has a mountain peak, also include some black schists with plant
Petit Mont Blanc, which stands between fossils, and some coal measures (hence the
two peaks of limestone and dolomite but is name Houillère – ‘coal mine’). These sedi-
made entirely of gypsum. The name refers mentary rocks were metamorphosed during
to the fact that the gypsum is white and has the Alpine mountain-building episode.
nothing to do with its famous namesake. There are also some basement crystalline
rocks that were originally metamorphosed
The third zone is known as the Houillère and more than 300 million years ago and then
is made up of sedimentary rocks originally again during the Alpine mountain-building
laid down in the Carboniferous and Permian episode.
Periods (between 350 and 250 million years
ago). These were mainly sandstones but

94

BASEL Rhine 9. The Swiss Alps

Bodensee

BREGENZ

Weissenstein ZURICH Säntis

Vorarlberg

Jura MassiflCarNTFêMeRtenLoAidGgdanNeeErtDeCNEôElVeAdLAaeCkiBgheCauaGhusiLleasmleLMenemaAsereoouoinsvgRntLsanuMaBaaiilkxllncoDeaeBMisnnnNnelRcMSeeatoneowMununticdsiagchtsesiâsdNssDtMiMuMefCeolioautolterucnetnlhrtilmtagâRnntahAdeyôyBolBneEslDeLautMRaanerNauncthttIDKtenWeeaurtrbneSehfZoriWdroesuulesrarnIrnhmrkTssnoepZtaerEneiJtntnuRtgzneALAgllAfaNFralaMaDirGnEuuMöGirhlghionaonetosctrdrhsrnhLianefUrldwCMEaaRlsdsNifFEurSkacPMhaGswsyrtoyhzsesnITGAlaLSYarrudTosönaAdGliepopsaRrSkhpilüngeenLIECHTENSTEIN Engadine

Graubünden Swiss
National Park
Piz Quattervals
Val Grande Piz da
l’Acqua

Pass
Piz Bernina

Valtellina

Arve Lake Maggiore Lake Como

BaugesSubalpine Chain Massif

Albertville Monte Rosa

Periadriatic Line

Map 9.0 | The Swiss Alps.

9. The Swiss Alps

Grindelwald Area on the northern edge of the Aar massif. Both
Jungfrau (4,158m) and Mönch (4,107m)
Overview exceed 4,000 metres and the North Wall

The area around Grindelwald contains some (Nordwand) of the Aar massif is one of the
of the best-known Alpine scenery, including most impressive rock structures in the Alps.
one of the most famous peaks, the mighty
Eiger, whose notoriously dif�icult north face Although the Eiger is only 3,967 metres in
(Eigerwand) was �irst climbed in 1938. height, it dominates the view of the great
northern �lank of the Aar massif from
The Eiger is one of a trio of impressive Kleine Scheidegg to Grosse Scheidegg, 14
peaks within a larger group of mountains kilometres to the north-east.

95

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Area Notes

Summit of Eiger M nch Jungfrau
the Eiger Glacier (4099m) (4158m)
The classic
ascent route Eroded former
Eiger Wall glacial channel
Station

Photo 9.1 | The North Face of the Eiger and the classic ascent route. Photo 9.2 | The North Wall (Nordwand) of the Aar massif.

A cogwheel train from Grindelwald calls at Formation

Kleine Scheidegg before entering a tunnel The Aar massif, like the sedimentary rocks
to its north (with the exception of some
carved through the Eiger (complete with minor klippen of Penninic rock), is part of
the Helvetic tectonic unit and originated in
viewing windows) and climbing up to the the Helvetic realm.
Jungfraujoch col (3,466m) between Jungfrau
and Mönch, giving tourists an easy trip to
the snow-covered reaches of the Aar massif.

Ancient metamorphic basement rocks (gneiss) Windgallen
Alpine intrusions (granite)
Helvetic sedimentary rocks (limestone & mudstone) Aar Massif Andermatt Rhine Valley
Penninic rocks Gotthard
Penninic thrust line (barbs point to the direction Furka Pass Massif
from which the thrust is coming)

Grindelwald
Eiger
Jungfrau

Rhône Valley

Brig

Map 9.1 | The geology of the Aar and Gotthard massifs.

96

9. The Swiss Alps

Like the Mont Blanc massif, the Aar massif However, when we look at a tectonic map,
consists largely of ancient metamorphic we can see a major difference between
rocks – gneiss dating from about 350 million the Aar/Gotthard and the Mont Blanc/
years ago and granite from about 300 Aiguilles Rouges massifs, namely that the
million years ago. These basement rocks former are considerably larger than the
were subsequently thrust upwards from the latter. Though their widths are fairly similar
lower crust of the European continent and (the combined Aar and Gotthard massifs
are now exposed on the surface. are nearly 30 kilometres wide and the
Mont Blanc/Aiguilles Rouges are about 20
The northern sedimentary rocks, however, kilometres wide), the Aar massif is well over
formed as the upper crust of the continent, 110 kilometres long, while the Mont Blanc
just as the Subalpine Chain sedimentary massif is only about 50 kilometres long. The
rocks did in the Mont Blanc/Aiguilles size of the Aar and Gotthard massifs means
Rouges area. that they are more complex than their south-
western counterparts and consist of several
The Aar massif is also similar to the Mont mountain ranges covering a substantial area.
Blanc massif in having a smaller crystalline
massif running parallel with it, the Gotthard The area to the north and north-west of
massif. The Gotthard massif lies on the Grindelwald is another Helvetic tectonic
Aar’s south-eastern �lank, just as the Aigu- unit, the Axen thrust. It contains some
illes Rouges massif lies on the Mont Blanc limited outcrops of limestone but consists
massif’s north-western �lank. largely of detrital sedimentary rocks such

We erhorn Main Helvetic Thrusts – Mudstone
(3701m) and limestone were thrust over the
crystalline rocks of the Aar massif

Aar massif
Crystalline rocks

(gneiss)

Faulhorn Grosse Limestone Me enberg
massif Scheidegg (Early Cretaceous and (3104m)

Late Jurassic) 97

Axen nappe mudstone and limestone
(Tertiary and Middle Jurassic)

Grindelwald
Photo 9.3 | The geology of the North Wall of the Aar Massif in the Grindelwald area.

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Area Notes

as mudstone. These rocks are much less due to erosion are now disconnected from
resistant to erosion than the limestone and the main Penninic rocks to the south.
crystalline rocks of the Aar massif, so there
is a sharp difference (of about 1,500–2,000 Glacial Features
metres) in the height of the landscape
between the peaks of the Aar massif and The Aar massif is home to the Aletsch
those of the Axen nappe massif. Glacier complex, the largest single glacier
system in the Alps, which covers over 80
Some substantial landslides, Imberg and square kilometres and is currently about
Gummi, are visible in these softer rocks just 23 kilometres in length (in 1870 it was 3.2
north of Kleine Scheidegg on the Lauberhorn/ kilometres longer). The accumulation area
Tschuggen/Männlichen ridge. The track and junction of several glaciers feeding into
from Kleine Scheidegg to Männlichen curves the Aletsch Glacier can be observed from
into one of these landslide areas, Imberg, the Jungfraujoch. This con�luence of several
giving excellent views of the back scar and glaciers (Grosse Aletsch�irn, Jungfrau�irn,
the hummocky landscape created by the Ewigschnee�irn and Grünegg�irn) is known
collapsed material (see pages 56–57). as Konkordiaplatz and the ice here is about
950 metres deep.
The rocks of the Axen nappe have undergone
intense thrusting and folding to create some The tip of the glacier can be seen by ascending
exceptionally dramatic rock structures, from the Upper Rhône Valley to viewpoints
which can be seen on the Faulhorn massif. on Moos�luh, Bettmerhorn and Eggishorn.

Further north and west, on the outer edges Smaller glaciers, such as the Eiger Glacier
of the Alpine area, there are some klippen and the Upper and Lower Grindelwald
(see page 41), which are the isolated remains Glaciers, �low northwards between the
of Penninic thrusts that once would have main peaks of the massif. These glaciers
covered all the Helvetic rocks (both the are visibly shrinking; obvious signs of their
crystalline and the sedimentary rocks) but contraction include rockfalls (see page 66).

Photo 9.4 | The Faulhorn massif. Photo 9.5 | Abandoned moraine on the melted portion of the Eiger
Glacier (top left).
98

9. The Swiss Alps

Photo 9.6 | The accumulation zone of the Aletsch Glacier seen from Jungfraujoch.

Near to Grindelwald, in the Lauterbrunnen power to create the dramatic vertical valley
Valley, is one of the most impressive sides. Today the Se�intal glaciers have all
U-shaped glacial valleys. The narrow valley melted and glacial retreat has left the valley
was carved out in the height of the last ice ice-free, though Tschingel�irn/Kander�irn,
age by several glaciers from the Se�intal, Tellinggletscher/Inner Talgletscher and the
Lauterbrunnen and Kleine Scheidegg areas,
which converged and combined their cutting Breithorngletscher are still active glaciers in

the upper Lauterbrunnen area.

Photo 9.7 | Lauterbrunnen – a classic U-shaped glacial valley.

99

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Area Notes

Photo 9.8 | The Matter Valley with Zermatt in the centre.

Zermatt Area Few of the tens of thousands of visitors to
Zermatt and the surrounding area are aware
Overview that the Matterhorn, possibly Europe’s
most famous mountain, is actually made
The Swiss Alpine town of Zermatt, located largely from rocks derived from the African
towards the head of the Matter Valley continent and from an ocean that used
(Mattertal), is one of the most popular tourist to lie between the African and European
locations in the Alps, largely because it sits at continents. To �ind rocks derived from the
the foot of the Matterhorn. The Matterhorn is European continent proper, one has to look
one of the Alps’ most iconic mountains due at the base of the Matterhorn rather than its
to its classic, pyramidal mountain shape. It is shapely middle and upper reaches.
also one of the highest mountains in the Alps,
with a summit height of 4,478 metres, which The Matterhorn is on the Swiss–Italian
is a massive 2,862 metres above Zermatt. border, and is called Monte Cervino in Italian

African
continental

rocks

Oceanic
rocks

European continental European continental
rocks rocks

Photo 9.9 | The Matterhorn (peak in the meadows) is famous for its Diagram 9.1 | The Matterhorn is mainly made up of rocks from the
striking pyramid shape. Its four sides face north, south, east and west. African tectonic plate thrust onto rocks of the European plate.

100

9. The Swiss Alps

Ma erhorn
(4477m)

Dent Blanche Obergabelhorn Zinalrothorn Weisshorn
(4356m) (4062m) (4221m) (4505m)

Dent Blanche nappe Triassic
sedimentary
Ocean oor rocks and schist
rocks

Photo 9.10 | Geology of the Zermatt area.

and Mont Cervin in French. The border runs ocean �loor separating Europe and Africa was
along the skyline seen in Photo 9.14 (page crushed, along with the marginal continental
103), above the small glaciers that feed into seas of the African continent and vast areas of
the African crystalline basement rocks.
the impressive Gorner Glacier.

Formation Two large areas of crystalline klippen, the

The Zermatt area is dominated by three major Dent Blanche nappe complex and the Monte
sets of rock types; two of them are part of the
Upper Penninic nappes (or thrust complexes) Rosa nappe complex, cover much of the area
sitting on top of the piles of general Penninic
thrusts, and the third is part of a klippe from around Zermatt. The Dent Blanche nappe
the East Alpine realm in Africa. The upper
nappes are the earliest ones, created as the in the north-west of the area includes the

Matterhorn and several other peaks which

reach well over 4,000 metres – Dent Blanche
itself (4,356m), Obergabelhorn (4,026m),
Zinalrothorn (4,221m), and Weisshorn

Weisshorn Continental seas rocks (sedimentary rocks)
Ocean oor rocks (ophiolites)
Dent Blanche Allalinhorn Dent Blanche nappe Crystalline
Monte Rosa nappe basement rocks
Matterhorn Zermatt Crystalline rocks
Penninic rocks

Dufourspitze

Map 9.2 | Geology of the Zermatt area.

101

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Area Notes

(4,505m). The Monte Rosa nappe lies to the but in some instances traces of the curved
north-east of the area and has its own high shapes of the pillow lavas can also be
peaks, including Täschhorn (4,491m). discerned even though they have undergone
metamorphosis.
The crystalline rocks of both the Dent
Blanche nappe and the Monte Rosa nappe A number of the big peaks in the area
date from around 250 million years ago and are made up of ophiolites, including
consist mainly of gneiss, with some granites. Alphubel (4,206m), Allalinhorn (4,027m),
Separating these crystalline nappes are two Rimp�ischhorn (4,199m) and Strahlhorn
other sets of complex rock types, dating (4,190m).
from between 220 and 120 million years
ago. One set consists of a variety of rocks Both the ophiolites and the sedimentary
created in the Triassic Period from �ine rocks, including the Bündner schist, are
sediments laid on top of ocean �loor rocks. softer than the crystalline rocks that form
These hardened into sedimentary rocks and the high peaks. The sedimentary rocks are
include a rock formation known as Bündner easily eroded away and form the valley areas
schist (German: Bündnerschiefer, French: and slopes around Zermatt. Only three major
schistes lustrés). summits in the area – Oberrothorn (3,414m),
Unterrothorn (3,104m) and Mettelhorn
The rocks of the other set, created as new (3,406m) – are made up of these rock types.
ocean crust expanded, are called ophiolites.
Ophiolites are ocean crust rocks that have It is therefore not surprising, given the
been thrust up by mountain-building complexity of its geology, that the Zermatt
processes. In the Zermatt area, they consist area has peculiarities like the composition
largely of three types of rock – pillow of the Matterhorn.
lavas, basalt dikes and gabbro. The key
distinguishing feature of the ophiolites in
the Zermatt area is their greenish colour,

Photo 9.11 | Bündner schist. Photo 9.12 | Ophiolite

102

9. The Swiss Alps

Monte Täschhorn Alphubel Allalinhorn Rimp schhorn Stockhorn Strahlhorn
Rosa nappe (4491m) (4206m) (4027m) (4199m) (2532m) (4190m)

(gneiss)

Ocean oor rocks
(ophiolites)

Monte Rosa nappe
(gneiss and schist)

Ocean oor rocks Triassic
(ophiolites) sedimentary rocks

Photo 9.13 | Mountains and geology looking north-east from Gornergrat.
Glacial Features

The Zermatt area is also renowned for its Gorner Glacier is about 12 kilometres in

glaciers. The Gorner Glacier complex is the length today, but has shrunk by about 2.5
kilometres in the last 150 years as a result
second largest glacial area in Switzerland, of global warming. On average it retreats
covering about 57 square kilometres. The

Zwillings Schwarze Breithorn Unterer Theodule
Glacier Glacier Glacier Glacier

Glaciers now
disconnected from
the Gorner Glacier

Gorner Glacier
Photo 9.14 | Surface stream indicating melting on the surface of the Gorner Glacier.

103

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Area Notes

Gorner Glacier Zwillings
(upper) Glacier
Abandoned Grenz Glacier
moraines Gorner Glacier

Photo 9.15 | Abandoned moraines indicate the previous level of the glaciers.

about 30 metres per year, though in 2008 previously fed directly into the Gorner
it retreated a record 290 metres. The main Glacier have now become disconnected
glacier is now about 200 metres lower than from it, including the Breithorn, Trift, and
it was in 1850; this can clearly be seen on Unterer Theodule Glaciers, as well as the
the valley walls above the glacier. upper reaches of the Gorner Glacier itself.
The main feed into the Gorner Glacier is now
Due to the reduction in the size of the Gorner the Grenz Glacier (border glacier).
Glacier complex, several of the glaciers that

Photo 9.16 | The upper section of the Gorner Glacier (the tongue of ice in the centre) is no longer continuous with the lower section.

104

9. The Swiss Alps

Photo 9.17 | A rock glacier in the Quattervals area of the Swiss National Park.

105

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Flowers

Mountain avens in bloom.

FSECLTOIONWIII ERS

126

12. Life in the Alpine Zone

Photo 12.0 | View of a classic treeline.

12. Life in the Alpine Zone

Despite the apparently inhospitable The term ‘alpine’ is a well-established and
mountain environment with its extreme useful description for any plant that is found
temperatures, high levels of rainfall and growing above the natural treeline (see
many months of blanket snow cover, the Photo 12.0). In the Alps the treeline is more
European Alps are renowned for their strongly determined by latitude and aspect
�loral diversity and brightly coloured alpine than altitude. The warmer, south-facing
meadows. There are, in fact, many beautiful slopes of a mountain receive greater levels
and distinctive alpine species, which have of solar radiation and enjoy a comparatively
successfully adapted to the wide variety higher treeline than the colder, more shaded
of habitats, rock types and microclimates northern aspects (see Diagram 12.1, page
present in the Alpine mountains. 128).

127

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Flowers

Some of the plants found above the treeline store sugars and provide good anchoring.
are found exclusively at this level, but others There are very few annual and short-lived
can also be seen �lowering at lower alti- plants in mountain ranges around the world;
tudes. In total, the European Alps are home long life appears to be an essential strategy
to over 600 truly alpine species that exist to ensure the long-term survival of a species.
exclusively above the forest limits. Alpine plants generally vary from small
perennial herbs and low-lying, prostrate
In order to appreciate the diversity of these shrubs to compact cushion-forming plants,
alpine �lowers, we must �irst understand all of which have adapted to cope with the
the impact of the environment in creating extreme climate.
their many modi�ications and adaptations
and investigate the relationship between Reproduction is also an important aspect of
climate, soil and geology in determining plant life and plants have adapted in many
their distribution. different ways to reproduce both sexually and
asexually in the alpine environment. These
Alpine �lowers tend to be small but have fascinating mechanisms are explained in more
large, well-developed root systems able to detail later in this chapter (see page 133).

On the highest summits, only North South
a few mosses and lichens are

hardy enough to survive

Plants growing above the 2800m HIGH ALPINE Zone 3000m
treeline are called alpine 2300m Moss and lichens
plants, but some may also 2500m Warmer, south-facing slopes
grow at lower altitudes ALPINE Zone receive greater solar radiation
Alpine meadows
Treeline and have a comparatively
(the highest altitude at which SUBALPINE Zone higher treeline
Coniferous forests
trees can grow) MONTANE Zone 1500m
Cooler, north-facing slopes
receive less solar radiation Mixed forests
and have a comparatively

lower treeline

1300m

800m 1000m
SUBMONTANE Zone 500m
Deciduous forests

300m

Diagram 12.1 | Illustration of the e ect that aspect has on the distribution of plants in relation to the altitude at which they can grow.

128

12. Life in the Alpine Zone

The Origins of Alpine Plants snowbell, St Bruno’s lily, rampion and ade-
nostyles families whose entire distributions
Alpine regions around the world are often are geographically restricted to the Alps.
considered to be biodiversity hotspots.
Almost all the plant groups found on Earth The formation of the Alps began during
are represented in these mountainous areas. the Tertiary Period when Central Europe
Some plant families, such as daisy, heather was largely under an ancient ocean known
and true grasses, occur in abundance as the Tethys Ocean. Many of the world’s
across all alpine regions; families such as major tectonic plates were closely aligned;
gentian are also widely distributed around Scandinavia was connected to Greenland
the globe. Other families have evolved to and North America, and these were linked to
have a narrow distribution in a particular Central and Southern Asia by land bridges.
geographical region and are referred to as
endemic to that area. Such species are highly It is thought that the �irst plant colonists
represented in alpine regions, contributing of the Alps originated from neighbouring
greatly to their �loral diversity. mountains in the Balkans, Carpathians,
It is estimated that the European Alps are Apennines and Pyrenees. These mountain
home to 400 endemic alpine species which ranges already had high mountain plants
are either relicts from once widespread through past exchanges with massifs and
species or newly evolved species that haven’t highlands in Asia and Africa. The treeless
had the ability or time to spread their seed grassland environment (steppe) of Central
and colonise new areas. Common groundsel, Asia had a similar climate to the Alps with
for instance, is widely naturalised around extreme temperatures, limited humidity and
the globe, but its close relative one-headed strong sunlight. The steppe plants therefore
groundsel dwells in just a few valleys in the thrived at altitude in the emerging Alps.
Alps. Other examples of endemism are the
Amongst the alpine �lowers known to have
Photo 12.1 | Alpine adenostyles is an endemic alpine species. migrated west from their ancestry in Central
and East Asia are columbines, gentians,
alpenroses, primroses and rock-jasmines
(see Photo 12.2). The Mediterranean basin
and North African mountains are two other
distinct geographical regions of ancestral
origin for Alpine �lowers, including bell-
�lower, spring crocus, campions, toad�laxes
and globularia. North America also had
links to Eurasia through a land bridge which
allowed the migration of plants from North
America during the last ice age. The well-
known and ancient medicinal plant arnica
originates here, along with alpine aster,
goldenrod, bearberry and alpine �leabane.

129

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Flowers

At the end of the Tertiary Period, 2.5 million
years ago, the global climate began to cool
with the onset of the Quaternary Ice Age.
Alpine glaciers expanded and the Scandi-
navian ice sheet grew southward, covering
vast stretches of Europe. Glaciations do not
remove alpine �lora but restrict their distri-
bution to refugia called nunataks (from Inuit
nunataq) above or between ice streams.

It is estimated that there were twenty glacial
episodes during the Pleistocene Era. The last
glacial episode ended some 12,000 years ago
and was followed by a widespread retreat of
glaciers. This changing global climate had
a huge effect on the distribution of alpine
�lowers. Some species became extinct and
others were isolated, whilst new species
were able to migrate to the alpine region.

The widespread distribution of purple saxi-
frage, for example, across both the Arctic and
the Alps is evidence of the glacial advance
theory. Other alpine �lowers with origins in
Scandinavia include dwarf willow, glacier
crowfoot and mountain avens. The iconic
edelweiss, a migrant to Europe from the
highlands of Asia, travelled along cool, low
altitude corridors during the early postgla-
cial period. The highlands of Asia are home
to over 50 species of edelweiss and are a
centre of diversity for many of the �lower
groups that have migrated from there.

This distribution pattern illustrates the sig- Photo 12.2 | Many of the owers in the Alps originate in distant
ni�icant in�luence geographical isolation has regions of the world that were once connected to Europe by land
upon the evolutionary development of plant bridges. Others migrated along the edge of vast ice sheets. From top:
species. Other major in�luences thought to arnica, purple saxifrage, bald-stemmed globularia and edelweiss.
affect distribution are the constancy of the

environment, genetic variability and repro-

ductive strategy. Our understanding of these

processes remains far from complete.

130

12. Life in the Alpine Zone

Photo 12.3 | Low-lying plants are a common sight in the Alpine environment. Dwarf shrubs such as mountain avens have woody stems and are
found carpeting rocky gardens, especially in limestone areas.

Alpine Growth Forms plant of only a few centimetres in height may
in fact have a root system extending several
It is a striking phenomenon that all alpine metres in length, providing good anchorage,
�lowers, regardless of their origin, closely water storage, and access to scarce water
resemble each other in their growth forms. and mineral resources.
Alpine plants have adopted similar designs,
but differ hugely in appearance from their Dwarf Shrubs
lowland relatives. This is a good illustration
of the concept of convergent evolution – Dwarf shrubs are low-lying or prostrate in
plants genetically adapt to grow in a similar nature, often carpeting the ground. They have
way despite being from unrelated ancestral permanent woody stems and are generally
origins, because they are shaped by their the longest-lived alpine plants, but since the
harsh mountain environment. growth rate of woody tissue is very slow
they do not dominate alpine communities,
Plant growth forms in the alpine zone can be despite the advantages of their growth
categorised into a number of distinct groups form. Common examples are dwarf willow,
that we will discuss below, but it is important mountain avens and trailing azalea.
to mention one striking characteristic
common to most alpine plants, namely their Herbaceous Perennials
stunted growth. Nanism, or low growth, has
many advantages and allows plants to absorb Perennial plants live for over two years and
ground heat, avoid drying winds, and get make a signi�icant contribution to the overall
protection from overlying snow. An alpine diversity of �lowering plants. Short-lived

131

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Flowers

annual plants, on the other hand, are very
uncommon in the alpine environment. Their
survival requires that they complete seed
germination and seed production in a single
year, which is a precarious strategy in such
extreme environmental conditions.

Many perennials have very long lifespans;
they often live for hundreds of years. We
can categorise them into three main groups
– grasses (including rushes and sedges),
cushion plants and rosettes. Perennials
can be deciduous, dropping their leaves in
autumn, or evergreen, retaining their foliage
throughout the year.

Tussock Grasses

The majority of grasses, sedges and rushes
in the alpine zone form tussocks and appear
in dense clusters. New shoots grow at
their edges by means of vegetative growth
and they reproduce through this method,
forming dense tufts of shoots. These plants
are often found on poor soils or stable
rocky habitats, and include mat-grass and
cottongrass.

Cushion Plants

These plants form a dense, rounded canopy Photo 12.4 | Plant growth forms in the alpine environment exhibit
with numerous tightly-packed leaf rosettes distinct patterns. From top: Mat-grass showing tussock-forming
sheltering the stems beneath. The dense growth; moss campion with cushion-shaped growth; spring gentian
canopy is a very effective heat trap and also with tightly packed leaf rosettes; lichen growth on bare rock.
provides a moist environment, insulating
the plant from the severe climate. Cushion
plants are characteristic of the high alpine
zone where the climate is most severe and
are often found in stable rocky places where
soils are limited. Typical cushion plants found
at these high altitudes are moss campion,
Swiss rock-jasmine and king of the Alps.

132

12. Life in the Alpine Zone

Photo 12.5 | Spring pasque ower appears shortly after the snow melts, its owers fully opening for a short time in the late morning sun.

Rosettes (bryophytes), lichens, and non-photosynthe-

The leaves of these plants form compact, sising organisms such as fungi.
�lat, grounded spirals. They are a very
Reproduction
common growth form and most frequently

encountered in alpine grasslands. Many have Floral diversity and plant growth forms have
thick, deep taproots and tall �lowering stems. been mentioned previously but we have
Among the many species demonstrating this yet to discuss the mechanisms by which
plants reproduce. Successful reproduction,
growth pattern are starry saxifrage, least transmitting genetic material to future

primrose and alpine dandelion.

Succulents generations, is the ultimate aim of all living
things. The evolutionary advantage of

These specialist drought-tolerant plants are sexual reproduction by cross-breeding and

found in the driest and most inhospitable recombining the genes of two parent plants
environments because they are able to store in their offspring has clear bene�its for the

much-needed water in their leaves or stems. long-term survival of the species.
Their swollen, �leshy form makes them good
However, �lowering and producing seed
at storing water and also reduces water loss. through sexual reproduction is very energy-

Cryptogams expensive for a plant and far more pollen and
seed are produced than are ever used. The
These desiccation-tolerant plants are �lower- pressures of life in the alpine environment
less, but they are alpine specialists and can with its short growing season, low air and
be found in the most inhospitable mountain soil temperatures, drying winds, strong
environments, where �lowering plants cannot radiation and nutrient-poor soils make this
survive. The term ‘cryptogam’ means ‘spore- strategy a costly one, which is abandoned by
bearing’ and includes mosses and liverworts some species altogether.

133

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Flowers

Common valerian is an alkaloid-containing
plant whose roots are used as a natural
sedative. Prescribed as a remedy for insomnia
in ancient Rome, valerian tea is still sold in
supermarkets as a soothing bedtime drink.
Valerian also sends cats into an ecstatic state
like catnip does.

The more serious effects of alkaloids are Photo 14.7 | Like many other alkaloid-containing plants,
seen in plants such as monkshood, which monkshood is highly poisonous.
has been used to poison the tips of arrows.
The poison can be absorbed through the
skin and it is therefore very dangerous to
touch the plant. One should also be wary
of another alkaloid-containing plant, white
false helleborine, whose roots have been
used as an insecticide for currant and
gooseberry bushes. This highly poisonous
plant is very similar in appearance to the
medicinal great yellow gentian and could
easily be mistaken in the �ield.

Photo 14.8 | Some plants look very similar but their active ingredients have vastly di erent e ects on the body. Great yellow gentian (left)
is known to aid digestion and is added to alpine schnapps, whereas the active compounds in white false helleborine (right) are poisonous to
humans.

152

15. Flower Identi cation Guide

Photo 15.0 | King of the Alps at Hohsaas.

15. Flower Identi cation Guide

Using the Flower Identi cation Guide The plants are primarily categorised by
the dominant �lower colour and then sub-
The information provided about each of the divided by �lower shape. This is indicated in
species in this guide is intended to inform the side bar of the page to help you quickly
but not to overwhelm or overburden. The navigate to the appropriate section.
language is kept straightforward and there
is a glossary providing brief explanations Both the common and scienti�ic names
of technical botanical terms (see page 300). are given, as are the botanical families to
There is also a section detailing the which the plants belong. Many common
structures, arrangements and shapes of names exist across a region where different
�lowers and leaves (see page 156). languages are spoken; for example the
English bilberry, French myrtille, and Italian

153

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Flowers

mirtillo all refer to a single species, which is listed as a protected species in the vulner-
is recorded scienti�ically (in italics) as able category of the IUCN Red List despite
Vaccinium myrtillus. These scienti�ic names its abundance in the Alps and the Rockies,
get updated from time to time and this book because its entire British population is
con�ined to a few cliffs in Snowdonia.
uses the most up-to-date versions at the time
Species that are rare or have a threatened
of publishing. Botanical families comprise global status are protected by various inter-
national conservation policies and treaties.
many species with common characteristics
such as number of petals or �lower shape. Conservation
As you become familiar with them, these

characteristics will help you to identify

related species.

Flowering times detail the months when each The Habitats Directive
�lower is likely to be seen in bloom, though The Habitats Directive was adopted in
this can vary with altitude and latitude. Plant 1992 and forms an important part of
height gives a general idea of overall plant European Union nature legislation. It
size but, again, this can be affected by local aims to ensure the conservation of a wide
variations in climate and soil. range of rare, threatened or endemic
animal and plant species. Along with the
The guide includes each �lower’s altitudinal Birds Directive it forms the cornerstone
range, categorised into four altitudinal zones: of Europe’s nature conservation policy
submontane, montane, subalpine, and alpine and establishes the EU-wide Natura 2000
(see Diagram 13.1, page 142). It also notes the ecological network of protected areas,
�lowers’ distribution. Some species have a safeguarding them against potentially
broad geographical range and can be found damaging development.
outside the Alps, for example in the British The Bern Convention
Isles, the Pyrenees or Scandinavia, so this is The Bern Convention is the European
intended as a guide rather than an absolute. treaty for the conservation of nature and
has been in force since June 1982. It was
The habitat section denotes the plants’ pre- the rst international treaty to protect
ferred environment. Some species are very both species and habitats, and to bring
speci�ic to limestone rocks, for instance, and countries together to decide how to
this may help in differentiating closely related act on nature conservation and how to
species. Other species may be found across promote sustainable development.
open woodland, meadows and on rocky The Convention on International Trade
ground, so an understanding of geology and The Convention on International Trade
soil type is of great bene�it in identi�ication. in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora (CITES) aims to ensure that inter-
Information is also provided about conser- national trade in specimens of wild
vation and protection. Some species may be animals and plants does not threaten
important locally, even though their wider their survival.
population may not be under threat. A
classic example is the Snowdon lily, which

154

15. Flower Identi cation Guide

This guide acknowledges those which are change, disturbance by humans and habitat
included under the EU Habitats Directive, loss. Their beauty and splendour can only be
the Bern Convention and CITES. fully recognised when we see them in their
natural environment.
This section is designed to be easy to
use not just for reference, but also as a As a general rule, picking or collecting
�ield guide, with descriptions and colour alpine plants should be strictly avoided.
photographs allowing in situ identi�ication
of plants. Alpine plants have a dif�icult and For diagrams of ower structures, see page 156.
challenging existence at the best of times, For a botanical glossary, see page 300.
without adding the threats of global climate

Common name of the 71. Alpine Saw-wort Photograph of the ower
ower Flower shape icon, also
Saussurea alpina Daisy family (Asteraceae) included in the side bar,
Flower colour, indicating whether the
corresponding to coloured Plant height: 5–20cm Flower size: 7–14mm
Altitude zones: subalpine – alpine (1600–2800m) ower is zygomorphic,
tabs in the side bar Flowering: J F M A M J J A S O N D 4-petaled, 5-petaled or
Scienti c name of the Description: A delicate plant with a brush-like ower head.
Leaves lance-shaped, slightly toothed, grey-green and felty many-petaled
ower beneath. Flower heads purple, 5–10 closely packed in an
Flowering times (months umbel-like cluster. Common name and
when ower is most likely Habitat: Nutrient and lime-poor soils, rocky and stony places scienti c name of the
Distribution: Throughout botanical family to which
to be seen in bloom) Abundance: Rare Conservation: EU Hab Dir Annex II the ower belongs
Distribution (the areas of Altitudinal range (height
the Alps where the plant at which the plant grows)
The plant’s preferred
is found)
How commonly the plant environment
International
is found conservation policies or
treaties indicate that the
plant is rare or threatened

155

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Flowers

Describing Flower Structures

Flower Clusters (In orescence)

Umbel Panicle Spike

Flower head Raceme Corymb
Flower Shapes Radial symmetry (actinomorphic)

Petals free Petals fused Bell-shaped
Bilateral symmetry (zygomorphic)

Standard Upper lip
Lower lip
Wing
Keel

Legume ower Lamiaceae ower Orchid ower

Composite Flower Head

Ray orets

Disc orets

Involucral bract

Ray oret Disc oret

156

15. Flower Identi cation Guide

Flower Diagram

Carpel

Ovary Ovule Stigma Style

Anther Stamen
Filament

Perianth Petal Stalk Receptacle
Calyx Corolla Sepal

Leaf Margins

Lobed Entire Serrated Toothed
Leaf Shapes

Linear Elliptical Heart-shaped

Kidney-shaped Lance-shaped Spoon-shaped
Palmate Pinnate
Trifoliate
Leaf Arrangements

Opposite Alternate Whorled Basal rose e

157

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Flowers

1. Monkshood 2. Bulbous Corydalis

Aconitum napellus Buttercup family (Ranunculaceae) Corydalis bulbosa Fumitory family (Fumariaceae)
Plant height: 40-150cm Flower size: 20-30mm Plant height: 10-20cm Flower size: 18-30mm
Altitude zones: submontane - alpine (800-2600m) Altitude zones: montane - subalpine (1000-2000m)

Flowering: J F M A M J J A S O N D Flowering: J F M A M J J A S O N D

Description: A very poisonous, hairless plant with distinctive, Description: A plant with large, tuberous roots. Leaves
hooded owers. Leaves palmate, divided almost to the middle. pinnately-lobed on thin stems. Flowers dull purple with a
Flowers bluish violet to reddish violet in dense, branched, spike- down-curving spur in a short, spike-like raceme.
like racemes. Helmet of ower rounded. Habitat: Nutrient-rich soils, pastures and cultivated land.
Habitat: Damp meadows, open woods, riverbanks. Distribution: Throughout
Distribution: Throughout Abundance: Scattered
Abundance: Common

3. Common Butterwort 4. Mountain Milk-vetch

Pinguicula vulgaris Butterwort family (Lentibulariaceae) Oxytropis montana Pea family (Fabaceae)
Plant height: 5-15cm Flower size: 15-22mm Plant height: 5-15cm Flower size: 12-15mm
Altitude zones: submontane - subalpine (800-2500m) Altitude zones: subalpine - alpine (1500-2800m)

Flowering: J F M A M J J A S O N D Flowering: J F M A M J J A S O N D

Description: An insectivorous plant. Leaves yellowish green, Description: A short, slightly hairy plant. Lea ets 14-20 pairs,
eshy, rolled upwards at the edges. Flowers violet with a white lance-shaped. Flowers purple-violet with a distinctly pointed
throat on the lower lip and a 3-6mm spur. keel.
Habitat: Nutrient-poor soils, spring-fed ushes. Habitat: Stony, calcareous soils.
Distribution: Throughout Distribution: Throughout
Abundance: Common Abundance: Scattered

158

15. Flower Identi cation Guide

5. Tufted Vetch 6. Alpine Milkwort

Vicia cracca Pea family (Fabaceae) Polygala alpestris Milkwort family (Polygalaceae)
Plant height: 20-120cm Flower size: 10-12mm Plant height: 5-15cm Flower size: 5-6mm
Altitude zones: submontane - subalpine (300-2300m) Altitude zones: montane - alpine (1200-2700m)

Flowering: J F M A M J J A S O N D Flowering: J F M A M J J A S O N D

Description: A clambering, slightly hairy plant. Leaves with Description: A low-lying plant with leafy basal rosettes. Stem
12-30 linear lea ets and a terminal tendril. Flowers bluish leaves shorter, alternate. Flowers blue with white, hairy fringes.
violet, in stalked clusters of 10-30, forming a one-sided spike. Habitat: Dry, calcareous meadows, rocky and stony places.
Habitat: Nutrient-poor, loamy soils, meadows and scrub. Distribution: Throughout
Distribution: Throughout Abundance: Common
Abundance: Common

7. Bitter Milkwort 8. Mountain Pansy

Polygala amara Milkwort family (Polygalaceae) Viola lutea Violet family (Violaceae)
Plant height: 5-20cm Flower size: 5-8mm Plant height: 5-10cm Flower size: 20-30mm
Altitude zones: submontane - subalpine (500-2200m) Altitude zones: montane - subalpine (1000-2000m)

Flowering: J F M A M J J A S O N D Flowering: J F M A M J J A S O N D

Description: Numerous stems arise from basal leaf rosette. Description: A short, hairy or hairless plant with slender
Stem leaves smaller, pointed and alternate. Flowers blue, violet, creeping stems. Leaves narrow and lance-shaped, toothed.
pink or white in long spikes. Flowers violet, yellow or bicoloured with a short spur 3-6mm
Habitat: Calcareous meadows, rocky places, open woods, long.
spring-fed ushes. Habitat: Dry, nutrient-poor, acidic soils, rocky places.
Distribution: Throughout Distribution: Throughout
Abundance: Scattered Abundance: Rare

159

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Walks

On the path to the Lötschental Pass.
Photo: Tony Gladstone

WSECTAIOLN KIV S

244

16. Walks

Photo 16.0 | Crossing from Switzerland into France above Catogne, with views of Aiguille Verte and Aiguille Dru, and Mont Blanc beyond.

16. Walks

This chapter outlines 23 walks, ranging from The walks are broadly grouped by area from
fairly easy half-day strolls to potentially east to west and can be seen in the overview
more demanding multi-day trips, which are map on page 249.
scattered throughout the Alps. Of course,
this selection barely scratches the surface Walks are given a dif�iculty grade as follows:
of the fabulous walking in the Alps, but the Easy – a short walk with no dif�iculties.
walks featured here do take in some of the Moderate – a longer walk with some
very best Alpine scenery, and will allow the dif�iculties.
walker to enjoy the spectacular geology and Strenuous – a long walk involving a lot of
�lowers of the area. ascent or distance; a signi�icant undertaking.

245

The Alps, A Natural Companion ||Walks

Map page The Alps, A Natural Companion ||Walks Faulhorn Massif
showing
parking area er s e e Isetwald Walk 13 | Faulhorn Massif
and route of
e n z A8 Plangau This walk, one of the classic Alpine routes, offers magni�icent views of the Bernese Oberland
walk in the middle distance, including the Eiger and Jungfrau, as well as dramatic, close-up views
QR code – scan B r i of folds on the Faulhorn massif.

this with a Bönigen Furggenhoren Fangisalpbach The scenery on this walk is spectacular. The
mobile phone rocks underfoot are mudstones and lime-
to open the Rote ue Sägistalsee stones in the Axen nappe, part of the Helvetic
2169 Faulhorn Gassenhorn Grossenegg nappe piles. During the mountain-building
location in PARKING phase these rocks were subject to severe
Google Maps 2295 thrusting and folding. The folds are strikingly
Ind2r4iS6S2ääggiBisesr4tgshaaauGl3soMtthänarnddlenen 5 2616 visible here, especially as you approach the
Map scale 2681 north-western �lank of Sägissa.
Information Loucherhorn Bira
box detailing GPS 46.665876, 2 2400 Bachsee
Grade, Time, 7.870487 Simelihorn
Distance,
Ascent, Access Oberberghorn 2231 2756
and Start Point 2069 Furggenhorn
Breitlauenen First Allow six hours for the stunning high-level
2184 walking between Schynige Platte and First,
Tuba Ausserläger and additional time for transport up and
2099 down from the massif. The initial ascent
uses the cogwheel train between Wilderswil
1 Schynige 2005 (584m) and Schynige Platte (1,967m), and
Platte the descent takes the three-stage cable car
between First (2,186m) and Grindelwald
Lütschental Burglauenen (1,034m), followed by a valley train back to Photo 16.13 | Thrust-folds on the Faulhorn massif (see page 34).
the start at Wilderswil.
Gündlischwand Schwendi Mühlebach round the south side of the peak. On reaching
Grindelwald Looking southwards as you leave the station the south-western ridge of Loucherhorn you
at Schynige Platte 1 , you can see the Eiger, are rewarded with impressive close-up views
Scale: 1:100,000 Grid: 1km datum CH1903+ Mönch, Jungfrau, Lauterbrunnen and the of some of the most dramatic folds in the Alps
Breithorn in the distance. A high level path on the north-western �lanks of Sägissa. Some
N 0km 2km 4km (Panoramaweg) takes you just below Tuba of the rock strata fold to the left and others
and Oberberghorn, with magni�icent views to the right.
Grade: Moderate Time: 6 hours Distance: 18km Ascent: 500m Challifirn of the mountain ahead. An intermediate
route bypasses the highest points, meeting Continue towards Gotthard 3 , then turn
Region: Interlaken area Eiger Ischmeer the high level path just below Oberberghorn. sharp right and, near Berghaus Män-
Access: Access to the start point is by road or rail from either 3970 This brings you out on the edge of the plateau ndlenen 4 , sharp left towards Faulhorn. A
Interlaken or Grindelwald. The walk starts with a cog- directly above Brienzer See, one of the two steady ascent takes you towards and below
Start: wheel train from Wilderswil on the southern edge of glacial lakes that �lank Interlaken. Alterna- Faulhorn 5 with views of more folds on the
Interlaken. At the end of the walk, descend from the tively, a more direct route from the Schynige northern �lank. There is a path that bypasses
First massif to Grindelwald by cable car and take the Platte station avoids the other routes’ ascent. the summit, saving about 50 or 60 metres of
train from there to Wilderswil. ascent, but the panoramic views are worth
Wilderswil station The routes converge a short distance west of the effort.
Loucherhorn 2 . The path then works its way
From Faulhorn, descend towards Bachsee
and then to First and the cable car. If you
miss the last cable car, the walk down to
Grindelwald will add an extra 1.5 to 2 hours.

4107 Emigschneefäld 275

274 Mönch

Jungfrau

Using the Walks Section Google Maps

There is an information box on the map Latitude and longitude coordinates can be
page for each walk giving key information entered directly into Google in the given
about the route, including the start location, format. For example, to �ind the parking for
the level of dif�iculty, the estimated time Walk 16 – Dents du Midi (page 281), simply
required for the walk, the distance covered enter 46.141591, 6.986378 in Google Maps.
and the amount of ascent. Alternatively, scan the QR code on the map
with a mobile phone to get a direct link to
Times do not include breaks other than brief the Google Maps location.
pauses for photography and are an average
time taken in summer conditions. They are Maps and Navigation
given as a guideline, but ascent, distance and
terrain should be taken into account. This book contains clear maps of each
suggested walk, with numbered waypoints.
Access The paths in the Alps are well signposted,
but it is important to carry a full map of the
Details of how to access each walk by road relevant area for extra detail.
and public transport are provided in the
information box on the map page for each Note that in the Italian Alps, French or
walk. Suggested parking locations are also Austrian names may be used which differ
included. slightly from the Italian ones. This is the case
even on Italian-made maps!

246

Using the Walks Section

Refreshments Emergency Contacts

Many of the walks described in this book European emergency services 112
pass mountain refuges where refreshments
can be purchased, but you should ensure that Speci c mountain rescue services:
you take adequate food and water with you Valais – OCVS (Organisation Cantonale
for the duration of your walk. Look out for Valaisanne de Secours) 144
signs indicating eau potable (French), acqua Swiss Air Rescue (REGA) 1414
potabile (Italian) or Trinkwasser (German). Chamonix – PGHM (Peloton de Gendar-
merie de Haute Montagne) (+33) 04
Weather 50 53 16 89.
Italy 118
Walkers should always check the weather Aosta Valley Mountain Rescue (+39)
forecast and ensure that they are adequately 01 65 23 82 22
equipped for cooler temperatures or poor Austria (Bergrettung) 140
weather conditions at altitude. Be aware that mountain rescue can be
very expensive and it is advisable to have
Many of these walks can be tackled at any insurance in place to cover any such costs.
time of year; the limiting factor is snow cover.
Snow can appear from early September and Safety
patches may linger well into July even at
lower altitudes. Where late snow can present Walking in the Alps can be dangerous. All
problems, alternative routes have been those who walk in the mountains should be
suggested. The �lowers are usually at their aware of the risks and take responsibility for
best between mid-June and late July. their own actions.

Alpine Huts The authors and publisher have made every
effort to ensure that the information in this
Some walks require you to break your book was correct on going to press, but
journey in huts. You should telephone in cannot accept responsibility for any loss,
advance to book your place. Hut contact injury or inconvenience sustained by any
details are available online or from the person using this book.
nearest tourist of�ice, but hut wardens will
often phone ahead for you for the next day. International Distress Signal: Six blasts
Overnight stays are payable in cash the night on a whistle (and �lashes with a torch in
before departure. Discounts are available darkness) at 10–second intervals, followed
for members of the European Alpine Clubs by a 1-minute pause. Repeat until answered.
(the Austrian Alpine Club has a UK branch The response is three signals per minute
– www.aacuk.org.uk) and to BMC members with the same pause.
who have purchased a reciprocal rights card
(www.thebmc.co.uk)

247

The Alps, A Natural Companion | Walks

Walkers enjoying the Grand Balcon Sud in the Aiguilles Rouges above Chamonix,
with the Aiguille du Midi, Mont Maudit and Mont Blanc in the distance.

248

Walk Locations

GERMANY Kitzbuhel Salzburg 1

Dijon SWITBZaEseRlLANDZurich Innsbruck 3 AUSTRIA
7

Bern Lucerne

15 Lausanne 13 8 54 Villach
12 9 6 2
14 Bolzano Ljubljana

Macon Trento Trieste

Geneva 16 Sion 11 10 SLOVENIA
18 17 Aosta Como
Chamonix
23
FRANCE
Lyon 19
CROATIA
Chambery Milan Verona Venice
20

Grenoble 21 ITALY
22
Turin Pula

Genoa Bologna

Adriatic
Sea

Avignon Nice Pisa
Marseille

Walk Locations

1 Hoher Nock page 251 13 Faulhorn page 275

2 Seven Lakes Valley Circuit page 253 14 Stechelberg Circuit page 277

3 Pasterze Glacier Trail page 255 15 Mont Tendre page 279

4 Tre Cime di Lavaredo page 257 16 Dents du Midi page 281

5 Puez Plateau Trail page 259 17 Emosson & the‘Dinosaur’Prints page 283

6 Col Rodella – The King’s Path page 261 18 Samoëns & the Haut-Gi re page 285

7 Habicht page 263 19 Gran Collet Pass page 287

8 Swiss National Park page 265 20 Col de la Chavière page 289

9 Morteratschgletscher page 267 21 Brèche de Pacave page 291

10 Val Grande Traverse page 269 22 Deslioures Nature Reserve page 293

11 Saastal Höhenweg page 271 23 Tour of Mont Blanc page 295

12 Eiger Trail page 273

249

The Alps, A Natural Companion ||Walks

Feichtausee

Rohrauer Seekopf
Größtenberg
1846 Hoher Nock
1810 Schneeberg 3
1963 2

Koppenalm Gamsplan

4 Hagler 1

1669 1902

Geirkogel Rießriegl 1700
1600
1500
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700

Koppen 830 P

PARKING

Schröckstein Rettenbach Steinwändler GPS 47.754315, 1100
Lengau 14.313059
Radingberg 1000
900
901 800
700

A9 Rading Mayrwinkl

Pießling Windischgarsten

Scale: 1:50,000 Grid: 1km datum ETRS89 Gunst

N 0km 1km 2km 787
Ascent: 1673m
Teichlbrücke
Grade: Moderate Time: 8 hours Distance: 15km

Region: Upper Austria, Austria Pichl
Access:
Kaixen A minor road leads north from the A9 motorway
turn-o at Windischgarsten. Continue through
Rading to a forested car park.

Start: Rettenbach valley, Windischgarsten

Seebachhof

250

Hoher Nock

Walk 1 | Hoher Nock

This walk to the summit of Hoher Nock, the highest point in the Sengsengebirge mountain
range, offers views across the highly karsti�ied plateau, steep escarpments and rugged
mountains of the Northern Calcareous Alps. The Sengsen mountains lie within the Kalkalpen
National Park, which boasts Austria’s largest forest wilderness and only lynx population.

This circular walk is easily accessed from Photo 16.1 | Looking towards the barren rocky ridges of Hoher Nock
the car park at Rossenbach. The trail is beyond the evergreen, shrub-like trees of dwarf mountain pine.
marked from the car park as Route 463
and immediately begins to ascend through and a large metal cross con�irms that you are
mixed woodland of broadleaf and conifer at the highest point in the Sengsengebirge
trees. Around halfway up the woodland range. There’s even a visitors’ book where
thins out, offering views of the impressive you can record your achievement. The karst
cliffs of Gamsplan, the mountain to the east landscape extends for around 20km with
of Hoher Nock 1 . From this point you will gently rounded summits contrasting starkly
encounter extensive areas of dwarf forest, with deeply scoured, steep and rocky ridges.
comprised of an evergreen, shrub-like tree,
the dwarf mountain pine (Pinus mugo), Here, near the northern edge of the Alps,
which grows to a maximum height of only you get a sense of the magni�icence of the
3.5 metres. This diminutive tree is the alpine chain with great mountain ranges
highest growing conifer in the Alps and can spanning the horizon from the Ennstal Alps
be seen at an altitude of 2,400 metres. It is a in the east through to the Niedere Tauern to
slow-growing, true alpine specialist whose the south and the Dachstein group and Totes
extensive root system is important for soil Gebirge ranges to the west.
stabilisation above the treeline.
From the summit head east towards the
As the dwarf mountain pine thins out it nearby summit of Schneeberg 3 , then
makes way for wonderful alpine meadows descend a short rocky ridge and take the
and pastures, which dominate the vegetation path left towards Koppenalm 4 . The path
right up to the summit plateau. In the height beyond Koppenalm eventually joins up with
of summer the vibrant alpine �lowers include the path by which you ascended. Retrace
rough gentian, monkshood, eyebrights and your steps back down towards the valley.
blue saxifrage. On exposed rocky outcrops
look out for the bright blossoms of pink
cinquefoil, a plant endemic to the calcareous
mountains of the Eastern Alps.

The last section is rocky and steepens, follow-
ing a good trail close to the sheer north face
of Hoher Nock, which offers a vivid reminder
of the power of glacial erosion 2 . The broad
summit plateau is reached without dif�iculty

251

The Alps, A Natural Companion

Looking along the Moiry Valley in the Swiss Alps, with the summits of Grand Cornier and Dent Blanche in the distance.

Index

A avalanche 54, 55, 61, 146

Aar massif 12, 16, 19, 81, 95, 96, 97, 98, 108 B
African continent 16, 22, 28, 30, 31, 42, 93, 100,
basalt 22, 48, 102
101, 115, 120, 263 basement 12, 15, 18, 19, 24, 29, 39, 47, 82, 86,
Aiguilles Rouges massif 15, 47, 79–85, 97, 295,
94, 96, 97, 101, 108, 110, 114, 115, 120,
298 121, 263, 291
alkaloids 151–152 Bauges massif 88, 90
alpine meadows 14, 127, 137, 143, 144–145, bedrock 65, 67, 69, 74, 80, 140
Belladonne massif 79, 80, 81, 86
251, 259, 261, 263, 277, 281 Berglistüber 108–109
Alps bergschrund 64
Bertrand, Marcel 37
Central 42, 45, 50, 114, 142; creation 15, 16, bitters 148, 151
29–31; Eastern 13, 19, 28, 30, 31, 39, 40, 42, Bündner schist 102
45, 47, 48, 53, 73, 106, 113–118, 263; French
8, 45, 61, 79–94, 279, 285; Helvetic 15, 28, C
42, 45, 47, 48, 88, 120; languages 14; Pen-
ninic 28, 31, 42, 45, 48, 92, 115, 289; popula- calcicoles 140
tion 14, size 12; Southern 15, 19, 26, 28, 31, calcifuges 140
42, 45, 47, 48, 114, 115, 119–125; Swiss 9, carbonate platform 26, 121, 124
21, 45, 61, 75, 95–112, 277; Western 15, 19, Carboniferous Period 44, 81, 94
42, 48, 79, 80, 113 cargneule 24, 25
altitude 127, 128, 137, 138, 139, 142, 143, 154 Central Alps 42, 45, 50, 114, 142
altitudinal zone 143 Chamonix 14, 61, 66, 85, 294, 295, 298
ancient crystalline rocks 12, 15, 16, 18, 19, 21, chemical weathering 49, 50, 69
cirque glacier 62, 63, 67, 69, 71
24, 28, 33, 39, 40, 44, 46, 80, 82, 86, 93, climate 75, 86, 128, 129, 132, 137, 138, 142, 143,
94, 97, 98, 102, 108, 110, 114, 115, 116,
120, 121, 287 154, 155
creation of 18 change 58, 66, 69, 74, 85, 103, 130, 155, 255
anticline 33, 89, 90, 111 clonal reproduction 134–136
area of similar summit heights 106, 107, 265 colonisation (by plants) 72, 74–76, 129
Argentera 79, 80
Argentière 61, 86

308