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CM029
THE DYNAMIC RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND
SELECTED MACROECONOMIC VARIABLES ON ECONOMIC GROWTH: AN
IMPLICATION OF BOUND COINTEGRATION TEST
Nur Aimi Nashuha Arifin
Master Student, Faculty of Management and Economics, Sultan Idris University of
Education (UPSI)
Email: [email protected]
Norimah Rambeli
Associate Professor, Faculty of Management and Economics, Sultan Idris University of
Education (UPSI)
Email: [email protected]
Jan M. Podivinsky
Professor, University of Southampton, United Kingdom
Email: [email protected]
Farhana Johar
Senior Lecturer, Department of Mathematical Sciences, Faculty of Science
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The motivation of this study is to examine the relationship between selected macroeconomics variables
namely energy consumption, labor, population, and investment towards economic growth in selected
ASEAN countries including Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand. This study utilized the monthly time series
data spinning from 2000 to 2018. This study examines the long-term relationship between endogenous and
exogenous variables in the equation system across the countries by adopting the bound cointegration test.
Based on the bound cointegration test, the results suggest that there is at least one cointegration vector
between selected macroeconomic variables including energy consumption and the economic growth in the
long term. In other words, the existence of this cointegration means that the relationship that exists between
energy consumption, labour, population, and investment towards economic growth is not 'spurious' or not
false and the balance exists in the long term. These results are consistence with the findings across countries
under observation, namely Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand. Hence, the main influence of economic
growth across different countries is varies. Further examination is needed to explore the dynamic relationship
between the endogenous and exogenous variables.
KEYWORDS
GDP per capita, capital investment, population, natural gas consumption, Bound test
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1. INTRODUCTION
Energy is supreme and acts as a major role in both human’s lives and in the economy activity, both as a
scale of social growth and economic and fundamental humanitarian need. Nowadays, energy is not only
deliberated as key production but is also perceived as some pivotal commodities in which the backbone of
international relations and shape the world economy. Nevertheless, it keeps on growing concern issue
remains an unsettled issue and need further research whether the economic growth affects energy
consumption or otherwise. Although standard growth models do not enclose energy as an input of economic
growth, the essential of energy in modern economy is undeniable. As we all know, even though the energy
generation from the sources used is insufficient in volume and range, yet the energy demands are keep
increasing over the years. This limitation may have happened due to geography limit, the population, the
country itself whereas no energy resources like Singapore, Thailand, the Philippines, and the other countries.
What’s more, there is still an imbalance in the distribution of energy resources in the world, due to certain
regions that have excessive energy resources compared to others. This will put pressure on countries to
compete more efficiently for these resources to meet the increasing demand for energy in a reasonable,
reliable, and sustainable manner and needs. The scarcity of energy resources will provide healthy competition
among countries to obtain adequate energy resources. Thereupon, if a country fails to fulfill the needs of
energy consumption may have resulted severe impact known as an energy deficit whereas their solution
could be lower the economic growth through production with the existing energy resources or else attempt to
increase growth by meeting the uncovered part of energy demand through imports. Subsequently, the vital
act of energy as a production input had been despised until the oil crisis on the 1970s. However, after that,
energy became as a factor of production together with labour and capital. Then, the number of studies
regarding this issue become larger and from different perspectives. Therefore, it is very important to identify
the direction of the causal evolution in relation to national policy issues related to energy conservation.
According to Shuddhasattwa Rafiq and Ruhul Salim (2011), many economists and social scientists are
claiming that the rising demand for energy from developing countries like India and China is one of the main
reasons for the energy price increased in recent times. On the other hand, followed by Barnes and Halpern
(2000), poorer classes in developing countries often eager for basic energy services expenditure despite the
high cost especially in rural areas. In the case of energy price increases, the general price level also increases.
Therefore, the poor are greatly affected by high food prices, which are a major component of household
budgets in less developed countries. In addition, a lot of research on energy fields focused to developed
countries. Hence, this study finds it is noteworthy to focus on ASEAN countries namely, Malaysia, Thailand,
and Singapore since these countries are rapidly growing in terms of economic development. Moreover,
comparison can be made to improve Malaysia’s economic growth by replicate the Singapore and Thai’s trade
activities since it has stronger currency. Therefore, investigations of relationship between energy
consumption and economic growth have been carried out to analyze the trend of economic growth as a
booster for energy demand. By doing so, this study has potential contribution to the policy makers on how to
combat the issue related to energy use.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
The nexus between capital flow and economic growth can be seen having such strong bonding nowadays and
has been a subject of large academic researchers over the past few decades. Research between the
relationship found in many distinct results. One strand examined by Aschauer (1989) on dynamic
relationship between aggregate productivity and government spending variables in the United States. The
outcome of study confirmed a significant positive impact of stock and non-military capital infrastructure on
productivity. In his subsequent study, based on G-7 countries case, he found conversion from investment in
fixed assets (especially infrastructure) to the use of government spending led to significant decreases in
output levels. Then, De Long and Summers (1991) stated in the cross-country, every percent of GDP
invested in equipment increases the rate of GDP growth by one-third of the percentage point every year or
else described as the fact that the marginal product output is about 30 percent annually as causality runs from
equipment investment to GDP. At another time, Sanchez-Robles (1998) explored the cross-country
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contribution and found a positive relationship between electricity generating capacity and road length to
GDP.
However, there are also empirical studies in which stated causality runs from GDP growth to fixed
capital or in opposite direction. Magnus Blomstrom, Mario Zejan, and Robert E Lipsey (1996) show a result
of unidirectional relationship running from GDP growth rates to investment rates without any feedback
impact by analyzing 101 countries using an average of five years of fixed stock investment and GDP growth
for the period 1965-1985. Another similar outcome found by Carrol and Weil (1994) who performed
analogous analysis for 64 countries. Howbeit, several studies found causality from gross fixed capital
formation (or its major components) to GDP but negatively affected. In other words, some economies with
higher fixed capital than its growth-maximizing level which leads to downturn of economy growth rate.
Shantayanan Devarajan, Heng Fu Zou, and Vinaya Swaroop (1996) found that fixed capital expenditure
which is generally considered as basis for economic development may be excessive in the economy.
Furthermore, they explained that governments in middle income countries being analyzed misallocation of
the resources. Ghali (1998) analyzed a case of developing countries, Tunisia who performing the IMF's debt
stabilization program and found that in the study economy there were negative short-run effects on public
investment while negative long-run effects on both private investment and economic growth.
Besides that, we can see the tie between the population and economic growth in countries has been
going on for roughly three hundred years when Thomas Malthus in 1798 seen as the father of demography,
published the book with the title of An Essay on the Principle of Population. As indicated from the Thomas
Malthus theory, the causation between population and economic growth went in both directions. An increase
in economic growth led to the higher population through earlier marriage at a young age and high birth rate
and reducing mortality. Nonetheless, the relationship between these two variables still has unsettled issues
and mixed evidence from past studies. To cite an instance, in Malaysia, there is no existence of a long-run
relationship between economic growth and population growth. Plus, the results also do not support the causal
relationship between these two variables. What can be concluded that some countries with a small population
can boost their economic growth greatly and the others with a large population experience lower economic
growth. Bloom, Canning, and Sevilla (2003) pointed out there is possibility the interaction of economic
growth with the dynamic population is causing the country to fall into poverty trap. In addition, developing
countries are unable to achieve the goals of development as was set out or cannot sustain the development
achievements due to population problems and high population growth.
Later, Dyson (2001) argue the mortality rate decline encourages economic growth and hence leads
to an increase in the standard of living. The changes of the mortality rate can describe the population growth
as well as urban growth/urbanization as demographic factors that affect economic growth. If the population
grows faster than Gross National Product (GNP), the standard of living of people can’t be developed.
Moreover, Kalemli-Ozcan, Ryder, and Weil (2000) explained rapid population growth will fend off
economic growth in developing countries. On the contrary, Nlandu Mamingi and Perch (2013) stated there
are also some optimists reckon with population growth is a bonus for economic growth and development.
Undeniably, by rising large-scale production and specialization, population growth gives upsurge to
improved human capital whereas aiding technological development and by ricochet drives economic
expansion. Besides that, Gerald and Meier (1995) clarified more people can cause the country to produce and
consume more goods and services leading to economic growth. However, this can only happen when job
opportunities grow at least as fast as the labor force and when people have received compulsory education
and training. Larger populations may be useful to contain the possibility of lowering the return on this
generation’s human capital in the production of the next generation’s human capital this generation of future
human capital expenditures as larger population growth creates greater specialization and greater markets
that generate a return on capital and knowledge.
In the GDP growth of an economy, it is necessary to bear in mind that labor force participation is
one of essential input. Based on the study of the relationship between population, labor force, and long-term
economic growth from Denton and Spencer (1997), they found the Canadian economy is heavily dependent
on immigration for labor growth due to declines and aging of the population in the country's labor force
participation. Their ages are exceeding 65 years, the population growth rate is also declining and the main
reason for this is low fertility rates, and the decline is expected to continue if immigration continues at recent
levels. Satyam Panday and Beth Ann Bovino (2017) pointed out the labor force participation in US
persistently low and more likely be a drag on the economy for at least the next decade, keep on with a trend
that began before the Great Recession and directly making annual GDP growth of more than 3 percent on
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average hard to reach. They expected and glance over the labor force dynamics that labor force participation
rate going to decrease and pose a drag in the coming decade. In addition, most of the decline in labor force
participation rate in the US caused by demographic changes especially the aging of the American population
and the changing age structure of working age population.
Subsequently, the relationship between labor force participation and economic growth of a country
has been discussed for a long time ago and so many different results found on this issue. As emphasized by
Jiminez (2012), to get out from the trap of middle-income countries, one of the key catalysts in driving
sustainable long-term economic growth is the role of human capital formation. It argues that a good
education system is the basis for providing skilled workers. The sample countries of Malaysia and Thailand
have successfully expanded access to schooling, but the remain issue is the quality of education. The modern
education system should be able to provide quality education by implementing measures such as prioritizing
the budget for quality primary education before raising higher education levels, providing appropriate
incentives and rewards to educators, allowing school autonomy, and ensuring accountability for decision-
making, investment in the development of early childhood education, as well as considering the
implementation of a contingent loan financing scheme. Such these alternatives can improve the quality of
human capital while enhancing economic development.
The other results outlined by Mujahid and Zafar (2012) who investigated the participation of
women’s labor force and economic growth. There are some benefits to a country's economic growth from
changing the economic structure from agricultural sector to the industrial and services sectors, which in turn
can enlarge women's labor force participation in the labor market. Economic development makes women's
workforce easier to find a job and therefore, is encouraged to become more economically active which one at
a time increases women's participation in production activities. This situation indirectly escalates and
contribute to the efficiency of an economy and strengthening the country’s development potential. A few of
modernization theorists, Heckman (1978), Standing (1981), Bauer and Shin (1987) elucidated an economic
growth can be attributed to the involvement of women in the labor market because of changing professional
structures and increasing educational opportunities and household responsibilities. The process of
modernization is closely linked to the increasing demand for labor, education and employment that women
are socially accepted and low fertility rates. Followed by Tansel (2002), Fatima and Sultana (2009), the
support from several theoretical and empirical studies has shown that women's labor force participation and
economic growth are strongly and positively related.
Another important macroeconomic variable on investigating economic growth nowadays is energy
consumption since it has quite higher demand and become primary energy sources in the worldwide. A study
conducted by Yang (2000) whereas research on the relationship between real GDP and several categories of
energy use, including coal, oil, natural gas, and electricity. By employing the Granger causality technique,
the results found that there is a unidirectional causality running from the use of natural gas to real GDP in
Taiwan without any feedback effect. Latterly, the same finding also was found in Turkey examined by
Altinay and Karagol (2005) where they confirmed a strong long-run relationship runs from energy
consumption to real GDP. In conclusion, there is a causal relationship between the variables. Besides that,
Lee and Chang (2007) inspected a relationship between real GDP and energy consumption by covering
economic data of 16 Asian countries, they found that there is a long-run unidirectional causality from energy
use to economic growth. It can be concluded that in the short term, reducing energy consumption does not
adversely affect GDP but has a significant impact in the long run. Therefore, all these 16 Asian countries
should implement a stronger and more effective energy policy.
Under other conditions, Zamani (2007) explores the relationship between aggregates and various
types of energy sources is done in explaining economic activity in Iran by adopting the VECM method. The
finding found bilateral relationship between economic activity and the natural gas consumption in the long
run, the same results also was found by Heidari, Katircioglu, and Saeidpour (2013). Followed by the same
findings from Apergis and Payne (2010) where they confirmed the existence of bidirectional causality
between natural gas consumption and economic growth in both short and long run by applying the panel
vector error correction model (VECM) for 67 countries. By employing quarterly data of 1991 – 2008 and
VECM method, the similar result also was found by Lim and Yoo (2012) in Korea. Shahbaz Shabbir
Muhammad, Abdul Farooq, and Hooi Hooi Lean (2013) re-analysed the relationship between economic
growth and natural gas consumption in the case of Pakistan by adopting production function and found the
existence of co-integration between these variables which is natural gas consumption contributed to
economic growth. Lastly, a few studies found that there is no causal relationship or in other words, the
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decline in natural gas supply does not affect the economic growth adversely. For instance, Aqeel and Butt
(2001) in case of Pakistan, Kum, Ocal, and Aslan (2012) for Japan and Canada found neutral effect between
natural gas consumption and economic growth. Neutral impact between natural gas consumption and
economic growth also found in case of USA and Polland that conducted by Yu and Choi (1985).
3. DATA, MODEL SPECIFICATION AND METHODOLOGY
This study gathers secondary yearly data then extrapolated into monthly over the period 2000 until 2018.
There are five main data to measure the effect on economic growth in selected ASEAN countries which is
gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, capital investment, the population, the labour force, and natural gas
consumption. This data was provided from the World Bank (https://data.worldbank.org/), International
Monetary Fund (IMF) (https://www.imf.org/), and Census Economic Information Centre (CEIC)
(https://www.ceicdata.com/). All data were transformed into their natural logarithms due to differences in
their units of measurement.
The link between economic growth (GDP), capital investment, population, labor force, and natural gas
consumption has been explored by researchers like Corina Pirlogea and Claudiu Cicea (2012) functional
proposed as follow:
= ( , , , ) (1)
Where,
= Gross domestic product
= Capital investment
= Population
= Labor force
= Natural gas consumption
t = Time series data from 2000 to 2018
i = Cross section data, i = Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand
In general, this study aims to see whether the key factors that affect the economic growth in ASEAN
countries which is Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand. The data obtained in various forms and there is a
difference unit for each of the variables that have been set either dependent or independent variables. Thus,
all the data for each variable were Ln excluding natural gas consumption variable for budgeting purposes and
to avoid problems in the model specification. Here is a Multiple Regression Model for factors that affect the
gross domestic product (GDP) per capita in ASEAN countries which is applicable, namely;
Malaysia’s model (2)
= 0+ 1 ln + 2 ln + 3 ln + 4 + (3)
Singapore’s model (4)
= 0+ 1 ln + 2 ln + 3 ln + 4 +
Thailand’s model
= 0+ 1 ln + 2 ln + 3 ln + 4 +
The first step in methodology is unit root test. The Unit Root test populated by Dickey-Fuller (1979) will be
applied to determine the degree of integration of each variable. A variable is said to have degree of
integration equal to d if it becomes stationary after being distinguished by d times (0 = level, 1 = first level
difference, 2 = second level difference). The significance of this test is to prepare for the co-integration test
and to prevent the occurrence of false regression. Subsequently the study employed the Akaike Information
Criteria (AIC) to select the optimum lag-length for the estimation modelling (Akaike (1969), Akaike (1974),
Ivanov & Kilian (2005), and Gutierrez et al. (2009)). Further, to achieve the research objectives, this study
uses a quantitative method with two economics model approached (ARDL and Granger Causality Test). The
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first is Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL). This model can estimate short run and long run relationship.
Autoregressive distributed lagged is a model consisting of one or more lagged of the endogenous variables
among the explanatory variables. Thus, the ARDL model is a regression model that includes the presentvalue
or lagged variable of the dependent variable as one of the explanatory variables (Asteriou & Hall (2007)).
This method is very useful in econometrics based on some advantages such as produces a more precise
consideration that Johansen-Juselius technique and Eagle-Granger technique in analyzing co-integration
between variables with a small number of sample (Ghatak & Siddiki (2001)). In the Johansen-Juselius
technique, to see co-integration between variables, it requires long data to achieve validity. Apart from that,
ARDL does not need to check non-stationary and level of integration, whereas in some other techniques to
see co-integration requires the same level of integration (Pesaran & Shin (2001)).
A function used to analyze in this study are as follow:
Malaysia:
∆ = 0 + ∑ 1 ∆ − + ∑ 2 ∆ − + ∑ 3 ∆ − + ∑ 4ℎ∆ −
ℎ
+ ∑ 5 ∆ − + 1 − + 2 − + 3 − + 4 − + 5 − +
Singapore:
∆ = 0 + ∑ 1 ∆ − + ∑ 2 ∆ − + ∑ 3 ∆ − + ∑ 4ℎ∆ −
ℎ
+ ∑ 5 ∆ − + 1 − + 2 − + 3 − + 4 − + 5 − +
Thailand:
∆ = 0 + ∑ 1 ∆ − + ∑ 2 ∆ − + ∑ 3 ∆ − + ∑ 4ℎ∆ −
ℎ
+ ∑ 5 ∆ − + 1 − + 2 − + 3 − + 4 − + 5 − +
In these equations, α is short run coefficient and δ is long run coefficient for Malaysia, Thailand, and
Singapore itself. ( 0 ≠ 0 ≠ 0 and 0 ≠ 0, 0 ≠ 0, 0 ≠ 0). Next, the existence of long-term relationships
between the variables investigated is tested through the Bound F test (bonded test for mutual integration) to
establish the long-term relationship between the variables. This test may lead to three conclusions. First, if
the F-statistic value obtained from the estimation model is larger than the upper bound critical F-statistic
table, null hypothesis is rejected, which thus confirmed the co-integration between the variables. Second, if
the F-statistic value obtained from the estimation model is less than the lower bound critical F-statistic table,
the hypothesis cannot be rejected. Finally, the analysis is not conclusive if the F-statistic values are within the
upper and lower critical values. Once co-integration is established, the conditional ARDL long run model for
can be estimated as follow:
Malaysia:
= ∑ 1 + ∑ 1 + ∑ 2 + ∑ 3 + ∑ 4 + +
=1 =0 =0 =0 =0
Singapore:
= ∑ 1 + ∑ 1 + ∑ 2 + ∑ 3 + ∑ 4 + +
=1 =0 =0 =0 =0
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Thailand:
= ∑ 1 + ∑ 1 + ∑ 2 + ∑ 3 + ∑ 4 + +
=1 =0 =0 =0 =0
4. EMPIRICAL RESULT
In this section, there will be in-depth discussions regarding time series analysis including unit root test, and
ARDL Bound Co-integration Test.
The Augmented Dickey Fuller Unit Root Test
Before an appropriate ARDL model, the first step is to determine whether data are I(0) or I(1). This test
includes none, constant without trend, and constant with trend. The lag differences are chosen according
Akaike Info Criterion (AIC). Hence, to identify the stationary level of the data series, this study conducted
the unit root test proposed by Dickey and Fuller (1979). From the tables above, it can be summarized that the
ADF tests confirmed that variables are mixed order of I(0) and I(1). Singapore shares the same result as
Malaysia that all variables are not stationary at level and stationary at first difference excluding population
and labor force variables in which not stationary at first difference. Unlike the results from Malaysia and
Singapore, the time series data for all variables in Thailand is not stationary at level and stationary at first
difference at different lags. For instance, GDP in Thailand shows the values of ADF test statistic at level
smaller than the test critical values at which 1.18 smaller than 3.46 at without trend. At first difference, GDP
in Thailand shows the values of test critical smaller than ADF test statistic at which 3.46 smaller than 4.01 at
without trend. These same results followed by the other four variables which are capital investment,
population, labor force, and natural gas consumption. Tables 1 to 3, simplify the unit root test for Malaysia,
Singapore and Thailand.
Table 1. The result of Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) tests for selected macroeconomic variables affecting economic
growth (GDP) in Malaysia
Data Series At Level At First Difference
With Trend Without Trend With Trend Without Trend
None None
GDP 1.12 (9) -1.93(9) -1.24(9) -3.95(9)*** -4.11(9)*** -4.13(9)***
-2.67(9) -1.16(9) -5.54(9)*** -5.63(9)*** -5.64(9)***
CI 0.99 (9) -1.85(9) -0.37(9) -5.31(9)*** -5.26(9)*** -2.25(9)
POPULATION 1.26(9) -1.85(9) -0.44(9) -1.03(9) -3.48(9)*** -3.47(9)***
-1.57(9) -1.57(9) -3.59(9)*** -3.76(9)** -3.66(9)***
LF 1.34(9)
NG 0.53(9)
Notes: ***, **and *denote statistical significance, i.e. rejection of the null hypothesis, at 1%, 5% and 10% levels of significance, respectively.
Table 2. The result of Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) tests for selected macroeconomic variables affecting economic
growth (GDP) in Singapore
Data Series At Level At First Difference
With Trend Without Trend With Trend Without Trend
None None
GDP 1.57(9) -2.36(9) -0.78(9) -3.38(9)*** -3.74(9)** -3.75(9)***
-2.88(9) -0.78(9) -5.39(9)*** -5.45(9)*** -5.44(9)***
CI 0.74(9) -1.96(9) -1.03(9) -2.05(2)** -2.58(9) -2.50(9)
POPULATION 1.77(9) -1.95(9) -1.07(9) -1.91(2)** -2.29(9) -2.66(2)*
-3.68(9) -2.46(9) -3.99(9)*** -5.54(9)*** -5.31(9)***
LF 1.49(9)
NG 1.47(9)
Notes: ***, **and *denote statistical significance, i.e. rejection of the null hypothesis, at 1%, 5% and 10% levels of significance, respectively.
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Table 3. The result of Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) tests for selected macroeconomic variables affecting economic
growth (GDP) in Thailand
Data Series At Level At First Difference
With Trend Without Trend With Trend Without Trend
None None
GDP 2.09(9) -1.84(9) -1.18(9) -3.32(9)*** -4.05(9)*** -4.01(9)***
-2.46(9) -1.28(9) -5.14(9)*** -5.34(9)*** -5.35(9)***
CI 1.51(9) 2.55(9) -3.05(2)** -3.03(9)*** -6.66(9)*** -7.08(9)***
POPULATION 2.20(12) -1.65(9) -2.58(9)* -3.58(9)*** -5.01(9)*** -3.80(9)***
-0.34(9) -2.21(9) -3.36(9)*** -5.56(9)*** -5.07(9)***
LF 1.29(9)
NG 2.02(9)
Notes: ***, **and *denote statistical significance, i.e. rejection of the null hypothesis, at 1%, 5% and 10% levels of significance, respectively.
Bound Test Cointegration Results
As shown in Table 4, confirmed that null hypothesis of no co-integration is rejected, which implies that there
is a co-integrating relationship among those variables for all these three countries because the F statistic value
exceed the critical values of Pesaran et. al (2001) at 10, 5, and 1 percent significance levels. For instance, in
Thailand, the F-statistic value shows a significant with the value of 5.719095 compared to the upper bound
critical value of 3.09 at 10%, 3.49 at 5% and 4.37 at 1%. Same result followed by Malaysia and Singapore in
which they have co-integrating relationship among the variables.
Table 4. Result of ARDL Bound Co-integration Test
F-statistic Case II: Restricted Constant and No Trend
Pesaran critical value
10% 5% 1%
I(0) I(1) I(0) I(1)
I(0) I(1)
2.56 3.49 3.29 4.37
Malaysia 5.076
Singapore 7.984 2.20 3.09
Thailand 5.719
5. CONCLUSION
First of all, the ADF unit root tests proved that Malaysia and Singapore became integrated of different orders
which is I(0) and I(1) time series data but Thailand showed I(1) data. Thus, it can be further tested of co-
integration. The main objective of this study was to investigate the existence co-integration bound test of the
variables in the model. For all three sample countries which are Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand share the
same results of bound test whereas confirmed there is a co-integrating relationship among the variables by
applying the critical values of Pesaran et. al (2001). Based on the outcomes of long run model estimation,
capital investment seems to be core determinant factor affecting economic growth of Malaysia because of
positive and statistically significant relationship with economic growth. In Singapore, the population is the
only variables that has positive long run relationship with economic growth though not statistically
significant. For Thailand, labor force participation is the only variable that positively affects Thai’s economy
and statistically significant in the long estimation model. Overall, the growth isn’t a recent new hot topic. It
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has been going through a lot of studies before to find the best solution of controlling this issue. Growing
concern issue on energy of course is not only something that exists in these three ASEAN countries. It is
recognized as a global problem and requires a global solution to develop and have a good improvement in
every country’s management. Researcher have been trying to assess the impact of any changes that can affect
the country’s growth rate.
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CM030
PENDEKATAN KEUSAHAWANAN SOSIAL DALAM
PENYEDIAAN PEKERJAAN KEPADA ORANG KELAINAN UPAYA
(OKU)
Asma Zulaikha Binti Hasan @ Hishamuddin
Fakulti Pengurusan dan Ekonomi, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris
Hariyaty Binti Ab Wahid
Fakulti Pengurusan dan Ekonomi, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris
Rafiduraida Binti Abdul Rahman
Fakulti Pengurusan dan Ekonomi, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris
ABSTRAK
Keusahawanan sosial merupakan satu pendekatan penyelesaian masalah masyarakat yang inovatif dan unik. Pendekatan
keusahawanan yang berfokus kepada pencarian solusi isu masyarakat, ekonomi dan persekitaran ini dijangka mampu
menawarkan alternatif penyediaan peluang pekerjaan kepada masyarakat termasuk Orang Kelainan Upaya (OKU). OKU
termasuklah mereka yang mempunyai kekurangan jangka panjang fizikal, mental, intelektual atau deria yang apabila
berinteraksi dengan pelbagai halangan, boleh menyekat penyertaan penuh dan berkesan mereka dalam masyarakat.
Memandangkan golongan OKU di negara ini sering berdepan dengan kesukaran mendapatkan pekerjaan ekoran peluang
yang tersedia untuk mengisi ruang pekerjaan didapati semakin mengecil, maka pendekatan keusahawanan sosial disyorkan
sebagai satu jalan penyelesaian baharu dalam membuka peluang pekerjaan golongan OKU selain meggalakkan kelahiran
usahawan sosial dalam kalangan OKU. Sehubungan itu, kerta kerja konsep ini memerihalkan berkaitan pendekatan
keusahawanan sosial dan manfaat penyediaan pekerjaan yang dibuka luas kepada OKU disamping mempromosikan
peranan pihak ketiga menerusi kisah inspiratif dalam merealisasikan hasrat negara untuk memperkasakan OKU dari sudut
ekonomi dan juga sosial.
KATA KUNCI
Keusahawanan Sosial, Penyediaan Pekerjaan, Orang Kelainan Upaya (OKU)
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1. PENGENALAN
Keusahawanan sosial merupakan satu bidang keusahwanan yang unik untuk dipelajari dan diterokai oleh
masyarakat. Keusahawanan sosial berkeupayaan untuk memberi nilai tambah menerusi kreativiti dan proses
inovatif yang diaplikasikan untuk membantu meyelesaikan masalah masyarakat (Hariyaty et al. 2019).
Pendekatan ini boleh direalisasikan dalam kontinum perusahaan yang berasaskan keuntungan (nilai komersil)
atau bukan berasaskan keuntungan. Usahawan sosial mahupun perusahaan sosial akan berterusan mencari
solusi kepada masalah masyarakat dengan projek-projek berimpak. Menerusi keusahawanan sosial, masalah
atau isu masyarakat dilihat sebagai satu peluang untuk diterokai dan diselesaikan serta pada masa yang sama
dapat mewujudkan nilai dalam masyarakat.
Dari sudut aspirasi kerjaya pula, menjadi usahawan yang berjaya merupakan impian setiap individu
yang mempunyai bakat dalam menjalankan perniagaan. Hal ini tidak terkecuali bagi golongan Orang Kelainan
Upaya (OKU). Sungguhpun begitu, golongan OKU diakui mempunyai keterbatasan fizikal dalam menyertai
sesuatu pekerjaan dan ini adalah salah satu penghalang kepada kebebasan mereka dalam memilih kerjaya yang
diidamkan. Sunguhpu begitu, hak mereka dalam konteks peluang pekerjaan tidak harus dinafikan (Norfatin
Nadhiah 2018). Peluang pekerjaan yang kreatif perlu dicipta dan ditawarkan kepada mereka agar wujud
keseimbangan dalam konteks ekonomi dan penawaran kerja. Di sini, pendekatan keusahawanan sosial boleh
diusahakan oleh pihak ketiga yang digelar usahawan sosial bagi menyediakan peluang pekerjaan kepada
golongan OKU.
Selain penyediaan peluang pekerjaan oleh pihak ketiga, golongan OKU turut berpotensi untuk
menceburi bidang keusahawanan sosial ini dengan meneroka perusahaan sosial. Keusahawanan sosial bukan
sahaja dapat mencipta peluang pekerjaan kepada OKU tersebut malah dapat pula membantu golongan OKU
yang lain untuk menyara hidup mereka. Penglibatan golongan OKU sebagai usahawan pada zaman kini lebih
mudah berbanding dahulu ekoran terdapat pelbagai inisiatif dan bantuan yang disediakan kepada mereka oleh
pihak kerajaan mahupun swasta. Pihak kerajaan diakui banyak menyediakan bantuan kewangan misalnya Skim
Bantuan Galakan Perniagaan Orang Kelainan Upaya (SBGP-OKU) untuk membantu usahawan OKU
mengembangkan perniagaan dan mencipta peluang pekerjaan. Maka, peluang ini seharusnya diraih untuk
meneroka peluang keusahawanan sosial bagi membantu lebih banyak OKU.
2. PERNYATAAN MASALAH
Isu berkaitan pengangguran masih membelenggu sebilangan masyarakat termasuk golongan Orang Kelainan
Upaya (OKU) sehingga ke hari ini. Masih ramai OKU yang tidak mempunyai pekerjaan walaupun mereka
mendapat pendidikan sehingga umur 19 tahun. Hal ini kerana, keupayaan golongan kelainan upaya ini masih
diragui bagi menyempurnakan tugas-tugas dalam pekerjaan (Masitah Hayati dan Suhaida 2013). Isu ini dilihat
amat membimbangkan ekoran penemuan Kementerian Sumber Manusia (2019) yang mendapati bahawa
daripada 3059 permohonan kerja daripada pelbagai kategori orang kelainan upaya untuk berkerja di sektor
awam, hanya 27 orang sahaja yang diterima bekerja.
Berita Harian (2020) melaporkan sehingga Jun 2019, hanya terdapat 3686 (0.29%) sahaja yang
mengisi ruang jawatan dalam perkhidmatan awam berbanding 1.6 juta jumlah penjawat awam di seluruh negara
(Berita Harian, 2020). Hakikatnya, pengangguran berlaku disebabkan oleh kekurangan kemahiran yang
diperlukan dalam pasaran kerja (Ang, 2012), selain terdapat kelemahan ketara OKU dalam penguasaan
kemahiran employability menyebabkan kualiti pekerja OKU dipertikaikan (Zaliza, 2015). Majikan hari ini
dilihat lebih mementingkan kualiti pekerja dari segi kemahiran teknikal bidang yang dipelajari,
pencapaian akademik, kemahiran empoyability dan kualiti peribadi (Shaharuddin, Noraziah & Mohd
Fauzi 2011; Rafiduraida et al. 2019).
Dibimbangi masalah pengangguran dalam kalangan golongan bekeperluan khas ini akan terus
membelenggu diri individu OKU itu sendiri, termasuk keluarga dan juga masyarakat sekitar. Tanpa pekerjaan,
mereka tidak akan mempunyai sumber pencarian dan pendapatan untuk keperluan asas serta pembiayaan untuk
kesihatan mereka (Saslizawati, 2020). Bagi memastikan OKU mendapat peluang yang saksama untuk
menyumbang kepada produktiviti negara, majikan merupakan pihak ketiga yang memainkan peranan penting
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dalam memastikan hak untuk bekerja bagi golongan OKU ini terpenuhi (Norfahin Nadhiah 2021). Malangnya,
majian seumpama dikekangi oleh beberapa faktor dan terus mempertikaikan keupayaan OKU untuk
melaksanakan kerja dengan sempurna.
Sehubungan itu, pendekatan yang efektif bagi mengekang polemik ini seharusnya diterokai dan
dipraktikkan. Pengangguran dipercayai dapat dikurangi atau diatasi dengan jalinan kerjasama antara pelbagai
pihak. Menerusi pendekatan keusahawanan sosial, dengan menjadikan keusahawanan sebagai satu kerjaya
yang merupakan satu peluang yang berpotensi untuk diterokai (Hariyaty et al. 2019).
3. PENDEKATAN KEUSAHAWANAN SOSIAL DAN MANFAATNYA
KEPADA GOLONGAN ORANG KELAINAN UPAYA (OKU)
Keusahawanan merupakan satu bidang kerjaya yang amat penting pada zaman kini. Keusahawanan bukan
sahaja menyumbang kepada pertumbuhan ekonomi malah membuka lebih banyak peluang pekerjaan kepada
masyarakat. Menurut Park (2017), keusahawanan adalah tenaga positif yang mencabar atau mengubah
konvensyen yang ada dengan bertindak balas terhadap persekitaran yang berubah melalui pemikiran yang
kreatif dan inovatif. Keusahawanan bermula dengan pembentukan sebuah organisasi dan disusuli dengan
tindakan tindakan yang membawa kepada kejayaan sesebuah perniagaan. Usahawan pula merupakan peneroka
yang membawa kejayaan dalam perniagaan. Menurut (Hardy Loh et al, 2015), usahawan ialah mereka yang
sentiasa dapat melihat peluang untuk mencipta nilai baharu. Golongan ini mempunyai visi, memiliki pemikiran
yang penuh dengan inspirasi serta mampu memanfaatkan peluang perniagaan yang diperoleh oleh mereka.
Kini, antara cabang ilmu dan aliran baru yang berkembang dalam disiplin keusahawanan ialah
keusahawanan sosial yang turut dikenali sebagai keusahawanan rakyat atau keusahawanan sivik.
Keusahawanan sosial adalah satu pendekatan keusahawanan yang usianya masih di peringkat bayi dan
berkembang seiring dengan pendidikan keusahawanan itu sendiri (Suraya & Ahmad Rafflis 2015; Ab Wahid
et al. 2018). Keusahawanan sosial didefinisikan sebagai suatu proses mengenal pasti masalah sosial dan
bagaimana masalah mampu diselesaikan, melalui penilaian terhadap impak sosial (Robinson,2012). Namun,
pendekatan dan nilai keusahawanan yang diketengahkan menerusi keusahawanan sosial ini amat besar ertinya
terhadap pertumbuhan modal insan yang dinamik, perubahan sosial dan juga ekonomi sesebuah negara
(Hariyaty 2014; Abu Hanifah 2017).
Dalam mengatasi kemelut sosial dan ekonomi secara serentak, pendekatan keusahawanan sosial
dilihat sebagai alternatif yang makin digemari oleh pihak kerajaan, pengamal pendidikan, pengamal
keusahawanan dan aktivis sosial (Wahid et al. 2018). Keusahawanan sosial yang berfokus kepada kebajikan
sosial dan penjanaan semula kesedaran sivik; telah menjadi platform kewujudan pelbagai program
pembelajaran dan persekitaran yang mampu melahirkan rakyat yang akan membantu memperbaiki taraf hidup
komunitinya (Daleela 2018). Selain untuk komuniti, keusahawanan sosial juga mampu menyediakan peluang
untuk peningkatan diri individu (Shahrilzaily 2017).
Antara peranan penting keusahawanan sosial terhadap masyarakat dan negara ialah keupayaannya
menghapuskan fenomena kemiskinan serta kelaparan yang ekstrem, memperjuangkan hak masyarakat untuk
mendapatkan pendidikan asas secara universal, memperjuangkan kesaksamaan gender dan pada masa yang
sama memperkasakan wanita, mengurangkan angka kematian kanak-kanak melalui peningkatan sistem
penjagaan, kesihatan, dan pendidikan, meningkatkan penjagaan kesihatan para ibu, memerangi HIV/AIDS
serta malaria dan wabak penyakit lain serta memelihara alam dan persekitaran (Abu Hanifah 2017). Dipercayai
bahawa pendekatan keusahawanan sosial mampu menyediakan wadah ke arah memperkasa Orang Kelainan
Upaya (OKU) dan ini dibuktikan oleh beberapa kajian di dalam dan luar negara yang dijalankan antaranya oleh
Norhasyikin et al (2018), Che Su et al (2020), Vasilis (2021) dan Crosta & Sanders (2021).
Di Malaysia, OKU didefinisikan sebagai mereka yang mempunyai kekurangan jangka panjang dari
segi fizikal, mental, intelektual atau deria yang apabila berinteraksi dengan pelbagai halangan yang boleh
menyekat penyertaan penuh dan keberkesanan mereka dalam masyarakat yang termaktub dalam (Akta Orang
Kurang Upaya, 2008). Menurut Abdullah (2012), orang kelainan upaya merujuk kepada orang yang mengalami
keterbatasan mobilisasinya iaitu merujuk kepada jenis kecacatannya sama ada anggota fizikal, mental,
penglihatan dan pendengaran. OKU begitu sinonim dengan masyarakat di luar dan dalam negara kerana tidak
semua manusia mempunyai fizikal dan mental yang sempurna seperti orang normal. Perbezaannya adalah
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layanan yang diberikan kepada golongan OKU oleh masyarakat yang dikelilingi oleh golongan OKU
(Noordeyana, 2017).
Dalam usaha memperkasakan golongan OKU di negara ini, akses terhadap pekerjaan merupakan hak
OKU yang paling utama untuk dipenuhi bagi memastikan golongan minoriti tersebut dapat hidup berdikari
tanpa mengharapkan belas ihsan masyarakat sekeliling dan bantuan kerajaan semata-mata (Fatin Nadhirah
2021). Darjah ketidakupayaan seseorang OKU itu berkait rapat dengan kemampuan penyertaan mereka dalam
sektor kerja. Justeru, mereka perlu diajar kemahiran kelangsungan hidup yang antaranya dalah kemahiran
keusahawanan yang boleh diajar, dipelajari dan ditingkatkan. Selain itu, kemahiran membuat keputusan
mengikut gerak hati, penyelesaian masalah secara kreatif, boleh berusaha sendiri, kemahiran untuk
menamatkan perundingan perniagaan dengan baik (close deals), pengurusan strategik, pengurusan masa,
pengurusan projek, memujuk, menjual, berunding dan memotivasikan orang lain melalui teladan yang
ditunjukkan turut boleh diajar dan dipelajari oleh OKU (Ura Pin 2012). Selain itu, kemahiran keusahawanan
yang perlu ada oleh seseorang usahawan juga adalah kemahrian merebut peluang perniagaan, merangka
rancangan perniagaan dan kemampuan bekerja sendiri (Subramaniam, 2018).
Keusahawanan yang secara amnya berperanan untuk meningkatkan tahap pertumbuhan sosio
ekonomi (Hariyaty et al, 2019) turut berkeupayaan untuk menyediakan peluang pekerjaan (Norhasyikin et al,
2017). Keusahawanan dan keusahawanan sosial merupakan satu bidang yang mempunyai perbezaan yang
ketara apabila dilihat dari suatu sudut kemampuan seseorang usahawan melihat sesuatu masalah sosial yang
boleh ditangani sebagai peluang perniagaan yang berpotensi sama ada menguntungkan atau merugikan (J.
Austin et al, 2006; M. Yunus et al, 2010). Keusahawanan sosial ini bakal memberikan kesan yang positif
terhadap permasalahan sosial yang berlaku dan membuka ruang untuk mengatasinya supaya dapat mencipta
peluang buat golongan orang kelainan upaya (OKU).
Hakikatnya, terdapat pelbagai program dirangka khususnya di Malaysia dalam usaha untuk membantu
golongan orang kelainan upaya (OKU) iaitu dari segi pendidikan, pemulihan, latihan kemahiran, peluang
pekerjaan malah peluang perniagaan (Norhasyikin, 2017). Namun, penyertaan OKU di pasaran buruh dilihat
masih belum sepenuhnya dan ini mengakibatkan pembaziran guna tenaga. Maka, kerjasama pelabagai pihak
samada kerajaan, industru, NGO dan pihak ketiga adalah perlu untuk mencari alternatif bagi menyelesaikan
isu-isu berkaitan kebolehpasaran OKU. Selain itu, diharapkan agar wujud lebih banyak penglibatan usahawan
OKU dalam keusahawanan sosial sekaligus berfungsi memperkasa golongan yangs senasib dengan mereka
(Norhasyikin, 2018).
4. KISAH INSPIRATIF KEUSAHAWANAN SOSIAL DALAM
PEYEDIAAN PEKERJAAN KEPADA GOLONGAN OKU
Berikut diperihalkan beberapa kisah inspiratif usahawan sosial, perusahaan sosial dan keusahwanan sosail yang
bermotifkan membantu OKU di luar dan dalam negara. Usahawan sosial merupakan individu yang
mengusahakan keusahwanan dan perusahaan sosial, manakala perusahaan sosial merujuk kepada perniagaan
atau organisasi yang menggunakan ruang berasaskan keuntungan atau tidak berasaskan keuntngan untuk
mmebuat atau menjual barangan dengan tujuan utama memenuhi matlamat sosial.
Di Greek, terdapat satu koperasi sosial yang dipanggil Myrtillo, yang ditubuhkan dengan matlamat
khusus untuk mengintegrasi golongan kelainan upaya kepada pasaran buruh. Perusahaan ini adalah dalam
bentuk kafetaria dan Pusat Seni yang terletak di ibukota Athens di Ambelokipi. Perusahaan sosial ini
merupakan perniagaan inovatif sokongan kendiri dan pusat latihan yang menyediaan pekerjaan kepada lebih
kurang 90% pekerja OKU. Didapati bahawa pekerja OKU tersebut begitu jujur dan bekerja bersungguh-
sungguh. Mereka menunjukkan kebertanggungjawaban sebagai pekerja dan merasakan bahawa mereka juga
adalah pemilik bersama perusahaan sosial tersebut (Vasilis 2021).
Di Korea Selatan pula terdapat sebuah organisasi yang dinamakan Dasomi Foundation yang
menawarkan khidmat kejururawatan dan penjagaan, hopital tanpa penjaga, perkhidmatan paliatif. Dasomi
Foundation memberikan pekerjaan kepada 600 jururawat yang terdiri daripada OKU. Mereka ditawarkan
pekerjaan, diberikan latihan yang secukupnya dan berkhidamat untuk masyarakat di sekitar mereka. Bagi
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memastikan perusahaan sosial ini berjaya dan terus mampan, usahasama pihak kerajaan, pasaran dan organisasi
bukan keuntungan perlu mencipta jaringan kerjasama yang erat (Kim Dung 2020).
Di Malaysia, terdapat satu perusahaan sosial bernama The Silent Teddies yang bermatlamat untuk
memperkasa insan-insan cacat pendengaran dengan pengetahuan dan kemahiran berguna untuk melengkapi
diri sebagai tenaga kerja di dalam atau di luar premis Silent Teddies Bakery. Perusahaan sosial ini menawarkan
latihan vokasional kepada golongan OKU pendengaran bermula pada 6 Julai 2017, di Kuala Kumpur.
Perusahaan ini melatih sebilangan remaja cacat pendengaran dengan kemahiran penyediaan dan penjualan
biskut, pastri dan kek, yang akhirnya telah membuka peluang untk remaja terbabit mendapat pekerjaan
(silentteddies.com 2021).
Selain Silent Teddie, di Malaysia juga terdapat perusahaan yang menawarkan pekerjaan kepada
komuniti OKU iaitu, Coffeezone di Shah Alam yang bertanggugjawab melatih orang kelainan upaya untuk
diambil bekerja sebagai barista atau pembuat kopi bermula dari Oktober 2016. Coffeezone juga menjalinkan
kerjasama dengan Unit Orang Kelainan Upaya di bawah Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat (JKM) bagi memilih
calon pekerja OKU, selain menyediakan perkhidamatan latihan pekerjaan keapda orang OKU
(coffeezonestore.com).
5. RUMUSAN
Keusahawanan sosial mempunyai potensi yang luas untuk menyumbang kepada masyarakat dan negara yang
sejahtera, inklusif dan berdaya saing. Peluang pekerjaan yang dicipta menerusi pendekatan keusahawanan
sosial berpotesi mensejahterakan komuniti OKU dengan menyediakan peluang pekerjaan untuk mereka yang
memerlukan, khususnya komuniti OKU. Menerusi penyediaan peluang pekerjaan atau kesanggupan OKU
menceburi keusahawanan sosial, membantu komuniti tersebut untuk menjana pendapatan dan menikmati
kelangsuangan hidup. Kisah-kisah inspiratif yang memberi manfaat kepada OKU diharap menyediakan
kefahaman dan kesedaran bahawa golongan tersebut perlu diperkasa dengan menyediakan ruang dan peluang
pekerjaan yang mencukupi bagi membolehkan mereka menjalani kehidupan tanpa perlu bergantung harap
kepada orang lain. Diharapkan agar golongan OKU mengambil manfaat daripada peluang yang disediakan
dengan bangkit bersama sen]mangat yang kuat untuk memajukan diri.
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CM031
EDUCATIONAL AND VOCATIONAL PROGRAMMES FOR THE
REINTEGRATION PROCESS OF CHILD OFFENDERS IN AN
APPROVED SCHOOL (“SEKOLAH TUNAS BAKTI”) IN MALAYSIA.
Shahrina Hani Tajuddin, Rosfizah Md. Taib,
Norlaile Salleh Hudin, Azila Abdul Razak, Masayu Dzainudin
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia
Dina Imam Supaat
Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
This article presents a concept paper on conducting research exploring issues and challenges related to the extent to which
education and vocational training programmes provided in an approved school (“Sekolah Tunas Bakti”) in Malaysia are
beneficial for the reintegration process of child offenders. The study focuses on the group of child offenders aged 10 -18;
who are sent by the Court for Children to be admitted into the child rehabilitation institutions under the management and
discretionary powers of the Department of Social Welfare under the Ministry of Women, Family and Community
Development, Malaysia. The study will adopt a qualitative methodology approach by undertaking in-depth interviews with
upper-level management, academic teachers, and child offenders of the institution; fulfilling the objectives of perceiving
the thoughts and insight of respondents on how the educational and vocational training programmes available in the
institution may enhance the reintegration process of the youths. It is expected that the findings of the study may contribute
to certain benefits in the process of developing the youths upon their reintegration into society. Finally, it is believed that
this study has implications for the evaluation of education and vocational programmes and also for the improvement of
related policies in approved schools throughout the country.
KEYWORDS
child offenders/residents; rehabilitation; institution, reintegration; approved school; “Sekolah Tunas Bakti”
1. INTRODUCTION
Young people being involved in crime is seen as a serious social issue. In 2017 and 2018, Malaysia reported
more than 5200 crime cases involving young offenders, and about 13 percent of the cases were repeated
offenses (Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2019). Property crimes including theft, housebreaking, burglary,
auto theft, robbery, and trafficking of stolen goods are common, especially among young male offenders.
Depending on their age and the severity of their crimes, child offenders who have been convicted may be sent
to approved schools, child rehabilitation centres, or probation hostels. The administration of the child-approved
school is guided by the Child Act 2001 and the Approved School Regulation 1981.
As clearly stated in Article 1 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989, States should deprive a
child of his or her liberty only as a measure of last resort and for the shortest appropriate period of time.
Pursuant to this, all young people detained in the institution must be handled with appropriate care and
protection in accordance with international standards that is, every child deprived of liberty must be treated
with humanity and respect and in a manner that takes into account their needs, including needs related to
education, vocational skills, meaningful treatments, accommodations, and contact with family members
(UNICEF, 2013). The institution's director and a group of social workers are in charge of meeting the children's
basic requirements and providing them with all the care they require. They interact often and directly with the
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kids, and foster a supportive institutional atmosphere by providing the service and also building strong working
connections with the young people.
From the moment of arrest or referral until the young people are released and reintegrated into society, each
institution is responsible for the youngsters. The treatments offered in the institution are designed to start as
soon as the young people enter the school by getting them ready for their eventual return to their families and
society. In both Prison and Welfare Department facilities, the approach to rehabilitation is based largely on a
standardized regime of discipline, religious instruction, and vocational training. Rehabilitation institutions for
juvenile justice are also known as approved schools in Malaysia. These facilities are made to resemble more
schools than a jail in this aspect (UNICEF, 2013).
In actuality, the institution's programmes place a strong emphasis on improving academic and professional
abilities. Some institutions offer formalized schooling in-house. Each child rehabilitation institution in
Malaysia has an area of five to twenty hectares that is surrounded by a stone wall or a barbed wire fence.
(UNICEF, 2013).
2. NEED OF THIS STUDY
Education and vocational training are important components in the rehabilitation of child offenders in
Malaysia. (Azam et. al., 2021; Esa, Salleh & Mohamad, 2017). The children in the institutions are permitted
to continue their education outside of the facility, where they will get a formal education in regular classrooms
with other mainstream school children. Nevertheless, they are still required to stay at the facility for the duration
of their sentence. Transport to and from school is the responsibility of institutional employees. Some
institutions (particularly those for female child offenders) also offer formal education at the primary and
secondary levels. Dropout child offenders or those who never received any official education or training are
urged to enroll in literacy programmes, where they learn reading, writing, and counting (also called “3M”).
Additionally, these child residents are commended to take advantage of vocational training provided in the
institutions. For boys, vocational training involves welding, electrical wiring, handcraft, bakery, tailoring, and
culinary. The purpose of vocational training is to help young people find jobs once they leave institutions using
the skills they have learned. In fact, some institutions offer certificate-based vocational training programmes
that provide young people with the qualifications necessary to get a job after they are released (UNICEF, 2013).
Overall, by taking part in these programmes, young people have the chance to modify their perspectives,
objectives, and values in addition to honing their competitive talents.
The main causes of recidivism among ex-offenders are the inability to get stable work and failure to stabilize
financial resources. Within three years of their release, over two-thirds of ex-offenders return to jail. The ex-
offenders confront significant obstacles to work, such as legal restrictions and a lack of knowledge, education,
and experience. In addition to these real barriers and the stigma associated with having a criminal record, the
ex-offenders’ prospect of securing employment is further complicated by the high national unemployment rate
which is a sign of a current economic downturn (Brown, 2011). Officials and the management of rehabilitation
institutions for child offenders including Henry Gurney School and the Malaysia Prisons Department have
always expressed concern that former child offenders often receive certain challenges and stigmas from
members of the community after they are released from the institutions. This can then push the child offenders
back into contact with their former bad peers and eventually, they get involved in crime again (Taib, RM; 2012;
2013; 2014; 2016; 2018).
Nonetheless, very few young detainees actually benefit from such education and vocational training
programmes available in the institutions (UNICEF, 2013). In actuality, a large number of young people in
institutions have never gotten the right kind of care to stop engaging in criminal behaviour. This is, perhaps,
affected by the limited number of trained and skilled practitioners available in the institution (UNICEF, 2013).
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In accordance with the United Nations Convention on the Rights for Children (UNCRC), the Malaysia
Child Act 2001 has emphasized the goals of treatment and rehabilitation of young people in the institution,
while protecting them from punishment, retribution, and stigmatization. However, the adoption of more
punitive, proportionality-based methods to disposition might be justified by a lack of effective therapy for
children.
It is, therefore, the current study is crucial to be undertaken to explore the extent to which the importance and
impact of the education and vocational training programmes provided in approved schools (“Sekolah Tunas
Bakti”) in Malaysia can contribute benefits upon the integration process of former child residents later.
3. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
The research objectives set in the current study are:
3.1 To explore the views of the managers and educators of an approved school (“Sekolah Tunas Bakti”) in
Malaysia on the education and vocational training programmes available for child offenders in regards to the
reintegration process of the youths;
3.2 To analyze the thoughts and experience of the managers and educators of an approved school (“Sekolah
Tunas Bakti”) in Malaysia about the issues and challenges involving the education and vocational training
programmes provided for child offenders that may hinder the reintegration process of the youths; and,
3.3 To understand how child offenders in an approved school (“Sekolah Tunas Bakti”) in Malaysia perceive
their reintegration process once released.
4. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The study seeks to highlight the specific questions as follows:
4.1 To what extent do the managers and educators of an approved school (“Sekolah Tunas Bakti”) in
Malaysia perceive the education and vocational training programmes available for child offenders contribute
to the reintegration process of the youths?;
4.2 To what extent do the managers and educators of an approved school (“Sekolah Tunas Bakti”) in
Malaysia concerned about the issues and challenges involving the education and vocational training
programmes provided for child offenders hindering the reintegration process of the youths? and,
4.3 How do child offenders in an approved school (“Sekolah Tunas Bakti”) in Malaysia perceive their
reintegration process once released?
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5. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This study will adopt semi-structured interviews based on qualitative procedures, generally using
interviews and observations, which address concerns and views from three groups of samples, namely; first,
top-level management acting as the institutional managers; secondly, educators; and third, child offenders
regarding the topic. By using purposive sampling techniques, potential respondents will be selected according
to certain criteria - more experienced and senior serving officers and educators will be prioritized aiming to
gain their views regarding issues; challenges; and/or opportunities related to the benefits of education and
vocational training programmes and the reintegration process of child offenders. Meanwhile, child residents
approaching the period of release from the institution will be asked about their expectations of the benefits
received from the various programmes provided by the institution upon their process of joining the society
after leaving the institution.
At all times before and during the study, rules and guidelines on ethics and procedures will be carefully
followed in parallel to preserve the rights of all children involved so as to maintain the confidentiality of the
findings solely for the benefit of this study. In doing so, a script containing detailed consent statement
information will be verbally explained to participants before the interview session. The anonymity and the
voluntary nature of the participants are also guaranteed based on the academic research guidelines. Finally, the
thematic analysis method will be used to analyze and interpret the data mainly towards capturing genuine and
unbiased responses based on certain codes and labels that will be made merely based on the original purpose
of the study.
6. RESEARCH LIMITATIONS
The scope of the study is limited to exploring the issues and challenges related to the extent to which
education and vocational training programmes provided in an approved school (“Sekolah Tunas Bakti”) in
Malaysia and its contributions to the development of the child residents. It is therefore not to be discussing
other issues beyond the intended topic suggested.
Furthermore, the subject in the research will only focus on the child offenders placed in the approved school
under the management of the Department of Social Welfare (the Ministry of Women, Family, and Community
Development, Malaysia). Hence, the study will not touch on issues related to child offenders who are being
detained under the management of the Malaysian Prisons Department.
7. CONCLUSION
Reintegration issues among ex-child offenders need to be considered seriously. This attempt should be
carefully considered in Malaysia because the majority of adult ex-convicts generally struggle to survive and
gain employment after release. Society in general and employers, in particular, need to give ex-offenders a
second chance after release and accept them as a team to prevent them from relapsing. These ex-offenders will
show to be just as trustworthy as recruits from other sources if they are chosen appropriately.
On the other hand, the government needs to provide effective and comprehensive training and employment
programmes while in prison to ensure that ex-offenders of various categories, either adults, women, or children
are equipped with the necessary skills and knowledge to uplift their productivity. Even though they will be
potentially employed in low-wage economic sectors such as construction, plantation, manufacturing, retail
trade, and food services, these jobs could support them to earn their living and remain abstinent from abusing
drugs or committing crimes.
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In addition, society as a whole, including family and peers, must contribute to the fight against this problem.
For the purpose of restoring the ex-offenders' self-esteem and sense of belonging, they need to provide social
and moral assistance. Eventually, the encouragement they got from others could serve as a driving factor and
have a beneficial ripple effect on their career and employability.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This article is based on the research project entitled “Development of Community Linkages Framework for
A Realistic Reintegration Process of Child Offenders Placed in Institutions into Society in Malaysia”. The
authors would like to extend their gratitude to the Ministry of Higher Education for the research grant.
[code: 2021-0147-107-02 (FRGS/1/2021/SSI0/UPSI/02/16)] that helped fund the research.
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CM032
PENGARUH GAYA KEPIMPINAN SPIRITUAL PENGETUA DAN
KESEJAHTERAAN PSIKOLOGI GURU SEKOLAH
Anisah Samihah Mohamed Zabidi
University Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjung Malim,Perak, Malaysia
ABSTRAK
Kajian ini bertujuan mengkaji gaya kepimpinan spiritual pengetua terhadap tahap kesejahteraan guru Sekolah Menengah
Kebangsaan (SMK) di Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur. Beberapa dimensi dikaji dalam menentukan tahap kesejahteraan
guru berdasarkan model Fry. Reka bentuk kajian adalah berbentuk kuantitatif yang menggunakan soalan kaji selidik sebagai
instrument iaitu Fry’s Spiritual Leadership Theory (SLT) Survey dan Ryff’s Psychological Well-Being (PWB) digunakan bagi
mengukur dimensi-dimensi kajian. Responden terdiri daripada guru-guru SMK di Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur. Data
kajian dianalisis dengan menggunakan program SPSS bagi mendapatkan nilai min, sisihan piawai dan korelasi Pearson.
Dapatan kajian menunjukkan hubungan signifikan di antara gaya kepimpinan spiritual pengetua dan tahap kesejahteraan guru.
Perbincangan dan dapatan daripada kajian ini diharapkan dapat membantu mengukuhkan nilai pentadbiran di sekolah
menengah kebangsaan dalam memastikan tahap kesejahteraan guru di tahap optimum.
KATA KUNCI: kepimpinan spiritual, kesejahteraan psikologi guru, pendidikan, sekolah menengah
1.0 PENGENALAN
Sistem pendidikan di Malaysia berfungsi sebagai satu pemangkin kepada masyarakat berilmu dan berwibawa
dalam menghadapi pelbagai cabaran seiringan kemodenan yang dikecapi. Pendidikan ialah elemen penting dalam
pembentukan pembangunan negara bagi menampung perubahan-perubahan drastik di Malaysia selari dengan
kepesatan teknologi. Guru sebagai agen pendidikan perlu menyesuaikan diri dengan arus perubahan terkini
sebagaimana yang dirancang oleh Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (KPM) dalam Pelan Induk Pembangunan
Pendidikan 2021-2025 dalam Rancangan Malaysia ke-12 (RMK-12).
Bebanan perubahan ini memberi impak kepada produktiviti kerja terutamanya kepada guru dan tahap
kesejahteraan psikologi mereka dalam melaksanakan tugasan harian secara holistik. Kesejahteraan psikologi
adalah subjektif untuk penilaian kerana bukan sahaja berkaitan mental malah merangkumi fizikal, emosi dan
sosial individu (Samsiah Mohd Jais, 2020). Laporan Pertubuhan Kesihatan Sedunia (WHO) tahun 2012,
mendapati kesejahteraan psikologi mempunyai perkaitan rapat dengan penyakit mental yang dijangka akan berada
di tempat kedua selepas penyakit jantung pada tahun 2020 (WHO, 2012). Laporan ini dibuktikan tepat
berdasarkan kajian pada tahun 2019 yang mencatatkan statistik 2.3 peratus atau hampir setengah juta rakyat
Malaysia berusia atas 16 tahun mengalami gangguan kesejahteraan psikologi (Kajian Kesihatan dan Morbiditi
Kebangsaan (NHMS), 2019).
Menurut pakar perunding kanan psikiatri, Pusat Perubatan Universiti Malaya, dianggarkan secara amnya
dalam kalangan rakyat Malaysia, seramai 22,000 pesakit kesihatan psikologi mendapat rawatan di klinik dan wad
psikiatri setiap tahun dan 10 peratus adalah daripada golongan guru (Siti Nor Afzan Kasiman, 2011). Menurut Lia
& Ruslin (2018), profesion perguruan adalah satu bidang perkhidmatan sosial yang mencabar kerana sering dilihat
berhadapan dengan pelbagai jenis cabaran. Sekiranya, guru tewas dalam mengawal beban kerja maka kesihatan
fizikal dan mental guru akan terganggu. Kerajaan telah menyediakan fasiliti, perkhidmatan dan rawatan
kesejahteraan psikologi namun pendedahan mengenai isu ini masih dikira taboo dalam kalangan masyarakat (Zul
Azlin, Suhaila & Rabi’atul Adawiyah, 2018). Ketidakpekaan pesakit menyedari mereka tergolong dalam kalangan
yang memerlukan rawatan serta kebarangkalian untuk tidak tampil dalam mendapatkan rawatan atas faktor stigma
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sosial dan gaya kepimpinan pengetua di sekolah yang tidak mesra untuk dicakna menyebabkan statistik kesihatan
mental dalam kalangan guru semakin bertambah.
Kejayaan dan keberkesanan pengikut adalah berdasarkan kepimpinan yang mengetengahkan aspek
ketuhanan dalam pentadbiran abad ke-21, yang berkembang maju mengikut anjakan paradigma (Suzana Zakaria,
2019). Hal ini selari dengan kajian Shamsudin Haron (2011) yang mendapati bahawa kepimpinan masa kini perlu
menerapkan nilai pendekatan kerohanian yang melibatkan elemen kebersamaan, serta gaya kemahiran
kepimpinan yang mencetuskan nilai kemanusiaan yang positif dan tidak terhad kepada konteks body mind semata-
mata. Menurut Suzana Zakaria (2019), aspek kerohanian yang ditonjolkan oleh para tokoh ilmuwan Islam
terdahulu, menekankan kepimpinan dari perspektif Islam yang menitikberatkan keperibadian pemimpin secara
lebih berfokus. Di Malaysia, profesion perguruan melibatkan seramai 179,750 guru di peringkat menengah dan
236,993 guru di peringkat rendah (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, 2021). Dengan bilangan guru yang seramai
ini, pelbagai masalah yang berpunca dari segi kesejahteraan psikologi guru telah dilaporkan. Justeru, penyelidik
akan meneroka aspek ini dari perspektif kepimpinan sekolah.
2.0 LATAR BELAKANG KAJIAN
Pengetua perlu prihatin terhadap perubahan drastik mahupun tidak dalam kalangan guru di bawah penyeliaannya.
Gooh, Amirmudin dan Hafiz (2012), mengatakan bahawa kesilapan mudah berlaku dari guru yang mengalami
masalah psikologi, dan ini berkemungkinan tinggi bagi mereka untuk melakukan perkara-perkara yang di luar
jangkaan. Malah, terdapat guru yang menilai sekolah sebagai sebuah organisasi beban yang dipenuhi bebanan
tugas yang tidak terancang (Tajulashikin, Fazura & Mohd Burhan, 2013). Perubahan-perubahan yang sering
berlaku dalam menjalankan pelaksanaan tanggungjawab sebagai seorang guru di sekolah dan pengurusan
pentadbiran menuntut kepada perubahan dari segi penerimaan kendiri guru terhadap perkara yang berlaku dalam
persekitaran mereka.
Baharin Abu dan Mariam Aziz (2010), mencadangkan supaya pengetua memainkan peranan penting
dalam mengurangkan tahap tekanan kerja guru dengan menyediakan persekitaran sekolah yang sihat dan harmoni
serta mengamalkan kepimpinan yang sesuai dengan guru. Hal ini kerana, penerimaan dan harapan terhadap
perubahan adalah berbeza bagi satu individu kepada individu yang lain. Oleh itu, kajian ini ingin mengkaji
pengaruh gaya kepimpinan spiritual pengetua terhadap kesihatan psikologi dalam kalangan guru yang kini acap
kali dilabelkan sebagai satu profesion yang digeruni dengan cabaran mendidik yang bukan calang-calang.
Kajian Kementerian Kesihatan Malaysia (KKM) dalam National Health Morbidity (2015) ke atas rakyat
Malaysia pada tahun 2015 pula, mendapati bahawa Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur mencatatkan peratusan
tertinggi iaitu 39.8 peratus bagi negeri di Semenanjung Malaysia manakala Sabah dan Wilayah Persekutuan
Labuan mencatatkan rekod peratusan kesihatan mental tertinggi dalam Malaysia iaitu 42.9 peratus. Masalah
kesihatan psikologi dalam kalangan rakyat Malaysia lingkungan 16 tahun dan ke atas adalah 29.2 peratus (4.2 juta
orang), yang bererti 1 dalam 3 rakyat Malaysia yang berisiko mengalami masalah kesihatan psikologi. Menurut
The Malaysian Highlight (2017), jumlah pesakit yang mendapatkan rawatan yang berkaitan masalah kesihatan
psikologi menunjukkan peningkatan sebanyak 11.2 peratus berbanding tahun 2006.
Kajian Mo Lee et al. (2012) mendapati guru berisiko tinggi terhadap penerimaan tekanan yang boleh
membawa kepada penyakit psikologi yang serius seperti bipolar, kebimbangan melampau dan kemurungan. Ini
dibuktikan dengan kajian oleh Bahagian Psikologi dan Kaunseling, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia pada tahun
2018 yang melibatkan seramai 14,000 responden guru dan mendapati 4.4 peratus guru mengalami tahap stres
tinggi sementara 47.7 peratus lagi berada pada tahap stres sederhana (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, 2018).
Impak ini dinilai dengan elemen psikologi yang mampu menjejaskan tahap kesejahteraan dan produktiviti kerja
guru (Ruziati, Abdul Jalil, Amran Hassan, Zuraini & Ami, 2018). Oleh itu, pada 23 November 2018, Kementerian
Pendidikan Malaysia telah membangunkan Pelan Tindakan Meningkatkan Kesihatan Mental Guru dengan
inisiatif program Meningkatkan Kesedaran Kesejahteraan Psikologi Guru yang diperkenalkan pada Julai 2019.
Hal ini penting sebagai pendidik anak bangsa, jumlah peratusan guru yang mengalami masalah kesejahteraan
psikologi tersebut amat membimbangkan dan pihak sekolah terutamanya pengetua perlu memainkan peranan
dalam mengawasi tahap kesejahteraan psikologi guru di bawah penyeliaan mereka.
Kepimpinan di peringkat dalaman sekolah penting dalam meningkatkan produktiviti kerja guru yang
sering mengalami perubahan demi kehendak semasa. Kegemilangan sesebuah sekolah berhubung kait dengan
kewibawaan pengetua dari segi kepimpinan ke arah kecemerlangan. Pengetua dilihat sebagai penggerak utama
dalam membina strategi dalam perangkaan program-program di peringkat dalaman mahupun luaran demi
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kejayaan dan bagi mencapai matlamat yang dikehendaki. Pendekatan aspek dalaman seperti kerohanian yang
berkaitan dengan emosi yang stabil bagi seseorang guru dalam melaksanakan tugasan hakiki dengan cemerlang
adalah penting. Aspek kerohanian dalam pentadbiran adalah komponen utama dalam menghadapi cabaran
perubahan persekitaran, persaingan dan perubahan perkembangan Pendidikan di Malaysia (Wang, Guo, Ni, Shang
dan tang, 2019). Menurut Pushkar Dubey et al. (2020), kepimpinan spiritual kian menambat hati guru dalam
menjalankan tugas di sekolah kerana keprihatinan yang dipertonjolkan oleh pengetua yang mengamalkan gaya
kepimpinan ini.
Menurut Mohd Izham dan Norziana (2015), peranan pengetua bukan sahaja sebagai pentadbir sekolah,
juga sebagai pendidik dan pemimpin profesionalisme kepada guru-guru dalam memacu kejayaan atau kegagalan
sekolah. Pengetua memegang tanggungjawab yang cukup besar dalam menggerakkan staf untuk bersama
melaksanakan setiap program yang telah digariskan dan mencapai kesinambungan dan kesejahteraan sekolah.
Menurut Amanat yang disampaikan oleh Maszlee (2019), melalui tiga aspirasi Kementerian Pendidikan 2018-
2023, bakal mengembalikan kegemilangan pendidikan negara, melalui pendidikan berteraskan nilai, berkualiti
tinggi dan melalui autonomi dan akauntabiliti. Dalam melestarikan hasrat kerajaan ini, guru terpaksa
menggembleng tenaga dan pasti tidak terlepas daripada terbeban dengan bebanan tugas rasmi mahupun tidak
rasmi yang menyebabkan isu seperti burn out berlaku dan memberi impak kepada keberhasilan kerja.
Menurut Lokman dan Kadam (2011), bebanan kerja dalam perubahan bidang tugas yang ketara,
kekangan masa untuk menyelesaikan tugasan, permintaan dan jangkaan dalam jangka masa terhad serta kesihatan
yang tidak mengizinkan menyebabkan tekanan kepada emosi dan kesejateraan psikologi guru. Menurut
Kementerian Kesihatan Malaysia (2012), dalam Buku Kesihatan Mental dan Fizikal, kesejahteraan psikologi
bukan bermakna kurang waras namun, ia berlaku dalam situasi di mana seseorang individu menyedari potensinya
yang boleh berdaya tindak terhadap stress kehidupan, boleh bekerja dengan produktif dan juga boleh
menyumbang kepada masyarakat terganggu. Ia juga merujuk kepada tiga komponen utama, iaitu, (i) cara berfikir,
merasa, bertindak, (ii) cara menghadapi masalah dan mengatasinya dan (iii) cara berinteraksi dengan orang lain.
Ini disokong oleh dapatan kajian Ame Husna Kamin dan Salleh Amat (2015), yang mendapati individu yang
mempunyai gejala masalah dalam kesejahteraan psikologi ini cenderung untuk mencuba membunuh diri dan
berkemungkinan akan terus berusaha melakukannya atau kembali ke pangkal jalan bergantung kepada jenis sistem
sokongan yang diberikan.
Oleh yang demikian, gaya kepimpinan yang bersesuaian untuk dipraktikkan dalam menghadapi cabaran
kesihatan psikologi ini amat penting bagi pengetua di sekolah. Pengetua adalah pembuat keputusan yang utama
dalam menentukan hala tuju sekolah (Nawaz et al., 2020). Maka, pengetua perlulah dilengkapi pengetahuan dan
nilai kerohanian yang baik dalam memimpin. Gaya kepimpinan spiritual yang menekankan aspek kerohanian di
tempat kerja adalah konsep yang agak baru dalam industri. Aspek kerohanian dalam pengurusan institusi
pendidikan adalah komponen penting dalam dimensi kepimpinan dalam menghadapi cabaran perubahan
persekitaran dan persaingan, (Wang, Guo, Ni, Shang & Tang, 2019). Malah kajian oleh Wang et al. (2019),
mendapati peranan kerohanian dalam persekitaran kerja membantu dalam meningkatkan kecekapan organisasi.
Menurut Pushkar Dubey et al. (2020), gaya kepimpinan spiritual berpotensi mengubah dan mengawal tekanan
pekerja dan menjadikan pekerja berpuas hati dan bermotivasi yang secara langsung meningkatkan prestasi
organisasi. Sehubungan itu, kajian ini akan berfokuskan terhadap gaya kepimpinan terkini iaitu kepimpinan
spiritual dalam kalangan pengetua bagi mengatasi isu kesejahteraan psikologi guru.
3.0 DEFINISI KONSEP
3.1 KEPIMPINAN SPIRITUAL
Kepimpinan spiritual dianggap sebagai satu paradigma baharu dalam transformasi organisasi pada abad ke-21.
Penekanan terhadap kepimpinan spiritual dikembangkan dalam kajian oleh Zohar dan Marshall melalui konsep
Spiritual Quotient (SQ) pada tahun 2000 yang menghubungkan rasional dan emosi di antara tubuh badan dan akal
fikiran (Zohar & Marshall, 2000). Keseimbangan dimensi fizikal dan kerohanian individu adalah penting bagi
memastikan keberhasilan kerja dicapai (Suzana Zakaria, 2019). Keseimbangan di antara fizikal dan kerohanian
ini adalah penting kepada matlamat hidup manusia terutamanya bagi penganut agama Islam yang memerlukan
kedua dimensi berada pada tahap yang seimbang. Menurut Ahmad Zabidi (2005), maksud kepimpinan spiritual
dari aspek Islam adalah dengan meletakkan harapan pada Allah s.w.t. sebagai nadi asas dan nilai kesejahteraan
dalaman iaitu fikiran, perasaan dan roh. Oleh itu, seseorang pemimpin yang mengamalkan gaya kepimpinan
spiritual perlu mempunyai akhlak yang baik dan mulia dalam memimpin kehidupan dalam organisasi.
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Ini selari dengan kajian oleh Ahmad Redzuwan (2003), yang menyatakan antara kewajipan akhlak yang
patut ada dalam diri pemimpin adalah akhlak yang dianjurkan oleh Islam dalam menunaikan janji, ikhlas bekerja,
mengingati Allah SWT dalam setiap pekerjaan, bersedia membantu dan memberi nasihat serta pertolongan kepada
pekerja lain. Menurut Tobroni (2015), kepimpinan spiritual yang berteraskan dimensi ketuhanan ini mampu
mengilhami, membangkitkan, mempengaruhi serta menjayakan ahli melalui teladan, layanan, kasih sayang dan
implementasi nilai-nilai ketuhanan dalam tujuan, proses serta budaya melalui kelakuan yang ditonjolkan oleh
pemimpin. Kepimpinan spiritual telah mula dilihat sebagai aspek rohani yang dapat memberi impak kepada
kejayaan pentadbiran kepimpinan bermula tahun 1990-an sehingga kini (Houghton et. al, 2016). Ini kerana
kepimpinan spiritual adalah kepimpinan melalui teladan dan bersifat keagamaan. Berdasarkan perspektif Islamik,
kepimpinan spiritual merujuk kepada kepimpinan Nabi Muhammad SAW yang mempunyai sifat-sifat seperti
jujur, amanah, mesra dalam pertuturan dan kebijaksanaan dalam memutuskan sesuatu keputusan (Anita
Rahmawaty, 2016).
Oleh itu, kepimpinan spiritual dilihat dapat menyampaikan perasaan dalaman dengan lebih jelas dan
berkesan. Menurut Haqiqi Rafsanjani (2017), kepimpinan spiritual diyakini sebagai satu penyelesaian terhadap
krisis kepimpinan yang dihadapi kini kerana melalui kepimpinan spiritual ada pendekatan yang lebih rasional,
emosional dan keagamaan. Ini selari dengan kajian oleh Anita Rahmawaty pada tahun 2016, yang menegaskan
kepimpinan spiritual adalah dari emosi yang memimpin dari hati ke hati dalam proses keagamaan yang mampu
membentuk peribadi, integrasi yang dipertontonkan melalui teladan dan amatan kepada pihak bawahan. Kajian
oleh Hasan Al-Banna, Mohd Hamran, Sayuti, Burhanuddin, Rogis Baker, Nur Surayya dan Rosmah (2018),
mendapati kepimpinan spiritual dengan empat konsep J.E.R.I (Jasmani, Emosi, Rohani dan Intelek) sebagai
tunjang utama dalam kejayaan organisasi.
3.2 MODEL KEPIMPINAN SPIRITUAL FRY
Kajian menggunakan Model Kepimpinan Spiritual Fry (2016) yang mengandungi enam dimensi iaitu Visi,
Harapan/Pegangan, Kasih Sayang Altruistik, Maksud/Panggilan, Keahlian, Komitmen Organisasi dan
Produktiviti. Fry telah menambah baik model Kepimpinan Spiritual beliau sedari awal kajian pada tahun 2003,
2005, 2013 dan 2016 dengan model yang lebih terperinci. Model beliau telah digunapakai sebagai instrumen
kajian dan diadaptasi oleh kajian-kajian yang berkaitan dengan kepimpinan spiritual (Fry, 2016).
Rajah 1 :Model Kepimpinan Spiritual Fry
Sumber : Fry (2016)
3.2.1 Visi
Menurut Fry (2016), visi penting dalam memastikan matlamat organisasi dapat dicapai dan difahami semua. Visi
mengandungi tiga matlamat utama yang perlu diutamakan oleh pengetua iaitu (i) merangka arah tuju secara
keseluruhan bagi organisasi, (ii) membantu dalam mempermudahkan pelbagai keputusan taktikal organisasi dan
(iii) membantu menyelaraskan tindakan dalam organisasi. Visi penting dalam menentukan hala tuju, membentuk
idea, memberi makna kepada perjuangan serta memperkukuhkan pegangan dan kepercayaan terhadap
produktiviti kerja, apabila sesuatu pekerjaan dilakukan dengan nilai kepercayaan dan keikhlasan bahawa
pekerjaan adalah satu ibadah. Menurut Suzana Zakaria (2019), visi dalam konteks kepimpinan Islam adalah
ketauhidan kepada Allah SWT yang menuju falah (kejayaan) dan ihsan (keunggulan) bagi hal duniawi dan
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akhirat. Oleh itu, pemimpin yang mempunyai visi jangka masa panjang ini perlu bersifat kotemporari dan
komited dalam merangka visi dengan perancangan yang mantap.
3.2.2 Harapan/ Pegangan
Harapan atau pegangan adalah berdasarkan kepercayaan mutlak. Berdasarkan model Fry (2016),
harapan/pegangan bertunjangkan nilai, tingkah laku dalam melakukan sesuatu dan kepercayaan terhadap
keberhasilan yang diharapkan. Organisasi yang mempunyai harapan dan pegangan akan mampu menentukan
arah tuju organisasi dengan baik dan cara untuk mencapai matlamat berdasarkan keperibadian yang ditonjolkan
oleh pemimpin yang memberi harapan kepada pengikut. Dalam konteks Islam pula, dimensi ini merujuk kepada
iman dan pegangan yang dinilai dari ketekunan diri dalam melaksanakan perintah Allah SWT (Suzana Zakaria,
2019). Menurut Sweeney, Hannah dan Snider (2007), pegangan adalah penting kerana ia memberi arah kepada
matlamat, keberhasilan menuju matlamat yang akan menghasilkan kehidupan yang lebih bernilai. Dalam kajian
Latham (2013), harapan dan pegangan dikaitkan dengan tiga ciri ketua, (i) menyediakan arahan melalui visi yang
menarik dan melibatkan pekerja bawahan, (ii) perkembangan strategi yang berfokus serta (iii) melibatkan pekerja
untuk melaksanakan strategi dan matlamat organisasi. Sehubungan itu, pemimpin dituntut untuk berakhlak mulia
dalam membentuk organisasi pentadbiran. Secara umumnya, ciri-ciri ini, memberikan harapan kepada pekerja
bahawa ketua memberi kepercayaan kepada mereka dalam melaksanakan matlamat secara berfokus serta secara
tidak langsung melibatkan keterlibatan pekerja dalam proses merancang dan melaksanakan strategi akan
memberikan satu kepuasan dan harapan untuk melaksanakan kerja dengan lebih tenang.
3.2.3 Kasih Sayang Altruistik
Dalam kepimpinan spiritual, kasih sayang altruistik digambarkan sebagai satu rasa keutuhan, keharmonian dan
kesejahteraan yang dihasilkan daripada penjagaan, keprihatinan dan penghargaan untuk diri sendiri dan orang
lain (Fry, 2016). Ini termasuklah emosi dan psikologi yang amat penting bagi pekerja dalam melaksanakan
tanggungjawab dan menghalang pengaruh negatif seperti ketakutan dan kemarahan dalam pekerjaan (Fry,
Vitucci & Cedillo, 2005). Definisi tersirat bagi kasih sayang altruistik adalah nilai-nilai yang dipraktikkan oleh
pemimpin seperti integriti, kesabaran, lemah lembut, kemaafan, penerimaan, syukur, merendah diri,
bersemangat, percaya, setia dan belas kasihan seperti yang diamalkan kepimpinan Nabi Muhammad SAW dalam
pengurusan pentadbiran Islam. Nilai-nilai ini penting dalam organisasi bagi mengukuhkan kesetiaan dan
semangat kekitaan dalam organisasi agar persekitaran tidak toksik.
3.2.4 Maksud/Panggilan
Maksud/ Panggilan menurut Fry (2016) adalah satu pendekatan yang membezakan penerimaan dan semangat
untuk bekerja. Kebanyakkan pekerja akan berasa lebih bersemangat untuk menghasilkan produktiviti yang
berkualiti selepas mendapat penghargaan apabila kompetensi kerja mereka diikhtiraf. Matlamat utama ciri
panggilan ini adalah memberikan kesinambungan perhubungan antara pemimpin dan pekerja.
3.2.5 Keahlian
Ciri keahlian memberikan pekerja berasa dihargai sebagai ahli dalam organisasi (Fry, 2003, 2005). Ini selari
dengan kajian oleh pengasas psikologi moden, William James (2011) dalam kajiannya, The Varieties of Religious
Experince, bahawa, keperluan utama manusia adalah untuk merasa diri dihargai dan difahami yang membawa
kepada perhubungan sesama ahli lebih mantap dan produktif. Dalam konteks organisasi, keahlian akan
membawa kepada keberhasilan kerja berkumpulan.
3.2.6 Komitmen Organisasi dan Produktiviti
Komitmen organisasi dan produktiviti adalah hasil daripada lima dimensi model Fry (2016), yang membawa
kepada keberhasilan organisasi ke arah kecemerlangan atau sebaliknya. Komitmen organisasi dan produktiviti
adalah tunjang utama dalam keterbukaan untuk menerima perubahan bagi mencapai matlamat organisasi
bersama. Kesimpulannya, dimensi-dimensi ini menyumbang kepada kejayaan dalam mengamalkan gaya
kepimpinan spiritual di dalam sesebuah organisasi.
4.0 KESEJAHTERAAN PSIKOLOGI
Definisi kesejahteraan adalah berfokuskan dua perspektif seperti kesejahteraan hedonic yang berkaitan
kebahagiaan, kepuasan hidup, kesan positif dan ketiadaan kesan negatif dan juga eudaimonic yang berkaitan
dengan kesempurnaan diri, makna kehidupan, perkembangan dan ekspreksi diri (Keyes, Shmotkin & Ryff, 2002).
Kesejahteraan psikologi pula menggambarkan keadaan mental yang baik dan positif sepertimana fungsi positif
individu yang positif merupakan arah mencapai kesihatan yang sihat (Tia Ramadhani, Djunaedi & Atiek Sismiati,
2016).
Menurut Kementerian Kesihatan Malaysia dalam buku Kesihatan Mental dan Fizikal (2012), masalah-
masalah yang dapat menjerumus ke arah tahap kesihatan mental adalah (i) kemurungan, (ii) kecelaruan
kebimbingan umum, (iii) kecelaruan panik, (iv) kecelaruan obsesif kompulsif, (v) kecelaruan stress selepas trauma
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dan (vi) gangguan tidur. Bagi individu yang mempunyai gejala begini ia akan mempengaruhi corak kehidupan
termasuk gaya kerja individu terbabit. Individu akan mudah hilang minat terhadap aktiviti harian, hilang tumpuan
terhadap pekerjaan, masalah atau gangguan tidur, perubahan selera makan, penurunan atau peningkatan berat
badan, mudah letih, rasa bersalah yang keterlaluan, putus harapan dan rasa rendah diri yang keterlaluan.
Berdasarkan kajian Kementerian Kesihatan Malaysia pada tahun 2011, mendapati di seluruh dunia dianggarkan
17 juta kematian setiap tahun akibat penyakit jantung, manakala, di Malaysia, 15.2 peratus kematian disebabkan
penyakit jantung di mana satu daripada dua orang pesakit jantung akan mengalami kemurungan atau kesihatan
mental mereka terjejas.
Kesihatan adalah kesejahteraan hidup, tanpa kesihatan yang optimum kesejahteraan psikologi akan
terganggu. Ini bererti kesihatan memainkan peranan penting dalam kemandirian kehidupan sejahtera. Menurut
Pertubuhan Kesihatan Sedunia (WHO), kesihatan membawa erti bahawa seseorang individu berada dalam
keadaan yang sempurna dari segi jasmani, mental, emosi, sosial dan rohani dan bukan hanya tidak berpenyakit.
Kesihatan sosial merujuk kepada perhubungan sosial bersama individu lain, kebolehan mengadaptasi dan tingkah
laku harian dalam interaksi interpersonal. Kesihatan mental pula, merujuk kepada kebolehan berfikir yang baik
dan rasional serta intelektual dalam menangani sesuatu perkara seharian.
Kesihatan mental yang sihat dapat dipengaruhi oleh banyak faktor seperti kajian seawal tahun 1978 oleh
Danek (1978), yang menyatakan bahawa kesihatan mental merujuk kepada tahap fungsi individu samaada selesa
atau tidak dengan diri sendiri dan cara hidup mereka dengan mengelaskan kepada empat bahagian utama:
(1)Tingkah laku sosial, merendahkan tahap kemahiran sosial (2)Tingkah laku emosi,keadaan kemurungan,
kebimbingan, fobia dan gangguan seksual (3)Isu kesihatan,insomnia, keupayaan menahan kesakitan, kawalan
berat badan dan tabiat buruk seperti merokok, penggunaan alkohol atau dadah (4)Isu tugas, keletihan, kebosanan,
ketidakhadiran, ketidakupayaan membuat keputusan, tahap atau mutu kerja yang rendah. Ryff (2013), dalam
kajiannya mendapati kesejahteraan psikologi tidak hanya tertakluk kepada elemen positif dan negatif dalam
kehidupan, bahkan kepuasan hidup dan kemampuan diri untuk merealisasikan potensi diri secara optimum dengan
membentuk perhubungan dengan orang lain, memiliki kemandirian terhadap tekanan sosial dan mampu menerima
keadaan diri seadanya.
4.1 TEORI KESEJAHTERAAN PSIKOLOGI RYFF
Dalam teori kesejahteraan psikologi Ryff, terdapat beberapa faktor yang mempengaruhi kesejahteraan psikologi
individu seperti faktor demografi (usia, jantina, status sosial, status ekonomi dan budaya) serta faktor sosial
(perhatian, penghargaan dan pertolongan). Oleh itu, Ryff mengemukakan satu model yang dapat merangkumi
penyelidikan mengenai kesejahteraan psikologi individu dengan mendefinisikan model kesejahteraan psikologi
dalam enam dimensi iaitu; (i) Matlamat Hidup, (ii) Penerimaan Kendiri, (iii), Autonomi, (iv) Penguasaan
Persekitaran, (v) Hubungan Positif dengan Orang Lain dan (vi) Perkembangan Kendiri seperti rajah 2.
Rajah 2 :Model Kesejahteraan Psikologi Ryff
Matlamat Penguasaan Hubungan
Hidup Persekitaran Positif
Penerimaan Komponen Autonomi
Kendiri Kesejahteraan
Psikologi
Perkembangan
Kendiri
Sumber : Ryff (2018)
4.1.1 Matlamat hidup
Dimensi ini meliputi kesedaran mengenai matlamat dan tujuan hidup. Di mana keyakinan dalam mengharungi
kehidupan dengan bermatlamat memberikan kehidupan makna yang lebih jitu berbanding bagi individu yang tidak
mempunyai matlamat hidup.
4.1.2 Penerimaan Kendiri
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Bagi dimensi ini, ia merupakan kemampuan individu untuk menerima potensi diri sendiri untuk berkembang
menjadi individu yang lebih berdaya saing. Ini meliputi penerimaan terhadap perubahan yang berlaku secara
peribadi mahupun tidak dari masa ke semasa.
4.1.3 Autonomi
Dimensi autonomi adalah kemampuan untuk mengukur kemandirian sendiri dan mengatur kehidupan sendiri
tanpa bantuan orang lain. Meliputi kebolehan bebas dan kemampuan menaham tekanan sosial.
4.1.4 Penguasaan Persekitaran
Bagi dimensi ini, ia meliputi kompetensi penguasaan dan kemampuan memilih situasi dalam lingkungan yang
kondusif yang menekankan penglibatan dalam sesuatu aktiviti sosial bersama.
4.1.5 Hubungan Positif dengan Orang lain
Dimensi hubungan positif dengan orang lain adalah amat penting dalam memastikan tahap kesejahteraan
psikologi individu berada pada tahap yang bagus. Sekiranya, perhubungan dengan orang lain tidak baik, pelbagai
masalah akan timbul yang menyebabkan gangguan emosi akan berlaku dan menggangu kesejahteraan psikologi.
Menurut Ryff dan Singer (2008), kebolehan menyayangi adalah komponen utama dalam kesihatan mental dan
individu yang mempunyai empati yang kuat akan mempunyai keupayaan menyayangi yang kuat.
4.1.6 Perkembangan Kendiri
Dimensi perkembangan kendiri pula merupakan kemampuan diri untuk memperkembangkan potensi diri untuk
menjadi individu yang lebih efektif dan kondusif yang melibatkan potensi, perubahan peribadi dan perkembangan
pengetahuan diri.
5.0 CABARAN
Isu kes kematian guru akibat kemurungan melampau seperti yang dilaporkan pada tahun 2017, di Putrajaya,
seorang guru didakwa cuba membunuh diri semasa sesi persekolahan sedang dijalankan akibat kemurungan
(Natasha Joibi, 2017) pada tahun 2018, seorang guru ditemui mati selepas terjun bangunan di sebuah pusat
membeli-belah di Ipoh kerana ‘mengalami tekanan teruk serta tidak dapat menerima beban kerja yang banyak
selepas mengalami kemurungan’, adalah bukti impak kesejahteraan psikologi dalam profesion perguruan kini
dikhuatiri (Muhammad Apendy Issahak, 2018).
Kepesatan teknologi turut menyebabkan guru terkesan dalam menghadapi cabaran-cabaran kuasa tular
dalam kalangan masyarakat apabila berlaku sesuatu perkara seperti kes guru diketawa akibat tidak fasih berbahasa
Inggeris semasa program Tv Pendidikan dalam tempoh pandemik pada tahun 2021, kes guru yang dipaksa
merangkak oleh seorang ibu kerana mendenda anaknya pada tahun 2020, kes guru merotan pelajar pada tahun
2019, kes pelajar pecah gegendang telinga ditampar guru pada tahun 2012, menyebabkan guru lebih berwaspada
dalam mencetus ‘kontroversi’ dan ini mengganggu proses pengajaran apabila keistimewaan hukuman telah
dimansuhkan dan diterapkan budaya guru penyayang di sekolah. Menurut Siti Amalina, Shahidra dan Mumtazah
(2019), hukuman yang dikenakan kepada pelajar walaupun mempunyai unsur pengajaran namun, ia memberi
impak negatif kepada perkembangan kendiri pelajar. Hal ini ditambahkan dengan isu pada tahun 2015 yang
menjadikan hukuman rotan sebagai satu kesalahan jenayah mengikut Konvensyen Hak Kanak-Kanak, tetapi
akibat tentangan mengenai hukuman jenayah, ia telah dibatalkan daripada undang-undang, namun, guru tidak lagi
dibenarkan untuk merotan pelajar (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, 2015). Oleh itu, guru dibelenggu oleh
perasaan serba salah untuk menghukum pelajar yang tidak menjalankan tanggungjawab sebagai pelajar.
Hal ini sejajar dengan bukti penulisan kajian sebuah buku bertajuk ‘Disebalik Senyuman Pada Wajah
Pendidik’ yang dikarang secara kompilasi kisah sebenar oleh Johan Eddy (2014), mengkaji perihal emosi dalaman
guru yang tidak dipertontonkan kepada umum, seperti petikan di bawah;
“Ternyata teguran saya terhadap Dexter pada petang kejadian membuatkan dia bangun
berdiri lalu mengangkat kerusi plastik yang diduduki olehnya lalu ingin membaling
kepada saya…Tindakan Dexter pada ketika itu ternyata menaikkan darah saya serta
mencabar kewibawaan saya sebagai seorang guru…Sekaligus keadaan ini menjejaskan
emosi saya.” (Johan Eddy, 2014).
Daripada petikan tersebut, jelas menunjukkan bahawa cabaran dalam mendidik pelajar kian mencabar
sama ada dari segi fizikal mahupun psikologi. Justeru itu, pengetua seharusnya peka dengan perkembangan terkini
dalam proses kepimpinan, pengurusan, pengelolaan sumber serta pencapaian matlamat pendidikan (Siti Noor &
Yahya, 2015). Kepekaan pengetua amat penting untuk menangani sebarang perkara berbangkit yang mampu
mengganggu kesejahteraan psikologi guru di bawah penyeliaannya. Menurut Suzana Zakaria (2019), sesuatu
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kelompok manusia memerlukan pemimpin bagi membolehkan urusan berjalan dengan sempurna. Jika guru gagal
mengawal diri akibat tekanan, ia akan memberikan kesan kepada perhubungan sesama rakan sekerja, pelajar dan
juga mutu pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Kajian oleh Habib Ismail dan Zaimah (2012) mendapati bahawa korelasi
gaya kepimpinan pengetua dan kepuasan kerja guru serta komitmen dalam menjalankan tugas adalah sangat kuat.
Ini selari dengan kajian oleh Muyan dan Ramli (2017), yang bersependapat bahawa kewibawaan gaya kepimpinan
pengetua dapat menjadikan suasana kerja dalam keadaan baik dan tidak terbeban. Oleh itu, peranan pengetua
sebagai agen sosialisasi tidak dapat dipisahkan dan mempunyai tanggungjawab besar dalam mencorakkan
kecemerlangan sekolah dan memastikan tahap kesejahteraan psikologi guru sebagai agen perubahan dalam
keadaan baik.
6.0 KESIMPULAN
Kesejahteraan guru adalah sangat penting dalam menjana kecemerlangan kualiti kerja dan murid, maka, pengetua
tidak boleh memandang ringan mengenai komponen ini. Justeru itu, pengetua perlulah bijak dalam mengamalkan
gaya kepimpinan spiritual dalam menghadapi isu-isu kesejahteraan guru yang mencabar kini. Pengetua tidak
mungkin mahu melihat mana-mana guru yang terjerumus dalam gejala-gejala ketidaksejahteraan contohnya
seperti burn out akibat kurang berpuas hati terhadap pentadbiran yang diamalkan dan berasa terbeban untuk berada
di sekolah yang akan mengganggu kelancaran dalam proses pembelajaran dan pengajaran (PdP) di dalam bilik
darjah. Emosi guru yang stabil bergantung terhadap kepuasan yang dialami dari segi pentadbiran yang menjurus
kepada kelancaran proses pengajaran dan membantu guru-guru untuk kekal bersemangat dalam mengadakan dan
mencipta kaedah-kaedah pengajaran baru bagi menjayakan proses PdP. Hal ini akan terganggu jika, guru yang
tidak berpuas hati dengan gaya kepimpinan guru besar dan pengurusan kerja guru besar di sekolah menjadi malas,
tertekan dan tidak bersemangat yang menjerumuskan kepada proses PdP menjadi hambar dan guru-guru makin
bercelaru emosi mereka.
Maka, pemilihan dan amalan gaya yang bertepatan amat penting bukan sahaja bagi kepuasan tahap
kesejahteraan guru bahkan bagi mencapai kecemerlangan murid di sekolah dapat dilestarikan. Berdasarkan teori-
teori kesejahteraan psikologi yang dikemukakan, kajian ini memilih menggunakan teori kesejahteraan psikologi
Ryff (2016) juga menggunakan gaya kepimpinan spiritual Fry (2013) sebagai kerangka teori kerana teori ini lebih
lengkap dan kukuh serta ia membincangkan dimensi-dimensi psikologi yang berfokus dan bersesuaian dengan
soalan kajian ini dalam mengenal pasti tahap kesejahteraan psikologi dalam kalangan guru-guru.
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Proceedings [e ISBN 978-629-97614-0-2]
International Conference on Accounting, Management and Economics (ICAME2022)
14-15 December 2022│Faculty of Management and Economics,
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris
CM033
APPLICATION OF TECHNOLOGY ACCEPTANCE MODEL
TOWARDS ONLINE LEARNING: POLYTECHNIC ACCOUNTING
STUDENTS PERSPECTIVE
Norlizawati Abd Rahman
Department of Commerce, Politeknik Sultan Azlan Shah
E-mail: [email protected]
Fazlina Abd Rahiman
Department of Commerce, Politeknik Sultan Azlan Shah
E-mail: [email protected]
Aniza Suriati Abdul Shukor
Department of Commerce, Politeknik Sultan Azlan Shah
E-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study is to identify the factors of student acceptance of online learning at Politeknik Sultan Azlan Shah
(PSAS). There are 4 factors that will be studied, which are the perception of usefulness (PU), perceived ease of use (PEU),
attitude towards (AT) using and behavioral intention (BI) towards online learning. The conceptual framework adopted is
based on a modified Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). This study involved data collection based on perception survey
from usable 190 responses of accounting students of PSAS . Quantitative methods have been used to achieve the objectives
of the study. Data was analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The findings show the following factors affect
student’s acceptance of online learning of accounting students at PSAS.The result shows that perceived ease of use (β =
0.259), behavioral intention (β = 0.216), and attitude towards (β = 0.387 were significantly (P < 0.001) influenced student’s
acceptance towards online learning. The study recommends the need for the institution to maintain the implementation
and enhance the use of online learning in the teaching and learning session, in addition to provide large scale investment
in developing the online learning system to maximize student’s satisfaction.
KEYWORDS: Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), Online learning.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The COVID-19 pandemic, also known as the coronavirus pandemic or the coronavirus outbreak, is the 2019
coronavirus disease pandemic that occurs globally. This outbreak was initially detected in the middle of
December 2019 in the city of Wuhan, Hubei, China and was recognized as a pandemic by the World Health
Organization (WHO) on March 11, 2020. This global pandemic of COVID-19 has left a great impact on all
275
country in various sectors such as politics, economy, social including education (Selvanathan, Hussin ans Azazi,
2020).
All sectors are experiencing major changes including the education sector experiencing significant changes
for students such as the existence of social distancing, quarantine, isolation measures, campus closures, border
closures and travel restrictions (QS, 2020). Next, with the temporary closure of higher education institutions,
learning methods are also changing, namely online learning and digital tools or known as e-learning. Online
learningat the educational institute was introduced in 2003. The purpose of introducing the online
learningapproach is to enable students to communicate with lecturers and peers in a more convenient and
unique way (Taat and Francis, 2020). The education system at polytechnics including Politeknik Sultan Azlan
Shah has also experienced a change from face-to-face learning to online learning and digital tools or known as
e-learning.
This paper focuses on identifying 4 factors namely perceived usefulness (PU), perceived ease of use (PEU),
attitude towards (AT) using and behavioral intention (BI) of students towards online learning.
2.0 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
This study addresses the following research objectives:
(a) To identify the factors of perception of usefulness (PU) of student towards online learning.
(b) To identify the factors of perceived ease of use (PEU) of student towards online learning.
(c) To identify the factors of attitude towards (AT) of student towards online learning.
(d) To identify the factors of behavioral intention (BI) of student towards online learning.
3.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1 Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
Referring to Alharbi and Drew (2014) TAM was first introduced by Davis, 1986 which is about the concept of
technology acceptance. Subsequently, it is the most widely used framework in the field of information systems.
In addition, many previous studies have shown evidence of validity regarding the use of TAM such as
confirming its validity and the reliability of the TAM construct to predict the acceptance of information systems
in Arab culture, especially in Saudi culture. Another study by Marikyan and Papagiannidis (2022) added to
this finding that TAM is the acceptance of information systems by individuals. Furthermore, TAM explains
the willingness to accept technology by the user's behavioral intention, and further determined by the
perception of the technology's usefulness in performing tasks and the perception of its ease of use. The main
idea of TAM is the user's acceptance of technology, and it is determined by the user's behavioral intention,
which in turn is determined by his Perception of Usefulness (PU) and Perceived Ease of Use (PEU) (Farahat
2012)
3.2 Perception of usefulness (PU)
Perceived Usefulness (PU) is one of the independent constructs in the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM).
It is “the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would enhance his/her job
performance” (Davis, 1989). Further, Wong, Osman, Goh, Rahmat (2013) mentioned that perceived usefulness
is a significant influence on attitude towards computer use and behavioural intention. PU influences students'
willingness to use new platforms and subsequently influences students' acceptance of online learning (Lazim,
Ismail and Tazilah, 2021)
3.3 Perceived ease of use (PEU)
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A component of Davis’ (1989) original TAM model measured through seven self-report questionnaire items
defined as “the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would be free of effort”. Next,
Wong, Osman, Goh, Rahmat (2013) mentioned that Perceived ease of use significantly influences perceived
usefulness, and finally, behavioural intention is found to be influenced by attitude towards computer use.
3.4 Attitude towards (AT)
Egbe (2014) revealed the results of the study show that students have a positive attitude towards online learning
because they find this system easy to use and besides that it is also useful for doing their coursework. In addition,
attitudes influence the intention to use an online learning system. Next, students had a positive attitude toward
the use of FOTS for doing the practical exercises (Boon, Kok, Aziz, 2019). Hussein, 2017 mentioned that
attitude was a significant predictor towards student’s intention to use online learning.
3.5 Behavioral intention (BI)
Behavioral intentions refer to the motivational factors that influence a given behavior where the stronger the
intention to perform the behavior, the more likely the behavior will be performed. Beside that, this refers to the
belief about whether most people approve or disapprove of the behavior. Alharbi and Drew (2014) mentioned
that BI means the actual use of a given IS system and therefore determines technology acceptance.
Based on discussion above, the research hypotheses were developed as below:
H01 : There is no significant relationship between the factors of perception of usefulness (PU) of student
towards online learning.
H02 : There is no significant relationship between the factors of perceived ease of use (PEU) of student
towards online learning.
H03 : There is no significant relationship between the factors of attitude towards (AT) of student towards
online learning.
H04 : There is no significant relationship between the factors of behavioral intention (BI) of student towards
online learning.
4.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The populations of this study were accounting students of Politeknik Sultan Azlan Shah (PSAS) offering
Diploma in Accountancy Program for the 1 2022/2023 session. The study aimed to to identify the factors of
student acceptance of online learning at PSAS. Therefore, the researchers used survey technique in conducting
this study. A survey was conducted using a questionnaire technique adapted through skills profile specified by
Vagias, Wade M. (2006). The researchers chose to conduct a survey to 190 respondents amongst students of
Diploma in Accountancy. The data obtained from the questionnaire were analyzed using descriptive statistics
through the use of SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 27.0.
The reliability tests on the identified skills for this study were found to be acceptable and reliable as the
Cronbach’s Alpha values for all the items are above 0.60. The following are the outcomes from the reliability
tests: technical and functional skills (16 items; Cronbach’s Alpha= 0.860); interpersonal and communication
skills (4 items; Cronbach’s Alpha= 0.770); and organizational and business management skills (10 items;
Cronbach’s Alpha= 0.94). The data collected from this study is in the form of quantitative data interval
(comparison). To explain further, the data were presented in descriptive analysis tables. Table 1 shows the
mean score interpretation made to analyze the data obtained.
Table 1: Mean score interpretation
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Scale (mean) Interpretation
1.0 – 1.4 Not at all influential
1.5 – 2.4 Slightly influential
2.5 – 3.4 Somewhat influential
3.5 – 4.4 Very influential
4.5 – 5.0 Extremely influential
Adapted from Vagias, Wade M. (2006)
5.0 DATA ANALYSIS
5.1 Demographic Analysis
Table 2 presents the demographic characteristics of the respondents. Males accounted for (32.6%) of the
respondents, while (67.4%) were females. Respondents from semester 1 accounted for the highest percentage
(24.2%), followed by those from semester 3 (23.2%). The highest number of years using online learningis
between 1-2 years (54.7%). There were (48.9%) of the respondents used the system for “3-6 hours”, (31.1%)
for “1-3 hours” and (20.0%) for the “6-10 hours”. The table shows that (72.1%) respondents have Online
learningaccess point at home, (96.3%) subscribing to the internet, (74.2%) have the availability of high-speed
Internet at home and (40.5%) use smartphone as device during e-learning.
Table 2: Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents
Variable Measurement Frequency Percent
Gender 62 32.6
Semester Male 128 67.4
46 24.2
How many years using e-learning Female 34 17.6
44 23.2
How many hours a day using e-learning 1 35 18.4
Online learningaccess point 31 16.3
2 35 18.4
Subscribing to the internet 104 54.7
Availability of high-speed Internet at 3 51 26.8
home 31 25.4
Device use during e-learning 4 59 31.1
93 48.9
5 38 20.0
137 72.1
Less than 1 year 37 19.5
2 1.1
Between 1-2 years
14 7.4
Between 2-3 years 7 3.7
183 96.3
PSAS Website 49 25.8
1-3 hours 141 74.2
77 40.5
3-6 hours 7 3.7
102 53.7
6-10 hours 4 2.1
Home
Campus
Wi-Fi hotspot:
kafe/restoran
Friends/family home
No
Yes
No
Yes
Smartphone
Tablet
Laptop
Personal Computer
The analysis of the retrieved survey data is based on SPSS. The Cronbach’s Alfa coefficient is used to
examine reliability of the survey. The independent variables effect toward dependent variable is tested with
278
multiple regression analyse. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient is used for reliability analyse. Coefficient alpha in
the interval of 0.00≤α<0.40 is considered as not reliable, 0.40≤α<0.60 indicates low level of reliable, 0.60
≤α<0.80 is accepted as fairly reliable and 0.80≤α<1.00 is considered as highly reliable. In this study,
Cronbach’s alpha coefficient is 0.95 and it is accepted as highly reliable.
5.2 Descriptive Analysis of Components Extraction
Table 3 presents the summary of the principal component extracted variables that explains student’s
perspective on online learning, corresponding mean and standard deviation. A Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO)
test is used in this research to determine the sampling adequacy of data that are to be used for Factor Analysis
(Kaiser, 1974). Factor Analysis used to ensure that the variables measure a particular concept are measuring
the concept intended. The statistic that is computed is a measure of 0 to 1 (Cerny & Kaiser, 1977). KMO values
(0.940) was found between 0.8 and 1, indicated that the sampling is adequate for the analysis.
Table 3: Descriptive Analysis
Mean Std.
Deviation
Perceived ease of use
.73918
I find online learningeasy to use 4.1737 .82648
.72211
Learning how to use an online learningsystem is easy for me 4.1000
.82875
It is easy to become skillful at using an online learningsystem 4.1842 .79998
.80170
Perceived usefulness
.75528
Online learningwould improve my learning performance 3.9684 .75151
.68213
Online learningwould increase academic productivity 4.0158
.66309
Online learningcould make it easier to study course content 4.0526 .85586
Attitude towards .68156
.69266
Studying through online learningis a good idea 4.0789
.68472
Studying through online learningis a wise idea 4.0368
.66113
I am positive toward e-learning 4.1632
.65616
Behavioral Intention
I intend to check announcements from online learningsystems frequently 4.1000
I intend to be a heavy user of online learningsystem. (A heavy user is 3.8632
someone who spends a great deal of time online)
Acceptance of online learning
I feel confident finding information in the online learningsystems 4.1947
I have the necessary skills for using an online learningsystems 4.1105
Subjective Norm
What online learningstands for is important for me as a polytechnic 4.1684
student
I like using online learningbased on the similarity of my values and 4.1684
society values underlying its use
In order for me to prepare for future job, it is necessary to take online 4.2474
learningcourses
Under the perceived ease of use “It is easy to become skilful at using an online learningsystem” has the
highest mean score (4.1842) with a standard deviation of (0.7221), while “I find online learningeasy to use”
has mean score (4.1737) with a standard deviation of (0.7392) and ” Learning how to use an online
learningsystem is easy for me” show the lowest mean score (4.1000) with a standard deviation of (.8265).
Section the perceived usefulness, “Online learningcould make it easier to study course content” show the
highest mean score (4.0158) but the mean score (3.9684) agreed that “Online learningwould improve my
279
learning performance” and the other mean score (4.0526) with a standard deviation of (0.8000) represent that
“Online learningwould increase academic productivity”.
In attitude towards online learningsection, the construct “I am positive toward e-learning” has the highest
mean score (4.1632) with a standard deviation of (0.6821) as compared to the others. Referring to the
behavioural intention section, “I intend to check announcements from online learningsystems frequently” has
the mean score (4.1000) and deviation of (0.6631), “I intend to be a heavy user of online learningsystem” mean
score (3.8632) and a standard deviation of (0.8559).
While, under acceptance of online learning the construct “I feel confident finding information in the online
learningsystems” has mean score (4.1947) and deviation of (0.6816), and “I have the necessary skills for using
an online learningsystems” show the mean od (4.1105) and standard deviation of (0.6927). Whereby, the
subjective norm of “What online learningstands for is important for me as a polytechnic student” show the
mean score of (4.1684) with deviation of (0.68472). While the other of “I like using online learningbased on
the similarity of my values and society values underlying its use” and “In order for me to prepare for future
job, it is necessary to take online learningcourses” show the mean score (4.1684) and (4.2474) respectively.
5.3 Test of Hypotheses
Table 4 shows the result of the interaction between perception of usefulness (PU), perceived ease of use (PEU),
attitude towards (AT) and behavioral intention (BI) of student towards online learning.
Table 4: Summary regression result
Dependent Variable: Beta (β) t Hyphoteses
Student’s acceptance of online learning Sig.
.259 3.405
Independent Variable: .053 .641 .001 H01
Perceived ease of use .387 4.889 .523 H02
Perceived usefulness .216 3.451 .000 H03
Attitude towards .001 H04
Behavioral Intention
H01: There is no significant relationship between the factors of perception of usefulness (PU) of student
towards online learning.
The result (see Table 4) shows a positive correlation (β = 0.259, t = 3.405), between perception of usefulness
and student’s acceptance on online learning. At p<0.001, we reject the null hypothesis, and conclude that
perception of usefulness influences the student’s acceptance towards online learning.
H02: There is no significant relationship between the the factors of perceived ease of use (PEU) of student
towards online learning.
The result shows a positive relationship (β = 0.53, t= 0.641), p = .523, between perceived ease of use (PEU)
and student’s acceptance on online learning. The table shows that perceived ease of use has the lowest ‘t’ value,
this implies that information quality has less impact on student’s acceptance than other measures. Since,
p>0.001, we accept the null hypothesis (see Table 4).
H03: There is no significant relationship between the the factors of attitude towards (AT) of student towards
online learning.
The interaction between attitude towards of student towards online learning show significant result with p
=.000. At p<0.001, we reject the null hypothesis and state that factors of attitude towards significantly
influences the student’s acceptance towards online learning. (see Table 4).
280
H04: There is no significant relationship between the the factors of behavioral intention (BI) of student
towards online learning.
The interaction between factors of behavioral intention and student’s acceptance towards online learning
factors show significant result with p = 3.451. At p<0.001, we reject the null hypothesis (see Table 4).
6.0 RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION
The student’s acceptance on online learning was weighed against independent constructs in the Technology
Acceptance Model (TAM); namely perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, attitude towards using and
behavioral intention. The result shows that perceived ease of use, behavioral intention, and attitude towards
were significantly influenced student’s acceptance towards online learning. The study recommends the need
for the institution to maintain the implementation and enhance the use of online learning in the teaching and
learning session, in addition to provide large scale investment in developing the online learning system to
maximize student’s satisfaction. Besides, this study can be a signal on the need for the institution to increase
the efficiency in maintain and improve the online learning system in a timely manner. In addition, increase the
ease of access to the system so that students will get the benefit.
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Kung-Teck, W., Choo, G., Swee, P., & Rahmat, M. K. (2013). Understanding Student Teachers' Behavioural Intention
to Use Technology: Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) Validation and Testing. International Journal of
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Lazim, C. S. L. M., Ismail, N. D. B., & Tazilah, M. D. A. K. (2021). Application of technology acceptance model (TAM)
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TheoryHub Book. http://open.ncl.ac.uk
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CM034
DETERMINANTS OF RETIREMENT PREPAREDNESS AMONG
MALAYSIAN FEMALE MILLENNIALS: A CONCEPTUAL PAPER
Nur Amalina Murni Muhamed
Hartini Jaafar
Faculty of Management and Economics, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this article is to present a concept paper on conducting research exploring the impact of financial literacy,
financial stress, demographic factors and self-efficacy on retirement readiness among Malaysian female millennials.
The focus of this study is on female millennials who are increasingly becoming important contributors to the growth
and development of our economy. This study is a quantitative study using primary data that will be collected through a
questionnaire distributed to the targeted sample. The findings of this study have practical implications for policy makers
and other parties interested in helping Malaysian millennials to be more aware of their retirement financial needs and to
avoid financial problems in their retirement years.
KEYWORDS
Developing, Retirement, Preparedness, Enhancing, Financial Well and Female Millennials.
1. INTRODUCTION
Retirement is a stage when an individual permanently leaves the workplace and when the retirees are no longer
earning a steady income from their employment. Unfortunately, their expenses will continue and they will need
to continue their lives depending solely on their accumulated savings. However, the hard reality is retirement
planning ranks poorly on the list of Malaysians’ financial priorities. A survey by RinggitPlus on 2020 which
covered Malaysians worldwide revealed that 70% believed that Employee Provident Fund (EPF) saving alone
is inadequate to face retirement. Nevertheless, 45% from this group and 50% of the millennials have not yet
started on any retirement planning. Further, despite the importance of financial planning, the survey also
showed only a 61% of Malaysians respondents has started their retirement plan which mostly was EPF (83%)
but 70% agreed that it will be not enough to face retirement.
However, according to a recent survey from PricewaterhouseCoopers (PWC) in 2020, the consumer
spending decreases by 17.1% on first quarter of 2020 compared to fourth quarter in 2019. This suggests that
due to Covid-19 outbreak, consumers have become more careful on spending their money. For example,
following the outbreak, Malaysian Prime Minister announced on March 2020 that i-Lestari Account 2
Withdrawal Scheme was introduced as part of the government initiatives that aim to help boost private
consumption and cushion the impact of the pandemic on the Malaysian economy (Zakiah, 2020). According
to a study done by Auni and Salina (2020), results revealed that Covid-19 give financial impact on retirement
fund on employees in Malaysia and with losing their job, they need to withdraw some of their retirement
savings to survive their daily expenses even though majority of the respondents believe that i-Lestari
withdrawal scheme give impact towards their retirement plan in future. Despite such conservative take on
spending during the pandemic, given the introduction of various government stimulus to boost spending and
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the generally poor retirement planning among Malaysians, it is therefore important to study how confident
Malaysians are of their financial preparedness for their retirement.
Additionally in Malaysia, a survey done in 2020 revealed that 46% of millennials suffer stress and
half of them were woman (Deloitte, 2020). They feel anxious and stressed all the time mainly regarding long
term financial future, welfare of their family, their job and also day to day finances. Another significant finding
of the survey is that most of the respondents were stressed about their longer term financial more than their
daily financial. These results suggests that millennials should know how to deal with such situation because
financial stress was found to have an effect on financial well-being (Zaiton Osman, Erni Marlina Madzlan and
Phang Ing, 2018) and with a perceived financial well-being by individual, they will be more financially
prepared to face retirement (Folk Jee Yoong, Beh Loo See and Diana-Lea Baronovich, 2012).
Female millennials have become larger part in the worldwide workplace and according to
International Labour Organisation (ILOSTAT) the labor force of female in Malaysia keep increasing from
2010 with 34.85% to 38.55% on 2019. Rise of education made participation of female increase in all age
categories and entry of more woman in labour force pushed up the total labour force participation rate and
helping the economy achieve high growth (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD), 2021). Therefore, this particular study aims to examine the level of retirement preparedness for
Malaysian female millennials that are progressively becoming significant contributors to our economic growth
and development. Specifically, this study will assess the effect of financial literacy, financial stress,
demographic factors and self-efficacy on their retirement preparedness. Examining this segment of new
millennial population that may not be adequately prepared to act on retirement financial decisions is the first
step towards intervening in a persistent and growing retirement problem in Malaysia. The findings of this study
have practical implications for policy makers and other interested parties in helping Malaysian millennials to
be more aware of their retirement financial needs and to prevent financial distress in their retirement years.
2. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Retirement planning is an arrangement to provide people with an income during retirement that is when they
are no longer earning a steady income from their employment. Retirement planning becomes more significant
as the financial impact and demands of modern society take their toll on the grown children’s lives. When the
cost of living goes up, the ability of the working population to care for those other than their immediate families
will become increasingly difficult. According to Russell and Stramoski (2011), as the main source of retirement
income is savings, proper planning during the pre-retirement stage is essential for a secure retirement life.
Department of Statistics Malaysia (2016) reported that by 2040 the percentage of old age population
in Malaysia will increase significantly. The country is expected to experience the population ageing in 2020,
when the percentage of the population aged 65 years old over reaches 7.2% and doubled to 14.5% by 2040.
Further, it was revealed that while working age Malaysians may desire to retire at 55 or 60, but it may be
unrealistic given increasing life expectancy and the need to fund a longer period living in retirement. This
situation is in line with the increasing number of populations aged 60 years and over every year. Based on the
population estimates for 2020, the population age 60 years and over increased from 3.4 million (2019) to 3.5
million (2020) which represents 10.7 per cent of the total population and the life expectancy in Malaysia also
has grown, with the average male living until age 78.4 and female to age 81.2 (Department of Statistics
Malaysia, 2020). Further, the data also shows that a male who reach the age of 60 years in 2020 is expected to
live for another 18.4 years and female for 21.2 years, increased by 0.2 years and 0.6 years respectively as
compared to 2014. While many Malaysians are expected to live at least 15 years past their retirement,
unfortunately their retirement funds would only sustain them for 12 years.
The optional retirement age for government servants in Malaysia is 45 for females and 50 for males
while the compulsory retirement age is 60 (Ministry of Human Resources Malaysia, 2017; Public Service
Department Malaysia, 2017). A retired government servant could receive gratuity and a maximum pension of
60% of his last drawn salary after 30 years of service. However, it is worrying that with Malaysia’s mounting
debt burden coupled with the increasing ageing population, the ability of the government to fund this retirement
and pension scheme is frequently being questioned (Chua, 2017; Kaur and Tan, 2017; Yeap, 2018). In addition,
it is mandatory for both employee and employer in the Malaysian private sector to contribute monthly to the
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EPF in which full withdrawal may be made at the age of 55. Nonetheless, Estrada, Khan, Staniewski and
Mansor (2017) found evidence that inflation and the exchange rate strongly affects any type of pension systems
in Malaysia, especially in the case of EPF. Specifically, they suggest that if the Malaysian inflation rate is
higher than 7% and the exchange rate is more than US$ 1 by RM 7, the EPF real value can collapse with
negative values (an extremely low value). In this case, the EPF real value is so low that it cannot cover basic
medical care costs or large debts in the long run, nor can it buy goods and services to satisfy the basic necessities
of Malaysian pensioners in the long run.
A survey carried out by the EPF in 2017 on household savings in Kuala Lumpur and other big cities
as well as in the rural areas, found that over 90 per cent respondents are not having enough saving to retire
comfortably (EPF, 2017). Furthermore, high debts and low savings are among the reasons why many
Malaysians are unable to retire (HSBC, 2018). More than 90% of Malaysians aged 45 and over who want to
retire in the next five years are unable to do so due to some financial constraints. The survey showed that many
are bogged down by health bills and children’s education fees, resulting in many of them unable to save enough
for their retirement. Additionally, while more than half (54%) of working age people in Malaysia expect a
comfortable retirement but they are in for a surprise as only one in four (25%) pay into a retirement account
every month (HSBC, 2018). Planning for life after work is crucial yet many are not making adequate or even
any financial plans. Based on these figures, it is evident that these factors necessitate working longer beyond
current retirement age and could lead to financial distress among working population in Malaysia.
Looking at the current scenario in the workforce, organizations all over the world are facing the
inevitable challenges that come with vast numbers of millennial talent entering and reshaping the industry. The
millennials are the generation who are different from other generations in many aspects. They are considered
to be technological adaptors, more mobile, more multicultural and more proactive in creating their own content,
communication channels and way of living. However, despite the impact they have on modern society most
prior studies often examine the millennials as a homogenous generation. Weber and Urick (2017) for example
found numerous and significant statistical differences within the Millennials’ personal value orientations
dataset when examined according to demographic factors such as gender and work experience. This suggests
that there is a need to differentiate between demographic factors as we seek to better understand the millennials
as a powerful and emerging force in our society. This is particularly important since female millennials are
becoming a significant and growing part of the global workforce (PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2015).
Retirement literacy, by all accounts, has long been lacking among Malaysians, including those who
are in the workforce. Retirement literacy is the foundation from which informed retirement savings intentions
grow. Female millennials are a significant part of the workforce in Malaysia and have longer years to retirement
(approximately more than 15 years), hence may be even more at risk of under-saving than previous generations
for a number of reasons including higher inflation, higher costs of living and more difficult economic condition.
This is particularly crucial since women generally earn less than men in almost all types of occupations (Sabri
et al., 2015) hence putting them at a greater disadvantage in achieving a secure retirement life.
Previous studies of retirement savings behavior focus predominantly on the period of late career,
approaching or during retirement and on conducted on a more general population set (Kim et al., 2005; Sabri
and Juen, 2014; Sabri et al., 2015; Tamborini and Purcell, 2016; Diaw, 2017). However, this study focused on
a much earlier time frame which is a time when the individual has more opportunity to benefit from changes
in financial attitudes and behavior and on specific group of female millennials, which constitute a significant
and growing part of workforce, in Malaysia and globally.
In addition to studying a different set of samples from previous studies (female millennials), this study
also intends to include additional variable(s). Almost all of the existing studies so far were concerned about the
effect of financial literacy on retirement preparedness in which most of them found that financial literacy is a
significant predictor to retirement preparedness (Fatemeh et. al, 2019; Sabri et. al, 2014; Folk et. al ,2012 and
Zaiton et. al, 2018). For instance, Sabri et. al (2014) examined the influence of financial literacy, saving
behavior and financial management practice towards their retirement confidence among woman working in
Malaysian public sector. Meanwhile in another study, Fatemeh et. al (2019) investigated the behavioral
factor on retirement planning in Malaysia such as financial literacy, family education, prosperity to plan,
materialism, and future orientation. However, none of these studies have examined the role of financial stress
on retirement planning, although this is has found to be an important determinant of financial well-being in
several studies. Zaiton et. al (2018) for example, has examined the effects of financial literacy and financial
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behavior on respondents’ financial well-being and to assess the role of financial stress in mediating these
relationships. Therefore, as suggested by Sabri et. al (2014), additional variable as the potential predicting
factors for retirement preparedness study.
This study also attempts to examine self-efficacy among female millennials and their retirement
preparedness. According to study done by Lane et. al. (2015), there were significant motivation between self-
efficacy and achievement motivation and Muna et. al. (2020) said that there was a relationship between self-
efficacy and the motivation to learn among millennials. Nowadays, female millennials are important
contributors in workforce because this generation were different from pervious female generation. They started
to think they can reach to upper level before they enter the workforce and it was because most of female
millennials have tertiary education (PWC, 2015). According to study done by Farrel, Fry and Lisse (2015),
woman with higher financial self-efficacy, with a greater self-assuredness in their financial management
capacities are more likely to hold to investment and savings products and having less credit cards or loans.
People with higher self-efficacy will have a higher goal aspiration and woman who has a weaker sense of
efficacy in mastering occupation or position when it was dominated by the male worker (Maimunah et.al.
2007).
Demographic factors have been studied by many researchers to find out the relationship between
demographic factors with retirement preparedness. Age can help to guide pre-retirees and individuals in ground
work process of planning (DeVaney, 1995). Education level among individuals have significant influence
towards retirement preparedness (DeVaney, 1995; Mohd Fitri et. al, 2015 and Baljit et. al, 2018). As education
increased, individual likelihood to meet the guideline for retirement increased (DeVaney, 1995). This agreed
with study done by Baljit et. al. (2018) that conclude that the higher the education, the better understanding of
retirement planning. Household size was statistically significantly related with whether or not someone had a
retirement savings program and those with larger household size were less likely to be involved with savings
program for retirement (Joo and Grable, 2005). Income is the most important tools in retirement planning and
basic in financial planning (Richardson et. al, 1989) and to begin retirement planning, sufficient amount or
excess of income is needed, if not, it was impossible to plan for retirement (Mohd Fitri et. al, 2015).
2.1 Research Objectives
This study aims to investigate factors that affect retirement preparedness among female millennials in
Malaysia. Hence the objectives of the study are as follows:
a) To identify the level of retirement preparedness of Malaysian female millennials.
b) To examine the relationships between financial literacy, financial stress, and financial
management practices, self-efficacy and demographic factors (education level, household size and
household income) and retirement preparedness among Malaysian female millennials.
2.2 Research Questions
Based on the objectives of the study stated above, these are the research questions that will be answered in this
study:
a) What is the level of retirement preparedness among female millennials?
b) Are there any relationships between financial literacy, financial stress, and financial management
practices, self-efficacy and demographic factors and retirement preparedness among Malaysian
female millennials?
2.3 Research Hypotheses
The hypotheses that will be investigated in this study are:
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Ho1: There is no significant relationship between financial literacy and retirement preparedness
Ho2: There is no significant relationship between financial stress and retirement preparedness
Ho3: There is no significant relationship between financial management practices and retirement
preparedness
Ho4: There is no significant relationship between self-efficacy and retirement preparedness
Ho5: There is no significant relationship between demographic factors (education level, household
size and household income) and retirement preparedness
3. DETERMINANTS OF RETIREMENT PREPAREDNESS
Retirement planning is important to ensure retirees enjoy lives after their long service either in public sector or
private sector. In Malaysia, there are two main types of pension systems for all which is Civil Service Pensions
for public sector employee and Employees Provident Fund (EPF) for private sector employee. There was also
a Private Retirement Scheme that help people to save more during retirement and available for all Malaysians
whether employed or self-employed. This study will focus on retirement among Malaysian female millennials
who are defined as women born between 1980 until 1995 (PricewaterhouseCoopers (PWC), 2015). A recent
survey by RinggitPlus on 2020 revealed that lack of retirement planning among Malaysians remains a concern
because 39% of the respondent still not start any retirement planning while 50% of this segment was
millennials. Lack of awareness in financial planning appears to be the main theme since 47% of the respondent
who were millennials have a habit of overspending while almost 23% spent more than what they actually earn.
Overall results show that 19% from respondent could not save any money for each month. (RinggitPlus
Malaysian Financial Literacy Survey, 2020). On the other hand, retirement planning in Malaysia especially
among woman working in the public sector shows that a majority of them were satisfied with their current
financial situations, had no difficulty in paying bills, have control over their finances and have confidence in
their retirement period (Sabri, Reza and Wijekoon, 2020).
Financial literacy normally seen as a particular sort of consumer’s skill regarding how individuals
deal with their related financial issues effectively or personal finance-specific form of human capital (Alba and
Hutchinson, 1987). Several studies that have been conducted confirmed that financial literacy have significant
relationship with retirement preparedness (Lusardi and Mitchell, 2011; Fatemeh, Meysam and Shaheen, 2019;
Folk, Beh and Diana, 2012; Dominic, Richard and Feliz, 2020).
Meanwhile, financial stress is regarded as a major distraction at work (PWC, 2020). A survey by
conducted by Canadian Leger’s on 2020 reveals that money was the top reason why Canadians were stressed
and two-third have no financial planner or does not seek any advice from professional where 69% are from
young people. Financial stress can arise when people feel worried about their financial situation whether they
have enough money to buy basic needs and also does not have money to be saved in case of emergency.
Financial problem leads to financial stress which due to poor financial planning and poor financial planning
affect the retirement planning.
Healthy financial management practices are important to achieve financial well-being. This should
include various financial practices such as cash management, credit management, investment planning,
retirement planning, and estate planning (Hilgert et al., 2003). Healthy financial management practices can be
expected to promote higher retirement confidence (Kim et al., 2005). This is because people who practice
financial management for instance, are more likely to save money as contribution towards their retirement plan.
These financial management practices help them to be more prepared for retirement life and lead to higher
retirement confidence.
According to Bandura (2007), self-efficacy refers to the way in which an individual view their abilities
and capabilities in academic, career and other choices. It means that, a person with a low sense of self-efficacy,
may not preserve in performing challenging tasks because they believe they cannot do the task well and feel
discouraged and overwhelmed by tasks (Maimunah, Steven and Ismi, 2007). Furthermore, the author also
explained that self-efficacy in career refers to one’s confidence in pursuing career-related tasks. The stronger
the perceived self-efficacy, the higher the goal aspirations people adopt. According to Nyoman, Made, Lu and
Ni (2020), financial literacy directly influence the financial self-efficacy but financial self-efficacy cannot
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mediate the financial literacy while a study done by Ari, Ary and Intan (2020) revealed that the financial self-
efficacy moderates the relationship between financial literacy and financial management behavior.
Demographic factor is the factors related to retirement plans, age education level, gender, and
household income are characterised as important factors toward individual retirement preparation (Mohd Fitri
et.al, 2015). For this research purpose, demographic factor of age, education level, household income and
household size and their relationship with retirement preparedness will be examined. Age is an important factor
in human behavior towards the retirement planning. Age can be related to education as age increase, education
increase, it more likely that households would meet the guideline for retirement preparation (DeVaney, 1995).
Auni and Salina (2021) reveal that level of education directly influence the retirement planning. Household
income is important because one’s must have enough money to make retirement preparation work (Richardson
and Kilty, 1989). Generation Y still depend solely on their Provident Fund which this time were proved to be
insufficient to be lived comfortably with (Baljit and Zubair, 2018). Other than that, household income also
variables that affect retirement. Household with higher income more likely to have saving plan for retirement
purpose (Kamal et. al, 2016).
4. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
This study has several limitations. Firstly, this research uses cross-sectional study that only analyse data from
a population at one specific time of point which it cannot be measure the change of variables over time.
Secondly, this study scope is limited to female millennials working in Klang Valley area that will absolutely
not represent all the Malaysian female millennials, but this study will try to reduce the impact of limitation by
try to collect data from all different parts in Klang Valley. Lastly, limitation is regarding the choice of variables
used. In this research, I use variables of financial literacy, financial stress, financial management practices,
self-efficacy and demographic factors such as age, education level, household size and household income to
identify the level of retirement preparedness among female millennials in Malaysia. There was a lot more
variables that can be used to examine the retirement preparedness such as saving behaviour, family education,
social support, financial knowledge, financial situation, financial problem, financial status and also financial
well-being which can be considered to be used for future research.
5. CONCLUSION
This study focuses on the effect of financial literacy, financial stress, financial management practices, self-
efficacy and demographic factors among female millennials on retirement preparedness. This study can reveal
the effect of financial stress on retirement preparedness that can give a new development of theory and can
identify the link between this the problem, intervention and outcomes. This study uses comparative case study
research from previous researcher to identifying factor to be included in this study and seeking for improvement
and follow suggestion of previous researcher to include other suitable variable in this study. Case study
methods provide a robust means to guide implementation of effective practices (G Rose Baker, 2010). Other
case study was produced valuable with their own right, most suitable method and give improvement for other.
This study can help to become basic idea on how financial stress can give effect towards retirement
preparedness among Malaysian female millennials.
The findings of this study will have major policy relevance. Understanding the determinants of
financial preparation for retirement early in life is important since how female millennials characteristics and
perceptions influence retirement preparation at young age has implications for their well-being in retirement.
This is primarily because the time observed in this study is a time when most individuals have the first
substantial opportunity to make choices for themselves, including the investment patterns and lifestyles that
will shape the quality and quantity of their investment portfolio in future. As a result, relevant government and
private agencies (for example the Employee Provident Fund and Private Pension Administrator Malaysia) can
take necessary actions to assist these young professionals into planning for their retirement. Further, financial
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planning professionals need reliable data about the financial literacy of their clients to provide these customers
with the best possible retirement funding financial products. This study investigated how the variables could
be used by financial professionals to predict the retirement financial literacy of Malaysian female millennials.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research is carried out under the grant provided by the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) Malaysia
under the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FGRS) 2020-0162-106-02 (FRGS/1/2020/SS01/UPSI/02/01).
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