Texts and communication_v1_chaps1to4_Print_Final

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Acknowledgements

Contributor:! Jan Davies

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ICONS INDICATES OPEN WEB LINK INDICATES DOCUMENT TO INDICATES STUDENT ACTIVITY

INDICATES VIDEO FILE OPEN

INDICATES AUDIO FILE INDICATES STUDENT INDICATES STUDENT READING INDICATES STUDENT NOTE-

INSTRUCTION MAKING WIDGET

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CHAPTER 1

Creating communication and understanding
text

The aim of this chapter is to introduce students to the three 4. recognise, understand and interpret a wide range of
level reading guide and the seven elements of texts including academic texts, advertisements,
communication. Students will then be able to begin to apply cartoons, drama, editorials, electronic texts, essays,
these techniques to the creation, communication and films and documentaries, historical documents, legal
understanding of selected texts. It is intended to provide the documents, newspaper and magazine articles, novels,
foundation skills and knowledge from which the ensuing opinion pieces, poetry, prose varieties and song lyrics,
chapters will develop. and

Suggested chapter duration 5. analyse theme, content and writer’s intent in a wide
variety of genres.
4 hours
Reading resources
Target learning outcomes
UWSCollege 2014, Texts and Communication workbook,
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to UWSCollege, Sydney.

1. demonstrate the ability to read and interpret texts using Texts and Communication vUWS site
the Three Stages of Understanding technique which
teaches literal recognition and interpretative !!!!!!!!!!! 5
methodology and then develops the ability to make
references, evaluations and judgements

2. explain effective communication as a process
containing seven elements

3. identify and use the key features of the vocabulary of
communication and texts, including such features as
clichés, genre, grammar, idiom, jargon, syntax and
thesis

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Chapter 1: Creating communication and
understanding text: Study tools

FIGURE 1.1 Creating FIGURE 1.2 Creating FIGURE 1.3 Creating FIGURE 1.4 Creating
communication and communication and communication and communication and
understanding text understanding text notes understanding text understanding text
checklist feedback Twitter feed

Use this checklist to Use this widget to create Provide your tutor with #communication
prepare for assessments. study notes for this feedback about your
chapter. knowledge and
understanding of the
chapter.

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Seven parts of the communication process

1. Sender — This is the person who encodes the words, ideas or feelings to the receiver(s).
2. Message — This is the idea or feeling transmitted from the sender to the receiver.
3. Receiver — This is the person who decodes or interprets the message to achieve understanding.
4. Feedback — If there is a lack of understanding or misinterpretation, this vital stage allows communication to be clarified.
5. Communication channel — This is the vehicle used for the message, eg telephone, letter, conversation.
6. Context or setting — This is the situation or setting within which the communication takes place.
7. Noise or interference — This may be the reason that the message received is not necessarily the same as the message

sent.

FIGURE 1.5 YouTube: The FIGURE 1.6 QR code:
communication process The communication
process

Faanes, E 1949, viewed 1 November 2013, <http:// http://youtu.be/gBlOjqUyBnE
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Communication_shannon-

weaver2.svg>.

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Ben-Avraham, Y 2013, 8 April, viewed 1 November 2013, <http:// 8
www.flickr.com/photos/epublicist/8632456752/>.
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Fine cotton “ring-in” affair gelding, Bold Personality, a horse of decidedly superior
capability.
Doubtless some have been successful and undetected. Buying Bold Personality was not difficult, and credit should
Some were exposed and the perpetrators caught and be given to Haitana and Gillespie for showing the prudence
subjected to the consequences. to at least use another gelding as opposed to a stallion or
filly, and perhaps disregard that they failed initially to
Others have left one to scratch his head and wonder, consider that Fine Cotton was brown with white markings
"What were they thinking?" on his hind legs while Bold Personality was a bay with no
white whatsoever.
Some schemes have included knowing participation of one They subsequently dyed Bold Personality to more closely
or more of the competitors, willing or otherwise, such as a impersonate Fine Cotton, and upon realizing the absence
favoured fighter taking a fall in a certain round to an inferior of the white legs, conceived the foolhardy strategy of using
opponent, but others, particularly those involving punting, white paint to apply the markings, and to further conceal
require no knowledge, compulsion or consent on the part the deception with white bandages when the white paint
of the horse. Yes, the jockey can be instructed to rein in a proved inadequate to the task.
favourite to let a horse with longer odds prevail, but it could While not the origin of the expression, "Horse of a different
be safely said that the horse has no awareness of their colour," this was nonetheless perhaps the boldest attempt
participation in the scam. ever at making the Bard's line fit the occasion.

Sometimes the cheater's plan is so comical as to not only Skeates, B 2010, 17 April, viewed 1 November 2013, < http://
fall into the "What were they thinking?" category, but also en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Newbury_Racecourse,_finish.jpg >.
include, "Who was daft enough to be sucked in?"

Such a case in punting was known as The Fine Cotton
Affair.

Fine Cotton was foaled in 1976. His lineage was
predominantly Australian, and included blood from Ajax,
but he did have some British and Irish blood. His sire Aureo
did have French blood via Wilkes, and while it may be
politically incorrect to say, that may have had some
influence in Fine Cotton's form resulting in his opening as
33-1 odds for the Commerce Novice Handicap at Eagle
Farm Racecourse on August 18th, 1984.

Seeking the opportunity to capitalize on those substantial
odds, trainer Hayden Haitana and Agent John Gillespie
hatched a scheme to ring-in Fine Cotton with another

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Greed played a role in unravelling the plot. Placing Undeterred by his sanction, Gillespie went on to further
substantial bets via confederates at numerous venues, infamy including a multi-million dollar horse race in 2008,
Haitana and Gillespie succeeded in gaining the notice of fraud, and other questionable scams. His record includes
bookmakers who questioned the plummet in odds on Fine over 300 convictions for numerous and varied offences. He
Cotton from 33-1 to 7/2. This phenomenal drop somehow later claimed that he had gotten away with almost $2
managed to elude the attention of VRC and AJC stewards. million from The Fine Cotton Affair, a widely disputed claim
which, if true, would make the five months he served of his
Not privy to the ring-in, Gus Philpot, an apprentice jockey, four year prison sentence fairly lucrative.
supposedly made the comment that Fine Cotton was
unusually docile while being loaded. This is noteworthy in It's probable the entire truth of the affair will never be
that Fine Cotton had a reputation for reluctance and would completely divulged, but the Fine Cotton Affair will forever
have preferred remaining in his stall munching feed to be inextricably part of Australian horse racing history, and
running. One would think any jockey, apprentice or will give additional meaning to the term, "painted pony."
otherwise would have the wherewithal to immediately be
aware that his mount had been switched, even if it had As of August 2010, trainer Hayden Haitana was still serving
been replaced by an otherwise identical double. his life ban. Fine Cotton died on 20th February 2009, aged
31.
The event concluded with Bold Personality, in his guise as
Fine Cotton, posting a half head victory. Source: <http://www.progroupracing.com.au/horse-racing-articles/horse-

The substantial drop in odds did finally attract the notice of racing/fine-cotton-ring-in#fast>.
stewards, and the running paint on Bold Personality's leg
was deemed at least slightly suspicious. Student activity 1

Fine Cotton trainer Haitana was called to a steward Three-level reading exercise
initiated investigation, but was learned to have somewhat
hastily departed the premises. 1. Literally, what is the writer saying? What is his basic
story? (Reading the lines)
Disqualification resulted; the win was awarded to Harbour
Gold, and all punters who had staked Fine Cotton aka Bold 2. What is the writer implying FIGURE 1.7 Student
Personality were not paid. in his writing? What does activity 1
he mean? (Reading
No less a figure than Bill Waterhouse and his son Robbie
were implicated, an allegation they vehemently denied. between the lines)
They were subjected to a ban that was finally lifted in 1998,
perhaps in the absence of incontrovertible evidence. 3. What does the writer
think? What does he want
Gillespie and Haitana went to jail for their part in the Fine us to understand?
Cotton affair, and other participants received lifetime bans. (Reading beyond the lines)

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How the favourite beat us
"I said to the jockey, 'Now, listen, my cocky,
by AB "Banjo" Paterson1 You watch as you're cantering down by the stand,
I'll wait where that toff is and give you the office,
"Aye," said the boozer, "I tell you it's true, sir,
I once was a punter with plenty of pelf, You're only to win if I lift up my hand.'

But gone is my glory, I'll tell you the story "I then tried to back her -- 'What price is the Cracker?'
How I stiffened my horse and got stiffened myself. 'Our books are all full, sir,' each bookie did swear;
My mind, then, I made up, my fortune I played up
"'T’was a mare called the Cracker, I came down to back I bet every shilling against my own mare.
her,
FIGURE 1.8
But found she was favourite all of a rush,
The folk just did pour on to lay six to four on,
And several bookies were killed in the crush.

"It seems old Tomato was stiff, though a starter;
They reckoned him fit for the Caulfield to keep.
The Bloke and the Donah were scratched by their owner,
He only was offered three-fourths of the sweep.

"We knew Salamander was slow as a gander,
The mare could have beat him the length of the straight,

And old Manumission was out of condition,
And most of the others were running off weight.

"No doubt someone 'blew it', for everyone knew it,

The bets were all gone, and I muttered in spite

'If I can't get a copper, by Jingo, I'll stop her, Viewed 22 October 2013, <http://
Let the public fall in, it will serve the brutes right.' www.australiangeographic.com.au/journal/on-this-day-in-
history-banjo-paterson-was-born.htm>.

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"I strolled to the gateway, the mare in the straightway
Was shifting and dancing, and pawing the ground,
The boy saw me enter and wheeled for his canter,
When a darned great mosquito came buzzing around.

"They breed 'em at Hexham, it's risky to vex 'em,
They suck a man dry at a sitting, no doubt,
But just as the mare passed, he fluttered my hair past,
I lifted my hand, and I flattened him out.

"I was stunned when they started, the mare simply darted Tamoc02 2013, 11 July, viewed 1 November 2013, < http://
openclipart.org/image/800px/svg_to_png/180213/
Away to the front when the flag was let fall, Mosquito_02.png >.

For none there could match her, and none tried to catch Student activity 2 FIGURE 1.9 Student
her She finished a furlong in front of them all. activity 2
I. Write the story in a
"You bet that I went for the boy, whom I sent for paragraph.
The moment he weighed and came out of the stand --
'Who paid you to win it? Come, own up this minute.' 4. Identify words that 21st
'Lord love yer,' said he, 'why you lifted your hand.' century students may
struggle with.

"T’was true, by St Peter, that cursed 'muskeeter' 5. Why do you think this poem
Had broke me so broke that I hadn't a brown, became a favourite with the
And you'll find the best course is when dealing with horses racing crowds around the turn
To win when you're able, and keep your hands down. of the century?

Source: Viewed 22 October 2013. http://www.middlemiss.org/ 6. Can you explain why the poem still has appeal today?
rhymes_rudely_strung/2012/11/how-the-favourite-beat-us-by-a-b-banjo-
paterson.html 7. Could this poem be an example of typical Australian
humour? Give reasons for your assertions.
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Student activity 3 FIGURE 1.11

Three level interpretation of graphics exercise

1. Literally, what is the cartoonist/photographer
saying? What is his basic story (reading the
lines)?

2. What is the cartoonist/photographer implying in
his image? What does he mean (reading between
the lines).

3. What does the cartoonist/photographer think?
What does he want us to understand (reading
beyond the lines)?

FIGURE 1.10 Student
activity 3

Cartoon by Warren Brown, viewed 22 October 2013, <http://
www.heraldsun.com.au/news/gallery-e6frf7jo-1111120102211?
page=7>.

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A sting, a scam, a fix . . . a balls-up It all began when Coffs Harbour jockey Pat Haitana, locked
up for a short period in Brisbane's Boggo Road Jail, met
The Coffs Coast Advocate small-time hustler John 'The Phantom' Gillespie, who
claimed he had a foolproof way to make money by
by Greg White, 25 Feb 2009 8:45 AM substituting a high quality horse for a poorly performed
animal in a weak race, then betting up big.
MENTION Fine Cotton in polite Coffs Harbour racing
society and 24 years after the infamous 'ring in', faces still Haitana suggested his brother Hayden — training a small
screw up in pain. string in Coffs — was just the man to prepare the plunge
horse and within weeks, wildcat schemes were turning into
The horse which gave its name to arguably the most inept reality.
racetrack scam ever, passed away in Brisbane last Friday
aged 31 years, with the news making headlines in sporting It's one of the great mysteries how the fix progressed as far
circles all around the world. as it did, given the escalating string of misadventures as
the day of the planned 'ring in' approached.
His demise, and future mention of those involved in the
conspiracy, ensures public interest will take years to The plotters obtained Fine Cotton early in the piece, but
evaporate. then had difficulty finding a similar looking animal.

From the moment open-class sprinter Bold Personality was After a series of false starts, including an attempt to buy
substituted for novice performer Fine Cotton and 'won' at Group Two-winner Dashing Soltaire from actor James
Eagle Farm on August 18, 1984, the story has alternately Mason, they eventually obtained Bold Personality but with
shocked and titillated due to the bumbling audacity and less than a week to go, the situation began cart wheeling
downright stupidity of the culprits. out of control as Hayden Haitana became increasingly
paranoid.
Because of the unfortunate links to this city it meant
newspaper readers stayed glued to the then Coffs Harbour Already a heavy drinker, Haitana's intake increased
Advocate as page after page was allocated to the unfolding considerably as the idea took shape and there was no
inquiries and trials, making it probably the biggest story hope of success and his life was now in danger from any
covered since World War II. one of a host of sinister bit-players.

One of the witnesses at the original hearing (who asked not He'd been alerted to the behind-the-scenes involvement of
to be identified), remembers the feeling among local racing Sydney's ultimate “colourful racing character”, SP
folk as details of the plot became known. bookmaking king George Freeman, convicted drug-runner
Michael Sayers, and an unusual assortment of shadowy
“It was stupid and the blokes who did it were so foolish urgers and hangers-on.
they made the Three Stooges look like High Court judges,”
he said.

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Surely, we asked our anonymous witness, the plot was by now common
knowledge among the close-knit Coffs Harbour racing community?

“Hayden was notorious for being a bullshit artist, particularly when he'd
been drinking which was pretty frequent,” he answered.

“He could have sat around the bar and described the plan down to the
tiniest detail and not a single person would have believed a word.”

As the race approached the farce continued downhill.

With Fine Cotton already in Brisbane, stand-in strapper Tommaso Di
Luzio was dispatched to Coffs Harbour to pick up Bold Personality.

But during the six-hour float trip north he left the horse wrapped in a
heavy duty blanket, ensuring it arrived in Queensland in a distressed
state, severely dehydrated and in no condition to race.

Userkgbo 2013, 19 May, viewed 4 November 2013, <http:// In a panic, Haitana ordered the horse be drenched (a procedure
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ normally carried out under veterinary supervision) to get moisture back
File:View_of_Racecource,_Eagle_Farm_Racecource.jpeg>. into its system and while he went in search of necessary materials, a
bystander forced a tube down the horse's nostrils, causing it to bleed
heavily.

They next attempted to make the horse look more like Fine Cotton by changing its markings.

Clairol hair colouring failed to do the trick and whitewash also proved ineffective.

In desperation, white paint was applied which refused to dry and continued to run as the horse broke out into a severe sweat.

Even as the horse was led out to the start the paint continued to streak its face and drip down onto its hooves.

Once the horses crossed the line and the 'winner' was disqualified, the enormous fall out began and has never ceased.

Gillespie and Hayden Haitana were eventually jailed and six people were warned off racecourses for life.

Leviathan bookmakers Bill and Robbie Waterhouse were caught up in the scandal and their story is a saga in itself.

Fingers were pointed at judges, racing and public officials, politicians ... and even a Catholic priest, Fr Edward O'Dwyer, who
was caught leading a plunge on Fine Cotton at Kempsey dog races

Mick Sayers was blasted to death in an underworld execution and long-deceased George Freeman is again “starring” in
Underbelly: A Tale of Two Cities.

(It will be interesting to see what mention is made of his part in coming episodes.)

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Hayden Haitana was last heard of in South Australia while Student activity 4
Murwillumbah-based Gillespie was last year accused of
involvement in another suspect racing venture, despite his Writing a news analysis
warning-off remaining current.
1. After reading this article from the Coffs Harbour
After initially being seen as Ned Kelly-like larrikins, public Advocate, write an analysis using the following
sympathy turned against the plotters as the sordid details subheadings:
became known.
Name of subject
“They caused unwarranted harm to the animals involved, Media type
set out to deliberately rob the public blind and hurt many Date of publication
innocent people who were painted guilty by association What was being presented?
when they had nothing to do with it,” the witness said. Why is it presented this way?
Whose story is being told?
“If there was anything good to come from it, it did cause a Whose story is not being told?
lot of scum who were giving Coffs Harbour a bad name to Is it objective/subjective? (Are they taking sides?)
flee. Are there any contextual issues?
Is the language emotive? Is there any exaggeration?
“It took time but the honest ones who stayed behind Is agenda setting evident — the media source trying to
became the foundations of the ethical and highly respected influence the way that we think? How important is the
industry that local racing has become.” issue? Have they stated this point of view before?

As recently as yesterday, a source told the Coffs Coast FIGURE 1.12 Student
Advocate of the existence of a mysterious diary, much activity 4
sought after during the original investigations, and
supposed to contain details that have never been made
public.

“Just because the horse has died doesn't mean this story
is complete,” this informant said.

“A lot of people still have to meet their maker before it will
finally be put to rest.”

Source: <http://www.coffscoastadvocate.com.au/news/a-sting-a-scam-a-

fix-a-balls-up/175053/>.

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The Waterhouse colt who was cut out from the racing clan

by Rick Feneley

Bill's second son is not happy with the way he has been treated, writes Rick Feneley. “The Waterhouse image has gained a
new lustre," declares the narrator on a mini-documentary about the famous turf family. But the Waterhouse who wasn't asked
to contribute to the show — the long-estranged son, and brother, David — says he will have a chuckle at an old chestnut that
will be trotted out in Family Confidential on ABC1 on Monday night.

Among those interviewed, his sister Louise refers to the Waterhouse ancestor from the First Fleet, Captain Henry Waterhouse.
David, at the eastern suburbs home he shares with his wife and two children, furnishes the Herald with a 12-page report,
commissioned in 1966 by his father, Bill, on the possibility of a family link to Henry.
"My conclusion," reports its author, B.J. Dowd, after a colourful report on the
seaman, "is that no legitimate relationship exists to Captain Waterhouse." "It really
is pathetic," says the second son of Big Bill Waterhouse, the 88-year-old
bookmaking legend. "My father once suggested when I was dealing in art in the UK
in 1985, that I should say I was related to J.W. Waterhouse, the famous 19th-
century English artist.”

David — former bookie, punter, art collector and now options trader — suspects he
will be less amused by the rest of the program. He has not spoken to his parents or
two siblings since 1992, but was alarmed by promotions for the show, which
suggested he had betrayed his bookmaking brother, Robbie, the husband of
leading horse trainer Gai. In 1995, David told a racing inquiry that his brother was
the "mastermind" behind Australia's biggest racing scandal, the Fine Cotton ring-in
of 1984 - a claim that Robbie has always denied.

Racing authorities banned Bill and Robbie from the world's race tracks for life,

deeming they had "prior knowledge" of the fix at Eagle Farm in Brisbane when a

horse named Bold Personality, was substituted for a slower runner, Fine Cotton,

and won. Rinaldi, E 2013, 6 February, viewed 4 November

Family Confidential casts David as the black sheep, the son who "expected the 2013, < http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
family to support his flamboyant lifestyle". He is furious that no one contacted him File:Gai_Waterhouse_%288449740099%29.jpg >.

to seek his side of the story. In February 1999, David walked away with not a cent - a "nil-all draw" - from his court battle for a

share of the family trust. "My father and brother requested, and we entered into and signed, a non-disparaging clause in that

deed.” It meant, David says, that they were supposed to stop saying bad things about each other. He says he kept his side of

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the bargain but that his family breaches the agreement with walked away with nothing from his family trust battle.
this documentary and his father's autobiography published "That's true," says David but he argues this fails to
last year, What Are The Odds? acknowledge his critical victory in the Supreme Court ruling
- the judge ordered the removal of Bill and his brother Jack
So now he is talking: "I never got a dollar out of them. I as trustees, saying they had "breached their duties”. “My
never borrowed money off my father or brother. They were wife got sick of the fight. She insisted I accept their nil-all
the ones who borrowed money off me." David says that draw and move on with our lives. We did, and glad of it ...
when Robbie and Bill were banned over Fine Cotton - and I've moved on. I just wish they would."
lost their livelihoods - he funded all his brother's court
cases until June 1992, when he was finally found guilty of Robbie and Bill declined to respond to David's claims
lying to the Racing Appeals Tribunal, for which he served yesterday. In in his book, Bill says only that David "left the
eight months' periodic detention at Long Bay jail. family”. In deft shorthand, Family Confidential deals with
the trials and triumphs of the Waterhouses: Bill's divorce
Soon after, they had wanted David to use a Frederick and remarriage to Suzanne, although he continues his
McCubbin painting he owned - "valued at $3 million to $4 relationship with Yuko Fujita; Robbie's fairytale wedding to
million" - as a guarantee for their tax settlement. He Gai, at which David was best man; Robbie's shame over
refused. "I think that was the real turning point." David says the Fine Cotton scandal; the battle with the cousins who
he had his last conversation with his brother on September won millions from the family trust; Robbie's financial
21, 1992, when Robbie phoned about 7am."I'll never forget resurrection as a punter; and his and Bill's return to the
the words he used," David says. "It was like a cold tracks after 14 years banishment. "I had no knowledge of
assassin. He said, 'I'm just ringing to tell you you're out of the horse, really," says Bill.
the [family] trust.' I said, 'What do you mean?' He said,
'You're out of the trust and we don't want you coming Robbie, while admitting his shame at lying about placing
around to the office anymore.' I said, 'What about the bets on the ring-in, says he was simply following the
money I've lent you?' money. In his book, Bill blames the late underworld figure
George Freeman for manipulating people in authority and
David, while giving evidence in 1995 at the Australian the media to make him and Robbie the "fall guys" over Fine
Jockey Club hearing, recounted Robbie's alleged reply: Cotton. Family Confidential's narrator says: "This is the
"We have just used you." "And I was gutted," he says now. story of the family that refused to be broken, shaped by the
"They cut me adrift. I was the one betrayed ... It felt like one man once billed as the biggest gambler in the world."
of those westerns where you get shot in the back, left to
die. I attended every court day in every court case, and © 2010 Sydney Morning Herald
paid every bill for him."
Source: Sydney Morning Herald, viewed 28 October 2013, <http://
David claims Robbie owes him more than $200,000 and Bill www.horse.com.au/horse-articles/2010/11/27/the-waterhouse-colt-who-
about $450,000 - from 1984. "A house worth $650,000 then was-cut-out-from-the-racing-clan/>.
is worth over $6 million today." The documentary notes he
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 18
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Student activity f. Swap your account with a class mate and read his/
her account. Discuss and make a note of the
The “More Joyous” affair differences between your two accounts.

Go to the Sydney Morning g. As a group, we will discuss and explain the
Herald website link and scroll interpretations of the major contributors Chris
Murphy, Lisa Davies, Kate McClymont,
through the information. photographer Peter Rae, Tom Steinfort and Chris
Roots.
As you read and look at the
graphics, jot down some h. How much advantage does a reader have if they
observations about the already know some of the jargon associated with
following: horse racing? Can you find some examples of that
jargon and explain what it means? Can you identify
a.Identify all the different examples of communicators “playing” with the
methods (channels) of jargon in order to make the information more
communication that were used. interesting and/or entertaining? Does this also apply
to the use of nick names?
Rinaldi, E 2011, 25 October, b.For each different form
viewed 4 November 2013, < (channel) of communication, i. Read the editorial and summarise the arguments of
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ comment on the type of the editor in his attitude to problems in the horse
File:Tom_Waterhouse.jpg >. information that is racing industry.
communicated, eg Twitter,
photographs, and formal j. After all that, do you think the horse racing industry
reporting. can be trusted? Support your assertions with
evidence.
c. How much is your interpretation of what went on
coloured by the tone of the tweets, reporting and
photographs? Give an example of each.

d. How important was the video in assisting you to FIGURE 1.13 More joyous FIGURE 1.14 Student
understand what was going on? If you watched it affair web link activity 5
before you looked at the rest of the material, did it
create a bias in your thinking as you explored the
events of the day further? Did you discover things
from your reading that made you later disagree with
some of the claims in the video?

e. Write a brief account of the day’s proceedings.

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! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 19

The 1804 Australian Rebellion and Battle of time and attempts to determine its location still leave
doubt. While there is a sculpture at Castlebrook Cemetery
Vinegar Hill commemorating the battle, there remains debate as to
where the battle actually occurred.
By Cameron Riley, November 2003
The Australian continent discovered
Viewed 6 November 2013, <http://www.hawkesburyhistory.net.au/articles/
Battle_of_Vinegar.html>. There have been three major waves of colonisation of the
Australian continent. The first wave was thought to be
In the late 1700s England attempted to deal with a 70,000 years ago from the Indonesian Archipelago[1]. The
burgeoning prison population by sending the convicts off to second wave was 20,000 years ago with the "Gracile"
the other side of the world to the New South Wales, Norfolk ancestors of the modern indigenous Australians. The third
Island and Van Diemen’s Land penal colonies. The late wave came after the European discovery of "Terra Australis
1700s were also a time of rebellion and civil upheaval in Incognito" by the Dutch, French and English in the late
Ireland. The British Government dealt with the Irish rebels seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
by exiling them to New South Wales as political prisoners.
In 1616 the Dutch explorer Dirk Hartog hit the western
The penal colony in Australia suddenly found itself with coast of Australia at Shark Bay. This inspired another Dutch
experienced Irish rebels, unwavering in their contempt for explorer, Abel Tasman, to further explore the Australian
English authority. The convicts shared the common coastline in 1642. Tasman sailed under the Great Australian
experience of tyrannical justice at the hands of the Bight landing on modern day Tasmania which he named
"flogging parson" Samuel Marsden and the cronyism of the Van Diemen’s Land. Tasman continued his easterly voyage
New South Wales Corps. The Irish convicts were also and became the first European to discover New Zealand.
united in their desire to go home. Tasman undertook a second voyage in 1644 and
determined that the western coast and the northern coast
There was only one successful large-scale convict rebellion of Australia were part of the one land mass.
in Australia's colonial past. This was the rebellion of 1804
that led to the "Battle of Vinegar Hill" in Sydney's north These enterprising voyages by the Dutch explorers inspired
western suburbs. The New South Wales Corps had Captain James Cook in 1770 to chart and map the
marched all night and most of the next morning from Australian coastline. Cook meticulously charted the
Sydney in order to catch the rebels outside of Rouse Hill. A northern Australian coast. During this voyage Cook
short battle was fought which ended the rebellion. discovered two excellent ports in Botany Bay and Sydney
Harbour on the south-east coast of Australia. Here he
The 1804 rebellion is relatively unknown in popular made contact with the Aboriginal people of the Botany and
Australian history. It is only until recently that Australians Sydney regions.[2]
have had any sympathy for Australia's convict history. This
unwillingness to revisit the convict component of Australian !!!!!!!!!!! 20
history has led to the location of the battle being lost in

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The Aboriginal People had a sophisticated communal FIGURE 1.15
ownership and spiritual attachment to land within a
language grouping. This mixed the necessity of survival in a Viewed 6 November 2013. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
harsh Australian bush with the protection of territory from Castle_Hill_convict_rebellion
other Aboriginal peoples. This concept of property was
alien to the European view of private land ownership. To the soaring birth rate. From 1700 to 1740, the
European eye and laws it appeared that the land was "Terra population of England and Wales remained
Nullius" and there for the taking. constant at about 6 million people. Then it started
rising fast - so fast that between 1750 and 1770
England in the late eighteenth century the population of London doubled - and by 1851
it stood at 18 million. This meant that the median
The end of the eighteenth and start of the nineteenth age of Englishmen kept dropping and the labour
century were times of upheaval for England both market was saturated with young. No
internationally and domestically. England and France mechanisms existed for the effective relief of
warred consistently through this period from the Seven mass unemployment; it was not a problem
Years War to the Napoleonic Wars. In 1776 the American England had ever before had to contend with on
War of Independence was fought in which the new nation this scale. The poor laws had been written for a
of the United States of America won their battle to be free different England. Parish relief and the workhouse
of English governance.[3] All these wars placed stress on were the primitive devices of a pre-industrial
the public purse, England's credit and the population. society; now they were overwhelmed. But crime
is, was and always will be a young man's trade,
In 1760 the Industrial Revolution exploded which increased
Britain's wealth significantly but also decimated several !!!!!!!!!!! 21
centuries of cultural norms and villages in the pursuit of
wealth. Villages and towns now poured able bodied
workers and unemployed into the cities seeking the wealth
of factory work. This densely concentrated the
impoverished unemployed youth that late eighteenth
century England created. With this rapid social change
came an equally rapid increase in crime. Robert Hughes
writes:

Two centuries later one can see broader reasons
for this growth in crime. English society was
violently changing, under the stresses of
industrialisation, the growth of towns, and a

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and English youth, rootless and urban, took to it While this incident gave the English a shock, in Ireland it
with a will. precipitated several atrocities by the British military and
loyalist Orange Order. By 1798 hostilities were completely
The English system of privatised jails and hulks[4] were open in Ireland when Wexford County rebelled.
overrun with the growing prison population. The English
Parliament decided to kill two birds with one stone and The rebellion in Wexford led to the Irish Battle of Vinegar
establish a naval presence in the Pacific Ocean at Botany Hill where twenty thousand rebels had encamped. The
Bay and Norfolk Island. The Norfolk Island pines appeared rebel group was armed with muskets and pikes but had no
good wood for mast and ship manufacture. The increasing artillery. The rebels faced four columns of well drilled British
English convict population would be sent to these places to infantry supported by artillery. The battle lasted over a
work and establish a penal colony. In 1787 the First Fleet period of two hours with the British artillery being the
left Portsmouth, England with its payload of convicts and difference. While skirmishing continued as part of the
landed in Botany Bay, Australia in January of 1788.[5] rebellion, this battle effectively ended the Irish uprising.

Turmoil and rebellion in Ireland The British method for dealing with seditionists

Oliver Cromwell had led a brutal invasion and suppression and dissidents
of Ireland in 1649. This had resulted in a strong
undercurrent of anti-English sentiment that constantly The British Government preferred deporting or exiling
simmered both openly and beneath the surface of Irish political prisoners to Botany Bay rather than risking having
society. The resistance to English rule coupled with the them martyred if they were hanged. This was an effective
centuries old cultural conflict between the Protestants and policy for the British and the manner in which they dealt
Catholics contributed toward Ireland being a tumultuous with all political dissent in England, Scotland and the British
place. colonies. The first political dissenters sent to Australia were
the Jacobin "Scottish Martyrs" who were shipped out on
In 1791 the Society of United Irishman formed in Belfast as the Surprize in 1794. The last political prisoners sent to
a response to the increasing involvement of the English in Australia were the Irish "Fenigans" who were sent to
Irish affairs. The society initially embraced Protestant, Western Australia in 1868.[6]
Catholic and Republican Irish. They found a new friend in
England's foe in 1793 when England and France went to For Britain the quelling of political rebellion was important
war once again. The United Irishmen were suppressed in to its ruling class. Most rebels were fiercely republican after
1794 once the English found that the society had been having seen the success of a Constitutional Republic in the
talking to the French. United States and the changes the French Revolution had
wrought. The British upper class believed in their pre-
In 1796 a French fleet with fourteen thousand soldiers ordained right to rule and the institutions such as the
arrived off Irish shores but was unable to land due to bad monarchy and titled upper house protected their perceived
weather and ultimately were forced to return to France. right. Republican notions such as natural rights, and a

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popularly elected upper house were frightening to those A sequence of attempted uprisings
whose power rested with the current monarchist and titled
institutions. Political dissidents were seen and handled as a In August of 1800 a plan was acted upon to win freedom
threat to British society. Audrey Oldfield writes: for the convicts. The Irish leaders who were aware of the
role arms played in the rebellions in Ireland also planned for
There is a case for contending that pikes to be manufactured and hidden to ensure the rebels
Britain (unlike many other European were well armed. The rebellion involved taking Parramatta
nations) escaped outright revolution in and dealing with hated Anglican minister and magistrate
the nineteenth century by being able to Samuel Marsden[8]. Marsden had earned the nickname the
siphon off its radicals (as convicts) and "flogging parson" for his use of the cat 'o nine tails for
its paupers (as assisted immigrants) to punishment. After Marsden was dealt with the rebels would
the other side of the world. pike the soldiers in their beds, take their muskets and
march on Sydney.
This view was shared by the anti-transportation leagues in
Australia. The plan was defeated by informants who gave Marsden
word of the insurrection. Once the population of Sydney,
Deportation to Australia: bound for Botany Bay Parramatta and Green Hills [Windsor] learned that the
planned uprising included pikes, the population went
In 1799 the penal colony in Sydney received its first Irish hysterical in their fear of the Irish convicts. When the
political prisoners with the arrival of the Minerva. This leaders of the rebellion learnt they had been betrayed they
transport ship contained amongst the Irish rebels; Joseph quickly cancelled the uprising. Governor Hunter led an
Holt[7] and James Harrold. Many of the United Irishmen on inquiry into the insurrection in which Marsden in his typical
the Minerva were sent off to the dreaded Norfolk Island in manner over-zealously pursued the issue of the hidden
an attempt to disperse them. Joseph Holt had struck up a pikes.
friendship with the land owner, William Cox, on the ship
and was given a job managing Cox's Dundas farm in Marsden threatened the Irish Catholic preacher, James
western Sydney. Harrold, on the issue of the location of the pikes. Harrold
sent Marsden on several wild goose chases until finally he
The arrival of the Irish rebels posed problems for the New gave up the name of a supposed pike-maker, Bryan Furey.
South Wales Governor Hunter. Many of those deported Furey denied making the pikes but later told Marsden that
from Ireland had been leaders in the United Irishmen and in Harrold had contacted him to make some fake ones to get
the Wexford battles. To Governor Hunter it was a matter of Marsden off Harrold's back. Marsden eventually sent
time before those same leaders raised seditious thoughts in Harrold to the feared Norfolk Island and Furey to gaol
the wider and predominantly English convict population. despite any evidence linking them to the pikes.
Hunter was wise to worry; in 1800 just six months after the
arrival of the a new rebellion was being planned on the !!!!!!!!!!! 23
government farm at Toongabbie.

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Joseph Holt had been implicated as a leader in the attempt to get information out of them. Holt and Harrold
rebellion but without substantial proof of his involvement he were still being detained from the previous insurrection.
was spared the lash as was Harrold. As a form of Marsden made Holt and Harrold watch the floggings. Holt's
punishment for their suspected complicitness with the account of the two Irishmen receiving five hundred lashes
rebels both Holt and Harrold were made to watch the from the cat are particularly horrific:
lashings of other suspected rebels.
The place they flogged them their arms pulled
Another major attempted insurrection around a large tree and their breasts squeezed
against the trunk so the men had no power to
The failed insurrection of August and the shipping off of the cringe ... There was two floggers, Richard Rice
suspected Irish leaders to remote parts of the colony did and John Johnson the Hangman from Sydney.
not dampen the convict population’s enthusiasm for Rice was left-handed man and Johnson was
organised rebellion. In September of 1800 another right-handed, so they stood at each side, and I
insurrection was planned. This one was to use the pikes never saw two threchers in a barn move their
that hadn't been found from the August attempt. The rebels strokes more handier than those two man-killers
were to assemble at Parramatta on a Sunday morning did. ...
when the local authorities and hierarchies would be in
Church service. There the rebels would overpower the I [Holt] was to the leeward of the floggers ... I was
soldiers and then march on Sydney. two perches from them. The flesh and skin blew in
my face as it shook off the cats. Fitzgerald
The leaders used an escaped convict, John Lewis, to send received his 300 lashes. Doctor Mason - I will
messages from farm to farm. Unfortunately Lewis was never forget him - he used to go feel his pulse,
captured, gaoled and eventually talked of the rebellion. and he smiled, and said: "This man will tire you
From the information Lewis gave, Captain John MacArthur before he will fail - Go on." ... During this time
of the New South Wales Corps[9] received a shakily written [Fitzgerald] was getting his punishment he never
letter that relayed that a “croppie” uprising was about to gave so much as a word - only one, and that was
occur. MacArthur's advice to the Governor was to wait for saying, "Don't strike me on the neck, flog me fair."
the convicts to rebel and once they were out in the open
deal with them. The rebel leaders learnt of their plan being When he was let loose, two of the constables
discovered and halted their operations. went and took hold of him by the arms to keep
him in the cart. I was standing by. [H]e said to
In reprisal the New South Wales Corps gaoled the them, "Let me go." He struck both of them with
ringleaders. Marsden once again zealously set about trying his elbows in the pit of the stomach and knocked
to discover the hidden pikes. Two Irish convicts suspected them both down, and then stepped in the cart. I
of making and hiding pikes were Maurice Fitzgerald and
Paddy Gavin. Marsden unlawfully flogged them both in an !!!!!!!!!!! 24

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FIGURE 1.16 music from me so." They put him in the cart and
sent him to the Hospital.

Several more informants came forward, including one who
named the still gaoled Bryan Furey as a pike-maker. From
the increasing information the New South Wales Corps was
able to round up the ringleaders. These included William
Silk, Micheal Quintan, Maurice Wood, John Burke and
Thomas Brannon. They were punished with a thousand
lashes and then, in an effort to isolate them from the
general convict population, they were sentenced to hard
labour on the hulk Supply which was wallowing in Sydney
Harbour. The remainder of the rebels that were rounded up
were given either five hundred or two hundred lashes.

More rebellion and insurrection uncovered

Viewed 6 November 2013. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ 1801 brought the transport ship Ann to Sydney which had
File:Vinegar_Hill_1.jpg sixty-nine United Irishmen out of one hundred and seventy
eight convicts on board. Governor King was disturbed as
heard Dr. Mason say that man had enough the rebel leaders from the previous rebellions had been
strength to bear 200 more. uncovered and sent to remote parts of the colony. The
arrival of the Ann promised another group of United
Next was tied up Paddy Galvin, a young boy Irishmen leaders that would cause problems in the convict
about 20 years of age. He was ordered to get 300 population. That the Ann had survived a convict mutiny
lashes. He got one hundred on the back, and you enroute with the mutineers crying "death or liberty" only
could see his backbone between his shoulder reinforced King's view.
blades. Then the Doctor ordered him to get
another hundred on his bottom. He got it, and There was a positive to the year of 1801 for the Governor.
then his haunches were in such a jelly that the The Ann had brought the news that Britain and Ireland had
Doctor ordered him to be flogged on the calves of united. King hoped that the Irish convicts would feel
his legs. He got one hundred there and as much empathy with Great Britain now and accept their fate in
as a whimper he never gave. They asked him if he Australia. This was a forlorn hope. The Irish political
would tell where the pikes were hid. He said he prisoners had been fighting against English rule for several
did not know, and would not tell. "You may as well years. They also wanted to go home and the main
hang me now," he said, "for you never will get any opponent in their way to getting home was the British
authorities in Sydney and Parramatta.

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Within the next year four more rebellion plots were rebellion plan, new Irish leaders rose amongst the convicts
uncovered. All were foiled by informants in the convict more knowledgeable on what not to do next time.
population. Two of the plots involved escaping by ship,
either by seizing a ship or seeking passage on a French The leaders of the 4 March 1804 rebellion were Phillip
ship. The Governor maintained such a fear of the convicts Cunningham and William Johnston. Cunningham was a
escaping by sea such that even in 1804 with word of a veteran of the 1798 conflict in Ireland and the mutiny of the
possible convict uprising, several American ships were sent convict transport ship Ann. From his experiences in Ireland
out of Sydney Harbour on the orders of Governor King. It and New South Wales he understood that secrecy and a
was suspected by King that the American ships would be non-traceable trail of communication were the most
sympathetic to the rebelling Irish convicts. needed aspects of a successful rebellion.

In 1803 there were still outstanding issues for the Irish Cunningham's rigour in secrecy was so successful that it
convicts. The idents which described the term the wasn't until the day before the rebellion that the New South
prisoners were to remain exiled in New South Wales still Wales Corps knew there was a rebellion planned. On the
had not arrived from England. Until the idents arrived all evening of March 3rd one of the Irish convict overseers
Irish prisoners were stuck in the penal colony. There turned informant. On Sunday March 4th, the day of the
continued to be escape attempts by convicts both English rebellion, two more informants came forward and this time
and Irish. Inevitably the escapees would raid nearby farms named names. John Griffen was one of the informants and
for liquor and firearms.[10] had been relaying a message to the pike-maker Bryan
Furey that the rebellion was on for Sunday night. Since
The initial success of the 1804 rebellion Furey did not get the message the areas of Sydney,
Parramatta and Windsor did not rebel. Castle Hill was the
The colony at Sydney was not self-sufficient in food and only district that rose in rebellion.
was dependent upon food being brought in from England.
In an effort to remove this dependency Governor King Despite this intelligence, the authorities in Parramatta and
expanded the government farm at Castle Hill. By 1804 Sydney did not act and on the evening of March 4 1804,
there were 474 convicts on the farm. This was a significant John Cavenah set fire to his hut in Castle Hill at 9.00 pm.
concentration of convicts. Governor King had relented the This was the signal for the rebellion to begin. With
previous year by allowing the Roman Catholic clergyman Cunningham leading, 200 rebels broke into the government
Father James Dixon to preach mass to the Irish. This gave farm's buildings, taking firearms, ammunition and other
the Irish rebel leaders a sanctioned place to get together weapons.
and discuss plans.
Initially there was pandemonium as buildings were
By 1804 most of the Irish leaders of the previous attempts ransacked to cries of "Death or Liberty". Two English
at rebellion had been imprisoned and sent off to outlying convicts dragged the Hills District flogger, Robert Duggan,
areas of the colony such as Norfolk Island. Dispersal had from under his bed. The English convict, George
worked well for the colony authorities but with each new Harrington, beat the flogger unconscious. A constable was

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saved from a musket ball in the face when the musket of Cunningham's plan involved torching the MacArthur
John Brannon misfired. Another constable was saved in property of "Elizabeth Farm" in order to draw the
similar circumstances when Jonathon Place's musket also Parramatta garrison out of the town. Once this was done
misfired. the rebels in Parramatta would rise up and set fire to the
town as a signal. The Castle Hill rebels would gather at
Cunningham gathered the rebels and dressed them down Constitution Hill and then raid the barracks for more arms
for the lack of disciplined behaviour. The rebels then went and ammunition. From there the rebels would march to
from farm to farm on their way to Constitution Hill at Windsor and join up with the rebels in the Hawkesbury
Parramatta gathering firearms, supplies and drinking any before marching on Sydney.
liquor they found. The looting of farms gave the rebels over
180 swords, muskets and pistols. In 1804 this was close to At dawn on the 5 March rebels were still straggling in to
one third of the colony's entire armoury. Constitution Hill. Phillip Cunningham and William Johnston
were busy drilling the rebels on the hill while they were
The rebel march to Constitution Hill waiting for the signal from the uprising rebels in Parramatta.
The signal never came. Cunningham's messages to the
Within an hour of Cavenah firing his hut word had got to Parramatta and Windsor rebels had never gotten through.
Parramatta of the rebellion and by 11.00 pm Governor King Cunningham decided rather than to face the garrison head
in Sydney was aware of the situation. The air in Parramatta on, that the rebels would head down the Hawkesbury Road
and Sydney was soon full of drums and gun shots as the [the current Old Windsor Road and Windsor Road] to
military and militia were called to duty. In Parramatta. Windsor to meet up with the rebels from the Hawkesbury.
Samuel Marsden evacuated the town by boat with his and
John MacArthur's family. Marsden was an obvious target The Australian battle of Vinegar Hill
as his tyranny and penchant for flogging had earnt the
enmity of a good number of convicts. Major Johnston's group of twenty nine New South Wales
Corps soldiers and fifty members of the "Active Defence"
In Sydney Major George Johnston[11] rounded up a New militia [12] pursued the rebels through Toongabbie and
South Wales Corps contingent of twenty-nine soldiers and Sugar Loaf Hill until the soldiers were only a few miles away
force-marched them through the night to Parramatta. from the rebels. Major Johnston sent Father Dixon to the
Governor King immediately set off for Parramatta where rebels in an effort to have Dixon convince the rebels to
one of his first actions was to declare martial law. From the surrender. Mainly Johnston wanted Father Dixon to slow
Sydney Gazette: the rebels down so his foot soldiers could make up the few
miles difference.
I do therefore proclaim the Districts of Parramatta,
Castle Hill, Toongabbie, Prospect, Seven and When Father Dixon failed to halt the rebels, Major Johnston
Baulkham Hills, Hawkesbury and Nepean to be in and Trooper Anlezark rode to the rebels to have them take
a STATE of REBELLION; and to establish Martial the Governor’s offer of clemency. After Major Johnston
Law throughout those Districts.
!!!!!!!!!!! 27
UWSCollege Pty Ltd! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

challenged the rebel leaders to come forward, Phillip Finally, when the major asked them [the
Cunningham and William Johnston separated from the two rebel leaders] what they really wanted,
hundred and thirty three rebels and spoke with the Major. It Cunningham replied “death or
was agreed that Major Johnston would bring back Father liberty'”adding (according to one
Dixon to talk with them again. account) the very practical request
This delay had given enough time for the New South Wales “and a ship to take us home”.
Corps soldiers and militia to catch up to the rebels. When
Major Johnston and Trooper Anlezark returned with Father With these words Major Johnston held a pistol to William
Dixon they knew that their troops were not far behind and Johnston's head and ordered him to move toward the
acted accordingly. Once again Phillip Cunningham and soldiers and militia which had appeared over the rise.
William Johnston walked out to meet them while the rebels Anlezark did the same with Cunningham. Lynette Ramsey
formed ranks behind them. Lynette Ramsey Silver writes of Silver writes of the start of the battle:
the final confrontation between the rebel leaders and Major
Johnston: Major Johnston without any other
preliminaries, ordered his men to
FIGURE 1.17 Vinegar Hill Memorial at Rouse Hill charge and open fire. Over fifty armed
civilians, a mounted trooper, and 29
Viewed 6 January 2014. <http://bit.ly/19LylLv>. military men (26 of whom were capable
of firing 780 prepared rounds of
UWSCollege Pty Ltd! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ammunition in 10 to 15 minutes), were
pitted against 233 rebels. The odds
were technically with the rebels, but it
was Enniscorthy's Vinegar Hill all over
again. With machine like precision and
the economy of movement that comes
with practice and military training, the
red-coated soldiers formed ranks and
for 15 minutes carried out their duty
precisely as ordered. Leaderless,
caught completely unawares and totally
unprepared, the rebels weakly returned
the fire before fleeing in all directions.

The rebels were not as well armed nor as well trained as
the New South Wales Corps soldiers. After the battle
several prisoners were murdered by the soldiers and militia.

!!!!!!!!!!! 28

Major Johnston rescued the lives of several rebels by their bodies to be hung in chains. Lynette Ramsey Silver
threatening his troops with his pistol. In the distraction of all writes:
the firing William Johnston escaped his captors’ attention
and fled into the bush. There are very old legends about the two
“hanging trees” at Toongabbie. .. one on
Cunningham was not so lucky and was struck by the sword Toongabbie Hill and the other by Johnston's
of the burly quartermaster, Thomas Laycock. Cunningham Bridge. It is probable that the body of
fell to the ground unmoving. He was assumed dead and left Samuel Humes was hanged on one of these
behind as the soldiers rounded up the rebels. Amazingly two trees. The Johnston's Bridge site is
Cunningham survived the blow and was picked up by favoured, as it was by the main road to the
soldiers the next day. In the official reports that followed the Hawkesbury and right in the centre of the
battle neither Major Johnston’s actions nor Laycock's were Government Ground. ....

mentioned. During the short battle fifteen rebels had fallen.

.... The body of Johnston was hanged in a
The aftermath: hangings and floggings small hollow on the road to Prospect where
the road climbs from Parramatta and then
Governor King’s retribution for the rebellion was swift as he descends, shortly after leaving the township.
believed that the leaders had caused the others to follow.
King believed that punishing the leaders heavily and quickly There were nine executed including the three above.
would pacify the convicts who had followed the rebel Charles Hill and Jonathon Place were hanged at
leaders. There were a considerable number of English Parramatta, John Neale and George Harrington were
convicts involved as well as free men like Charles Hill. hanged at Castle Hill while John Brannan and Timothy
King's decision meant that most of the rebels were let off. Hogan were hanged in Sydney. Many of the remaining
This was most likely a pragmatic decision as the captured leaders were flogged with either five hundred or two
rebels were still needed to work the government farm. hundred lashes and then sent to the new colony at Coal
River [Newcastle]. Father Dixon for his perceived part in the
Phillip Cunningham was quickly hanged from the staircase rebellion was made to put his hands on the raw and
of the public store at Windsor on the 6 March. The rest of bloodied backs of the rebels flogged at Sydney as a grizzly
the leaders were brought before a judicial panel. William reminder.
Johnston who had surrendered to the authorities plead
guilty. John Neale admitted he was in the rebel group. Gaoling and exile
Jonathon Place denied all charges and the rest claimed
they had been forced to participate in the rebellion. William Finally the "United Irishman", Joseph Holt, and "The
Johnston and Samuel Humes as leaders in the rebellion Scottish Martyr", Maurice Margarot, were arrested on
were ordered to be hanged in a public place and then for suspicion of involvement. Holt had successfully skirted the
issue of his involvement in each insurrection and rebellion
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!!!!!!!!!!! 29

to this point. He had managed to survive without being Wales governors dealt with the Irish leaders. Robert
exiled to Norfolk Island but this time his luck was to run Hughes writes on the view of the Irish by the New South
out. Holt was ultimately held partly culpable for the Wales authorities:
rebellion. It is still not known if he was involved in the
rebellion, Silver wrote on Holt's involvement: The Irish, on arriving in Australia, were treated
as a special class. As bearers of Jacobin
Holt was kept in gaol before being packed contagion, as ideologically and physically
off to Norfolk Island on 19 April, on the dangerous traitors, they were oppressed with
instructions of the magistrates who decided special vigilance and unusually hard
that, although there was insufficient punishments. They formed Australia's first
evidence to convict him of treason before a white minority. From the outset, the Irish in
criminal court, “the tranquility of the colony” Australia saw themselves as a doubly
required such a measure. On the balance of colonized people.
probabilities it seems that the slippery
Joseph Holt had once again escaped the At the magistrate level, Samuel Marsden's zeal for the lash
attentions of the executioner. was often used with little respect for English common law.
The New South Wales Corps practised a brand of
Margarot also joined Holt in exile at Norfolk Island. Other cronyism. Monopolising the rum trade and consolidating a
suspected seditionists in the Sydney colony that were not great deal of land and stock wealth with their officers[13].
openly involved in the rebellion were also sent to Norfolk Robert Hughes writes on the New South Wales Corps’
Island without proof of their involvement. attitude to convicts:

Reasons for convict rebellion Their [New South Wales Corps] junta
mentality fostered two assumptions. The first
Unlike the Eureka Stockade which achieved a Chartist was that none of them ... believed that naval
agenda, or the "Blood on the Wattle" stand-off in 1932 governors were ever on their side. The
against increasing federal oversight, there was no claim second was that the convicts were there to be
made by the rebels of 1804 to a higher order of liberty. The used, not reformed. Both caused a rapid
words, "Death or Liberty" popularised by the firebrand hardening of attitudes against convicts, the
orator, Patrick Henry in 1775 were heard several times lumpenproletariat of New South Wales. The
during the rebellion. But the rebels made no greater claim New South Wales Corps stiffly resisted any
to liberty. effort to criticize, or even inspect, its
treatment of convicts.
There was undoubted tyranny in the New South Wales
colony. There was also discrimination from the Georgian While the New South Wales Corps, Marsden and the
view of the criminal underclass and Irish underclass. This Governor were targets of the rebellion they weren't the
was especially true in the manner in which the New South
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ultimate focus of the rebellion. This lack of focus makes the Road and along Windsor Road. There have been
rebellion appear as a knee-jerk reaction to the convicts competing thoughts for the location of Vinegar Hill.
being exiled half a planet away from their home and under Originally it was thought to be Rouse Hill but Australian
the tough and rough conditions of the penal colony, a historian, George Mackanass, challenged this in the 1950s.
situation where their incorrigibleness was uniformly Marking the location of Vinegar Hill as the crossroads
assumed and their lack of dignity guaranteed by their between Windsor Road and Schofields Road. In the 1980s
treatment. several other local historians came to the same conclusion
as did the NSW Commissioner for the Department of
Many of the convicts wanted a ship home, away from this Planning and the Environment in 1982.
harsh, hot, alien land with its odd plants and animals. Away
from their convict life and the immediate colonial Lynette Ramsay Silver points to the letter of Major
authorities. The Irish in particular attempted many escapes Johnston which talks of his troops turning at the
with the hope of catching or stealing a ship to the green “government stock fence” to the second hill from Half Way
and cold Ireland. Lynette Ramsey Silver concludes that a Pond. By her reckoning the government stock fence is
ship home was the main focus of the rebellion. where Old Windsor Road and Windsor Road meet today
and Old Ponds Creek is known today as Second Ponds
Carol Carruthers, Curator of the Hawkesbury Museum has Creek. To Silver the location of the battle is approximately
an alternative view. The Irish leaders did not see English at the crossroads of Schofields Road and Windsor Road.
authority as legitimate in Ireland and were not prepared to Silver writes:
recognise its legitimacy in Australia either. To the Irish
Defenders and the United Irishmen, all English authority The area occupied by Castlebrook Lawn
was illegitimate, unjust and their natural state was to resist Cemetery satisfies the criteria in every respect.
it. The actions of the Irish political prisoners between 1800
and 1804 are consistent with this world view. In 1988 a sculpture commemorating the battle was
dedicated at Castlebrook Lawn Cemetery by former
Ongoing debate over the location of Vinegar Hill Australian Prime Minister Gough Whitlam.

Vinegar Hill was not a formal location in 1804. The battle The clash between the convict past and popular
between the rebels and the soldiers became commonly Australian history
known as the "Battle of Vinegar Hill" after the Irish battle in
1798. Common usage of the name Vinegar Hill began to Australia's convict past was referred to in the nineteenth
appear in the 1810s and 1830s in the Rouse Hill area. But century as "The Stain" and something to be forgotten or
there is no formal Vinegar Hill on a map. danced around in polite conversation. This leads to a
polarising view of recent Australian history of either
The road the rebels and soldiers travelled in 1804 was the complete loyalty or the stamp of rebellion. Those that want
Hawkesbury Road. This is the modern day four lane to forget point to the crown, "mother England" and
highway from Seven Hills roundabout, down Old Windsor Australia's loyalty to Britain in World War One and Two.

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Those that want to include the convicts and rebellion in exiled to and the downtrodden life they suffered at the
Australia's popular history are tagged with the "confused hands of the colonial authorities. Their goals included
Irish social view" or in other words, the stain. escape from convict labour, the over throwing of the
colonial authorities in Sydney, Parramatta and Windsor.
It is also hard for modern Australians to identify with the Finally their goals included escape from the New South
Irish rebels or the colonial authorities. Neither group evokes Wales penal colony by ship.
any sort of Australian-ness as a modern Australian would
define it. The modern Australian popular image is of the The 1804 Rebellion is often called by Australian historians
power of the bush, epitomised in the bronzed Aussie. an Irish rebellion or "Australia's Irish rebellion". This is
Ireland is a place half a world away and the authorities in misleading as the group of rebels on Vinegar Hill included
Australia were far too zealous with the cat 'o nine tails for convicts and free men of many nationalities. Of the leaders
modern Australians to have any empathy with such hanged, several were English convicts. It is true however
brutality. that the Irish convicts were punished more heavily for the
rebellion than the English convicts.
The fact remains that Australian history has a great deal of
open resistance to authority, from the Aboriginal wars when The 1804 Rebellion and Vinegar Hill battle in western
Australians fought to keep their land, to the 1804 Rebellion, Sydney are relatively unknown in Australia. As are the other
to the Eureka Stockade and the 1932 face-off between Australian rebellions such as the Aboriginal wars, the Rum
NSW and the Commonwealth. These historical events are Rebellion, the Eureka Stockade, and NSW facing off with
an integral part of Australian history and deserve not be the Commonwealth in 1932. There is a definite
forgotten or brushed-off because they are unfashionable or unwillingness in Australian popular history to revisit the
might make Australia look bad or disloyal. Fortunately this moments when Australians stood for their freedom and
attitude exists less and less as Australia a nation becomes said, "No more".
more comfortable with its self-image.
This neglect of Australian history over the last two centuries
Conclusion has led to the actual location of Vinegar Hill being largely
lost to memory. Several historians have attempted to
The sending of Irish political prisoners changed the New reconstruct the location where the rebels met the soldiers
South Wales colony. Previously the governor and and militia and there is some agreement that the location is
authorities only had to watch over ruffians rather than Castlebrook Cemetery. However there is no universal
hardened Irishmen that did not see English authority as agreement on this location.
legitimate no matter which continent it was claimed or
wielded. As this rebellion occurred in Sydney's western suburbs the
locations are easily sought out. To travel the path of the
The Irish and other convicts conspired to be free of the rebels and soldiers only a quick trip down Old Windsor
brutal tedium of convict life and the harshness of convict Road to Windsor Road and past the new Ettamogah pub is
discipline. Freedom from the alien continent they had been
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needed. There you can decide for yourself, from the road and the land, where the two forces stood 90 yards apart and fired
their muskets.

Footnotes

[1.] There is debate on when humans came to the Australian continent. Archaeological diggings in the Blue Mountains
suggest that the Daruk people may have been there as long ago as 100,000 years. Other sites in Tasmania suggest that there
has been human habitation on the island since the Ice Ages.

[2.] The Aboriginal people of Sydney were the Iora whose territory ran from Pittwater to Botany Bay. The Daruk people
occupied the territory from the northern mouth of the Hawkesbury River down through Windsor and up into the Blue
Mountains. The Aboriginal people south of Botany Bay were the Tarawal.

[3.] Britain prior to the American War of Independence had shipped convicts to the colonies in North America. By 1776 the
southern colonies were moving to slave labour rather than convict labour. Slave labour was more plentiful and cheaper for the
plantation owners.

[4.] A hulk was a rotting, mast-less old man-o'-war or troop transport that was anchored in a port or harbour. Since they were
plentiful in southern English ports and were afloat they were pressed into use as a temporary residence for convicts that had
been chosen for transportation. Since between 1776 and 1788 those convicts that were to be transported had nowhere to be
transported to, the hulks grew in number and population, to the point where they were health hazards for the port towns.

[5.] Between 1788 and 1868 there were 825 shiploads of convicts sent to Australia resulting in approximately 148,000
convicts being transported to Australia. The final shipload of convicts to New South Wales was in 1840. The final shipload to
Van Diemen’s Land was in 1853 and the final shipload to Western Australia was in 1868.

[6.] The list of political prisoners sent to Australia is a who's who of nineteenth century political groups. The political prisoners
were not limited to the Irish. They encompassed dissenters from Scotland, England, Wales, Canada and South Africa. These
included:

Irish political prisoner groups shipped included the Defenders in 1794 and the United Irishmen in 1800. Ireland political
groups transported to Australia between 1815 and 1840 included the Caravets, Carders, Whiteboys, Rightboys, Hearts of
Steel and Ribbon Men.

The Scottish political groups sent to Australia included the Scottish Martyrs in 1794 and the Radical Weavers in 1820.

The English political groups sent to Australia included the Luddites in 1812, the East Anglian food rioters in 1816, those in
the Pentrich Rising of 1817, the Cato Street Conspirators in 1820, the Yorkshire Radical Weavers in 1821, the Bristol
Rioters in 1831, the Welsh rioters in 1835, Swing rioters and machine breakers in 1830, the Tolpuddle Martyrs in 1834 and
numerous Chartists between 1839 and 1848.

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South Africa deported many blacks between 1828 and 1834 who were not political prisoners but had transgressed the

racist South African laws.

Canada had two uprisings between 1837 and 1838 both republican in nature. These occurred in Quebec and Ontario

against the colonial administration. One hundred and fifty three Canadian and American dissidents were sent to Australia.

The US government protested the exiling of the US citizens but were unsuccessful in stopping them being sent to Van

Diemen’s Land.

[7.] Joseph Holt was born in Ireland in 1756 and became a tenant farmer. He joined the United Irishmen when the Fermanagh
Militia burned his house down at the order of the landlord, Thomas Hugo. Holt fought in the Wexford County rebellion before
successfully leading a rebel guerrilla group in Wicklow County. Eventually Holt came to the conclusion that it was in his
interests to surrender in order to get the best terms he could for himself and his wife. This led to exile in the colony of New
South Wales. After the 1804 Rebellion in Castle Hill he was exiled again to Norfolk Island and then Tasmania. He returned to
Sydney and was given a land grant in order to farm. Holt was granted a pardon in 1809 before returning to Ireland in 1812. He
wrote a personal account of the rebellions in Wicklow and New South Wales which has been published many times. This was
edited into "Rebellion in Wicklow" in 1838. He died in 1826.

[8.] Samuel Marsden was born near Leeds in 1764. Initially Marsden joined the Methodist Church but later changed
denomination and joined the Church of England. He was ordained in 1794 and travelled to New South Wales as the chaplain.
He was to remain the colony's only
chaplain until 1831. Samuel
Marsden is best known in popular
Australian history as the "flogging
parson" for his manner in handing
out sentences as the magistrate for
the colony. In his later years he also
travelled to New Zealand seven
times in an effort to convert the
Maori people to Christianity. He
died in 1838 at St Matthews
Rectory.

[9.] John MacArthur was born in
Devonshire in 1767. MacArthur as a
lieutenant was sent to the New
South Wales colony where he
quickly established himself as the

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paymaster for the New South Wales Corps. When the US ship, the Hope came into Sydney Harbour demanding inflated
prices for its badly needed goods and the warning it wouldn't sell anything until all its rum was purchased, MacArthur used
regiment funds to buy it. From then on the "Rum Corps" monopolised the import trade. MacArthur established the massive
60,000 acre Camden Park based on the sheep and wool trade. MacArthur established the sheep industry in Australia
including importing the Spanish Merino breed in 1796. MacArthur was the main benefactor of the "Rum Rebellion" in 1808.
Governor William Bligh of "Mutiny on the Bounty" fame, gaoled MacArthur in an attempt to control the Rum Corps but the
New South Wales Corps overthrew Bligh and MacArthur and the Rum Corps ran the colony as a military junta for several
years until the arrival of Governor Lachlan Macquarie. It is commonly construed by modern historians that MacArthur's wife
Elizabeth was the brains behind their successful farming business and operation. John MacArthur died in 1834.

[10]. In February of 1803 thirteen convicts escaped from a farm at Castle Hill and raided the farm of Verincourt de Flambe for
liqour, silverware and firearms. Two of the convicts, Patrick Gannan and Francis Simpson went on to the farmhouse of James
Bean and raped his seventeen year old daughter. Gannon and Simpson were captured two days later asleep in the bush.

[11]. Major George Johnston was born in 1764 in Scotland. He joined the Royal Marines at the age of 12 before being
transferred to the New South Wales Corps in 1792. One of George Johnston's claims to fame is that he was the first person in
the first fleet to set foot in Australia. The convict, James Ruse, disputes this claim as he carried Johnston to shore on his back
as Johnston didn't want to get his boots wet. After putting down the 1804 rebellion Johnston received a grant of 2,000 acres
from Governor King. In 1808 Johnston was the Rum Corps officer who arrested Governor William Bligh and took the rank of
Lieutenant-Governor in the military junta run by John MacArthur. When he returned to England to plead his case in the mutiny
he lost his rank and was saved from execution by the words of former Governor Hunter. He returned to New South Wales in
1813 and became a successful farmer. He died in 1823.

[12]. Sydney and Parramatta also raised militias to defend the towns from the rebels. Neither of these forces took part in the
Battle of Vinegar Hill. The "Parramatta Loyalists" militia numbered thirty six and remained in Parramatta. The "Sydney
Loyalists" did not march with Major Johnston and remained in Sydney during the rebellion.

[13]. The New South Wales Corps through control of the rum trade, control of imports and its officers’ cronyism accrued a
large percentage of the colony’s wealth. In 1799 the New South Wales Corps officers owned 32% of the cattle, 40% of the
goats, 59% of the horses and 77% of the sheep.

References

1. The Fatal Shore. The Epic of Australia's Founding. Robert Hughes, 1986.

2. The Battle of Vinegar Hill. Australia's Irish Rebellion. Lynette Ramsay Silver, 2002.

3. The Great Republic of the Southern Seas. Republicans in Nineteenth Century Australia. Audrey Oldfield, 1999.

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FIGURE 1.18 Vinegar Hill Plates

This is the only known drawing of the Battle of
Vinegar Hill. It is intended to be read clockwise from
the centre. Up the top at the centre Father Dixon is
asking the rebels to surrender. On the far right a rebel
is saying, "Death or Liberty Major". Major George
Johnston replies, "You scoundrel. I'll liberate you!”
The next captions are Trooper Anlezark and William
Johnston. To the left is Quartermaster Laycock
slicing Phillip Cunningham with a sword.

FIGURE 1.19 Aurasma FIGURE 1.20 Chapter

App download 1: QR Code

Viewed 6 November 2013. http://www.hawkesburyhistory.net.au/articles/ Open up app search for
Battle_of_Vinegar.html
UWSCollege channel and
Aurasma App
scan the picture of
download
Vinegar Hill. An

augmented video will

begin that depicts what is

thought to be modern day

Vinegar Hill.

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FIGURE 1.21 Windsor as seen from Wilberforce by Student activity 6 FIGURE 1.24 Student
G.W. Evans in 180 activity 6
1. Using the OCMAR outline,
evaluate the text The 1804
Australian Rebellion and
Battle of Vinegar Hill and
the content of the You
Tube presentation.

2. Analyse the theme(s),
content and writer’s intent
in both of the texts.

FIGURE 1.22 YouTube: FIGURE 1.23 YouTube:
Vinegar Hill Vinegar Hill: QR Code

Viewed 6 November 2013. http://www.hawkesburyhistory.net.au/articles/ http://youtu.be/0xgni8pHY-g
Battle_of_Vinegar.html

This is a painting of Windsor as seen from Wilberforce by
G.W. Evans in 1809. The painting is called "View of Green
Hill". Across the Hawkesbury River can be seen the
location where the Windsor Bridge is now. Also visible at
the top of the hill is Thompsons Corner. The Macquarie
Arms occupies this site now. It was built in 1817. Phillip
Cunningham was hanged from the staircase on the white
building. Inset is an enlarged image of the staircase.

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The 1808 “Rum Rebellion”

Source: Viewed 4 December 2013, <http://www.sl.nsw.gov.au/discover_collections/history_nation/terra_australis/rebellion/>.

FIGURE 1.25 Viewed 6 November 2013. http://www.sl.nsw.gov.au/discover_collections/history_nation/ On 26th January 1808, officers and men of
terra_australis/rebellion/ the New South Wales Corps marched to
Government House in Sydney in an act of
First Government House, Sydney. ca. 1807, by John Eyre, Watercolour drawing rebellion against Governor William Bligh.
SV/31 Bligh was arrested and the colony was
placed under military rule. This was the
only time in Australian history that a
government was overthrown by a military
coup.

The military stayed in power for two years
until Lachlan Macquarie, the fifth Governor
of NSW, assumed office at the beginning of
1810. The overthrow of Bligh much later
became known as the “Rum Rebellion”
because the NSW Corps was heavily
involved in the trade in rum in the colony
and was nicknamed the ‘“Rum Corps”. The
term “Rum Rebellion”was not used at the
time. The factors leading up to Bligh’s
arrest had much less to do with the rum
trade and much more to do with a battle for
power between the military and civil elites
of the colony and the governor.

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A governor representing the British government ruled the farm produce, which they could sell at a profit. Before the
penal colony of New South Wales. He took instruction from end of the 18th century, trading ships were already calling
the government in London and was responsible for in at Sydney Cove, knowing that the remoteness of the
implementing government policy and maintaining order in colony meant good business. The early governors bought
the Colony. The officers and men of the New South Wales some of the goods to replenish the government stores and
Corps were stationed in the colony to support the allowed the military to purchase and market the rest,
governor.  Many of the men in the New South Wales Corps effectively allowing them to monopolise trade within the
were recruited from the unemployed in Britain though many town.
were skilled, victims of the Industrial Revolution. New
South Wales was a long way from home, and quick Note and coin money was in short supply, so a complex
promotion, good wages and the opportunity to engage in barter system developed which was controlled by those
trade alongside their military duties induced ambitious men who had access to goods — particularly food, clothing and
to sign up. alcohol. Convicts and lower ranking military were regularly
Officers were also rewarded by early governors with large paid in goods, rather than money, and the most popular
land grants and were assigned convict labour, which form of payment was rum. The NSW Corps’ involvement in
allowed them to build comfortable homes and cultivate this system led to its nickname in the 1790s — the Rum
Corps.
FIGURE 1.26 Sydney 1808: Image explorer
Some of the officers in the Corps, like John Macarthur,
Viewed 6 January 2014. <http://bit.ly/1azBN6s>. became powerful and wealthy citizens in the small colony.
UWSCollege Pty Ltd! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Macarthur was favoured with large land grants and other
privileges under Lieutenant-Governor Francis Grose. As
Officer-In-Charge of the NSW Corps, Grose had temporary
charge of the colony after Governor Phillip left and
appointed Macarthur to several official positions of
influence.

The power wielded by Macarthur and others lead to
clashes with the second and third governors, John Hunter
and Philip Gidley King, who tried to eradicate the military’s
monopoly on trade and crack down on drunkenness, but
too much money and power was at stake and they failed.
The next Governor was William Bligh, who arrived in the
colony in 1806. “Bounty” Bligh had a reputation for tough
leadership and the British Government hoped that he could
exert some control over the rum trade in Sydney.

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Student activity 7 Student activity 8
Find out more about the overthrow of Bligh.
1. Find out more about William Bligh and John Macarthur
and the other main players in the Rum Rebellion.

FIGURE 1.27 Browser: FIGURE 1.28 Browser: FIGURE 1.29 Browser FIGURE 1.30 Browser:
Link to William Bligh and William Blight and John link: Overthrow of Bligh Overthrow of Bligh:
John Macarthur Macarthur: QR Code QR code

Link to William Bligh and John http://bit.ly/1bJJ6bb
Macarthur

Bligh came into conflict almost immediately with John
Macarthur (who by this time was no longer a Corps officer)
over Macarthur's provisional land grant in the Cowpastures
and Bligh threatened to remove Macarthur from his prime
land. The animosity continued until Bligh had Macarthur
taken to trial over an incident involving one of Macarthur’s
trading ships. The jury of Corps Officers refused to
recognise the court and Bligh indicated that he intended to
charge them with treason. Commanding Officer of the NSW
Corps, George Johnston defended his men and claimed
that removing them from duties would compromise the
safety of the Colony. He claimed that Bligh needed to be
removed from office for everyone’s good.

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FIGURE 1.31 The overthrow of Bligh William Bligh

Early life

Born on September 9 1754 in Plymouth,
England, William Bligh was the son of
Francis and Jane Bligh. From an early
age Bligh was destined for a life at sea
as his parents enlisted him as a
"captain's servant" to Captain Keith
Stewart at the age of 7 years and 9
months. Sailing aboard HMS
Monmouth, this practice was fairly
common as it allowed youngsters to
quickly accrue the years of service
needed in order to take the exam for
lieutenant. Returning home in 1763, he
quickly proved himself gifted at
mathematics and navigation. After his
mother's death, he re-entered the navy
in 1770, at the age of 16.

Viewed 6 November 2013. http://www.sl.nsw.gov.au/discover_collections/history_nation/terra_australis/ Early career
rebellion/overthrow/index.html Though meant to be a midshipman,

Bligh was initially carried as an able

seaman as there were no midshipman vacancies on his ship, HMS Hunter. This soon changed and he received his

midshipman's warrant the following year and later served aboard HMS Crescent and HMS Ranger. Quickly becoming well

known for his navigation and sailing skills, Bligh was selected by explorer Captain James Cook to accompany his third

expedition to the Pacific in 1776. After sitting for his lieutenant's exam, Bligh accepted Cook's offer to be sailing master

aboard HMS Resolution. On May 1 1776 he was promoted to lieutenant.

Expedition to the Pacific

Departing in June 1776, Resolution and HMS Discovery sailed south and entered the Indian Ocean via the Cape of Good
Hope. During the voyage Bligh's leg was injured, but he quickly recovered. While crossing the southern Indian Ocean, Cook

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discovered a small island, which he named Bligh's Cap in recovering Resolution's foremast which had been taken
honor of his sailing master. Over the next year, Cook and ashore for repairs. With Cook dead, Captain Charles Clerke
his men touched at Tasmania, New Zealand, Tonga, Tahiti, of Discovery took command and a final attempt to find the
as well as explored the southern coast of Alaska and the Northwest Passage was attempted. Throughout the
Bering Strait. The purpose for his operations off Alaska was voyage, Bligh performed well and lived up to his reputation
a failed search for the Northwest Passage. as a navigator and a chart maker. The expedition returned
Returning south in 1778, Cook became the first European to England in 1780.
to visit Hawaii. He returned the following year and was
killed on the Big Island after an altercation with the Return to England
Hawaiians. During the fighting, Bligh was instrumental in
Returning home a hero, Bligh impressed his superiors with
FIGURE 1.32 Travel of Bligh's boat (green). Bligh's party his performance in the Pacific. On February 4, 1781, he
set adrift (29 April 1789), Tonga, Timor (14 June 1789) married Elizabeth Betham, the daughter of a customs
collector. Ten days later, Bligh was assigned to HMS Belle
Viewed 6 November 2013. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bligh Poule as sailing master. That August, he saw action against
the Dutch at the Battle of Dogger Bank. After the battle he
was made a lieutenant on HMS Berwick. Over the next two
years he saw regular service at sea until the end of the
American War of Independence forced him onto the
inactive list. Unemployed, Bligh served as a captain in the
merchant service between 1783 and 1787.

Voyage of the Bounty

In 1787, Bligh was selected as the commander of His
Majesty's Armed Vessel Bounty and given the mission of
sailing to the South Pacific to collect breadfruit trees. It was
believed that these trees could be transplanted to the
Caribbean to provide inexpensive food for slaves in British
colonies. Departing December 27 1787 Bligh attempted to
enter the Pacific via Cape Horn. After a month of trying, he
turned and sailed east around the Cape of Good Hope. The
voyage to Tahiti proved smooth and few punishments were
given to the crew. As Bounty was rated as a cutter, Bligh
was the only officer on board.

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To permit his men longer periods of uninterrupted sleep, he was honorably acquitted for the loss of Bounty and records
divided the crew into three watches. In addition, he raised show him to have been a compassionate commander who
Master's Mate Fletcher Christian to the rank of acting frequently spared the lash.
lieutenant so that he could oversee one of the watches.
The delay off Cape Horn led to a five-month delay in Tahiti Subsequent career
as they had to wait for the breadfruit trees to mature
enough to transport. Over this period, naval discipline In 1791, Bligh returned to Tahiti aboard HMS Providence to
began to break down as the crew took native wives and complete the breadfruit mission. The plants were
enjoyed the island's warm sun. At one point, three successfully delivered to the Caribbean without any
crewmen attempted to desert but were captured. Though trouble. Five years later, Bligh was promoted to captain and
they were punished, it was less severe than recommended. given command of HMS Director. While aboard, his crew
mutinied as part of the greater Spithead and Nore mutinies
Mutiny which occurred over the Royal Navy's handling of pay and
prize money. Standing by his crew, Bligh was commended
In addition to the behavior of the crew, several of the senior by both sides for his handling of the situation. In October of
warrant officers, such as the boatswain and sail maker that year, Bligh commanded Director at the Battle of
were negligent in their duties. On April 4 1789 Bounty Camperdown and successfully fought three Dutch ships at
departed Tahiti, much to the displeasure of many of the once.
crew. On the night of April 28, Fletcher Christian and 18 of
the crew surprised and bound Bligh in his cabin. Dragging Leaving Director, Bligh was given HMS Glatton.
him on deck, Christian bloodlessly took control of the ship Participating in the 1801 Battle of Copenhagen, Bligh
despite the fact that most of the crew (22) sided with the played a key role when he elected to continue flying Vice
captain. Bligh and 18 loyalists were forced over the side Admiral Horatio Nelson's signal for battle rather than
into Bounty's cutter and given a sextant, four cutlasses, hoisting Admiral Sir Hyde Parker's signal to break off the
and several days’ food and water. fight. In 1805, Bligh was made Governor of New South
Wales (Australia) and tasked with ending the illegal rum
Voyage to Timor trade in the area. Arriving in Australia, he made enemies of
the army and several of the locals by fighting the rum trade
As Bounty turned to return to Tahiti, Bligh set course for the and aiding distressed farmers. This discontent led to Bligh
nearest European outpost at Timor. Though dangerously being deposed in the 1808 Rum Rebellion. After spending
overloaded, Bligh succeeded in sailing the cutter first to over a year collecting evidence, he returned home in 1810,
Tofua for supplies, then on to Timor. After sailing 3,618 and was vindicated by the government. Promoted to rear
miles, Bligh arrived at Timor after a 47-day voyage. Only admiral in 1810 and vice admiral four years later, Bligh
one man was lost during the ordeal when he was killed by never held another sea command. He died at his residence
natives on Tofua. Moving on to Batavia, Bligh was able to on Bond Street in London on December 7, 1817.
secure transport back to England. In October 1790, Bligh
! !!!!!!!!!!! 43
UWSCollege Pty Ltd! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Selected sources

A Voyage to the South Sea by William Bligh (UWS Library call number Q910.4 B1)

Holden, S 2005, “The Extraordinary Life, Times and Travels of Vice-Admiral William Bligh”, The National Education
Magazine, June 2005 p.57
William Bligh from The Australian Dictionary of Biography

Student activity 9

1. In what ways do contradictions emerge about the story of Captain/Governor Bligh? FIGURE 1.33 Student
activity 9
2. Can you explain why, using evidence from the two sets of written text, why different views of
Bligh have emerged? (Remember to apply the ideas of OCMAR.)

3. View the images of the arrest of Bligh, the small launch he and eighteen men rowed to Timor
in and the map of their journey. Can you find contradictions between the first image and the
second two in relation to Bligh’s character?

4. Evaluate the accuracy of the image of Bligh’s arrest and explain what factors could have
motivated the creation of this image. In your response remember to include the following:

What is being presented?
Why is it presented this way?
Whose story is being told?
Whose story is not being told?
Is it objective/subjective? (Are they taking sides?)
Are there any contextual issues?
Does it contain any stereotypes? Explain
Is the image emotive? Is there any exaggeration?
Is agenda setting evident? Is the media source trying to influence the way that we think? How important is this issue?
Have they stated this point of view before?
5. Imagine you are Governor Bligh. Write a brief summary of what you would have said to Governor Lachlan Macquarie when
you met him.

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Eureka — Introduction FIGURE 1.36 The original Eureka flag

“We swear by the Southern Cross to stand truly by each Viewed 4 December 2013, <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
other and fight to defend our rights and liberties." File:Theeurekaflag.jpg>.

Beneath the starry flag of rebellion, that oath was taken by FIGURE 1.35 Swearing allegiance to the Southern
hundreds of gold diggers at Ballarat in 1854. The Eureka Cross by Charles Doudiet
rebellion led by Peter Lalor was a short lived revolt against
petty officialdom and although a military failure, led to
political and personal benefits for many Australians.

The original Eureka flag, first raised on Bakery Hill and then
flown over the Eureka Stockade and torn down by Trooper
King during the bloody battle in the early morning of
Sunday December 3 1854, is now proudly displayed at the
Ballarat Fine Art Gallery.

Australia's only rebellion is a highlight of history and
inspiration for poets, novelists, journalists and filmmakers.

(http://www.ballarat.com/eurekastockade.htm)

Student activity 10 — FIGURE 1.34 Student
research activity 10 — research

1. What does the original
Greek word eureka
mean?

2. In what way is the Eureka
flag related to modern
Australia? Explain.

3. Can you draw a link Viewed 4 December 2013, <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
between the oath that File:Doudiet_Swearing_allegiance_to_the_Southern_Cross.jpg>.
was sworn by the miners and the name given to !!!!!!!!!!!
Australian soldiers even to this very day?

UWSCollege Pty Ltd! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 45

A brief history of Ballarat FIGURE 1.37 Lydia St North c 1861 (Banks & George
Hotel)
Reference: <http://www.ballarat.com/history.htm>
Viewed 4 December 2013, <http://www.ballarat.com/history.htm>.
Ballarat is Victoria's largest inland city. It started back in
1838 when a squatter called William Yuille camped on the acquittal of murdering James Scobie. Three miners were
shores of the Black Swamp, now known as Lake arrested and sent to prison. A retrial followed later and
Wendouree. "Balla" "Arat" was derived from the meaning Bentley and two others were found guilty of the
resting or camping place. manslaughter of James Scobie and sent to prison. On
November 11, the Ballarat Reform League was formed with
Gold was discovered at Poverty Point in 1851 by John the view of abolishing licences and having the miners
Dunlop and James Regan who found a few ounces while released. Due to the lack of response to these demands
panning in the Canadian Creek. By the following year there and set up a stockade on the Eureka Lead. Led by Peter
were around 20,000 diggers searching in the shafts of the Lalor, and the miners’ increasing frustration, the miners
Ballarat Goldfields. Due to this population explosion, burned their licences on 3 December 1854; the miners
Ballarat was proclaimed a town in 1852. By 1855, Ballarat went into battle after government soldiers unexpectedly
was a municipality, a borough by 1863 and a city in 1870. stormed the stockade early that morning. The battle lasted
for around fifteen minutes and in that time up to thirty
By the early 1850s, the government in Melbourne had set miners and six government troopers were killed. One
up a system of gold licences to allow miners to search for hundred and fourteen miners were taken prisoner.
gold on a specified piece of land. The licence fee was paid
regardless if the miner found gold or not. If found without a !!!!!!!!!!! 46
licence, the digger was forced to pay a fine of £10 or be
chained to a log until the fine was paid. The diggers
became frustrated over the frequency and corrupt manner
of how the goldfields police went about their licence
checks. Due to a shortage of manpower, many of the police
were ex-convicts. The government gave them the power to
undertake checks, and many, because of their background
went about their duty in a ruthless manner. The diggers had
no say as they had no representation in parliament.

By 1854, the police ordered twice weekly licence checks
due to the lack of co-operation from miners. This caused
more resentment around the goldfields. On October 7
1854, James Scobie was murdered at Bentley's Eureka
Hotel. On October 12, after a riot by miners, Bentley's
Hotel was burned to the ground in protest of Bentley's

UWSCollege Pty Ltd! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Within six months, legislation was passed to give miners a fairer deal. The monthly gold tax was FIGURE 1.39 Brief
abolished and miners were given the right to vote. Installed was a miners right costing £2 per history of Ballarat: Mark
year later reduced to £1. People could now see the injustice of the whole situation. All miners Twain Road to Ballarat:
arrested after the rebellion and those sentenced for the burning of Bentley's Eureka Hotel were Weblink
released. Peter Lalor, who had been in hiding since the uprising came out of hiding. He became
the first member for Ballarat West to be represented in the Legislative Assembly and later
became Speaker of the House.

In the year 1858 the second largest gold nugget ever found in Australia, the "Welcome Nugget"
was found at Bakery Hill, Ballarat. By the 1860s, the prospect of finding gold in Ballarat east had
nearly diminished. By this time, many of the alluvial mines in that area had declined and
companies were formed to start much deeper mining in the west and south of Ballarat.

To establish these mines, heavy equipment was needed. Foundries such as the Phoenix

Foundry were established to cope with this demand. By now, the town was supported by

industries such as flour mills and agriculture related

companies. FIGURE 1.40 QR
code: Mark Twain
FIGURE 1.38 Mark Twain When the rail came through in 1862, it opened many Road to Ballarat:
Weblink.
more opportunities such as shops and markets,

trades like blacksmiths had been established many

years earlier to expand both towards Melbourne and

the Wimmera. When the last mine closed in 1918,

Ballarat had enough industry and service bases to

support it for many years to come.

Today Ballarat is a major industry city with well known http://www.ballarat.com/
companies such as Mars Confectionery, McCains mark_twain.htm
Foods, Bendix Mintex, Timken and Selkirk Bricks all
established in Ballarat. Some of the area's primary
industries include gold, clay, potatoes, wool and
meat.

Viewed 7 November 2013. http://en.wikipedia.org/ Ballarat is easily accessible by road, rail and has an airport. It has a strong service
wiki/Mark_Twain_bibliography and tourism base with attractions like Ballarat Fine Art Gallery, Sovereign Hill,
Montrose Cottage and Eureka Stockade allowing the visitor to experience what it
was like back in the gold days of the 1850s.

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Origins of some Ballaarat names: Ballarat Prior to amalgamation of the councils in 1994, the
or Ballaarat? municipality of the City of Ballaarat was the official spelling
for the corporation that was the Council, though the official
One of the most often asked question is "Do you spell spelling for place name purposes of the area (then
Ballarat with four a's or three a's?” It is generally accepted comprised of several municipalities) was Ballarat.
that the origin of the name came from two aboriginal words
signifying a camping or resting place — "balla" meaning When the new single Ballarat City Council was gazetted in
elbow or reclining on the elbow and "arat" meaning place. 1994 the single "a" version was adopted for the
The first white settler (1837), Scotsman Archibald Yuille, corporation, to align it to the area's place-name,
called his property "Ballarat". We cannot know how a
Scotsman pronounced an aboriginal word, but in 1851 Therefore both spellings were legitimate at different times in
another Scot arrived to officially survey the area and he the city's history and can still be seen on buildings and in
recorded the town’s name as Ballaarat. When the first local historical literature.
paper arrived in 1854, three years later, it was called the
"Ballarat Times" (perhaps the typesetter ran out of "a's"). Other local names
Official government documents used the double "a"
spelling and successive local councils varied the number of As extracted from W B Withers History of Ballarat which
"a's" according to the prevailing fashion of the time, was first published in 1870 (page 13).

Viewed 7 November 2013. http://www.geograph.ie/photo/2319632 Wendouree is the anglicised form of Wendaaree, a native
word signifying "be off", "off you go". Yarrowee is probably
UWSCollege Pty Ltd! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! a Scottish settler's use of the Scottish Yarrow, with
diminutive to suit the smaller stream.

Buninyong or, as the natives have it, Bunning-yowang,
means a big hill like a knee — bunning meaning knee, and
yowang hill. This name was given by the local aboriginals
to Mount Buninyong because the mount, when seen from a
given point, resembled a man lying on his back with his
knee drawn up.

Warrengeep, corrupted to Warrenheip, means emu
feathers; the name was given to Mount Warrenheip from
the appearance presented by the ferns and other forest
growths there. Gong Gong, or Gang Gang, is an aboriginal
name for a species of parrots. Burrumbeet means muddy
water, and Yoady Yalock standing water.

!!!!!!!!!!! 48

FIGURE 1.41 Ballarat Montage Student activity 11

1. Why is this information important to your understanding of
the event at the Eureka Stockade?

2. List five facts or ideas that you have never known before.
You may refer to written text and the image to create your
response.

3. Can you find an example of irony in this text?

4. Identify the purpose of this text and support your response
with evidence from the text.

5. Why do you think there is reference to the meanings of local
indigenous names in the area? Explain.

FIGURE 1.42 Student FIGURE 1.43 Interactive
activity 11 map: Ballarat

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ballarat_montage.png 49
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The affair at Eureka necessitated the slow, expensive and uncertain process of
sinking exploratory shafts down through layers of clay and
The following outline of the events at Eureka in 1854 is treacherous waterlogged silt and gravels to the bedrock,
taken from the prologue of J. Harvey’s book, Eureka and with luck, to the elusive "gutter", up to 50 metres
rediscovered: In search of the site of the historic stockade. below the surface, where the precious metal lay
concentrated. As the sinking proceeded, the surrounding
Any reproduction of this account must include the hillsides were progressively denuded of trees to provide
attribution of authorship and the associated copyright timber for supporting and lining the shafts. In their place
notice which follows the account. You may not modify, rose the tents of the miners and the businesses which
alter, add to, adapt, edit, abridge, condense or repackage provided them with materials, food, grog and
this account without the written permission of the author entertainment.
(email: [email protected] ).
On the scarp overlooking the Ballarat flat from the west, a
Fourteen years after the establishment of the settlement at more respectable permanent settlement was growing up
Port Phillip in 1836, the rich pastoral lands of "Australia around the government camp, from where the resident
Felix" were excised from southern New South Wales to Gold Commissioner, Robert Rede, exercised absolute
form the colony of Victoria. The new colonial administration authority over the diggings, an authority which was
in Melbourne was headed by the Governor and the enforced by a large contingent of police and backed up by
Legislative Council, which was one third nominated and a military garrison.
two thirds elected by limited franchise. One year later in
1851, the serenity of the squattocracy was shattered when By October 1854, the Eureka Lead had been traced from
gold was discovered at a number of places across central its beginnings in the ranges north east of Ballarat,
Victoria, triggering a sudden influx of immigrants of southwards to a point close to the Melbourne road (now
adventurous and democratic spirit. The government’s Eureka St), some 2.5 km due east of the government camp.
response was to establish a quasi-military Gold The Eureka was predominantly an Irish area, though many
Commission, whose gold-braided and aristocratic officials other nationalities were also represented there.
were empowered to administer the burgeoning gold fields
in the absence of civic institutions or democratic The main mechanism for the collection of government
representation. revenue on the gold fields was the "Miner’s Licence", which
entitled the holder to work a single 12 foot (3.6 metre)
By 1854 in Ballarat, the easy surface gold was exhausted, square "claim", and on which a flat monthly fee of 30
and a population of some twenty five thousand, including shillings was payable, regardless of the amount of gold
immigrants from the United Kingdom, Ireland, North recovered. The terms of the licence were irksome to the
America, Europe and China, were engaged in tracing the diggers on all the Victorian gold fields, but nowhere more
ancient buried river beds or "deep leads" across the so than Ballarat, where the fortunes of deep lead mining
hillsides and gullies east of the Ballarat Flat. This were so uncertain. Irksome too were the inadequate

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procedures for settlement of the many claim disputes, the
inconvenience and indignity of the frequent "licence hunts", the
arbitrary and often brutal exercise of police authority during the

licence hunts and sly grog raids, and the general atmosphere
of privilege, patronage and corruption which permeated the
administration of the gold fields.

In September 1854, with his government under budgetary
pressure, and concerned at the low level of licence compliance,
the Governor, Sir Charles Hotham secretly ordered an increase
in the frequency of the hated licence hunts to twice weekly. For
a time, a violent response seemed imminent at the volatile
Bendigo field, but it failed to materialise. Instead, two events
occurred in October at Ballarat, hitherto the most peaceful and
industrious of fields, which inflamed the situation there even
further. The first was the wrongful arrest during a licence hunt,
and the subsequent conviction for assaulting a trooper, of a
crippled, non-English speaking Armenian servant of the Roman
Catholic priest, Father Smyth. The second was the unpopular
acquittal of the publican of the Eureka Hotel, James Bentley,
who had been charged with the murder of a miner, James
Scobie. After an angry mob burned Bentley’s Hotel to the
ground, Commissioner Rede, resolving to reassert government
authority and teach the diggers a lesson, requested troop
reinforcements.

On Sunday, October 22, a crowd estimated at upwards of ten Viewed 7 November 2013. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_rush
thousand miners assembled to discuss their grievances on

Bakery Hill, directly across the flat from the government camp,

on the road to the Eureka. Considerable anti-government sentiment was voiced at the meeting, and the camp was fortified

and guarded against attack for a week afterwards, but no violence eventuated. Following a second mass meeting on

Wednesday November 1, the Ballarat Reform League took shape under the moderate leadership of J. B. Humffray.

Throughout the next month, the League sought to negotiate with Commissioner Rede and Governor Hotham, both on the

specific matters relating to Bentley and the men being tried for the burning of the hotel, and on the broader issues of abolition

of the licence, democratic representation of the gold fields, and disbanding of the Gold Commission. These attempts at

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conciliation were unsuccessful. Instead, Rede’s and appointed, various divisions and brigades, some nationally
Hotham’s pronouncements and actions throughout based, were formed, and the rebels marched in a long
November seemed designed to goad the more belligerent column to the Eureka. Pikes were forged, and firearms,
elements among the miners into precipitating a crisis. provisions and horses were donated or requisitioned.
Drilling commenced, and shows of force were made as far
Tension began to mount again when military reinforcements away as Bakery Hill, within sight of the camp.
arriving from Melbourne by way of the Eureka on Tuesday,
November 28, were set upon by a mob, and a number of Tension was high across the field on Thursday night. The
baggage carts were overturned. In the resulting melee, a Catholic priest, Father Smyth, made two trips from the
number of men were injured, and a drummer boy was said Eureka to the government camp in an unsuccessful
to have been fatally wounded. attempt to mediate. Nevertheless, the widely anticipated
attack on the camp did not eventuate.
At a mass meeting on Bakery Hill on Wednesday,
November 29, the blue "Southern Cross" flag flew for the The next day, Friday, December 1, Rede learned from his
first time behind the speakers. The Reform League’s spies that the rebels were constructing a defensive
delegates reported their failure to obtain any undertakings fortification at the Eureka. On a sloping site bordering the
from Governor Hotham, other than the promise of a Melbourne road, an acre or so of ground was enclosed by
commission of enquiry, which was perhaps seen as a a flimsy barricade constructed from shaft support timbers
delaying tactic. With the patience of the miners running out, set in the ground on their ends and roped together, along
and the mood of moderation beginning to darken, the with overturned carts and the like. Within this stockade the
meeting voted in favour of burning licences and general Eureka rebels encamped, vowing to defend themselves
resistance to the arrest of unlicensed miners. against further licence arrests or other incursions by the
authorities.
Rede’s provocative response was a licence hunt on
Thursday, November 30 at the Gravel Pits Lead, the But though there was much emotion, enthusiasm and
nearest to the camp and hitherto the most compliant. Eight activity, and a number of adventurous excursions from the
defaulters were arrested, but the military had to turn out in stockade by small bands of men, overall organisation was
force to extricate them and their captors from a large and loose, and strategy and discipline were lacking. As a result,
angry crowd. by Saturday night the purposefulness of the rebels had
dissipated, the tension on the field had abated, and a
Following this raid, the most belligerent of the miners military showdown no longer seemed imminent. No more
converged on Bakery Hill. In the absence of the official than a few hundred men remained in the stockade, most
League leadership, moderation was swept aside in a rising having either gone off carousing in the usual fashion, or
tide of anger, and a more militant leader, Peter Lalor, seized retired to their own tents in expectation of a day of rest to
the moment. Licences were burned, the rebel flag was follow.
again unfurled, and the miners swore an oath of allegiance
to it. A council of war was established, captains were !!!!!!!!!!! 52

UWSCollege Pty Ltd! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

It was not to be so. At 3.00 am on Sunday December 3 duty on gold and a Miner’s Right which cost a small annual
1854, a party of 276 police and military personnel and fee. A system of mining wardens replaced the gold
several civilians, under the command of Captain J. W. commissioners, and police numbers were cut drastically.
Thomas, left the government camp, and having detoured The pace of reform was so rapid that within a year, the
by way of Black Hill to the north east of the Camp, rebel leader Peter Lalor was representing Ballarat in the
approached the Eureka Stockade at dawn from a north Legislative Council. After the establishment of the
westerly direction. Which side opened fire first is uncertain. Legislative Assembly in 1856, he was elected to that
What is certain is that the ensuing engagement was short chamber, of which he later became Speaker.
and one-sided. The stockaders, taken by surprise, probably
outnumbered and certainly outgunned, were quickly The extent to which the Eureka Stockade debacle was
routed. Lalor later estimated that 22 stockaders were either instrumental in precipitating change, and the extent to
killed immediately or died soon after, and a further 12 were which change was inevitable and imminent in any case,
wounded and survived, though how many others were remains a point of contention. However there is no doubt
killed or wounded in the vicinity of the stockade can only that, as the better known of only two armed insurrections in
be conjectured. Casualties on the government side were the history of European settlement in Australia, the Eureka
four killed and 12 wounded. Many of the surviving affair has echoed and re-echoed in the national political
stockaders were taken prisoner, and the remainder fled in consciousness down to the present day. Eureka has been
disarray. A number of tents within and around the stockade adopted as a symbol not only by the political left, but also
were burned. Martial law was declared, and all armed at times by groups on the radical right of the political
resistance collapsed. spectrum. The Eureka affair has been variously
characterised and mythologised as the cradle of Australian
However, the ascendancy of the authorities following the democracy, as a revolt of free men against imperial tyranny,
decisive military victory at the stockade was short-lived. In of labour against a privileged ruling class, of independent
the days and weeks that followed, there was a groundswell free enterprise against burdensome taxation, as an
of public indignation in Melbourne as well as in Ballarat expression of multicultural republicanism, and so on.
against what was seen as a brutal over-reaction in a
situation essentially brought about by the actions of However, this enduring if ambiguous legacy was not
commission and government officials. When 13 of the apparent in Ballarat in the years immediately following the
imprisoned stockaders were tried for treason in Melbourne stockade battle. On the contrary, it seems that for a
early in 1855, all were acquitted to great public acclaim. generation after, the inclination among officialdom and the
The promised commission of enquiry into the Ballarat community alike was to forget the incident. On the
administration of the gold fields eventuated, and was official side, there was perhaps embarrassment about the
scathing in its criticism of the handling of the affair. In the clumsy handling of the whole affair, and the excessive use
following months, most of the miners’ demands were of force. It seems that in the general community there were
acceded to. The Miner’s Licence was replaced by an export mixed feelings. Some remained antagonistic, seeing the

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stockade episode as the result of the extreme actions of a The Eureka Stockade: the disputed site
few hotheads of Irish and other suspect origins. Most and the new Eureka Centre
miners, whilst they probably gave the stockaders at least
some of the credit for the reforms which followed, were The site of the Eureka Stockade lies in the eastern
relieved to put the turbulent past behind them as they suburban area of Ballarat, now a major provincial city. The
looked forward to a period of stability and prosperity. stockade affair is commemorated by a park reserve located
Indeed, a number of the stockaders themselves, including some 2.5 km east of the centre of the city, on the north side
Lalor, were quick to move on in respectable and profitable of Eureka Street. The Eureka Stockade monument, erected
new directions. As a result, the event soon faded from in 1884, stands in the south east corner of the park.
public consciousness, and the site was neglected.
The past few decades have seen a general awakening of
This neglect was compounded by the fact that the interest in matters of history and heritage in Ballarat. This
stockade had been located amongst tents and mine has particularly been the case with the Eureka Stockade
workings, in an area which until a short time before had affair in all its aspects, including the question of the exact
been bush, and where enduring landmarks were few. After location of the stockade. During the period, a widespread
the rebels’ defeat, the materials used in the construction of public perception grew in Ballarat that the stockade was
the stockade were soon reclaimed for other purposes, and actually located some considerable distance west of the
all physical trace of the stockade disappeared. The ground Eureka monument.
in the vicinity was extensively worked over a period of
years, resulting in substantial changes to the basic The modern controversy over the site of the stockade
topography. probably dates from the publication in 1973 by Bert and
Bon Strange of the booklet Eureka: Gold, Graft and
Consequently, when moves were eventually made to erect Grievances, in which the view was advanced that the
a monument to the affair in 1884, some uncertainty was stockade lay between Rodier and Belford Streets, some
reported thirty years on as to the exact location of the 300 metres west of the monument. The following year,
stockade. Ballaarat Historical Society convened a forum at which a
number of others put similar views. Another local amateur
One hundred and ten years later, the matter has still not historian, Bob O’Brien, suggested the distance was 500
been finally settled. yards (450 metres). In the twenty years that followed, Bert
Strange and Bob O’Brien took every opportunity to keep
Source: Adapted excerpts from Harvey, J. T., Eureka interest in the issue alive, and saw their passionately held
Rediscovered: In search of the site of the historic stockade, ideas widely accepted.
University of Ballarat, 1994.
In 1994 Jack Harvey published Eureka Rediscovered: In
© Jack Harvey 1994 search of the site of the historic stockade, in which Harvey

Source: Viewed 4 December 2013, <http://www.ballarat.com/ examined all of the available historical evidence and came
eurekaffair.htm>.
!!!!!!!!!!! 54
UWSCollege Pty Ltd! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

to the conclusion that the 1884 monument is on the correct Eureka stockade
site. Harvey has stated that more recently discovered
evidence, such as the contemporary illustrations by Student activity 13 FIGURE 1.47 Student
Charles Doudiet and an archaeological examination carried activity 13
out in conjunction with building works, has added further 1. Is viewing this text a
weight to his views. worthwhile activity that
adds to your understanding
During 1994, the City of Ballarat designated a broad of the events at the Eureka
historic precinct which encompasses both the "Strange/ Stockade?
O’Brien" and "Harvey" sites. The Eureka Centre currently
under construction sits centrally in the precinct, midway 2. Why would it be dangerous
between the disputed locations of the stockade. to use this text as your only
source of information?
Source: Viewed 4 December 2013, <http://www.ballarat.com/
eurekaffair.htm>.

Student activity 12 FIGURE 1.44 Student FIGURE 1.45 Chapter 1: FIGURE 1.46 QR Code:
activity 12 YouTube: Eureka YouTube: Eureka
1. How and why does the stockade stockade
aftermath and legacy of
the event at Eureka
provide a very different
legacy for Australians of
generations to come?

2. What differences and
similarities do you notice
between Eureka and the
two earlier rebellions?

3. Can you find any evidence that suggests a growing http://bit.ly/1iHXkCb
movement to the development of a more democratic
society in colonial Australia?

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Australia protests against the Vietnam War 2. The Vietnam War, 1962–1972

1. Forever hold your piece — 3 film Australian support for South Vietnam in the early 1960s
documents was in keeping with American policy of stemming the tide
of communism.
Protest marches
Student gives anti-war speech at Sydney Town Hall When the Australian government announced in 1964 the
Lionel Murphy speaks dispatch of a taskforce including conscripts called up
under the National Service Scheme, public support began
FIGURE 1.49 Forever FIGURE 1.50 QR code to decline. Later, images delivered on the nightly news, like
hold your peace the summary execution of a captured Viet Cong by the
South Vietnamese chief of police, ensured the fight for
http://aso.gov.au/titles/ public support at home was lost, and that Australia's
documentaries/or-forever-hold- position had become difficult to sell to the electorate.
your-peace/clip2/
From the arrival of advisers in 1962, until the last battalion
left Nui Dat in November 1971, 50,000 Australians,
including ground troops and Air Force and Navy personnel,
saw service. Of these, some 500 were killed and almost
2,400 wounded. The war was the cause of the greatest
social and political dissent in Australia since the
conscription referendums of the First World War.

FIGURE 1.48

FIGURE 1.51 Vietnam FIGURE 1.52
War: Web link Vietnam War: QR
code

Viewed 5 November 2013. http:// http://bit.ly/Ksn0Uw
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Whitlam_dismissal_19751111_Sydney.jpg

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FIGURE 1.54 4. The Vietnam anti-war movement and draft
resistance in Australia. May Robins, 19
August, 2008

Viewed 5 November 2013. Chapter 1: Vietnam War web link Why was the popular protest movement of the late 1960s
and 1970s so strong? Attitudes were changing; popular
3. ANU essay (Australian National University) music, fashion, attitudes towards drugs and swearing were
all shifting rapidly. The feminist and environmentalist
Australia and the Vietnam war: Analyses, attitudes and movements were also gaining momentum. Peter Cochrane
actions by Dr Rick Khun suggests that the Vietnam War was a catalyst and central
to the social upheaval of the time[i]. In this essay I will look
FIGURE 1.53 ANU essay FIGURE 1.55 ANU closely at the anti-war movement, who participated and
why. I will also look at the conscription debate and how the
download essay: QR code issue of conscription affected and propelled the anti-war
movement, and vice-versa.
http://bit.ly/1cvjLFr
The issue of conscription was not a new one when it was
re-introduced in 1964 by the Menzies government.
Conscription was first introduced in 1911, in the form of a
military training program for boys aged 12-16.[ii] During the
First World War, in an attempt to conscript all single males
aged 21-34 for overseas service, the government held two
referenda; however they were both defeated.[iii]
Conscription was reintroduced during the Second World
War, when all unmarried males were called up. Initially the
conscripts did not have to serve outside Australian
territories, but the boundaries were extended in 1942 to
include the whole Southwest Pacific. It ended when the
war did.[iv] The government again initiated a training
scheme that called up all 18 year olds for three to six
months. This occurred during the Korean War, but no
conscripts were sent overseas.[v] The only time
conscription was a conscientious issue within the
Australian community during these times, was during the
First World War. The wider Australian community the rest of

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the time supported conscription, as long as it was 1966, there were approximately eighty reported
restricted to the training of young men within Australia. It demonstrations, strikes, vigils, marches, folk concerts, sit-
would take another unpopular war and the sending of downs and teach-ins.[xi]
conscripted troops overseas, to make it an issue again and
even then it was not opposed to at first. Conscription was a major motivator in people's
participation in the protest against the war, and then the
Australia's involvement in Vietnam began in 1962, with the protests against conscription itself. Conscription brought
sending of thirty military instructors to South Vietnam. The the war home to many people. It affected people's sons,
Prime Minister, Sir Robert Menzies made this brothers, relatives, boyfriends and friends in ways it would
announcement in Parliament in November 1964: not have if the government had not implemented
conscription. Public opinion with regards to conscription
...we have decided that young men will be required alone was usually strongly favoured, with the Gallup Polls
to register in the calendar year in which they reach always recording around about two-thirds of those
the age of 20 years. The first actual call-up will take surveyed in favour of conscription, with a high of seventy-
place about the middle of next year. During the three per cent in June 1961, and a low of fifty-five per cent
second half of 1965 a total of about 4,200 will be in April 1970.[xii] The figures were quite different though,
required. Thereafter there will be annual call-ups of when asked about sending conscripts to Vietnam. Then
about 6,900. This will, by December 1966, give an around half of respondents wanted conscripts kept in
Army of a total strength of about 37,500...which will Australia, while about a third thought they should be sent to
mean an effective force of 33,000...[vi] Vietnam. Around about ten per cent were undecided. When
asked whether Australia should continue to fight in
The government began to send large numbers of troops to Vietnam, or bring the forces back home, the results varied
South Vietnam in 1965.[vii] The first protests against the greatly over the course of the war, as the tide of public
war began even before then, and seem to have been opinion turned against the war. The first poll conducted in
organised by the Communist Party of Australia; however September 1965, recorded fifty-six percent of respondents
they were soon being organised and attended by a wider wishing Australia to continue to fight, with only twenty-eight
audience.[viii] Horne cites the Vietnam Action Committee, per cent wanting the troops to be brought back. Sixteen
which only had one communist party member on its board, per cent were undecided. Favour for the war reached its
as organising a large number of demonstrations.[ix] Chris height in May 1967 with sixty-two percent in favour of
Guyatt states that the anti-conscription movement in fighting, and only twenty-four per cent wanting to stop.
regards to the Vietnam era was born five days after Fourteen per cent were still undecided. Public favour for
Menzies made his announcement, on 15 November 1964 the war reached a low in August 1969, when for the first
with the meeting of six members of the Conscription time, over half of the respondents voted in favour of pulling
Protest Meeting Committee.[x] Also the Save Our Sons and out of Vietnam, with forty per cent in favour of staying, and
Youth Against Conscription movements were starting to a low of only six per cent still undecided. Even when public
come into action. In the year from March 1965 to March
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opinion for staying in Vietnam was at its highest, almost guilty of not registering, he could be fined and conscripted
half (49%) of respondents still did not want conscripts to whether or not his birthday came up in the ballot. Out of
be sent to join the war.[xiii] the twelve thousand though, not many were caught.
Jordens cites an annual average of 202 prosecutions for
So it would seem that if the Gallup Polls represented an failure to register between 1965 and 1971; however it
accurate portrayal of Australian society, then during the increased in the final year when 723 men were prosecuted.
sixties, most Australians were not against conscription in [xvii]
principle, but they were against the conscripts being sent
overseas to fight. Also, many Australians who were not The way the men were chosen was through a random
against the war in Vietnam, and not against conscription in “birthday ballot”. There were 761,854 men who turned
general, were opposed to the sending of conscripts to twenty from 1965 to 1971 and only 4200 a year were
Vietnam. required at first, increasing to 8400 a year in 1966. Ballot
draws were held twice a year where 184 marbles with birth
Conscription in its incarnation during the Vietnam War dates on them were in a barrel, and each marble was
drawn our singly. The numbers of marbles drawn out
worked according to the National Service Act. All males varied; in the first ballot, 96 marbles were drawn, while in
September 1969 only 30 were.[xviii]
turning twenty that year were required to register. They
Indefinite Deferments were a provision for those with
would then be liable to be called up until they were twenty- medical and psychological disabilities (1598 men), men
married before the call-up for their age group (19,102 men),
six. Exempt from registering were Aboriginals, non- those who joined the Citizen Military Force (34,970) and
those found by the courts to be conscientious objectors
naturalised migrants, employees of a foreign government (1012).[xix] Limited Deferments were approved for
university students and apprentices, for the duration of
and members of the permanent military forces.[xiv] There their course. They were also given to those able to prove
that their conscription would cause “exceptional hardship”
were two registration periods a year, and the Department of to themselves, their parents or their dependents. Also
those serving criminal sentences were granted deferments.
Labour and National Service attempted to check on those [xx]

failing to register by And then there were the “non-compliers” or “draft-
dodgers”. They differed from conscientious objectors in
FIGURE 1.56 checking the records of the that they refused to co-operate with the whole system of
Department of Social being registered and the ballot, and disagreed with not just
fighting in the war, but in conscription as well.
Service and the Electoral

Office. Employers were

expected to refuse

employment to young men

who were unable to provide

evidence that they had

registered.[xv] Despite this,

as of February 1971, almost

Viewed 5 November 2013. http:// twelve thousand eligible
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ men had not registered.[xvi]
File:Anti-conscription_badge.JPG If a young man was found

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The number of anti-war and anti-conscription organisations in 1971. That was not counting the “silent” non-compliers
that were active and in existence during the course of the — the over twelve thousand men who failed to register, but
Vietnam War is estimated to be around 146. This figure did not go public. Although the Draft Resisters Union would
does not include churches, trade unions or political parties, have preferred men not register and not comply with the
and Jordens makes it clear that it is impossible to really National Service Act, they did give advice on how to fail
know how many there actually were for a variety of your medical examination if you did decide to go. By 1970,
reasons. A number changed their names, others were very forty-eight per cent of conscripts were rejected on medical
short-lived, and some left little evidence of their existence. grounds.[xxvi] The manual also gave advice on how to
Nine were national, with branches in every, or almost every become a conscientious objector.[xxvii] They noted that by
state.[xxi] 1971 it was quite easy to win conscientious objection
cases, with about eight out of nine applications for
Jeffrey Grey divides the anti-Vietnam movements into three exemption being granted.[xxviii]
chronological periods. The first from before April 1965; the
second from April 1965 to the election on November 1966 While the Union did give this advice, it drew a large
when the ALP were rejected by a huge margin; and the distinction between themselves and men who got out
third being the gradual resurgence of activity and through other “legal” means. Bob Muntz, one of the
organisation that culminated in the 1970-71 moratoriums. contributors, states that “to comply with the National
[xxii] Service Act by registering is to recognise the validity of the
Act and what it represents — conscription of men to fight
The Draft Resisters Union was formed in 1970 to for an evil cause in Indo-China”.[xxix]
encourage and support other non-compliers. They
published a book Downdraft: A Draft resistance Manual in Brian Ross was one of the first, and most well-known
1971 as an information guide to young men who either young man to be prosecuted and sent to gaol for failing to
were, or were considering to avoid military service in register, and to comply with the National Service Act. He
Vietnam. They defined non-compliance or draft resistance was sentenced in October 1969 to two year’s imprisonment
as “the deliberate defiance of the laws requiring all twenty for failing to answer a call-up notice. He spent ten months
year olds to register for conscription, and also requiring in gaol before being found to be a conscientious objector
those balloted in for service to attend medical examinations due to new national service regulations that enabled young
and obey call-up notices for the army”.[xxiii] They stress men to be referred to a magistrate as conscientious
that it is not an action taken out of self-interest or objectors without any application on the part of the man
cowardice. They point out that there are many other, easier concerned, and was released.[xxx]
ways to get out of the army.[xxiv] “Non-compliers believe
conscription can be smashed by building a movement so This new bit of legislation was an interesting one. It allowed
large that it will make conscription unworkable.”[xxv] The the government to deal with dissenters like Ross, without
number of draft-resisters who had publicly declared turning them into martyrs, and at the same time
themselves climbed from six in 1967 to over three hundred discrediting them in the eyes of the movement. The Draft

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Resistance Manual advised men who were being subjected Save Our Sons (SOS) was an independent non-sectarian
to a conscientious objection referral to go to court, but not and non-party organisation founded in Sydney on May 13
testify, in the hope that it would be dismissed with the lack 1965 by Joyce Golgerth. It opposed the conscription of
of any evidence.[xxxi] This tactic did not always work as Jo youth for overseas service. Their statement of aims reads:
Erftemeyer, a Monash student, found out. Erftemeyer did
not consider himself to be a conscientious objector as he “SOS is organised by mothers who stand in opposition to
was not opposed to all wars and was not a pacifist. Yet: the present National Service Act for any one or all of the
following reasons:

“I refused to lead any evidence before the magistrate. The They oppose conscription of youth into the armed services
Crown produced one or two letters which I was supposed to serve in overseas wars.
to have written to the Minister. There was a lot of muttering
between the prosecution and the magistrate during which They object to conscription for such war service, either on
the SM read some document which I was not allowed to humanitarian, religious or pacifist grounds.”[xxxiv]
see. After a few minutes the SM declared that because of
what I had written I was definitely a pacifist and he then The group didn't have an official policy or stand on the
signed some release. I was amazed! The case before mine Vietnam War, although it did state that war was an
had seen a bloke declared a C.O. but only after his local ineffectual way of settling international disputes. Their
priest and family friends testified at length. There was a objective was officially stated as: “The amendment or
double standard. I tried to protest at the whole farce but repeal of the present National Service Act, particularly with
was quickly removed.'”xxxii] regard to objectionable clauses providing for long periods
of compulsory service, engagement in military action
Conscription really started to fall into disrepute when the abroad, and severe penalties for infringements.”[xxxv]
unfairness of the ballot and the inconsistency of the
granting of exemptions came to light. Ronald Valentine The majority of members of Save Our Sons were middle-
Blundell, a pig farmer, applied for a one year deferment on aged women — “women with sons of conscriptable age,
the grounds that his pigs needed him. If he was ex-servicewomen, war widows and others who had lost
conscripted he would have to sell his pigs and pig prices relatives in the Second World War”.[xxxvi] Most of the
were low at the time. He also had a mortgage to pay. His group's male supporters were ex-servicemen. The group
claim was rejected, with the magistrate saying that this was noted for its characteristic silent vigils and quiet
would cause “hardship”, but not “exceptional hardship”. marches.[xxxvii] The group got a lot of publicity when, in
On the other hand a boxer, Rocky Gattelari was exempt for April 1971, five members of SOS were charged with
two years to pursue his career, as was a dancer from Les trespass for handing out leaflets outside the National
Girls who reportedly arrived for his medical in a dress. Service Centre. The women were sentenced to fourteen
[xxxiii] days imprisonment at Fairlea Women's Prison, and were
subsequently known as the “Fairlea Five”. The women were
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of support, including a twenty-four hour work strike by

!!!!!!!!!!! 61

waterside workers in Port Melbourne and a strike by the names were often published in the newspapers. The money
Seamen's Union of Australia.[xxxviii] The SOS represents a raised usually went towards sending entertainers to
group that was not the stereotypical longhaired, pot- Vietnam. The Fund operated on an annual budget of
smoking hippie student radical. $200,000.[xlii] The RSL also launched an appeal that
collected 50 tons of household utensils, clothing, carpentry
Project Vietnam was launched in 1966, where fifty-eight and gardening tools for the Army's civic action work in
Australian writers issued a statement saying that it was Vietnam.[xliii]
morally wrong to send conscripts to Vietnam since the war
was not decisively supported by the Australian community. It is interesting to note that while some unions strongly
[xxxix] The qualification that many people put on their supported the anti-war movement, the majority did not. The
opposition to conscription came under fire by some, Seamen's Union was a strong supporter of the anti-war
including James McAuley and Brian Buckley. Buckley says, movement, and in 1966, they initially refused to supply a
crew for the Boonaroo which was to go to Vietnam with
“A lot has been made of the votelessness of the supplies. They reluctantly relented when it was found they
conscripts. Would the moral question alter if they became had barely any support from the other maritime unions.[xliv]
enfranchised? Probably not...Bishop Moyes, the Anglican
Bishop from Armidale says "It is unethical of the The social makeup of the different groups is interesting to
Government to take young people who have no vote and note. The protesters were largely middle-class although
send them overseas where no war has been declared" many were university students, who were the first in their
Presumably, it may be ethical if they are granted a formal family to attend a tertiary institute. The unionists who were
declaration and a vote. Strange ethics.”[xl] involved in the anti-war movement were obviously working-
class; however Curthoys points out that they were in
Findlay writes that the Communist Party began to worry relatively isolated occupations run by communist-led
about the fact that the anti-conscription movement was unions which were politically and often socially distinct
gaining much more attention from the public than the anti- from the rest of the union movement.[xlv] It was not until
war movement. He puts this down to the fact that the Youth 1970 that the Australian Council of Trade Unions endorsed
Campaign Against Conscription was made up of young the moratorium, which was by that time just following the
people and that “being young, were given to larger and trend, rather than leading it.[xlvi]The soldiers on the other
noisier demonstrations and to actions with some degree of hand were often from rural working class, or lower middle
sensation value such as that of draft-card burning”.[xli] class and often from families without an active tradition of
political engagement.[xlvii]
While public memory remembers the anti-war organisations
clearly, there were some pro-war organisations. The The activism in universities took perhaps the most dramatic
Returned Services League (RSL) was strongly in favour of turns. The Monash Labor Club attempted to raise funds
the war and conscription. The RSL ran the Australian and send aid to the National Liberation Front, the political
Forces Overseas Fund, launched on January 26 1966. arm of the Viet Cong.[xlviii] This was banned by the Vice-
Various individuals and businesses contributed and their
!!!!!!!!!!! 62
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FIGURE 1.57 Chancellor and much fuss was made in the newspapers about
the issue. Findlay states that the whole idea of collecting aid for
Viewed 5 November 2013. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ an enemy against whom Australian troops were engaged was
Opposition_to_the_U.S._involvement_in_the_Vietnam_War overwhelmingly regarded by majority of Australians as
treasonable and “utterly repugnant”.[xlix] He goes on to say that
“students came to be seen as the spoiled darlings of an affluent
society, in need of nothing so much as a good spanking!”[l] Of
course, not all university students supported the anti-war or anti-
conscription movements, as various letters to student
newspapers such as Lot's Wife show. One student wrote that the
movement was “converting Australian Society from a hardened
Anglo-Saxon stock to a bunch of weak-livered homosexual
‘conscientious’ objectors” and that “we must never forget our
heritage of the magnificent British Empire”.[li]

The universities became major centres for the organisation of the
moratoriums. The moratoriums had been a huge success in
America, with 250,000 attending in New York, and 100,000 in
Washington.[lii] These inspired the Australians to organise
something similar. In Victoria, the student newspapers at Monash,
Melbourne University and La Trobe all combined to bring out a
special edition on the moratorium on May 6. This was the first
time a large number of Monash students were involved in
organising anti-war activities.[liii]

The first moratorium held on 8-9 May 1970 was the most
successful one. The turnout in Melbourne was the largest, with
somewhere between eighty to a hundred thousand people
turning up.[liv] The second and third moratoriums weren't as
successful as the first. Attendance was halved at the moratorium
held in September 1970, while the third moratorium in June 1971
was parodied on a television program as if it were an Anzac Day
march.[lv]

The views of the protesters versus the returning soldiers were
often very different. While there is an image in public memory of

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FIGURE 1.58 and pawns of the government.[lvii] There were, however,
some eye-witness accounts like this one:
Viewed 5 November 2013 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
12th_Inf,_4th_Inf_Div,_Vietnam_War_Hill_530.jpg "We touched down and taxied to the terminal, doors
opened - we were home. Guys were kissing the gangway; it
protesters jeering and booing at returned soldiers, Ann was wild. Going through customs I still couldn't believe I
Curthoys challenges whether it actually happened very was back in Aussie, not until I was through the customs
often. Curthoys was involved in the anti-war protests and door and into the terminal and there was my brother, I burst
does not recall any protesters attending welcome-home into tears and nearly hugged him to death, I was really
marches, or being told that they should. She also notes home.

that such incidents do not appear in the newspapers, apart You wouldn't believe what happened next. Into the terminal
from the well-known incident in June 1966 when a paint- came, you guessed it, shitwitted protesters. Hundreds of
smeared women stood in the line of the returning soldiers people in the terminal that night were cheering and
who were marching in Sydney.[lvi] Greg Langley notes that clapping their families'home and then these motherfuckers
on the whole, the anti-war movement was largely come bursting in carrying placards. One I'll never forget as
sympathetic to the soldiers, and thought of them as victims long as I live, this poxy excuse for a female, screeching and
carrying a placard saying 'CHILD KILLERS'."[lviii]
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Also, Barry Pedrana reported being verbally attacked by a
group of woman, who called him and his companions
murderers and rapists while he and a group of soldiers
were at the Shrine of Remembrance.[lix] Evidently, abuse
did happen, although perhaps not as often as is thought.

So with all this protest, how did the major political parties
respond? Horne thinks that it had very little effect on the
policies of the Menzies, Holt, Gorton and McMahon
governments. They simply followed the United States
policy. “All the way with LBJ”, was Holt's catchcry. “They
went into Vietnam with the United States; then they went
out of Vietnam with the United States. In 1970 when
President Nixon announced a policy for withdrawal from
Vietnam, John Gorton announced one too”.[lx] In the 1966
election, the ALP under Arthur Caldwell, the ALP
campaigned heavily on the conscription and Vietnam
issues but was soundly defeated. Things started to turn

! !!!!!!!!!!! 64

around for the ALP in the 1967 Senate election, where the body rise up in protest like they did in the early 70s if they
Liberal-Country parties' first preference vote dropped by were actually threatened with conscription? One assumes
seven percent, and the ALP's grew by five percent. In that the reaction to the war in Iraq would be quite a bit
America, President Johnson abdicated from the candidacy different if conscription was in practice today. Conscription
of the next election due to the American public response to by itself has shown not to be a contentious issue, and war
the Tet offensive.[lxi] Whitlam became leader of the ALP in by itself rarely provokes mass demonstrations, but when
February 1967. Members of Parliament like Jim Cairns, combined, like they were in the First World War and during
who were passionately opposed to the war and the Vietnam War, they become a formidable and
conscription, found that they expressed their opposition to contentious issue.
the government policies more effectively outside of
parliament than in it.[lxii] Student activity 14

The last Australian troops left Vietnam on 8 December 1. After reading or viewing the texts, suggest why
1971. Conscription was not abolished though, until the ALP Australians used very different tactics to protest against
under Whitlam came into power in 1972. [lxiii] This conscription than their ancestors in Vinegar Hill, the Rum
undoubtedly saved more men from being prosecuted. Rebellion or the Eureka Stockade, given that they were
all forms of protest against what was perceived as unfair
“...in December 1972, I received a letter from the government treatment of citizens.
relevant department asking me to ring them urgently. I did
so and still remember the response at the other end: if the 2. Identify and explain five important beliefs held about the
Coalition had been re-elected in 1972, they had a list of Australian reaction to conscription and the Vietnam War.
non-respondents who were to be rounded up by the
Federal Police. I was on that list.”[lxiv] 3. Conscripts or volunteers — what works best? Write a
paragraph or two stating and explaining your opinion.
A strong part of the anti-Vietnam War protests was the anti-
conscription protest. One wonders if the anti-war FIGURE 1.59 Student
movement would have had as much support as it did, if it activity 14
weren't for the issue of conscription. The Vietnam War itself
was a highly contentious issue for many Australians, but it !!!!!!!!!!! 65
was brought home by conscription — young people who
may not have otherwise thought much about the war or
protesting were forced to think about it when they were
conscripted, or someone they knew was conscripted.
Parallels can be drawn between the public reaction to the
Vietnam War and the public's lack of reaction to the Iraq
War. Would today's largely apathetic and apolitical student

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Footnotes [xv] Ibid, p. 68

[i] Peter Cochrane, “At War and Home: Australian Attitudes [xvi]Downdraft, p. 79
during the Vietnam Years”, in Gregory Pemberton (ed.),
Vietnam Remembered, (Sydney: Weldon, 1990) p. 171 [xvii] Jordens, “Conscription & dissent” p. 68

[ii] M. Hamel-Green, “A history of the anti-conscription [xviii] Ibid.
movement 1964-1972”, in King, Peter (ed.), Australia's
Vietnam (Sydney: George Allen & Unwin, 1983) p. 100 [xix] Ibid, p. 69

[iii] Ibid [xx] Ibid.

[iv] Ibid [xxi] Jordens, “Conscription & dissent”, p. 74

[v] Ibid, p. 101 [xxii] Jeffrey Grey, “Protest and Dissent: Anti-Vietnam War
Activism in Australia”, in Doyle, J., Grey, J., & Pierce, P.
[vi]Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of (eds.), Australia's Vietnam War, (College Station: Texas
Representatives, 10 November 1964, Vol. 44, pp. 2717-8. A&M University Press, 2002) p. 60

[vii] Peter Cook & Corinne Manning, Australia's Vietnam war [xxiii]Downdraft, p. 8
in history and memory, (Melbourne: La Trobe University,
2002) p. 6 [xxiv] Ibid.

[viii] Donald Horne, Time of Hope: Australia 1966-1972, [xxv] Ibid.
(Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1980) p. 52
[xxvi] Ibid, p. 20
[ix] Ibid.
[xxvii] Ibid, p. 16
[x] Chris Guyatt, “The Anti-Conscription Movement”, in Roy
Forward & Bob Reece (eds.), Conscription in Australia, [xxviii] Ibid.
(Brisbane, University of Queensland Press, 1968) p. 178
[xxix] Ibid, p. 17
[xi] Horne, Time of Hope, p. 52
[xxx] J.M. Main, Conscription: The Australian Debate, 1901
[xii] Melbourne Draft Resisters Union, Downdraft: A draft - 1970, (Stanmore: Cassell Australia, 1978) p. 160
resistance manual, (Melbourne: Melbourne Draft Resisters
Union, 1971) p. 85 [xxxi]Downdraft, p. 19

[xiii] Ibid. [xxxii] Bob Scates, Draftmen go free: a history of the anti-
conscription movement in Australia (Richmond, Vic: B.
[xiv] Ann-Mari Jordens, “Conscription & dissent”, in Scates, 1988) p. 76
Gregory Pemberton (ed.), Vietnam Remembered, (Sydney:
Weldon, 1990) p. 67 [xxxiii] Cochrane, At War and Home, p. 177

UWSCollege Pty Ltd! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! [xxxiv] Guyatt, The Anti-Conscription Movement p. 181

[xxxv] Ibid.

!!!!!!!!!!! 66

[xxxvi] Jordens, “Conscription & dissent”, p. 79 [lii] Ann Curthoys, “Mobilising Dissent: The Later stages of
Protest”, in Gregory Pemberton (ed.), Vietnam
[xxxvii] Guyatt, “The Anti-Conscription Movement”, p. 181 Remembered, (Sydney: Weldon, 1990) p. 153

[xxxviii]Tony Duras, Trade Unions and the Vietnam [liii] Ibid, p. 155
War,http://www.anu.edu.au/polsci/marx/interventions/
workers.htm. [liv] Horne, Time of Hope, p. 56

[xxxix] Horne, Time of Hope, p. 52 [lv] Ibid. p. 57

[xl] Brian Buckley, “To the Last American”, in James [lvi] Curthoys, “Vietnam: Public memory of an anti-war
McAuley, et al, The case for conscription and Australian movement”, p. 124
commitment to Vietnam, (Sydney: The Bulletin, 1966) p. 3
[lvii] Ibid, p. 126
[xli] P.T. Findlay, Protest politics and psychological warfare:
the communist role in the Anti-Vietnam War and anti- [lviii] Curthoys, “Vietnam: Public memory of an anti-war
conscription movement in Australia, (Melbourne: Hawthorn movement”, p. 116.
Press, 1968) p. 26
[lix] Ibid, p. 127
[xlii] Jordens, “Conscription & dissent”, p. 74
[lx] Horne, Time of Hope, p. 58-9
[xliii] Ibid.
[lxi] Ibid, p. 55
[xliv]The Seamen's Journal, Vol. 21, No. 6, 1966, p. 3
[lxii] Grey, “Protest and Dissent”, p. 61
[xlv] Ann Curthoys, “Vietnam: Public memory of an anti-war
movement” in Hamilton, Paula & Darian-Smith, Kate (eds.), [lxiii] Curthoys, “Mobilising Dissent'” p. 162
Memory and History in twentieth-century Australia,
(Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1994) p. 130 [lxiv] Interview by the author with John McQuilten, 9/5/2007

[xlvi] Grey, '”Protest and Dissent”, p. 62 !!!!!!!!!!! 67

[xlvii] Curthoys, “Vietnam: Public memory of an anti-war
movement”, p. 130

[xlviii]The Age, 26 July 1967

[xlix] Findlay, Protest politics and psychological warfare, p.
51

[l] Ibid.

[li] Letter from Richard Pullar, Lot's Wife, Vol. 7, No. 4, 1967,
p. 3

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Bibliography The Herald

Primary sources The Sun

Albinski, Henry, Politics and foreign policy in Australia: The Seamen's Journal, Vol. 21, No. 6, 1966
The impact of Vietnam and conscription (Durham, NC:
Duke University Press, 1970). "Why is Brian Ross in Gaol?" (Melbourne, 1970) From
the Monash University Rare Books Collection.
Albinski, Henry, 'Vietnamese Protest & the Australian
Political Protest', Polity, Vol 1, No. 3, 1969, pp. 359-375 Secondary sources

Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates Burgmann, Verity, Power, Profit and Protest: Australian
Social Movements and Globalisation, (Crows Nest: Allen
Findlay, P.T., Protest politics and psychological warfare: & Unwin, 2003)
the communist role in the Anti-Vietnam War and anti-
conscription movement in Australia, (Melbourne: Cochrane, Peter, 'At War and Home: Australian Attitudes
Hawthorn Press, 1968). during the Vietnam Years', in Gregory Pemberton (ed.),
Vietnam Remembered, (Sydney: Weldon, 1990) pp.
Forward, Roy (ed.), Conscription in Australia (Brisbane, 165-185.
University of Queensland Press, 1968)
Cook, Peter & Manning, Corinne, Australia's Vietnam
Hansard war in history and memory, (Melbourne: La Trobe
University, 2002)
Lot's Wife
Curthoys, Ann, 'Vietnam: Public memory of an anti-war
McAuley, James et al, The case for conscription and movement' in Hamilton, Paula & Darian-Smith, Kate
Australian commitment to Vietnam, (Sydney: The (eds.), Memory and History in twentieth-century
Bulletin, 1966) From Monash University Rare Books Australia, (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1994)
Collection. pp. 113-134

Melbourne Draft Resisters Union, Downdraft: A draft Curthoys, Ann, 'Mobilising Dissent: The Later stages of
resistance manual, (Melbourne: Melbourne Draft Protest', in Gregory Pemberton (ed.), Vietnam
Resisters Union, 1971) From Monash University Rare Remembered, (Sydney: Weldon, 1990) pp.
Books Collection.
Duras, Tony, 'Trade Unions and the Vietnam War', http://
Miller, J.D.B., 'An Australian View', International Affairs, www.anu.edu.au/polsci/marx/interventions/workers.htm.
Vol. 42, No. 2, 1966, pp. 230-240. Accessed 10 May 2007.

National Anti-War Conference, Vietnam Moratorium Gerster, Robin & Basset, Jan, Seizures of Youth: The
Campaign, National Anti-War Conference, Sydney, Sixties and Australia, (Melbourne: Hyland House, 1991)
February 17-21, 1971, (Sydney, 1971)

The Age

UWSCollege Pty Ltd! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 68

Grey, Jeffrey, 'Protest and Dissent: Anti-Vietnam War Scates, Bob, Draftmen go free: a history of the anti-
Activism in Australia', in Doyle, J., Grey, J., & Pierce, P. conscription movement in Australia (Richmond, Vic: B.
(eds.), Australia's Vietnam War, (College Station: Texas Scates, 1988).
A&M University Press, 2002) pp. 55-63.
Useem, Michael, Conscription, protest, and social
Hamel-Green, Michael E., 'A history of the anti- conflict : the life and death of a draft resistance
conscription movement 1964-1972', in King, Peter (ed.), movement, (New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1973)
Australia's Vietnam (Sydney: George Allen & Unwin,
1983) pp. 100-128 <http://voices.yahoo.com/the-vietnam-anti-war-movement-
draft-resistance-1810099.html?cat=37>.
Hirst, J., 'Australian defence and conscription: a re-
assessment Part 1' Australian Historical Studies, vol. 25, !!!!!!!!!!! 69
no. 101, 1993, pp. 608-627.

Horne, Donald, Time of Hope: Australia 1966-1972,
(Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1980)

Jordens, Ann-Mari, 'Conscription & dissent', in Gregory
Pemberton (ed.), Vietnam Remembered, (Sydney:
Weldon, 1990) pp. 61-81

Levi, Margaret, 'The Institution of Conscription', Social
Science History, Vol. 20, No. 1, 1996, pp. 133- 167

Main, J.M., Conscription: The Australian Debate, 1901 -
1970, (Stanmore: Cassell Australia, 1978).

Moddell, John & Haggerty, Timothy, 'The Social Impact
of War', Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 17, 1991, pp.
205- 224

Parry, Ann, Conscription, (South Yarra: Macmillan
Education Australia Pty. Ltd, 2006)

Saunders, Malcolm, 'Law and order and the anti-
Vietnam War movement: 1965-72', Australian Journal of
Politics and History, vol. 28, No. 3, 1982, pp. 367-379.

Saunders, Malcolm & Summy, Ralph, The Australian
Peace Movement: A Short History, (Canberra: Australian
National University, 1986)

UWSCollege Pty Ltd! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Songs of protest during the Vietnam war 5. How important are songs in assisting people to
formulate their views about important issues in any
Student activity 15 historical era? Can you cite an example of a song from
current times and explain the impact of the lyrics of
Listen to and view each of the FIGURE 1.60 Student the song you have identified?
protest era songs. You will activity 15
note that each of them has a 6. Khe Sanh was written years after the end of the
different way of expressing Vietnam War ended. How does it contribute to our
opposition to the war: knowledge and understanding of the Vietnam War
era? Is it a protest song? Explain why or why not.
Blowin’ in the Wind.
Turn, Turn, Turn. FIGURE 1.61 Woodstock 1969
Universal Soldier.
With God on our Side.
Give Peace a Chance.
I Was Only 19.
Khe Sanh.

1. Using the Three Level Guide, summarise the way the
anti-war message is being communicated in each of
the songs.

2. Briefly summarise the theme of each song.

3. Do you think the lyrics of these songs are only relevant
to the Vietnam War era, or do any of them have a
message for future generations? Please make a
comment on each song as you reflect on its message.

4. How closely does the message of “I was only 19” Viewed 4 December 2013, <http://
coincide with the views that you have developed about images.cdn.fotopedia.com/flickr-234464601-
the Australian involvement in the Vietnam War? Explain original.jpg>.
how the different sources of information have assisted !!!!!!!!!!!
you to develop a point of view.

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FIGURE 1.63 Bob Dylan, “Blowin' In The Wind” — lyrics

Viewed 7 November 2013. <http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/ How many roads most a man walk down

The_Bob_Dylan_Encyclopedia>. Before you call him a man?


FIGURE 1.62 YouTube: FIGURE 1.64 Chapter 1: How many seas must a white dove sail

Bob Dylan, Blowin in the YouTube: QR code Before she sleeps in the sand?

wind
Yes, how many times must the cannon balls fly

Before they're forever banned?


The answer my friend is blowin' in the wind

The answer is blowin' in the wind.




Yes, how many years can a mountain exist

Before it's washed to the sea?


Yes, how many years can some people exist

Before they're allowed to be free?


Yes, how many times can a man turn his head

Pretending he just doesn't see?


The answer my friend is blowin' in the wind

The answer is blowin' in the wind.




Yes, how many times must a man look up

Before he can see the sky?


Yes, how many ears must one man have

Before he can hear people cry?


Yes, how many deaths will it take till he knows

That too many people have died?


The answer my friend is blowin' in the wind

The answer is blowin' in the wind.

Source; <http://www.lyricsfreak.com/b/bob+dylan/blowin+in+the
+wind_20021159.html>.

<http://www.youtube.com/ 71
watch?v=tSSjM6-fUFE>
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Byrds, “Turn! Turn! Turn!” — lyrics

A time to gain, a time to lose

Words-adapted from The Bible, Book of Ecclesiastes
A time to rend, a time to sew

Music-Pete Seeger
A time for love, a time for hate


A time for peace, I swear it's not too late

To everything (turn, turn, turn)
Source: <http://www.lyricsfreak.com/b/byrds/turn+turn
There is a season (turn, turn, turn)
+turn_20026419.html>.
And a time to every purpose, under Heaven

FIGURE 1.65 YouTube: FIGURE 1.66QR Code:

Byrds Turn! Turn! Turn! Byrds Turn! Turn! Turn!
A time to be born, a time to die
Lyrics Lyrics
A time to plant, a time to reap

http://youtu.be/W4ga_M5Zdn4
A time to kill, a time to heal

A time to laugh, a time to weep
!!!!!!!!!!! 72



To everything (turn, turn, turn)

There is a season (turn, turn, turn)

And a time to every purpose, under Heaven




A time to build up, a time to break down


A time to dance, a time to mourn

A time to cast away stones, a time to gather stones

together




To everything (turn, turn, turn)

There is a season (turn, turn, turn)

And a time to every purpose, under Heaven




A time of love, a time of hate

A time of war, a time of peace

A time you may embrace, a time to refrain from embracing




To everything (turn, turn, turn)

There is a season (turn, turn, turn)

And a time to every purpose, under Heaven


UWSCollege Pty Ltd! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Donovan, “Universal Soldier” — lyrics He's the Universal Soldier and he really is to blame,

His orders come from far away no more,

Artist: Donovan
They come from here and there and you and me,

He's five foot-two, and he's six feet-four,
And brothers can't you see,

He fights with missiles and with spears.

He's all of thirty-one, and he's only seventeen,
This is not the way we put an end to war.

He's been a soldier for a thousand years.

Source: <http://www.lyricsdepot.com/donovan/universal-soldier.html.>.


He's a Catholic, a Hindu, an Atheist, a Jain,
FIGURE 1.67 YouTube: FIGURE 1.68QR Code:
Universal soldier Universal soldier lyrics.
A Buddhist and a Baptist and a Jew.

And he knows he shouldn't kill,
http://youtu.be/PT6NRc37T_8
And he knows he always will,


Kill you for me my friend and me for you.




And he's fighting for Canada,

He's fighting for France,

He's fighting for the USA,


And he's fighting for the Russians,

And he's fighting for Japan,


And he thinks we'll put an end to war this way.




And he's fighting for Democracy,

He's fighting for the Reds,


He says it's for the peace of all.

He's the one who must decide,

Who's to live and who's to die,

And he never sees the writing on the wall.




But without him,

How would Hitler have condemned him at Dachau?

Without him Caesar would have stood alone,

He's the one who gives his body

As a weapon of the war,

And without him all this killing can't go on.


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Bob Dylan, “With God on Our Side” — For you don’t count the dead

When God’s on your side
lyrics
When the Second World War

Oh my name it is nothin’
Came to an end

My age it means less

We forgave the Germans

The country I come from
And we were friends

Is called the Midwest

Though they murdered six million

I’s taught and brought up there
In the ovens they fried

The laws to abide
The Germans now too

Have God on their side
And that the land that I live in

Has God on its side I’ve learned to hate Russians

All through my whole life

Oh the history books tell it
If another war starts

They tell it so well
It’s them we must fight


The cavalries charged
To hate them and fear them

The Indians fell
To run and to hide


The cavalries charged
And accept it all bravely

The Indians died
With God on my side

Oh the country was young
But now we got weapons

With God on its side Of the chemical dust


Oh the Spanish-American
If fire them we’re forced to

War had its day
Then fire them we must

One push of the button

And the Civil War too

Was soon laid away
And a shot the world wide

And the names of the heroes
And you never ask questions

l’s made to memorize

With guns in their hands
When God’s on your side
And God on their side
Through many dark hour

Oh the First World War, boys
I’ve been thinkin’ about this

It closed out its fate

That Jesus Christ

The reason for fighting
Was betrayed by a kiss

I never got straight
But I can’t think for you


But I learned to accept it
You’ll have to decide

Accept it with pride


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Whether Judas Iscariot
John Lennon, “Give Peace a Chance” —
Had God on his side
lyrics
So now as I’m leavin’

I’m weary as Hell
Source: Viewed 4 December 2013, <http://www.absolutelyrics.com/lyrics/
view/john_lennon/give_peace_a_chance>.
The confusion I’m feelin’

Ain’t no tongue can tell
Ev'rybody's talkin' 'bout

The words fill my head
Bagism, Shagism, Dragism, Madism, Ragism, Tagism


And fall to the floor
This-ism, that-ism, ism ism ism

If God’s on our side
All we are saying is give peace a chance

He’ll stop the next war All we are saying is give peace a chance

(C'mon)

Source: http://www.bobdylan.com/us/songs/god-our-side#ixzz2iJ30vbs1 Ev'rybody's talkin' 'bout

Minister, Sinister, Banisters and Canisters,

FIGURE 1.69 YouTube: FIGURE 1.70QR Code: Bishops, Fishops, Rabbis, and Pop Eyes, Bye bye, Bye
With God on our side by With God on our side
Bob Dylan by Bob Dylan byes

All we are saying is give peace a chance

http://youtu.be/cAgAvnvXF9U All we are saying is give peace a chance

(Let me tell you now)

Ev'rybody's talkin' 'bout

Revolution, Evolution, Masturbation, Flagellation,

Regulation,

Integrations, mediations, United Nations, congratulations


All we are saying is give peace a chance

All we are saying is give peace a chance

Ev'rybody's talkin' 'bout

John and Yoko, Timmy Leary, Rosemary,

Tommy Smothers, Bobby Dylan, Tommy Cooper,

Derek Taylor, Norman Mailer, Alan Ginsberg, Hare Krishna


Hare Hare Krishna

All we are saying is give peace a chance

All we are saying is give peace a chance


(Repeat 'til the tape runs out)

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FIGURE 1.71 YouTube: FIGURE 1.73 John Lennon
Give peace a chance,
John Lennon

FIGURE 1.72 YouTube:
QR code:

http://youtu.be/RkZC7sqImaM Viewed 7 November 2013. <http://rock.rapgenius.com/John-lennon-give-peace-a-chance-
lyrics#note-1708697>

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John Schumann, “I Was Only 19 (A Walk in FIGURE 1.74

the Light Green)” — lyrics Viewed 7 November 2013. <http://www.allanfurtado.com/
randyspage>..
Universal Music Publishing Pty Ltd
it was a war within yourself.

Mum and Dad and Denny saw the passing out parade at But you wouldn't let your mates down 'til they had you
Puckapunyal,
dusted off,

(1t was long march from cadets).
so you closed your eyes and thought about something
The Sixth Battalion was the next to tour and it was me who else.

drew the card…
God help me, I was only nineteen.

We did Canungra and Shoalwater before we left.


God help me, I was only nineteen.

And Townsville lined the footpath as we marched down to

the quay;
A four week operation, when each step could mean your
This clipping from the paper shows us young and strong last one on two legs:

and clean;
it was a war within yourself.

And there's me in my slouch hat, with my SLR and
greens…
!!!!!!!!!!! 77
God help me, I was only nineteen.


From Vung Tau riding Chinooks to the dust at Nui Dat,

I'd been in and out of choppers now for months.

But we made our tents a home, VB and pin-ups on the
lockers,

and an Asian orange sunset through the scrub.

 

And can you tell me, doctor, why I still can't get to sleep?

And night time's just a jungle dark and a barking M16?

And what's this rash that comes and goes, can you tell me
what it means?

God help me, I was only nineteen.


A four week operation, when each step could mean your
last one on two legs:


UWSCollege Pty Ltd! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

But you wouldn't let your mates down 'til they had you FIGURE 1.76 YouTube: I FIGURE 1.77 : QR Code:
dusted off,
Was Only 19 (A Walk in I Was Only 19 (A Walk in
so you closed your eyes and thought about something the Light Green the Light Green
else.

http://youtu.be/Urtiyp-G6jY
Then someone yelled out "Contact"', and the bloke behind
me swore.
FIGURE 1.75 US Huey helicopter spraying Agent
We hooked in there for hours, then a God almighty roar;
Organge, Vietnam
Frankie kicked a mine the day that mankind kicked the
moon: -

God help me, he was going home in June.


1 can still see Frankie, drinking tinnies in the Grand Hotel

on a thirty-six hour rec. leave in Vung Tau.

And I can still hear Frankie lying screaming in the jungle.

'Till the morphine came and killed the bloody row


 And the Anzac legends didn't mention mud and blood and
tears,

and stories that my father told me never seemed quite real

I caught some pieces in my back that I didn't even feel…

God help me, I was only nineteen.


And can you tell me, doctor, why I still can't get to sleep?

And why the Channel Seven chopper chills me to my feet?

And what's this rash that comes and goes, can you tell me
what it means?

God help me,

I was only nineteen.

http://www.schumann.com.au/john/lyrics.html

Viewed 4 December 2013, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:US-
Huey-helicopter-spraying-Agent-Orange-in-Vietnam.jpg>.

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Cold Chisel, “Khe Sanh”— lyrics And I've travelled round the world from year to year

And each one found me aimless, one more year the worse
Lyrics: Don Walker for wear

And I've been back to South East Asia

I left my heart to the sappers round Khe Sanh
But the answer sure ain't there

And my soul was sold with my cigarettes to the But I'm drifting north, to check things out again
blackmarket man

I've had the Vietnam cold turkey
You know the last plane out of Sydney's almost gone

From the ocean to the Silver City
Only seven flying hours, and I'll be landing in Hong Kong

And it's only other vets could understand
There ain't nothing like the kisses

From a jaded Chinese princess

About the long forgotten dockside guarantees
I'm gonna hit some Hong Kong mattress all night long
How there were no V-day heroes in 1973

How we sailed into Sydney Harbour
Well the last plane out of Sydney's almost gone

Saw an old friend but couldn't kiss her
Yeah the last plane out of Sydney's almost gone

She was lined, and I was home to the lucky land
And it's really got me worried

And she was like so many more from that time on
I'm goin' nowhere and I'm in a hurry

Their lives were all so empty, till they found their chosen And the last plane out of Sydney's almost gone.
one

And their legs were often open
Lyrics from:<http://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/coldchisel/khesanh.html>.
But their minds were always closed

And their hearts were held in fast suburban chains
FIGURE 1.78 YouTube: FIGURE 1.79QR code:
And the legal pads were yellow, hours long, paypacket lean
Khe Sanh lyrics, Cold Khe Sanh lyrics, Cold
And the telex writers clattered where the gunships once Chisel Chisel
had been

But the car parks made me jumpy
http://youtu.be/dTjvG4WJD_A
And I never stopped the dreams

Or the growing need for speed and novacaine

So I worked across the country end to end

Tried to find a place to settle down, where my mixed up life
could mend

Held a job on an oil-rig, flying choppers when I could

But the nightlife nearly drove me round the bend

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CHAPTER 2

Evolution of text

The aim of this chapter is to trace the evolution of text from 4. identify and use the key features of the vocabulary of
the early graphic texts found on rocks and cave walls and communication and texts, including such features as
stories of the oral tradition through the development of clichés, genre, grammar, idiom, jargon, syntax and
handwriting, the printing press and the explosion of thesis, and
invention and development of communication devices that
are in use today. 5. write about a range of important issues that have been
reflected in Australian texts.
Suggested chapter duration
Reading resources
4 hours
Texts and Communication iBook, UWSCollege, Sydney
Target learning outcomes Texts and Communication vUWS Site

At the completion of this chapter students should be able
to:
1. demonstrate knowledge of a wide range of texts drawn

from the Australian story from its Aboriginal cultural
origins through to its present multicultural form

2. explore and identify the ways that Australians have
communicated and created text over its history

3. evaluate the substance of a text in terms of its origin,
context, motive, audience and reliability

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Chapter 2: Evolution of text: Study tools

FIGURE 2.1 Evolution of text checklist FIGURE 2.2 Evolution of text notes FIGURE 2.3 Evolution of text feedback

Use this checklist to prepare for Use this widget to create study notes Provide your tutor with feedback about
assessments. for this chapter. your knowledge and understanding of
the chapter.

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FIGURE 2.4 Aboriginal rock art Aboriginal rock art — A brief introduction

Source: Brolga Healing Journeys, 19 May 2010, <http://
www.brolgahealingjourneys.com/?p=423#more-423>.

Over the years, we have heard many (white) Australians
comment that they love travelling to Europe because
there is so much more history there. We have probably
been guilty of that ourselves.

But the reality is that Australia is home to the oldest
living culture in the world, and some of its rock art is so
ancient it pre-dates the last ice-age, and possibly the
one before that.

Viewed 26 November 2013, <http://www.brolgahealingjourneys.com/? The age of Australia’s rock art
p=423#more-423>.
Determining the age of rock art is difficult and, indeed,
wonder controversial. Often there are few traces of organic
material on or near the artworks to enable accurate
dating of the art itself. In one famous case (well, in rock
art circles at least), the late expert on Aboriginal rock art
of the Kimberley, Grahame Walsh, discovered a
fossilised wasp nest over the top of one artwork. The
wasp nest has subsequently been dated to around
18,000 years old, with the obvious implication that the
art was at least that old, and possibly much older. 

But let’s not get bogged down in the controversial world
of the carbon-dating and luminescence-dating systems
now used.  Anyone interested can consult the many
academic papers on the issue.  All I need say is that the
rock art of Australia dates from extremely ancient times,
possibly as far back as 40,000 years; well before
“recorded” history, though the art is a record in itself. To
stand in front of one of these works and contemplate the
person creating the work so long ago fills me with

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and questions — what were they like, how did they live, FIGURE 2.5
what was their culture, what were they attempting to
portray in their work? Viewed 26 November 2013, <http://www.brolgahealingjourneys.com/?
p=423#more-423>.
The meaning of art

The art has many meanings of course.  Some is instructive
— “this is the food you will find here”, or “this is a map of
the region”.  Some aims to teach hunting techniques,
tracking, or how to search for local root crops.  Some acts
as a warning — “be careful, there are dangerous spirits
nearby”.  Others act as a tribal record, of genealogy and
hierarchy. Others still serve to warn would-be visitors that
“this place is off limits”, or set aside for ceremonial
purposes.  And finally, some appears to be simply an
expression of the joy of life, such is the beauty and
elegance of the work.

It is easy for the modern visitor to misinterpret the meaning
of works, and for this reason I recommend that wherever
possible, you visit rock art sites with a traditional custodian
of the site; someone who knows what the art means.  A
recent story illustrates this well.  We had visited an art site
in Namadgi National Park, near Canberra.  The site, at a
place now known as Yankee Hat, contains ochre paintings
of Australian fauna.  It is tempting to interpret the paintings
as a sign that these animals are found in the area (ie this is
the local food source).  And indeed that story is told on the
interpretation signs at the site.  But I recently read of an
interview with a local elder, who said that while that is partly
true, the real meaning of the art at that site was to show
that tribes from different regions of the now ACT and NSW,
for whom the animals represented their respective totems,
would meet at this place for trade and ceremony. 

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Some of the works are sacred, portraying creation stories, In some cases, such as the Gwion Gwion (Bradshaw) art of
or were used in initiation ceremonies.  And these works are the Kimberley, the art is so old that knowledge of the
found at sacred sites, places of ancient power.  Modern people who created it and the art’s meaning has been lost
humans blunder into these places without a thought, but in the mists of time.  In fact, the Gwion Gwion (Bradshaw)
traditionally such sites were approached with a sense of art is quite a controversial area.  For many years, it was
reverence, caution, respect and even fear.  Traditional reported that the modern Aboriginal peoples of the
elders still do so today — calling to the spirits as they Kimberley dismissed this art (“rubbish art”), completely
approach, and they remain at the site only as long as ignored it, or said that it had been painted long ago by a
necessary, so as not to anger the spirits.  To visit such a small bird with the blood from its broken beak.  This last
site with a traditional elder is an unforgettable experience.
story may seem strange, but it is interesting to note that the
only colour to have survived time and the elements is the
Unfortunately, the meaning of some rock art has been lost.  deep red ochre — a blood-like stain on the rock.  It was
suggested, by Grahame Walsh among others, that these
FIGURE 2.6 artworks may be the legacy of a civilisation that pre-dated
modern Aboriginal settlement, and that this was why the art
Viewed 26 November 2013, <http://www.brolgahealingjourneys.com/? had no meaning for, or place in, the stories of the now
p=423#more-423>. “traditional” people of the region.  The totally different
UWSCollege Pty Ltd! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! artistic styles of Gwion Gwion art, compared with the more
recent Wandjina art of the current inhabitants, appeared to
give some credence to Walsh’s view. 

The view of Walsh and others like him had possible
implications at the political and legal levels; if the Aboriginal
people now living in those areas weren’t the original
inhabitants of the region, then future native title claims
might come into question.  This was a nonsensical
argument really, because the local people can be shown to
have lived there continuously for thousands of years.  In
any event, a very interesting book published by the
Kimberley Society in 2007 contains photographs from the
late 19th and early 20th centuries showing Aboriginal
people in ceremonial dress and ceremonial postures, highly
reminiscent of those portrayed in the ancient Gwion Gwion
images.  The photographs were taken well before the
current controversy ignited, so there can be no suggestion

! !!!!!!!!!!! 84

FIGURE 2.7 FIGURE 2.8

Viewed 26 November 2013, <http://www.brolgahealingjourneys.com/? Viewed 26 November 2013, <http://www.brolgahealingjourneys.com/?
p=423#more-423>. p=423#more-423>.

that history was being re-written to support the claims of the Kimberley’s Aboriginal people.  When Aboriginal people came
forth during the first decade of this century to claim that the Gwion Gwion images belonged to their tradition, cynics
suggested that this was purely a political stunt.  But those early photographs, to my mind, demonstrate that Aboriginal culture
can indeed be traced to the ancestors who painted those Gwion Gwion images so long ago, even if present-day Aboriginals
have no cultural recollection of the artwork.

The meaning of the rock art of some other regions has been lost for more recent reasons.  The destruction of the Aboriginal
culture of an area has often been responsible for this loss.  In some areas, such as the Kennedy Range National Park in the
southern Pilbara region of Western Australia, the meaning of intricate images is now a mystery because no-one remains with
the traditional knowledge to explain them.  There are many arguments for maintaining traditional culture in Aboriginal society,
the most compelling associated with restoring the well-being and self esteem of the people concerned.  I think this link with
the past, to maintain a continuous and ancient culture, provides another powerful argument.

Often we have visited art sites unaccompanied, both because that is permitted and because traditional custodians are not
always available to take you to a site.  On those occasions we have followed a few simple rules — we never touch the art

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works, we treat the sites with the utmost of respect and, when in doubt, we don’t enter a site or photograph the site.  And
obviously, we would never take anything, other than photographs and memories, from any site.  These guidelines are
common-sense really, but unfortunately not everyone follows them.  If we all treat the sites with respect and minimise our
impact upon them, they will continue to provide inspiration for generations to come.

Types of rock art, regional differences

Some regions of Australia are well-known for their rock art.  The Kimberley, with its stunning Wandjina ochre paintings, and its

elegant and enigmatic Gwion Gwion figures, is

perhaps best known.

FIGURE 2.9 Arhem Land in the Northern Territory (especially

the west of that region) is another well known

region for rock art.  Art sites in Kakadu National

Park are visited every year by tens of thousands

of people.

But travel through remote regions in other parts
of the country and you will regularly encounter
Aboriginal rock art.  I am certain that Australia is
home to an enormous number of art sites.  Some
are regularly visited, while others are so remote
that they are rarely, if ever, visited.  The late
Grahame Walsh is said to have re-discovered
many Gwion Gwion art sites during his life, and
amassed over 1 million photographs of rock art
in the Kimberley.

During our visits to sites around the country, I
have been fascinated to notice stylistic
similarities between regions, such as in the art
from Mutawintji National Park in outback NSW
and that of the distant Burrup Peninsula in the
Pilbara region of Western Australia.

Viewed 26 November 2013, <http://www.brolgahealingjourneys.com/?p=423#more-423>. Some artistic themes and symbols are common
to different regions — concentric circles usually

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represent the presence of waterholes or other less obvious, water sources.  Paintings or engravings of animal tracks generally
show the presence of that animal in the area, although they may also form part of a larger creation story being told.  Dancing
figures often portray ceremonies.

There are, however, many symbols unique to particular sites or regions, and these are often the most interesting.  Some
represent spirit beings, for example the Wandjina of the Kimberley, or the Mimi Spirits and Lightning Man (Namarrgon) of

Arnhem Land. 

FIGURE 2.10 The extent and variety of art sites and subjects across Australia reinforce
the feeling that there has been a long and widespread cultural tradition in
this land.

There are two main types of rock art, ochre paintings and engravings
(petroglyphs). In some rare instances, both forms are combined.

FIGURE 2.11

Viewed 26 November 2013, <http:// Viewed 26 November 2013, <http://www.brolgahealingjourneys.com/?
www.brolgahealingjourneys.com/?p=423#more-423>. p=423#more-423>.

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Perhaps the best known is the ochre painting, where rock, FIGURE 2.12
clay, sand or a mixture are made into a paint using water,
saliva or animal fats, and applied to the rock.  In some Viewed 26 November 2013, <http://www.brolgahealingjourneys.com/?
cases the ochre mixture was placed in the mouth and then p=423#more-423>.
sprayed over a hand placed on the rock, to create the well
known hand stencil art form.

Traditionally, the colours of ochre-based artwork were
“earthy”, and reflected the clays and soils in a region. 
Some high quality ochres, or those with unusual colour,
were traded between tribes.  With the arrival of white
settlers, other colours appeared in artworks, notably blue.

The other major art style is known as petroglyphs, where an
image is chipped or ground out of the rock, using another
rock or tool.  These are the more durable type of art, for
they last until the rock itself erodes away.  This form of art is
perhaps the most widespread across Australia.

Some of the petroglyphs consist only of a shallow outline of
an image chipped into the rock, while others represent an
enormous amount of work and artistic precision, with a
whole panel chipped away, often from extremely hard
surfaces.

In many areas, rock art is to be found in caves or under
rock overhangs, many of which were once used as shelter
by the Aboriginals who created the art.  In many cases the
protected environment of these rock overhangs has aided
the preservation of the art. Unfortunately, in relatively recent
times, feral goats in outback NSW and South Australia have
damaged art sites by sheltering under these overhangs and
rubbing or scratching themselves against the rock.

In other areas, especially the Pilbara of Western Australia,
petroglyphs are found in the open, on exposed boulders. 
The Burrup Peninsula provides the most dramatic example

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of these boulders, with enormous hills consisting of these hard about this myself and have decided that it is,
boulders covered in rock art.  The Burrup Peninsula is a depending upon circumstance and  intention. The
treasure-house of rock art, with an enormous number of photographs here are not for sale — I certainly do not
individual works; estimate range between 250,000 and 1 consider that it would be appropriate for me to benefit
million for the number of artworks in the region. financially from someone else’s artistic creations, even
those made thousands of years ago.  And I have not
The photographs posted any photographs of art where I know that to be
secret/sacred.  We have visited a number of art sites where
We have taken several thousand photographs of rock art photography was not allowed, and I have always respected
across Australia.  We will present some of these images in that wish.  I have put these photographs on the Internet out
galleries relating to specific sites or regions.  This will of a sense of respect and love for them.  My hope is that by
obviously involve a deal of work, so the galleries will be seeing them, more people will become aware of their
added to this site over the coming months. beauty, variety and antiquity, and maybe share a little of my
sense of awe for them.  Too few know about the cultural
Finally, some of you may wonder whether it is culturally treasure of Australia’s Aboriginal rock art.
appropriate for a non-Aboriginal to place photographs of
Aboriginal rock art on the Internet. I have thought long and FIGURE 2.14

FIGURE 2.13

Viewed 26 November 2013, <http:// Viewed 26 November 2013, <http://
www.brolgahealingjourneys.com/?p=423#more-423>. www.brolgahealingjourneys.com/?p=423#more-423>.

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The rock art that redraws our history In a find that has stunned archaeologists and
anthropologists, a vast wall of about 1500 paintings
Rarely seen by white people, the Northern Territory's Djulirri chronicles the history of Aboriginal contact with outsiders,
rock art tells a stunning story of life among Aborigines and from Macassan proas and European sailing ships to 19th-
of their contacts with an outside world. James Woodford century steamships and a World War II battleship.
and photographer Rick Stevens joined a scientific
expedition. Photo: Rick Stevens Alongside exquisite rock art more than 15,000 years old are
FIGURE 2.15 Ship-shape…Daryl Guse, from the paintings that capture some of the 19th and 20th centuries'
Australian National University, with the long-hidden rock most important technological innovations — a biplane,
art at Djulirri in the Wellington Range, Arnhem Land. bicycle, car and rifle — as well as portraits of church
ministers, sea captains and traders.
Viewed 26 November 2013, <http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/rock-art-
redraws-our-history/2008/09/19/1221331206960.html>. This indigenous version of a history book rivals anything
similar in the world and holds the key to Australia's ancient
James Woodford 20 September 2008. and modern history, according to scientists who have just
HIDDEN in rugged ranges in north-west Arnhem Land, a returned from an expedition to the Djulirri rock shelter in the
spectacular treasure-trove of Aboriginal rock art is set to Wellington Range. The Griffith University archaeologist,
rewrite the history of Australia. Professor Paul Tacon, one of five scientists who travelled to
Djulirri, said it was of international significance,
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new story of contact between Aboriginal people and the
world.

Contrary to the popular view that Indigenous Australians
were isolated on their island continent, waves of other
seafaring visitors arrived long before British settlement. For
hundreds of years there may have been an export economy
in northern Australia driven by the Chinese appetite for
trepang, or sea cucumber.

While it has long been known that Macassans traded with
Aboriginal people, the accepted date for this was in the
early 18th century. The team of scientists believes it may
have begun centuries earlier.

"This rock art dismantles the popular identity of Australia
being a nation first visited by the British", said Dr Alistair

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Paterson, of the University of Western Australia, also on the expedition. "It goes Student activity 1
against the idea of the Bicentennial and convicts."
Watch the audio slideshow: An amazing
The first rock art expert known to have seen the shelter was George Chaloupka discovery of Aboriginal rock art dating
in the 1970s. But the exact location was lost until a doctoral student at the back more than 15,000 years, gives voice
Australian National University, Daryl Guse, relocated it by working with a local to the indigenous population and how
Aboriginal elder, Ronald Lamilami. they dealt with change.

Apart from conducting the first full recording of the Djulirri art, the team of FIGURE 2.16 FIGURE 2.17 Web
researchers discovered thousands of other rock paintings previously unknown Window into the
link: QR code
to science past: Web link

Their trip was the first part of a three-year national program to uncover the http://bit.ly/1doC8ti>.
archaeology of first contact with Aboriginal people around Australia. But the
researchers fear that, without urgent government support, the Arnhem Land
sites could be severely damaged. “Tourism is rapidly expanding in the
Wellington Range”, says Griffith University archaeologist, Dr Sally May, “and
one of the most important rock art sites, known as Malarrak, is being severely
degraded by visitors.”

Mining companies are also sweeping into the area. The range is a prime site for
uranium and other exploration. Mr Lamilami wants an indigenous ranger
program established to ensure the sites are properly managed.

Source: Viewed 29 November 2013, <http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/rock-art-redraws-our-
history/2008/09/19/1221331206960.html>.

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Why the stories are told direction that we are giving to our young people on how we
expect them to grow up. How to listen to the old people, but
Told by Aunty Beryl Carmichael also, never to be disobedient. We must never be disobedient;
we must always obey the instructions of our old people and
<http://www.rmwebed.com.au/hsie/y10/abc/dreamtime/dreamtime.htm>. people in authority; always do the right thing; never be
greedy; never be a thief and so on.
My name is Beryl Carmichael and my traditional name is
Yungha-dhu. So all these little things are embedded in the stories to our
children. That's why the stories are so powerful as an
I belong to the Ngiyaampaa people, come from the education tool when we're teaching our young kids. We must
Ngiyaampaa nation and the area we're in now belongs to always refer back to the stories because they're the ones
Eaglehawk and Crow. that's going to give them the guidance that they need today.

I'm a storyteller as well and all the stories have been Stories of the Dreaming — Introduction
handed down to me by my people. I am now custodian of
about twenty-eight stories. Storytelling is an integral part of life for Indigenous
Australians. From an early age, storytelling plays a vital role
The stories are a wonderful and a valuable tool, an in educating children. The stories help to explain how the
education tool in teaching our children, the “Dreamtime” land came to be shaped and inhabited; how to behave and
stories as they are referred to today, we didn't know that why; where to find certain foods, etc.
there was such names for them. Because when the old
people would tell the stories, they'd just refer to them as Gathered around the camp fire in the evening, on an
“marrathal warkan” which means long, long time ago, when expedition to a favourite waterhole, or at a landmark of
time first began for our people, as people on this land after special significance, parents, elders or aunts and uncles use
creation. the stories as the first part of a child's education.

We have various sites around in our country; we call them Then, as children grow into young adults, more of the history
the birthing places of all our stories. And of course, the and culture is revealed. Adults then take responsibility for
stories are embedded with the lore that governs this whole passing on the stories to the following generations. In this
land. The air, the land, the environment, the universe, the way, the stories of the Dreaming have been handed down
stars. over thousands of years.

The stories that we are passing and talking on today, we All the storytellers you will meet on this site are active in
are hoping that, some way, it will help our people — and keeping the stories alive and passing them on to the next
our children, our young people in particular — to get a generation.
better understanding about the lore that governs our lives
today. These are stories of the history and culture of the people,
handed down in this way since the beginning of time, since
No matter what we do, there is always guidance there for the Dreamtime.
us and the guidance comes through in the stories. And the

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In the beginning was the Dreaming

Wandjina made earth and sea and everything. He gave man to live in this earth, for this world, this tribal country. In parts of
the Kimberley region of Western Australia exist the homelands of the mighty Wandjina. Painted mainly with red, yellow and
black lines over a white background, their outline figures stand out boldly from their resting places. Their strange, piercing
eyes give a haunting appearance to their faces, which line certain cave galleries.

The Wandjina control the rains and the pattern of seasons which replenish the resources throughout the Kimberley:

This is Wandjina. There was a time when this earth — he made earth and sea and everything. This is Wandjina — he made
people. Wandjina is Wandjina. He gave man to live in this earth, for this world, this tribal country. He put the Wandjina in the
cave for him to remember this Wandjina, to follow his laws, to go about the right ways...

Aborigines believe that the Wandjina give rain. Then it says that the earth is hot and that it breathes; the earth it breathes, it's
a steam blow up, and it gives cloud to give rain. Rain gives fruit, and everything grows, and the trees and the grass to feed
other things, kangaroos and birds and everything.

With the completion of their earthly tasks, each of the Wandjina turned into a rockface image. There, the Wandjina spirits
continued to live. It is possible for new life to emanate from the figures adorning the cave walls — to re-enter the physical
world as unborn children.

Such places are sites to which local Aborigines have a deeply spiritual attachment. Not everyone
can go there. For those without the right to enter, they are very dangerous places.

Although the paintings represent the bodies of the dead Wandjinas, the spirits of the Wandjinas
live on in much the same way as the Aborigines believe the spirits of human beings continue to
exist after their death.

These Wandjina have considerable powers and the Aborigines are careful to observe a certain
amount of protocol when they approach the paintings, fearing that if they do not, the spirits
might take their revenge.

Viewed 6 January 2014. < http:// This protocol normally consists of calling out to the Wandjinas from several yards' distance, to
bit.ly/Kso3DY >. tell them a party is approaching and will not harm the paintings ... Should the Wandjinas be
offended, the Aborigines believe that they will take their revenge by calling up the lightning to
strike the offender dead, or the rain to flood the land and drown the people, or the cyclone with
its gales which devastate the country.

Acknowledgement: The Dreamtime stories used in this iBook have been accessed from website: www.dreamtime.net.au/
dreaming/index.htm

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Aboriginal dreaming stories

The Australian Aborigines speak of jiva or guruwari, a "seed power" deposited in the earth. In the
Aboriginal world view, every meaningful activity, event, or life process that occurs at a particular
place leaves behind a vibrational residue in the earth, as plants leave an image of themselves as
seeds. The shape of the land — its mountains, rocks, riverbeds, and waterholes — and its unseen
vibrations echo the events that brought that place into creation. Everything in the natural world is a
symbolic footprint of the metaphysical beings whose actions created our world. As with a seed, the
potency of an earthly location is wedded to the memory of its origin. The Aborigines called this
potency the "Dreaming" of a place, and this Dreaming constitutes the sacredness of the earth. Only
in extraordinary states of consciousness can one be aware of, or attuned to, the inner dreaming.

Viewed 6 January 2014. Source: Faces of the first day: Awakening in the Aboriginal dreamtime by Robert Lawlor
<http://bit.ly/1hq3x5k>.

The Australian Aborigines believe that long, long ago the earth was soft and had no form. The
features of the landscape were created as the result of the heroic acts of ancestral spirits, who often
assumed the form of animals. The origins of land shapes—mountains, deserts, and water holes—echo these events, which
the Aborigines refer to as Dreamtime. For at least fifty thousand years, the Aborigines have maintained the traditions of
Dreamtime through stories, music, dance, art, and ceremony. And in the land around Kakadu, this tradition is honoured today.

Source: Animal dreaming: An Aboriginal dreamtime story by Paul Morin

Student activity 2 FIGURE 2.18 Student
activity 2
1. In what ways are indigenous Australian images important both as ancient and modern
forms of communication?

2. How do these images fulfil the role as communication channels?

3. Would modern non-indigenous people be able to understand the nature of these
communications even if they did not have indigenous people to assist explaining them?
Explain.

4. How important is the combination of graphics and the oral tradition in helping to support
each other to inform contemporary society about ancient understandings?

5. To what extent have your views on traditional indigenous culture been affected by your
understanding of its graphic and oral traditions? Why?

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What is a manuscript?

Manuscripts were books that were written by hand during the medieval period. Many manuscripts were produced during the
medieval era (AD 500 –1500).  Manuscripts were used before the invention of printing presses, which meant that they were
time consuming and very expensive to make.    Manuscripts were for the most part written parchment or vellum, which were
writing materials made from animal skins.  People called scribes were responsible for copying the works of authors by hand.

Nota Bene: (Note well — nb)

Nota — take note of (from the verb notare).

Bene — well. The word manuscript is derived from two Latin words:

Manus — a hand

Scribo — I write

Therefore the word means a handwritten document!

Significance of manuscripts

Manuscripts were very important aspects of medieval society.  They represented major religious, social, and artistic beliefs of
the period.  Because manuscripts were very expensive to make, they often served as status symbols.  Most people who
owned manuscripts held high-ranking positions in society.  The major themes of manuscripts were religion (particularly
Christianity), art, and literary characters.

Most documents were produced in monasteries by specialist monks called scribes, who worked in a scriptorium, a room
specifically set up for the production and preservation of documents.

Latin, the language of the ancient Romans, became the dominant written language in Europe up until the time of the
Reformation in the early 1500s. When the power of the Catholic Church was broken, local languages were used much more
often (the vernacular) and this time coincided with the invention of the printing press which revolutionised the availability and
cost of communication documents. (Inserted by Jan Davies)

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How a manuscript is made

All manuscript images were retrieved january 6 2014. <http://www.uncp.edu/home/canada/work/markport/lit/introlit/ms.htm>.

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Parchment and vellum the original works of authors into books. Scribes did not
live a life of leisure; instead, they took their work very
Parchment and vellum are terms that are often used seriously. In fact, they were often punished if they
interchangeably.  Parchment and vellum are writing neglected their duties. Below are some skills that most
materials made from the skins of sheep, calves or goats. medieval scribes possessed:
They have also been used for painting and occasionally for
printing and bookbinding. Vellum is a finer quality knowledge of the Latin language
parchment.  Parchment was eventually replaced by paper. excellent eyesight
good penmanship
Below are some of the steps that are involved in the ability to read the writing of the person's work that was
process of making parchment: being copied.
Scribes used quills made of goose feathers to write their
1. soaking manuscripts.

2. unhairing They also kept penknives on hand to sharpen the quills
when they became dull.
3. fleshing
FIGURE 2.19
4. re-liming

5. de-liming

6. stretching/drying/finishing.

Paper

Paper is a thin sheet of material made from cellulose
fibres.  The earliest known paper still around today was
made about AD 150 out of rags and fibres.  Originally
created by the Chinese, paper was introduced into Japan
in 610.  Paper appeared in Egypt around 800 in the form of
papyrus.  Paper differs from parchment because it is made
from plants, fibres, and wood pulp.  Paper eventually
replaced parchment as the dominant form of writing
material.

The roles of scribes Viewed 26 November: <http://www.georgetown.edu/labyrinth/
subjects/mss/scribe.gif>.
Scribes played the most important roles in the production
of medieval manuscripts. Before the invention of the ! !!!!!!!!!!! 98
printing press, scribes were people who copied by hand

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Examples of Manuscripts FIGURE 2.21 Illuminated Manuscripts

FIGURE 2.20 An example of a medieval manuscript

Viewed 25 November 2013. <http://www.columbia.edu/cu/libraries/indiv/ Viewed 25 November 2013. <http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/Paper-exhibit/
rare/images/img0062/small.jpg>. images/E3856_0015.jpg>.

IIlluminated manuscripts are manuscripts that have
colourful illustrations or pictures in them. They are not
intended to convey textual information from an author to
the reader. Their primary function is to serve as decoration
which pays tribute to the subject of the book. Often
illuminated manuscripts honoured God and other themes of
Christianity.

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