Water Resources Assessment Report

4. Reliability of Water Points:

The reliability of water sources in the surveyed water sources was analyzed based on
Permanent (P), None Permanent (NP) and Unknown (UN) status of the water sources.
Results of this analysis are presented in table 4.18.

Table 4.18: Reliability of water sources according to source types

District Borehole Shallow Wells Dam
Dinsoor P NP UN
P* NP* UN* P NP UN - 13 -
Number of points
1- 3 155 17 8

5. Management

The management of water sources in the surveyed water sources was analyzed based on
community, private and other management (Table 4.19).

Table 4.19: Management of water points Communal 90.45%
Private/Individual 8.04%
District Communal Private/Individual Other Other 1.51%
Dinsoor 180 16 3

Management

Figure 4.20: Management type of assessed water points in Dinsoor District

6. Interventions Required

It came out from the analysis that only 1.37% of the total water points assessed are currently
not in need for any interventions. The other sources require interventions, 2.74% need
development and cleaning by air compressor, 54.79% of the assessed water points need full
rehabilitation and 28.77% need quick rehabilitation like provision of generators, oil and fuel
(Fig 4.21).

None 12.37%

Well development 14.52%

Full rehabilitation 18.28%

Quick rehabilitation 54.84%

Figure 4.21: Interventions required for the water points assessed in Dinsoor District

7. Water Quality

The most reliable source of water for Dinsoor is hand dug wells. The sanitary conditions of
the wells are poor and most of them may be polluted, E. C values ranged from 1012 to 9860
micomohs/cm. Water is chloridic in most of the wells.

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 51

Table 4.20: Average of water quality parameters of assessed water points

District PH EC (µS/cm)@ 25⁰C Depth (m) Water level (m)
Dinsoor Min Max Min Max
Min Max 70 200 Min Max
Borehole 7 7.6 12 70 30.1 65
Shallow Well 7.1 8.3 1500 11400
1012 9860 9 65

The increase in water salinity and the change in water quality during dry months are probably
due to heavily pumping which drains water from surrounding saltier areas.

General Water Demands

Along with groundwater sources, many rain collecting structures such as wars or berkads also
support the basic water supply. In many places even dug wells are missing and rain water
collectors are the only water sources used. Based on UNFPA (2014) statistical data, the basic
water demands (30 l/p/d) plus losses (Table 4.21):

Table 4.21: Average of drinking water demands of Dinsoor population

District Population Water Losses Total Total
Dinsoor (UNFPA, 2014) demands/day/person 30% Demand Demand
m3/day
Water Demand 96,723 0.03 m3/day l/s
3,772.2
43.66

By applying a correction factor for urban consumers (+0.2 l/p/d x 64,482 inhabitants), total
estimated human drinking water demands are 58.6 l/s.

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 52

4.4 Qansahdhere Water Resources Inventory

Qansahdheere is a town in the southern Bay region of Somalia. Qansahdhere has a population
of around 119,631 inhabitants (UNDP, 2014) and it’s occupies an area of 3,211 km2. The
district has experienced a considerable population increase and IDP influx in the recent years
due to drought and on-going crisis in the region. Qansahdhere town is located 78 km
southwest of the regional center Baidoa.

The climate in Qansahdhere is arid with mean annual rainfall estimated to be between 400 to
468 mm. The mean annual maximum and minimum temperatures are 35 and 20 C°
(SWALIM, 2017). Road conditions are poor especially during the rainy seasons.
Qansahdhere district does not have a permanent river but it has small valleys. Agricultural
activities are rather limited.

Present Water Supply

Types and distribution of Assessed Water Points:

81 water sources assessed in Qansahdhere district including boreholes, shallow wells, and
rain water catchments (dams) (Fig 4.22). A short description for distribution of these water
sources is given in table 4.22.

Majority of the water sources assessed are boreholes distributed all over district only 5
boreholes are not working and they need full rehabilitation. All hand dug wells assessed are
not lined with exception of the top parts which is protected by a cement rim and logs. Most of
the wells are dug in caliches and hard limestone.

Boreholes (18.52%) are the dominant permanent water sources for Qansahdhere district with
rain water harvesting dams (65.43%). 15 Boreholes in district, 10 of them are working and 5
need rehabilitation. In total, the surveyors assessed 81 water sources in Qansahdhere district,
65.43% of them are seasonally work.

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 53

Figure 4.22: Location Map of Assessed Water Points in Qansahdhere District

Table 4.22: Types and distribution of assessed water points in Qansahdhere district:

Region Bay Borehole Shallow Wells Dam Total
District: Qansahdhere
# 15 13 53 81
%
18.52 16.05 65.43 100

Dam 53 Borehole 18.52%
Shallow Wells Shallow Wells 16.05%
13 Dam 65.43%
Borehole 15

Figure 4.23: Percentage of water sources distribution in Qansahdhere District

1. Accessibility and Operational Status

Access to safe water is the percentage of people within 5 km (rural) and 2 km (urban) of an
improved water source. Water source information presented in this map (Fig 4.24) is based
on available water points assessed. Therefore, water source coverage and operational status
level change over time.

Accessibility is based on aerial distance, assumed that people travel most direct route in plain
area. 63.9% of the total area of Qansahdhere district is not covered by protected water source,
especially the western and northern parts of the district.

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 54

Figure 3.24: Water sources, accessibility and operational status Qansahdhere District

2. Users of Assessed Water Points:

Majority of the sources are in and around Qansahdhere town. The rural users of all sources
surveyed amounted to 5.63%, Urban 88.73% and Nomadic 5.63% (Table 4.23). Some
sources are used by both nomadic and rural users.

Table 4.23: Number of water point by user’s types:

District Borehole Shallow Wells Dam

Qansahdhere Urb Rur Nom Urb Rur Nom Urb Rur Nom
%
9 4 2 8 5 - - 33 20

60 26.67 13.33 61.54 38.46 - - 62.3 37.74

Shallow Nom 37.74%
Borehole Wells Dam Rur
Urb 62.26%

Nom 38.46% 61.54% Urban 40.51%
Rur 60.00% Rural 42.46%
Urb 13.33% Nomad 17.02%
26.67%
Nom
Rur
Urb

Figure 4.25: Users of all water sources surveyed in Qansahdhere District

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 55

Looking at different types of water sources (Table 4.23), the analysis indicated Boreholes and
Shallow wells are highly utilized by urban and rural users, with Dams in high preference
among rural and nomad populations.

3. Functionality of Water Points:

Only 10 of 15 boreholes assessed are functional during the assessment period. There is need
for full rehabilitation for 5 boreholes (Table 4.24). The functionalities of boreholes, shallow
wells are calculated to be 66.7% and 76.9% respectively while most of the dams are dry.

Table 4.24 Functionality of assessed water points in Qansahdhere district

District Borehole Shallow Wells Dam

Qansahdhere F* NF* AB* F NF AB F NF AB
Functionality (%) 10 3 2 10 - 3 - 53 -

66.7 76.9 0

Dam 0% Low Yield 4.41%
Shallow well Dry 77.94%
76.92% Tech Breakdown 7.35%
Borehole 66.67% Water Qlty 7.35%
Other 2.94%

Figure 4.26: Functionality and Reasons for Non-Functionality of assessed water points

Shallow wells had the highest operational functionality. Majority of the sources in rural areas
are not working due to water quality, dryness or technical problems and lack of regular
rehabilitation. Reasons for non-functionality were categorized as low yield (4.41%), technical
breakdown (7.35%), dry (77.94%), water quality (7.35%) and other (2.94%).

4. Reliability of Water Points:

The reliability of water sources in the surveyed water sources was analyzed based on
Permanent (P), None Permanent (NP) and Unknown (UN) status of the water sources.
Results of this analysis are presented in table 4.25.

Table 4.25: Reliability of water sources according to source types

District Borehole Shallow Wells Dam
Qansahdhere P NP UN P NP UN
P* NP* UN* 10 3 - 53 -
Number of points
10 3 2

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 56

5. Management

The management of water sources in the surveyed water sources was analyzed based on
community, private and other management (Table 4.26).

Table 4.26: Management of water points

District Communal Private/Individual Other Communal 17.50%
Qansahdhere 14 62 4 Private/Individual 77.50%
Other 5%
Management

Figure 4.27: Management type of assessed water points in Qansahdhere District

6. Interventions Required

It came out from the analysis that only 27.16% of the total water points assessed are currently
not in need for any interventions. The other sources require interventions, 8.64% need
development and cleaning by air compressor, 24.69% of the assessed water points need full
rehabilitation and 39.51% need quick rehabilitation like provision of generators, oil and fuel
(Fig 3.29).

None 27.16%
Well development
Full rehabilitation 8.64%
Quick rehabilitation
24.69%

39.51%

Figure 4.28: Interventions required for the water points assessed in Qansahdhere District

7. Water Quality

The most reliable source of water for Qansahdhere is hand dug wells. The sanitary conditions
of the wells are poor and most of them may be polluted. In most of the water sources visited
the E.C values ranged from 866 to 3086 micomohs/cm. Water is chloridic in most of the
wells.

Table 4.27: Average of water quality parameters of assessed water points

District PH EC (µS/cm)@ 25⁰C Depth (m) Water level (m)
Qansahdhere Min Max Min Max
Min Max 60 120 Min Max
Borehole 7 7.4 15 40 30 87
Shallow Well 7.3 8.1 2020 2660 8 35
866 3086

The increase in water salinity and the change in water quality during dry months are probably
due to heavily pumping which drains water from surrounding saltier areas.

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 57

General Water Demands

Along with groundwater sources, many rain collecting structures such as wars or berkads also
support the basic water supply. In many places even dug wells are missing and rain water
collectors are the only water sources used. Based on UNFPA (2014) statistical data, the basic
water demands (30 l/p/d) plus losses, are as follows (Table 4.28):

Table 4.28: Average of drinking water demands of Qansahdhere population

District Population Water Losses Total Total
demands/day/person 30% Demand Demand
Qansahdhere (UNFPA, 2014) m3/day
0.03 m3/day l/s
Water Demand 119,631 4,665.6
53.88

By applying a correction factor for urban consumers (+0.2 l/p/d x 39,877 inhabitants), total
estimated human drinking water demands are 63.11/s.

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 58

4.5 Xudur Water Resources Inventory

Xudur is district in the south Western Bakool region of Somalia. It serves as the province's
capital and is the capital of the Bakool region. Xudur is located on a flat rocky plain at 480 m
above sea level. According to UNDP, which carried out a population survey in 2014, Xudur
has presently about 110,003 inhabitants and it’s occupies an area of 5,538 km2. The town has
received a consistent flow of refugees.

The climate is semi-arid with a mean annual rainfall of 362 mm; with a maximum of 752 mm
and minimum of 214 mm per year. The wettest months are April, May, October and
November. The mean annual minimum and maximum temperatures are 20 and 34 degree
Celsius, respectively. The mean yearly relative humidity is 56%and varies from 46% in
March to 56% in May (SWALIM, 2017). Road conditions are poor especially during the
rainy seasons.

Present Water Supply

Types and distribution of Assessed Water Points:

There are 728 water sources assessed in Xudur district include boreholes, shallow wells and
Dams (Fig 4.29). Rain water harvesting reservoirs (wars or dams) in Xudur which supply
water for a short time after time the rainy seasons; they are dug in saline gypsiferous white
clay limestone. Runoff water on saline soil and high evaporation is the cause of the high
salinity of the wars. 7 boreholes and 668 shallow wells assessed in Xudur district represent
the main water supply to Xudur. They yield water all year round and are used intensively for
all purposes. During the dry seasons thousands of livestock travel long distances to be
watered at Xudur wells. A short description for distribution of these water sources is given in
table 4.29. The shallow wells are unprotected from pollution, these wells tap a shallow
aquifer and their depth varies from 5 to 10m below the ground level, water is draw mainly by
rubber buckets.

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 59

Figure 4.29: Location Map of Assessed Water Points in Xudur District

Shallow wells (91.76%) are the dominant permanent water sources for Xudur district with
boreholes (4.89%). 13 Boreholes in district tapped the shallow and the deep aquifers at
various depths, 7 boreholes visited during the assessment and only 3 of them are working.

Table 4.29: Types and distribution of assessed water points in Xudur district:

Region Bakool Borehole Shallow Wells Dam Total
District: Xudur # 7 52 728
668 7.28 100
% 0.96 91.76

Dam 52

Borehole 0.96%

Shallow Wells 668 Shallow Wells 91.76%

Borehole 7 Dam 7.28%

Figure 4.30: Percentage of water sources distribution in Xudur District

1. Accessibility and Operational Status

Access to safe water is the percentage of people within 5 km (rural) and 2 km (urban) of an
improved water source. Water source information presented in this map (Fig 4.31) is based

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 60

on available water points assessed. Therefore, water source coverage and operational status
level change over time. Accessibility is based on aerial distance, assumed that people travel
most direct route in plain area. 46.02% of the total area of Xudur district is not covered by
protected water source, especially the northwest and south parts of the district.

Figure 4.31: Water sources, accessibility and operational status Xudur District

2. Users of Assessed Water Points:

Majority of the sources are in and around Xudur town. The rural users of all sources surveyed
amounted to 5.63%, Urban 88.73% and Nomadic 5.63% (Table 4.30). Some sources are used
by both nomadic and rural users.

Table 4.30: Number of water point by user’s types:

District Borehole Shallow Wells Urb Dam
-
Xudur Urb Rur Nom Urb Rur Nom Rur Nom
% 2 5- 119 149 400 52 -
17.81 22.31 59.88 100
28.57 71.43

From the table above the analysis indicated shallow wells and boreholes are highly utilized
by urban and rural users, with dams in high preference among rural and nomad populations.

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 61

Shallow Nom 53 400 Urban 40.51%
Borehole Wells Dam Rur Rural 42.46%
Urb 0 149 Nomad 17.02%
5 119
Nom 2
Rur
Urb

Nom
Rur
Urb

Figure 4.32: Users of all water sources surveyed in Xudur District

3. Functionality of Water Points:

During the field survey only 3 of 7 boreholes assessed are functional. There is need for full
rehabilitation for 4 boreholes (Table 4.31). The functionalities of boreholes, shallow wells are
calculated to be 42.68% and 76.9% respectively while most of the dams are dry.

Table 4.31: Functionality of assessed water points in Xudur district

District Borehole Shallow Wells Dam

Xudur F* NF* AB* F NF AB F NF AB
Functionality (%) - 52 -
34 615 33 20
0
42.68 92.07

Dam 0 Low Yield 3.13%
Shallow well Dry 55.21%
92.07 Tech Breakdown 20.83%
Borehole Water Qlty 15.63%
42.86 Other 5.21%

Figure 4.33: Functionality and Reasons for Non-Functionality of assessed water points

Shallow wells had the highest operational functionality. Majority of the sources in rural areas
are not working due to water quality, dryness or technical problems and lack of regular
rehabilitation. Reasons for non-functionality were categorized as low yield (3.13%), technical
breakdown (20.83%), dry (55.21%), water quality (15.63%) and other (5.21%).

4. Reliability of Water Points:

The reliability of water sources in the surveyed water sources was analyzed based on
Permanent (P), None Permanent (NP) and Unknown (UN) status of the water sources.
Results of this analysis are presented in table 4.32.

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 62

Table 4.32: Reliability of water sources according to source types

District Borehole Shallow Wells Dam
Xudur P NP UN
P* NP* UN* P NP UN - 52 -
Number of points
31 3 555 70 33

5. Management

The management of water sources in the surveyed water sources was analyzed based on
community, private and other management (Table 4.33).

Table 4.33: Management of water points

District Communal Private/Individual Other Communal 30.49%
Xudur 222 501 5 Private/Individual 68.82%
Other 0.69%
Management

Figure 4.34: Management type of assessed water points in Xudur District

6. Interventions Required

It came out from the analysis that only 1.37% of the total water points assessed are currently
not in need for any interventions. The other sources require interventions, 2.74% need
development and cleaning by air compressor, 54.79% of the assessed water points need full
rehabilitation and 28.77% need quick rehabilitation like provision of generators, oil and fuel
(Fig 4.35).

None 85.58%
Well development
Full rehabilitation 0.96%
Quick rehabilitation 3.71%
9.75%

Figure 4.35: Interventions required for the water points assessed in Xudur District

7. Water Quality

The shallow aquifer has a relatively moderate salt content. The E.C in 18 hand dug wells
varied between 1050and 3370 micomohs/cm in April 2017. One will in Xudur (Usboeelow),
believed to be highly polluted by organic matter and have more than 10000 micomohs/cm.
Water quality change considerable with pumping of water and this due to the lithological
differences between the geological formations. Calcium sulphate water is found in most of
the shallow wells.

The increase in water salinity and the change in water quality during dry months are probably
due to heavily pumping which drains water from surrounding saltier areas.

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 63

Table 3.34: Average of water quality parameters of assessed water points

District PH EC (µS/cm)@ 25⁰C Depth (m) Water level (m)
Xudur Min Max Min Max
7.4 7.6 Min Max 70 176 Min Max
Borehole 7.2 8.5 6 130
Shallow Well 2700 7600 5 18 1 16
1050 10380

General Water Demands

Along with groundwater sources, many rain collecting structures such as wars or berkads also
support the basic water supply. In many places even dug wells are missing and rain water
collectors are the only water sources used. Based on UNFPA (2014) statistical data, the basic
water demands (30 l/p/d) plus losses, are as follows (Table 4.35):

Table 4.35: Average of drinking water demands of Xudur population

District Population Water Losses Total Total
Xudur (UNFPA, 2014) demands/day/person 30% Demand Demand
m3/day
Water Demand 110,003 0.03 m3/day l/s
4,290.117
49.65

By applying a correction factor for urban consumers (+0.2 l/p/d x 39,877 inhabitants), total
estimated human drinking water demands are 58.9 l/s.

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 64

4.6 Wajid Water Resources Inventory

Wajid is district in the southern Bakool region of Somalia and it’s located about 85 km NNW
of Baidoa town. It is an important trading center for nomadic and pastoral people. According
to UNDP, which carried out a population survey in 2014, Wjaid has presently about 82,393
inhabitants and it’s occupies an area of 2,795 km2. The town has received a consistent flow of
refugees. Wajid town was built on the edge of a broad, elongated depression, covered by
caliche overlaying stratified limestone.
The climate in Wajid is arid with a mean annual rainfall estimated to be between 300 mm and
350 mm. The potential evapotranspiration and the mean yearly relative humidity are expected
to be similar to those of Xudur, estimated at 2,500 mm and at 56% respectively (SWALIM,
2017). An all-weather gravel road connects Wajid to Baidoa and Xudur. Several villages in
the area are connected to Xudur by trucks.

Present Water Supply

Types and distribution of Assessed Water Points:

Wajid district relies on 943 boreholes, shallow wells and Dams distributed all over district
(Fig 4.36) for its water needs. There are only 3 boreholes the older one drilled in the 1960s
and the depths various between 80 and 284 m. All hand dug wells are not lined with
exception of the top part which is protected by cement rim in some shallow wells. Most of the
wells are dug in caliche and hard limestone. People reported the lower part of these wells
drops during the dry season but the well never dry up. As most of the wells are not properly
protected, it is expected the pollution may be one of the major problems of these wells. The
water level in wells varies from 2 m for wells close to the bottom of the depression to 6 – 7 m
for those located at higher elevations, below the ground level; water is draw mainly by rubber
buckets. Surface dams are common in district which supplies water for a short time after time
the rainy seasons. A short description for distribution of these water sources is given in table
4.36.

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 65

Figure 4.36: Location Map of Assessed Water Points in Wajid District

Shallow wells (91.76%) are the dominant permanent water sources for Wajid district with
boreholes (4.89%). 13 Boreholes in district tapped the shallow and the deep aquifers at
various depths, 7 boreholes visited during the assessment and only 3 of them are working.

Table 4.36: Types and distribution of assessed water points in Wajid district:

Region Bakool Borehole Shallow Wells Dam Total
District: Wajid # 3 14 943
926 1.48 100
% 0.32 98.2

Dam 14 Borehole 0.32%
Shallow Wells 926 Shallow Wells 98.2%

Borehole 3 Dam 1.48%

Figure 4.37: Percentage of water sources distribution in Wajid District

1. Accessibility and Operational Status

Access to safe water is the percentage of people within 5 km (rural) and 2 km (urban) of an
improved water source. Water source information presented in this map (Fig 4.38) is based
on available water points assessed. Therefore, water source coverage and operational status
level change over time. Accessibility is based on aerial distance, assumed that people travel

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 66

most direct route in plain area. 61.21% of the total area of Wajid district is not covered by
protected water source, especially the eastern, southern and northern parts of the district.

Figure 4.38: Water sources, accessibility and operational status Wajid District

2. Users of Assessed Water Points:

Majority of the sources are in and around Wajid town. The rural users of all sources surveyed
amounted to 43.69%, Urban 44.22% and Nomadic 12.09% (Table 4.37). Some sources are
used by both nomadic and rural users.

Table 4.37: Number of water point by user’s types:

District Borehole Shallow Wells Urb Dam Nom
4 -
Wajid Urb Rur Nom Urb Rur Nom Rur
% 1 2- 412 400 114 28.57 10
44.49 43.20 12.31 71.43
33.33 66.67

Shallow Nom 10 114 Urban 44.22%
Borehole Wells Dam Rur 4 Rural 43.69%
Urb 400 Nomad 12.09%
2 412
Nom 1
Rur
Urb

Nom
Rur
Urb

Figure 4.39: Users of all water sources surveyed in Wajid District

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 67

3. Functionality of Water Points:

During the field survey all the 3 boreholes assessed are functional. There is need for full
rehabilitation for 3 boreholes (Table 4.38). The functionalities of boreholes, shallow wells are
calculated to be 42.68% and 76.9% respectively while most of the dams are dry.

Table 4.38: Functionality of assessed water points in Wajid district

District Borehole Shallow Wells Dam

Wajid F* NF* AB* F NF AB F NF AB
Functionality (%) 3 - - 780 102 44 - 14 -

100 84.23 00

Dam 84.23 Low Yield 1.2%
Shallow well Dry 33.13%
100 Tech Breakdown 24.10%
Borehole Water Qlty 39.76%
Other 1.81%

Figure 4.40: Functionality and Reasons for Non-Functionality of assessed water points

Shallow wells had the highest operational functionality. Majority of the sources in rural areas
are not working due to water quality, dryness or technical problems and lack of regular
rehabilitation. Reasons for non-functionality were categorized as low yield (1.2%), technical
breakdown (24.10%), dry (33.13%), water quality (39.76%) and other (1.81%).

4. Reliability of Water Points:

The reliability of water sources in the surveyed water sources was analyzed based on
Permanent (P), None Permanent (NP) and Unknown (UN) status of the water sources.
Results of this analysis are presented in table 4.39.

Table 4.39: Reliability of water sources according to source types

District Borehole Shallow Wells Dam
Wajid P NP UN
P* NP* UN* P NP UN - 14 -
Number of points
21 660 222 44

5. Management

The management of water sources in the surveyed water sources was analyzed based on
community, private and other management (Table 3.40).

Table 4.40: Management of water points

District Communal Private/Individual Other
Wajid 567 370 6

Management

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 68

Communal 77.88%
Private/Individual 50.82%
Other 0.82%

Figure 4.41: Management type of assessed water points in Wajid District

6. Interventions Required

It came out from the analysis that only 51.28% of the total water points assessed are currently
not in need for any interventions. The other sources require interventions, 19.23% need
development and cleaning by air compressor, 12.82% of the assessed water points need full
rehabilitation and 25.64% need quick rehabilitation like provision of generators, oil and fuel
(Fig 4.42).

None 51.28%
Well development
Full rehabilitation 19.23%
Quick rehabilitation 12.82%

25.64%

Figure 4.42: Interventions required for the water points assessed in Wajid District

7. Water Quality

Water quality in all the wells in Wajid is reported to be good all year around due to its rather
law salt content. However, sanitary conditions of the shallow wells are poor and most of them
may be polluted. Of the 7 of the shallow well visited, the E.C values were 370 and 2170
micomohs/cm and for the boreholes the E.C values were 252 and 2200 micomohs/cm
respectively, the yield of the boreholes is about 5 to 6 m3/h. Water is chloridic in most of the
wells.

Table 4.41: Average of water quality parameters of assessed water points

District PH EC (µS/cm)@ 25⁰C Depth (m) Water level (m)
Wajid Min Max Min Max Min Max
7.2 8.6 252 2200 85 284 Min Max
Borehole 6.8 8.3 370 2170 72 274
Shallow Well 69 25

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 69

General Water Demands

Along with groundwater sources, many rain collecting structures such as wars or berkads also
support the basic water supply. In many places even dug wells are missing and rain water
collectors are the only water sources used. Based on UNFPA (2014) statistical data, the basic
water demands (30 l/p/d) plus losses, are as follows (Table 4.42):

Table 4.42: Average of drinking water demands of Wajid population

District Population Water Losses Total Total
Wajid (UNFPA, 2014) demands/day/person 30% Demand Demand
m3/day
Water Demand 82,393 0.03 m3/day l/s
3,213
37.19

By applying a correction factor for urban consumers (+0.2 l/p/d x 27,464 inhabitants), total
estimated human drinking water demands are 43.54 l/s.

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 70

4.7 El Barde Water Resources Inventory

El Barde is district in the southwestern Bakool region of Somalia lies on the border with
Ethiopia. El Barde District has a total population of 44,513 residents (UNDP 2014) and
occupies an area of 7,782 km2. El Barde is located about 83 km NNW of Xudur town. It is an
important trading center for nomadic and pastoral people. The climate in El Barde is arid with
a mean annual rainfall estimated to be between 350 mm and 400 mm. The potential
evapotranspiration and the mean yearly relative humidity are expected to be similar to those
of Xudur, estimated at 2,500 mm and at 56% respectively (SWALIM, 2017). Road conditions
are poor especially during the rainy seasons.

Present Water Supply

Types and distribution of Assessed Water Points:

El Barde district lies on the border with Ethiopia and relies on 1 borehole, 35 shallow wells
and 7 water reservoirs in the outskirts of the town and by several small traditional wars
located in the district (Fig 4.43) for its water needs. The most reliable source of water for the
town is the shallow aquifer which is tapped by numerous dug wells. These traditional hand-
dug wells vary from 11 to 18 m in depth with E.C values ranging from 1590 to 4700
micromohs/cm.

All hand dug wells are not lined with exception of the top part which is protected by cement
rim in some shallow wells. Most of the wells are dug in caliche and hard limestone. The
water level in wells varies from 2 m for wells close to the bottom of the depression to 5 – 8 m
below the ground level; water is draw mainly by rubber buckets. As most of the wells are not
properly protected, it is expected the pollution may be one of the major problems of these
wells. A well of 220 m was drilled in 2012 and supplied the town with only small amount of
water. Water quality was considered to be good. A short description for distribution of these
water sources is given in table 4.43.

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 71

Figure 4.43: Location Map of Assessed Water Points in Elbarde District

Table 4.43: Types and distribution of assessed water points in Elbarde district:

Region Bakool Borehole Shallow Wells Dam Total
District: Elbarde # 1 7 43
35 100
% 0.32 98.2 1.48

Dam 7 Borehole 2.33%
Shallow Wells Shallow Wells 81.4%
35 Dam 16.28%
Borehole 1

Figure 4.44: Percentage of water sources distribution in Elbarde District

1. Accessibility and Operational Status

Access to safe water is the percentage of people within 5 km (rural) and 2 km (urban) of an
improved water source. Water source information presented in this map (Fig 4.45) is based
on available water points assessed. Therefore, water source coverage and operational status
level change over time. Accessibility is based on aerial distance, assumed that people travel
most direct route in plain area. 80.5% of the total area of Elbarde district is not covered by
protected water source, especially the western and eastern parts of the district.

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 72

Figure 4.45: Water sources, accessibility and operational status Elbarde District

2. Users of Assessed Water Points:

Majority of the sources are in and around Elbarde town. The urban users of all sources
surveyed amounted to 76%, rural 14% and Nomadic 10% (Table 4.44). Some sources are
used by both nomadic and rural users.

Table 4.44: Number of water point by user’s types:

District Borehole Shallow Wells Dam

Elbarde Urb Rur Nom Urb Rur Nom Urb Rur Nom
% 1 -- 27 5 3 3 2 2
100 77.14 14.29 8.57
18.87 3.77 3.77

Shallow Nom 2 Urban 72.09%
Borehole Wells Dam Rur 2
Urb Rural 16.28%
3 27
Nom 3
Rur Nomad 11.63%
Urb 5

Nom 1
Rur
Urb

Figure 4.46: Users of all water sources surveyed in Elbarde District

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 73

3. Functionality of Water Points:

The functionalities of boreholes, shallow wells are calculated to be 100% and 80%
respectively while most of the dams are dry (Table 4.45).

Table 4.45: Functionality of assessed water points in Elbarde district

District Borehole Shallow Wells Dam

Elbarde F* NF* AB* F NF AB F NF AB
Functionality (%) 1 -- 28 5 2 - 7-

100.00 80 00.00

Dam 0% Low Yield 23.08%
Shallow well Dry 34.62%
80% Tech Breakdown 19.23%
Borehole 100% Water Qlty 19.23%
Other 3.85%

Figure 4.47: Functionality and Reasons for Non-Functionality of assessed water points

Shallow wells had the highest operational functionality. Majority of the sources in rural areas
are not working due to water quality, dryness or technical problems and lack of regular
rehabilitation. Reasons for non-functionality were categorized as low yield (23.08%),
technical breakdown (19.23%), dry (34.62%), water quality (19.23%) and other (3.85%).

4. Reliability of Water Points:

The reliability of water sources in the surveyed water sources was analyzed based on
Permanent (P), None Permanent (NP) and Unknown (UN) status of the water sources.
Results of this analysis are presented in table 4.46.

Table 3.46: Reliability of water sources according to source types:

District Borehole Shallow Wells Dam
Elbarde P* NP* UN* P NP UN P NP UN
1 20 13 2 - 14 -
Number of points

5. Management

The management of water sources in the surveyed water sources was analyzed based on
community, private and other management (Table 4.47).

Table 4.47: Management of water points:

District Communal Private/Individual Other
Elbarde 5 36 2

Management

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 74

Communal 11.63%
Private/Individual 83.72%
Other 4.65%

Figure 4.48: Management type of assessed water points in Elbarde District

6. Interventions Required

It came out from the analysis that only 32.56% of the total water points assessed are currently
not in need for any interventions. The other sources require interventions, 34.88% need
development and cleaning by air compressor, 18.60% of the assessed water points need full
rehabilitation and 13.95% need quick rehabilitation like provision of generators, oil and fuel
(Fig 4.49).

None 32.56%
Well development 34.88%
Full rehabilitation
Quick rehabilitation 18.60%
13.95%

Figure 4.49: Interventions required for the water points assessed in Elbarde District

7. Water Quality

Water quality was considered to be good. The traditional hand-dug wells vary from 11 to 18
m in depth with E.C values ranging from 1590 to 4700 micromohs/cm. However, sanitary
conditions of the shallow wells are poor and most of them may be polluted. The E.C value of
the borehole was 4360 micomohs/cm. The yield of the boreholes is about 8 m3/h. Water is
chloridic in most of the wells.

Table 4.48: Average of water quality parameters of assessed water points

District PH EC (µS/cm)@ 25⁰C Depth (m) Water level (m)
Elbarde Min Max Min Max
7.4 7.6 Min Max Min Max
Borehole 7.05 7.8 220 129
Shallow Well 4300 4360 11 18
1590 4700 58

General Water Demands

Along with groundwater sources, many rain collecting structures such as wars or berkads also
support the basic water supply. In many places even dug wells are missing and rain water
collectors are the only water sources used. Based on UNFPA (2014) statistical data, the basic
water demands (30 l/p/d) plus losses, are as follows (Table 4.49):

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 75

Table 4.49: Average of drinking water demands of Elbarde population

District Population Water Losses Total Total
Elbarde (UNFPA, 2014) demands/day/person 30% Demand Demand
m3/day
Water Demand 44,393 0.03 m3/day l/s
1,731
20.03

By applying a correction factor for urban consumers (+0.2 l/p/d x 14,797 inhabitants), total
estimated human drinking water demands are 23.455 l/s.

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 76

4.8 Afgooye Water Resources Inventory

Afgooye is a district in the southwestern Somalia Lower Shebelle region of Somalia.
Afgooye town is the center of the Afgooye District. It is situated about 25 kilometers west of
Mogadishu and 85 m above the sea level. The Shabelle River passes through the middle of
the town. The broader Afgooye District has a total population of 299,211 residents (UNDP,
2014) most of them are farmers and traders. The district is attracts a large, fluctuating
nomadic population especially during the dry season.

After the outbreak of the civil war in 1991, parts of Afgooye town became a place of refuge
for many of Southern Somalia’s internally displaced people. The region has become home for
many displaced persons from Lower Shabelle, with some also arriving from Bay and Hiraan.
DTM estimated over 30,000 IDPs in Afgooye, with over half of all sites less than 6 months
old. Due to its geographic position in the river floodplain, the district has been affected by
some of the historical river flood due to the shallow and poorly defined of the river channel.
The area around Afgooye receives about 553 mm of average annual rainfall, which is
relatively high compared to many other areas of the country. The months with the highest
rainfall are May (114 mm) and November (111 mm). Mean monthly temperature is in the
range of 28 - 30°C (SWALIM, 2016). Evaporation has estimated at about 2,200 mm per day.

Afgooye is a crucial hub from Mogadishu towards the west and north of the country. Much of
the produce from this area goes to Mogadishu but in the past the produce was also processed
by a state owned fruit factory, now abandoned. A combination of high rainfall and a well-
developed irrigation system allows farmers in this area to grow crops all year round. Cereals
(maize and sorghum) are the most common crops in Afgooye. Abandoned crop fields are far
away from the river. Sesame fields also occur in this area. Over the past six months, severe
drought conditions have contributed to the displacement of more than a half a million people
across the country.

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 77

Present Water Supply

Types and distribution of Assessed Water Points:

The major water source for Afgooye district is Shabelle River which has somehow permanent
flow. Water quality is very good and the E.C is generally less than 500 micromohs/cm. At the
end of the dry season, however, with the first peak flow, water becomes saltier due to the
washing out of the salt from its banks and salty water brought in by its tributaries. The E.C. in
these short periods sometimes limited to a few hours, may rise-up to 1800 micromohs/cm.
The second source of water is from hand –dug wells and boreholes (Fig 4.50).

Numerous hand-dug wells close to the river bank tap a shallow aquifer at a depth of about
10m; those wells far from the river bank tap water at greater depths. This aquifer is recharged
directly by Shabelle River and the regional water table which is seems to lay deeper at about
35 -30 m.

The topsoil is predominantly clayey and allows only a limited recharge to the aquifers. The
main recharge is from river water; this has been observed from the fluctuation of the shallow
wells located close to the river banks. As most of the wells are not properly protected, it is
expected the pollution may be one of the major problems of these wells. Water quality was
considered to be good. A short description for distribution of these water sources is given in
table 4.50.

Figure 4.50: Location Map of Assessed Water Points in Afgooye District
Table 4.50: Types and distribution of assessed water points in Afgooye district:

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 78

Region Lower Shabelle Borehole Shallow Wells Dam Total
District: Afgooye # 68 36 350
246 100
% 19.43 70.29 10.29

Dam 36 246 Borehole 19.43%
Shallow Wells 68 Shallow Wells 70.29%
Dam 10.29%
Borehole

Figure 4.51: Percentage of water sources distribution in Afgooye District

1. Accessibility and Operational Status

Access to safe water is the percentage of people within 5 km (rural) and 2 km (urban) of an
improved water source. Water source information presented in this map (Fig 4.52) is based
on available water points assessed.

Figure 4.52: Water sources, accessibility and operational status Afgooye District

Therefore, water source coverage and operational status level change over time. Accessibility
is based on aerial distance, assumed that people travel most direct route in plain area. 40.55%
of the total area of Afgooye district is not covered by protected water source, especially the
western and eastern parts of the district.

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 79

2. Users of Assessed Water Points:

Majority of the sources are in and around Afgooye town. The urban users of all sources
surveyed amounted to 74.86%, rural 11.71% and nomadic 13.43% (Table 4.51). Some
sources are used by both nomadic and rural users.

Table 4.51: Number of water point by user’s types:

District Borehole Shallow Wells Dam

Afgooye Urb Rur Nom Urb Rur Nom Urb Rur Nom
%
57 11 - 205 30 11 - - 36

83.82 16.18 83.33 12.20 4.47 100

Shallow Nom 36 205 Urban 74.86%
Borehole Wells Dam Rur Rural 11.71%
Urb 11 Nomad 13.43%
30
Nom
Rur 11
Urb 57

Nom
Rur
Urb

Figure 4.53: Users of all water sources surveyed in Afgooye District

3. Functionality of Water Points:
The functionalities of boreholes, shallow wells are calculated to be 58.82% and 81.30%
respectively while most of the dams are dry (Table 4.52).

Table 4.52: Functionality of assessed water points in Afgooye district

District Borehole Shallow Wells Dam

Afgooye F* NF* AB* F NF AB F NF AB
Functionality (%) - 36 -
40 28 - 200 30 16
00.00
58.82 81.30

Dam 0% Low Yield 4.59%
Shallow well Dry 27.52%
81.30% Tech Breakdown 33.03%
Borehole Water Qlty 9.17%
58.82% Other 25.69%

Figure 4.54: Functionality and Reasons for Non-Functionality of assessed water points
Shallow wells had the highest operational functionality. Majority of the sources in rural areas
are not working due to water quality, dryness or technical problems and lack of regular

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 80

rehabilitation. Reasons for non-functionality were categorized as low yield (4.59%), technical
breakdown (33.03%), dry (27.52%), water quality (9.17%) and other (25.69%).

4. Reliability of Water Points:

The reliability of water sources in the surveyed water sources was analyzed based on
Permanent (P), None Permanent (NP) and Unknown (UN) status of the water sources.
Results of this analysis are presented in table 4.53.

Table 4.53: Reliability of water sources according to source types

District Borehole Shallow Wells Dam
Afgooye P NP UN
P* NP* UN* P NP UN - 36 -
Number of points 40 24 4 200 30 16

5. Management

The management of water sources in the surveyed water sources was analyzed based on
community, private and other management (Table 4.54).

Table 4.54: Management of water points

District Communal Private/Individual Other Communal 28.86%
Afgooye 28.86 61.71 9.43 Private/Individual 61.71%
Other 9.43%
Management

Figure 4.55: Management type of assessed water points in Afgooye District

6. Interventions Required

It came out from the analysis that only 17.27% of the total water points assessed are currently
not in need for any interventions. The other sources require interventions, 30.22% need
development and cleaning by air compressor, 27.34% of the assessed water points need full
rehabilitation and 25.18% need quick rehabilitation like provision of generators, oil and fuel
(Fig 4.56).

None 17.27%
Well development
Full rehabilitation 30.22%
Quick rehabilitation 27.34%
25.18%

Figure 4.56: Interventions required for the water points assessed in Afgooye District

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 81

7. Water Quality

Water quality was considered to be good. The traditional hand-dug wells vary from 13 to 75
m in depth with E.C values ranging from 700 to 4160 micromohs/cm. However, sanitary
conditions of the shallow wells are poor and most of them may be polluted. The E.C values
of the boreholes in range between 1060 and 4440 micomohs/cm. The yield of the boreholes is
about 18.26 m3/h. Water is chloridic in most of the wells.

Table 4.55: Average of water quality parameters of assessed water points

District PH EC (µS/cm)@ 25⁰C Depth (m) Water level (m)
Afgooye Min Max Min Max
6.5 8.3 Min Max 75 280 Min Max
Borehole 6.9 7.9 13 75 24 156
Shallow Well 1060 4440 11 55
700 4160

During field work, a total of 24 groundwater samples have been collected from different
boreholes and shallow wells in the survey areas using 500mL plastic bottles, each bottle was
rinsed with the targeted water 3-4 times before filling. Names and locations of these water
points are provided in table 4.56. On-site physicochemical parameters such as Electrical
conductivity (EC), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), temperature and pH of the samples were
measured (Table. 4.55) using Hanna portable water analysis kit. Field work also included the
study of the geological and geo-morphological features.

Table 4.55: Average of water quality parameters of assessed water points

District PH EC (µS/cm)@ 25⁰C Depth (m) Water level (m)
Afgooye Min Max Min Max
6.5 8.3 Min Max 75 280 Min Max
Borehole 6.9 7.9 13 75 24 156
Shallow Well 1060 4440 11 55
700 4160

Laboratory work included chemical analysis of the collected water samples for cations,
anions as well as for trace elements, followed by data analyses using AquaChem v.2012.1.
The concentrations of cations were measured using Atom Adsorption Spectrometry, selected
trace metals (Fe, Pb, Ar, Cr, Zn, Cu) were determined. For anion determination, ion
chromatography (Dionex DX 120) has been used. These measurements were done at
CropNots Laboratories in Nairobi.

All the concentrations were expressed in mg/l and µg/l except for pH which is expressed in
dimensionless number. The quality assessment was made through the estimation of Ca2+,
Mg2+, Na+, K+, CL-, SO42-, HCO-3, total hardness as CaCO3, TDS, EC and pH. Based on
these analyses, parameters like sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), and Total Hardness were
calculated in tables 4.56.

Groundwaters from the western and eastern parts of the study area are noted to be dominated
by sodium and sulphate with total dissolved solids concentrations in excess of 1500 mg/l.
Furthermore, Cretaceous sedimentary aquifer (shallow aquifer) is characterized by low
salinity, although concentration of more than 500 mg/l in some areas. This is endorsed to

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 82

vertical seepage from the overlying aquifer zones elaborating partially hydraulic
interconnection of the aquifers system.

Total Hardness (TH) and Sodium: Water hardness is caused primarily by the presence of
cations such as calcium, magnesium for total hardness and anions such as carbonate,
bicarbonate for carbonate hardness. Hard water is not a health hazard, but it may be
unsuitable for domestic use especially laundry.

Total Hardness (TH) was calculated in mg/L by the following equation (1):

TH= 2.497Ca+2 + 4.115Mg+2 … (Eq. 1)

In the study area, TH varies between 250.53 to 1774.44 mg/L which reflects the moderate to
high contents of calcium and magnesium in water due to limestone, dolomites and anhydrite
dissolution in the circulating waters. The calcium and magnesium ions can also be derived
from cation exchange process (Eq. 2).

(Ca, Mg)CO3+CO2+H2O=2HCO-3+Ca+2 + Mg+2…. (Eq. 2)

According to Sawyer and McCarty’s (1967) classification, most of the samples fall under
very hard class (>300 mg/L). The highest water hardness detected in coastal areas e.g.
Bookow BH, Fiyasko BH, Calamada BH, Sabiid Anole SH, Sabiid Anole SH and ESBH.

Chloride and Sulphate: Generally, greater mineralization of groundwater within the study
area is associated with higher Chloride and Sulphate concentrations ranges from 46 mg/l to
478 mg/l and 144 to 1310 mg/l respectively. The highest concentrations were detected in
some boreholes in El Malable SH, El Raaxoole SH and Calamada BH which might be due to
anhydrite, salt dissolution in the circulating waters and sea water intrusion.

Carbonate and Bicarbonate: The carbonate and bicarbonate concentration in groundwater is
derived from dissolution and weathering of carbonate bearing minerals and carbonic acid in
the aquifers.

CaCO3+CO2+H2O= Ca+2 + 2HCO-3 and CO2 + H2O=H++HCO-3 … (Eq. 3)

Bicarbonates in the study area range from 115 mg/l to 555 mg/l. Bicarbonate is the dominant
anion among the anions of the groundwater of the study area. The increase in the bicarbonate
may be attributed to availability of the carbonate minerals in the recharge area.

Fluoride: Concentrations of Fluoride greater than the WHO guideline value of 1.5 mg/l have
been found in groundwater of the most of boreholes and shallow wells in the study area, but
are recognized to be highest in Danab BH, Tadamun BH1, Hambalyo BH, Maskaxey BH,
Jaran BH1 and Haghi Abdi BH. As a result of the long-term use of high-fluoride drinking
water, both dental and skeletal fluorosis is known to occur in populations from central areas.

The links between high fluoride and both high sodium, chloride (Na and CL) and increased
temperature are quite strong in the groundwater of the area. These parameters can therefore

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 83

be used as potential indicators of groundwater-fluoride problems in areas of exploration for
new groundwater sources.

The hydrochemical regime of a study area can be easily known based on the major cation and
anion, various water types were found in the study area. The analysis clearly shows that the
groundwater samples have a dominance of Ca-Mg-Cl-SO4 and Na-Mg-CL water types. The
dominant anion of the groundwater changes from bicarbonate to sulphate to chloride with a
corresponding increase in the TDS. This may be attributed to low hydraulic gradient and
groundwater flow paths. Ca (HCO) type waters occur near recharge areas, are primarily a
result of dissolution of carbonate minerals during infiltration of water to the aquifers.
Samples taken in wells close to the Indian Ocean are of chloride-sodium type, whatever the
aquifer, reflecting the effect of marine intrusion.

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 84

Table 4.56: Physico-chemical data of the wells in the study area

SOURCE NAME LATITUDE LONGITUDE EC (µS/cm) PH TH
ppm
Hayat BH
Marwazi BH 2.03506 45.03684 2510 7.13 1145.88
Danab Bh
Bookow BH 2.07873 45.20943 1730 7.4 907.52
Tadamun BH1
Hambalyo BH 2.14307 45.1277 1540 7.8 559.39
Maskaxey BH
Sarmaan BH 2.15431 45.11991 2020 7.34 1130.40
Garrun BH
Sheikh Ahmed BH 2.12817 45.11937 1590 7.5 358.60
Heraagoon BH
Sh. Osman BH 2.1286 45.11515 2020 7.58 914.00
Alkowther BH
Daaqa qaranka BH 2.03452 45.20675 1450 7.5 664.23
Jaran BH1
Haghi Abdi BH 2.0952 45.17157 2430 7.9 891.70
Fiyasko BH
Calamada BH 2.09675 45.15363 2240 7.5 801.04
ESBH1
Sabiid SH 2.11735 45.18418 1680 7.4 601.50
Sabiid Anole SH
Tawakal SH 2.102841 45.16664 2040 7.8 702.51
El Raaxoole SH
El Malable SH 2.10392 45.16143 1960 7.6 779.64

2.08947 45.16746 2590 7.8 818.23

2.1071 45.15162 1700 7.4 608.18

2.13841 45.16765 1080 8.3 332.62

2.1269 45.17198 1140 7.8 319.59

2.10323 45.18804 2260 7.5 1041.42

2.08677 45.18924 3080 7.2 1386.40

2.03451 45.30735 2300 7.5 1156.14

2.12427 44.4569 2010 7.2 984.37

2.12943 45.03595 2600 7.5 1094.37

2.08012 44.9085 1800 7.5 823.16

2.04842 44.84766 700 7.7 250.53

1.98398 44.8079 4160 7.2 1774.44

Comprehensive HydroGeophysical Assessment for Selected Locations in Puntland State, Somalia

K ppm Na ppm SO4 Cl ppm HCO3 Fl ppm CaCO3 Fl ppm
ppm ppm ppm
6.35 183 248 0.058 1140 0.058
9.29 50.7 812 122 376 0.15 907 0.15
2.48 144 551 96.8 355 0.47 558 0.47
3.70 164 506 318 278 0.28 1130 0.28
3.26 206 599 76.4 339 0.49 358 0.49
4.00 142 380 122 321 0.37 913 0.37
4.95 80.6 752 100 332 0.42 664 0.42
6.25 265 431 192 304 0.20 890 0.20
8.58 236 842 126 369 0.11 800 0.11
8.15 169 776 76.7 401 0.13 602 0.13
9.02 227 533 107 344 0.22 702 0.22
6.27 182 674 120 434 0.15 779 0.15
5.27 346 632 216 370 0.25 817 0.25
7.42 195 836 107 405 0.30 608 0.30
2.84 111 530 69.6 354 0.52 332 0.52
2.79 131 290 71.6 230 0.60 319 0.60
10.3 169 232 147 328 1040
11.3 234 842 478 356 < 0.03 1380 < 0.03
11.5 117 779 163 390 0.10 1150 0.10
21.5 110 809 218 377 984
22.9 183 587 278 284 0.076 1090 0.076
7.12 96.7 683 124 332 0.19 823 0.19
5.54 33.5 506 46.0 405 0.25 250 0.25
234 250 144 398 115 0.36 1770 0.36
1310 555 0.10 0.10

< 0.03 < 0.03

a – GSA, 2017 85

The presence of clay and marl intercalation within the fissured and cavernous limestone
aquifer promotes the ion ex-change reactions and dissolution processes which play a
prominent role influence the hydrogeochemical characteristic of the groundwater.
Evaporation due to the dry condition and high temperatures plays a decisive role in
controlling the chemistry of groundwater.

Therefore, extraction from only the lower aquifer with sealing of the upper one is
recommended within the saline zone. The exploitation of groundwater in the coastal area
should be done carefully to avoid induction of salt water intrusion due to over pumping.
Adoption of water development techniques, such as applications of artificial recharge
methods, construction of sub-surface dams and oriented pumping, can help in reducing the
risk of salt water intrusion in coastal aquifers.

General Water Demands

Along with groundwater sources, many rain collecting structures such as wars or berkads also
support the basic water supply. In many places even dug wells are missing and rain water
collectors are the only water sources used. Based on UNFPA (2014) statistical data, the basic
water demands (30 l/p/d) plus losses, are as follows (Table 5.57):

Table 4.57: Average of drinking water demands of Afgooye population

District Population Water Losses Total Total
Afgooye (UNFPA, 2014) demands/day/person 30% Demand Demand
m3/day
Water Demand 299,211 0.03 m3/day l/s
11,669
135

By applying a correction factor for urban consumers (+0.2 l/p/d x 99,737 inhabitants), total
estimated human drinking water demands are 158.08 l/s.

Comprehensive HydroGeophysical Assessment for Selected Locations in Puntland State, Somalia – GSA, 2017 86

4.9 Water Resources Management in South West State:

The presence of an adequate water monitoring and information system is a pre-requisite for
any successful assessment, planning, design, operation and management of water resources
systems. As has been discussed before, monitoring and water information system in South
West State had been very minimal and suffered huge degeneration as a result of economic
and political instability. In its strict sense provide adequate information for the various
purposes mentioned above. However, monitoring in its broad sense requires regular
observation and collection of information on other areas very important for the assessment,
planning, operation and management of the region’s water resources such as water use data,
socioeconomic data, supporting remote sensing data, knowledge base, capacity development
issues and linkages to other relevant databases.

The monitored information needs to be collected and checked for consistency and harmony
by qualified staff before analysis and processing and finally entered to the database for
storage and dissemination to the stakeholders and end users. This may look as the ideal and
dream situation, but for South West State, one would be realistic to suggest progress in
phases linked to specific research and development projects. Examples of the recommended
research projects are groundwater management in South West State, conjunctive use of
surface and groundwater in the area, groundwater development using renewable energy and
integrated management.

Innovative Directions for Water Utilization in South West State

Water harvesting, linked whenever possible to artificial recharge to underlying formations
and management, is one of the most effective methodologies for water conservation in arid
and semiarid areas. There is large potential for water harvesting in valley system in South
West State of Somalia. Traditional water harvesting systems have been used in the area for a
long time. Based on the survey carried out, it has been concluded that many water harvesting
projects have collapsed due to technical faults and poor design. New techniques of water
harvesting systems that serve multipurpose objectives can be recommended in this study.
This new technique can include besides water spreading for irrigating vast areas, the
following components;

I. "Hafir" system, and
II. "Wells: dug upstream the main control structure that is normally constructed in

the main stream of the Wadi".

These wells will be recharged by the retarded water at the upstream side of the water
harvesting system. Water harvesting systems can also include earth dams that can be
constructed across selected stream for water storage to be utilized for domestic use and
agriculture. The design of these dams is to be based on hydrological studies carried out
competently for the considered stream catchments.

Management of aquifer recharge through artificial recharge methodologies is also one way of
enhancing groundwater resources in South West State. There is a large potential for artificial

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 87

recharge, especially in areas underlain by alluvial and fractured aquifers and intersected by
steams.

Conjunctive Use of Surface and Groundwater

As mentioned before, project area has enough water resources that can secure the present and
future demands if properly managed. However, the old approach of fragmented development
needs to be changed to a more coordinated or integrated approach in which all the available
resources are utilized conjunctively in a manner that maximizes the benefits from utilization.
In the project area, surface and groundwater are often available at the same location but
surface water availability is highly seasonal and highly variable, typical to the characteristics
of arid and semiarid areas. As the pattern of surface water availability in South West Sate is
considerably different from the pattern of water demand, it could be very useful to exploit
groundwater at times of low or no surface water availability and recharge surface water into
groundwater at times of high surface water availability using artificial recharge
methodologies. Conjunctive use has large potential in South West Sate and could be applied
to almost all steams and their associated alluvial aquifers.

Water Governance and Capacity Development

Though it was found from this study that there is enough water resources from renewable and
none-renewable sources, it must be emphasized that these resources require sound
governance in addition to a great deal of financial and human resources to make them
sustainably available for the various uses and the corresponding stakeholders. The old
approach of business as usual has led to huge conflict between the various users, over
abstraction and quality deterioration of the readily available renewable resources.

In the new approach more work is needed in tools such as water harvesting, artificial
recharge, developing non-renewable water resources and managing demand as well as
implementing the practice of conjunctive use of rainfall, stream flows and groundwater. All
these can never be successful without sound governance at all levels (local, state and federal).
Sound governance requires transparency, equity, ethical behavior and sense of ownership at
all levels. This is particularly important in the project area where the role of users, in decision
making, is relatively higher but the existing water resources are often threatened by depletion,
contamination and competition with the owners of the moving animal resources.

The following are some recommendations for improving governance and capacity
development in South West State:

 Reform and enhance existing institutional setup avoiding fragmentation and single
sector management, with more stakeholder participation. The role of water users and
the civil society in water governance is currently limited, in both rural and urban
areas. This has to be enhanced significantly to achieve the desired level of ownership.

 Prepare or revise national and state level policies and strategies and plans to provide
for measures of good governance.

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 88

 Build capacity for different sectors, enhance sharing of experience and knowledge and
develop effective mechanisms for flow of information.

 Mobilize financial resources and encourage investment in water resources
management. Improve accountability and transparency.

Bridging the Gap between Research and Policy

As has been mentioned before, there are many gaps and divides that hinder reliable
assessment and sustainable development and management of water resources in project area.
The most important of these are gaps in knowledge base and capacity development, absence
of comprehensive water resources policy, lack of coordinated decision making at federal,
state and local levels and gaps between decision makers and target groups. All these gaps
have been addressed in the study which indicated that there could be enough water resources
to meet present and future demands if managed in a sustainable manner considering closure
of the above gaps.

It is clear that there is a gap between researchers, decision makers and stakeholders.
Bridging this gap is very crucial for sustainable development and management of water
resources in project area and elsewhere.

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 89

5. Conclusions & recommendations

Conclusions:

The South West State is a disaster prone area and its suffering from severe water shortage
especially in the rural areas and main urban centers with large concentration of internally
displaced people (IDP) and areas of contact between pastoralists and farmers. Strategic
ecosystem restoration targeting water security, food security and disaster risk reduction is key
to building community resilience. To select the most effective interventions identification of
the main challenges and opportunities provided by the landscape is essential. An integrated
assessment was performed, which included socio-economic, biophysical, water resources and
management. The assessment was based on a literature and desk study, remote sensing and
GIS analyses, field surveys, focus groups discussion and interviews with key informants.

For each of the water sources visited during the field survey in target areas, essential
information data was collected which include: location, functional status, use, physical
parameters, water characteristics, supply and distribution and ownership of the water sources.
Photos were also taken for all sources visited during the survey.

Water resources are not evenly distributed around South West State of Somalia, particularly
in rural areas where women and children travel long distances to a water source in the dry
season to collect water for domestic and livestock use. Communities mainly use water from
shallow wells and scoop holes in dry river beds, berkads, boreholes and balleys.

Field observation and focus group discussions indicate that a large number of water structures
are non-functional, often broken-down due to poor maintenance. It's clear that community
members’ awareness and understanding of water safety is very limited. Many sources are
contaminated with human and animal faeces, and thereby probably loaded with large
numbers of life-threatening pathogens.

The main findings of water sources assessment in South West State of Somalia are
summarized below:

 The project area is one of the worst affected areas by re-current droughts in the
country.

 Insufficient rural/Urban water supply coverage, 54.8% of residents in some districts
of South West State did not have any access to water sources.

 Majority of the villages depend on unreliable water sources such as berkads and
shallow wells which dry out soon after the rains forcing people to travel long

 distances (between 1 and 50 km) is search of water
 In total 3,532 water sources assessed including 168 boreholes visited (4.76%), 2522

Shallow wells visited (71.47%), 839 Barkeds and Surface dams visited (Rainwater
catchment) and 3 springs (23.77%).

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 90

 Majority of the sources are in urban areas, where the usage is either nomadic or for
other rural needs, mainly domestic and for livestock.

 Distribution of the water sources in the districts as follow, Baidoa 29.73%, Diinsoor
5.72%, Burhakaba 3.80%, Qansaxdhere 2.30%, Xudur 20.60%, Elbarde 1.22%, Wajid
26.72% and Afgooye is 9.92%.

 Hand dug wells (71.47%) and Berkeds and dams (23.77%) are the primary water
sources for rural and nomad areas

 Estimated water resources are sufficient if all of them are operation to theoretically
cover all potable water demands of about 1,328,302 citizens (permanent, nomadic,
refugee) actually live in South West State. Problem is their concentration and pressure
on rare water points with stable discharge. Surface waters from Shabelle River and
from rainfall collection structures (wars, berkads) may satisfy demands for livestock
watering, and partly for irrigation. However, in remote areas groundwater will remain
main water source even for small-scale irrigation.

 It came out from the analysis that more than 66% of the water sources assessed are
currently in need for intervention.

 27% of all boreholes drilled are not functioning, reportedly due to poor water quality,
due to their low yield or technical problem and 7% of the all boreholes are abundant.

 High failure rate of boreholes (estimated as 35% for hand pumped boreholes and 32%
for motorized boreholes). This has significant cost implications.

 Knowledge of local hydrogeology and expertise in site survey techniques are
insufficient to estimate required drilling depths accurately. Consequently, required
depth is often over-estimated in tender documents, resulting in mobilization of heavier
equipment than necessary, and correspondingly high drilling costs.

 Water quality seems to be the major problem in the area. 24 Water samples manly
form Afgooye taken for lab testing.

 The study revealed that groundwater from the shallow and deep wells reflect the
saline water category; according to WHO water quality standards is unsuitable for
drinking purposes. The groundwater type is Ca2+- Mg2+-Cl--SO42- and Na+-Mg2+-CL-
water types and close to coastline groundwater is Cl-- Na+ type, reflecting the effect of
sea water intrusion. The results showed that the groundwater chemical characteristics
are controlled by multiple natural geochemical processes and contamination from
surface activities.

The conflict in the project area is strongly linked to a fast growing competition between
various users on continually decreasing natural resources, particularly the readily available
renewable water resources including rainfall. There are considerable potentials for obtaining
additional resources through better management of the renewable water resources (rainfall,
stream flow, and groundwater) and the untapped huge quantities of non-renewable
groundwater resources. Provided that adequate technical and financial resources are made
available, the potential water resources in South West State could meet the current and future
needs of population. This should be reached, however, through an integrated water resources
management approach.

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 91

Challenges

The resilience of the South West State is low and further decreasing. Droughts occur more
often and are more severe, but cannot be related to a decrease in rain-fall trend. Droughts in
the project area are periodic events linked to sea-surface temperature (SST), El Nino (ENSO)
and land-atmosphere cycles, which threaten local livelihoods every 10 to 20 years. The
impact of these periods of low rainfall, however, has increased. The capacity of the landscape
to buffer water has been lost to degradation. Runoff rates increased reducing water
availability in dry periods. Together with population growth and a higher demand for water
this results in increasingly severe water, pasture and food shortages.High climate variability
in combination with a heavy dependency on rainfall forms a fragile balance. Prolongation of
the Jilaal (long) dry season results in water shortages for domestic use and watering of
livestock. A slight delay, or unexpected intermittency, of the Gu or Deyr (short) rains can
result in total crop failure. Climate change projections indicate a 10 to 20 percent increase in
rainfall, more intensive rainfall events and more erratic rainfall patterns in the future. In light
of these changes it will become even more important to restore the water regulation capacity
of the landscape.

The water balance calculation indicates that large volumes of water are available periodically.
For example only one percent of the average runoff of the Xudur catchment, could fulfill the
water demand of Xudur Town. These huge volumes indicate that water access is rather a
problem of seasonality and lack of water harvesting and infrastructure, than insufficient
rainfall and water resources. Increased water storage could provide an enormous increase of
water availability during the dry period, and even provide water for irrigation. Strategies and
feasible measures for water storage and water supply in the different landscape zones should
be identified.

Recommendations

A possible alternative solution for improving and scale up the project area water supply is a
combined one: surface and groundwater utilization. This solution, however, is already being
implemented, but an improvement is possible and could result in future increase in water
availability; the following work is recommended:

1. Conduct extensive hydrogeological field survey include hydrogeological
mapping, water point’s inventory and hydrochemistry prospection should check and
accordingly adapt the findings of this desk study. This will be very important step to
raising the knowledge on groundwater distribution and reserves in indicated
promising areas.

2. Conduct detail hydrogeological and geophysical surveys of most promising zones
for groundwater abstraction. They should result with selection of the suitable
locations for drilling or construction of the specific intakes such as subsurface dams.
Detailed hydrogeology survey and feasibility study of discovered suitable sites mostly
located along major dry river beds (toggas) should result in final designs and civil
works on subsurface dams, water storage structures or specific water intakes.

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 92

3. Improvement of surface water storage. This can be done by periodically cleaning
and restoring the water reservoirs built in rural areas to its original depths, in
additional to cleaning the traditional Wars. Hygienic condition should be improved be
establishing water filtration and chlorination systems. In the present conditions
pollution increases considerably with use, and before water is exhausted its salinity
increases. This is mainly due to the free access of people and livestock to the water
reservoir.

4. Drilling of strategic deep boreholes in recommended areas, considering very high
concentration of the population in main towns and fluctuations of refugees through
the area.

5. Construction of infiltration Galleries in the most appropriate locations along the
streams, and should be built at the end of the dry season (from January to March) and
should not penetrate the aquifer by more than 1 m.

6. Construction of Dams across the Toggas, conditions are favorable for storing water
in many Toggas in the district, by means of underground dams to be constructed in
selected sections of the toggas according to the finding of preliminary studies and
investigations. Subsurface dams could be an optimal solution for storing floods or
waters of temporary streams (wadi, oued, gali, togga, kouri) by building different
barrier structures such as dams, weirs, cascades, and retention walls at the surface and
this kind of structure (sand dam) is well known Somalia. Similarly, despite their high
evaporation rate artificial ponds or canals (berkads, wars) may help to overcome or
mitigate drought crisis.

7. Improvement of hand dug wells. Selected hand dug wells at should be deepened,
properly lined, capped and equipped with pumps. They should be used as reserves for
the dry period until the construction of the recommended dams across the toggas. The
dug wells represent a precious small water reserve which, in all cases, should be
properly protected. Furthermore, the possibility of increasing the recharge of the small
aquifer tapped by these well using runoff water flowing along the toggas. Proper
works for this scope should be programmed.

8. In-stream interventions improve water supply, slow-down runoff, increase base flows
and reduce erosion through water storage in streams. Which types of interventions are
most suitable depends on the stream order, the type of sediment in the stream and the
depth of the impermeable layer. Where the sediment is predominantly sandy, there is
a potential for sand dams and subsurface dams, where the water is stored in the sandy
sediment that accumulates behind the dam. Afgooye Sub-catchment has more silty to
clayey sediments, and is thus not suited for sand and subsurface dams. In the lower
parts of the catchments, i.e. at the lower stream orders, spate irrigation can be applied,
in the floodplains floodwater spreading is recommended, to increase the water
infiltration into the soil increasing the soil moisture and fertility, and decreasing peak
flows.

9. Establish and maintain water monitoring network is crucial step towards more
sustainable water use and protection from pollution.

10. Local capacity building should involve the professional staff, but also local
authorities, users and stakeholders.

Water Resources Availability, Management and Drought Impacts Assessment, South West State of Somalia, 2017 93