6. POLICY IMPLEMENTATION AND INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
6.1.Institutions
There are a number of existing national institutions and private organizations in Somalia whose
mandates/activities touch on climate and climate change issues. These include Government,
private industry and civil society as well as bilateral and multilateral donor partners. There is
high-level political support for climate change initiatives in Somalia. There is a high degree of
interest in climate change in the CSO and NGO community as well as in the private sector.
This section discusses these institutions, as well as the legal and regulatory framework
governing climate change issues in Somalia. Somalia’s international obligations as well as
Somalia’s position within the international context are also discussed.
6.1.1. Federal Government
Somalia’s legal and regulatory framework for climate change provides legitimacy, regulate
conduct and establish sanctions that can ensure compliance. An enabling national institutional
framework is required for adequate and effective implement of the national climate change
policy priorities and strategy.
Implementation of this NCCP lies under the Office of the Prime Minister under the Directorate
of Environment and Climate Change. This Directorate will work in collaboration with other
national ministries that are directly or indirectly affected by climate change. The Directorate
will also allocate budget to them for implementation of initiatives towards addressing
challenges posed by climate change. Therefore, the following national ministries, their
departments and agencies are identified to have a critical role in implementation of the policy;
1. Ministry of Energy and Water Resources;
2. Ministry Of Humanitarian Affairs & Disaster Management
3. Ministry of Agriculture;
4. Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources;
5. Ministry of Livestock;
6. Ministry of Natural Resources and Petroleum;
7. Ministry of Public Works, Housing and Reconstruction (incl. roads authority)
8. Ministry of Ports & Marine Transport
9. Ministry of Transport & Civil Aviation
47
10. Ministry of Energy & Water Resources
11. Ministry of Post &Telecommunication
12. Ministry of Health
13. Ministry of Education
The National Government through Directorate of Environment will head strategic planning and
the management of responses to climate change. The Directorate will foster participatory
partnerships between States, public entities, districts, the private sector, development partners,
civil society, international agencies, media and itself. Fitting mechanisms will be applied in
strengthening its relationship with international agencies and development partners.
The Climate Change Department will be a new department that will be established in order to
facilitate implementation of the NPCC. The department will assume the responsibilities of the
interim Climate Change Secretariat and will be positioned
in the Ministry responsible for the Environment and Natural Resources. It will also collaborate
closely with the Ministry of National Development Planning.
The responsibilities of the Climate Change Department will be as follows;
I. Facilitate and implement climate change programs in all sectors while
collaborating with stakeholders;
II. Facilitate capacity building in institutions/agencies implementing climate
change projects;
III. Facilitate strengthening of climate change information systems;
IV. Ensure technical backstopping on climate change programs;
V. Ensure M&E of implementation of projects;
VI. Report to government/other stakeholders on climate change implementation;
VII. Facilitate research in climate change and;
VIII. Facilitate education on climate change report to Technical Committee on
implementation of Climate Change programs.
If the need arise, in the future the Government can create an Advisory Council on Climate
Change, chaired by the Director General (or future Minister of Environment). The Council shall
have broad based representation from key stakeholders, including government Ministries,
48
Federal Member States, Industry and Civil Society. It will set out broad directions for National
Actions in respect of Climate Change.
6.1.2. Federal Member States
Efficient and effective implementation of this Climate Change Policy calls for the collaboration
and close consultation with relevant stakeholders at both national and State levels requiring
multi-stakeholder consultation mechanisms. The success of the National Climate Change
Policy will depend on the cooperation of Federal Government and the Member States. The
states are the implementors of the policy in their respective regions. They can adopt state
climate change policies that are in alignment with the national policy.
6.1.3. Non-governmental /Civil Society Organizations
It is important to include communities in decision making as they are most vulnerable to climate
shocks and extreme weather events. They should be involved in monitoring and evaluation of
both climate change and any interventions to mitigate or adapt to climate change. Climate
change issues provide an opportunity for the Government, local authorities, UN agencies and
development partners, civil society organizations and communities to work together.
Currently a wide range of Non-governmental Organizations/Civil Society Organizations
(NGOs/CSOs) are involved directly and indirectly in environmental protection and climate
change related issues in Somalia. Some of these NGOs/CSOs implement specific climate
change initiatives at the community level, as well as engage in climate change policy advocacy
at national and international levels. Other roles of CSOs in relation to climate change include:
community education and delivery of environmental services, research and climate change
vulnerability analysis, emergency/disaster response and relief programming, facilitating models
for community-based adaptation to climate change, promoting community consultations and
participation, facilitating CSO mobilisation, and coordinated engagement with the Government
on climate change, policy monitoring, and social accountability for equitable and pro-poor
response to climate change.
In recognition of the important role that civil society plays in natural resource and
environmental governance in Somalia, the Government of Somalia supports mechanisms for
enhancing their role and participation for effective natural resources and environmental
49
governance in Somalia. Civil society activities on climate change should be considered as a key
aspect of the national response to climate change. Measures to support the capacity-building of
civil society, strengthening coordination, information sharing, and participation in the design,
implementation and monitoring of policies and projects on climate change, should be part of
the policy response for enhancing the role of civil society on climate change.
6.1.4. Private Sector
Despite decades of conflict, the private sector in Somalia flourished. The private sector should
be engaged in climate change discussions and policy implementation. Somalia’s private sector
needs to know how climate change affects profits, for example, how energy efficiency reduces
the cost of doing business and how best to engage with complex concepts for carbon markets.
Also ways to leverage private sector investment to climate-change-proof social and physical
infrastructure, such as low-emission electricity generation, use of renewable energy as a means
to promote energy access and enhancing energy efficiency, need to be enhanced.
6.2.Legal and Regulatory Framework
Somalia’s constitution and Vision 2030 set out an obligation to environmental sustainability
and improvement as a basis of promoting wellbeing and quality of life to its citizens and also
recognizes the need to promote low carbon development pathways and climate change
resilience. The constitution provides a basis for developing the National Climate Change Policy
(NCCP) and offers a general regulatory framework for policy implementation while the NCCP
provides strategic direction and coordinates climate change issues in Somalia primarily
effective adaptation and mitigation to climate change as well as social development.
An enabling legislative and institutional framework and implementation Strategy is
fundamental in actualizing identified policy priorities into actions that would be of great value
to climate change mitigation and adaptation as outlined in Articles 25 & 45 of the constitution
of Somalia. Somalia’s membership and its signatory to international and regional climate
change treaties denotes its commitment to the adoption and implementation of the COP-agreed
policies and measures designed to mitigate climate change and adapt to its impacts. Somalia is
also keen to include climate resilience in its development agenda.
An overall effective review of the legislative and institutional arrangements that govern actions
related to climate change is desired to ensure seamless implementation of climate change
responses to provide high level coordination and political authority to guide the integration of
climate change functions in sectoral mandates at all government levels. This should be done in
50
a manner that empower devolved systems and ensure that they uphold distinctiveness,
cooperate and consultation, elevated guidance on how the climate change responses should be
are integrated and organised via mainstreaming.
6.2.1. Linkage with the National Development Plan 2020 to 2024
In Somalia, attention to climate change is gaining momentum both at the highest political level
and across sectors. Practically every arm of government is affected by climate change either
directly or indirectly. Therefore, climate change is being mainstreamed into national
development frameworks, such as Somalia’s National Development Plan 2020 - 2024. Pillar 3
of the National Development Plan 2020-2024 relates to Economic Development.
At the heart of Pillar 3 is the intent to transform the economy by
improving the resilience of traditional livestock and crop production
industries to better meet the growing challenges from climate change.
There is a recognition among Somali leadership that dependency on
livestock and agriculture poses considerable economic and social risks
due to their vulnerability to climate change. According to the Somalia
Drought Impact and Needs Assessment (DINA) report the drought in
2016/17 alone caused economic losses estimated at US$3.25 billion
(NDP, 2020-2024).
In addition, climate change is among various thematic areas receiving support from key
development partners.
6.2.2. Existing Policies and Strategies Related to Environment & Climate Change
The preparation of the NCCP has been principally influenced by, among other factors, (1)
Somalia’s commitments to ensure that climate change issues are adequately considered in
national development planning, (2) the extent of added vulnerability to the Somali economy
attributed to the current and expected impacts of climate change on the entire society makes the
preparation of the NCCP important. (3) The following policies that touch on climate change
and the wider environment have been adopted or are being drafted.
Sectoral policies that touch on Climate Change under the NDP 2020-2024 include
• Climate Change Policy 2016
• Fishers Policy 2016
• National Petroleum and Mineral Policy 2016
• Energy Policy 2016
• Wetlands policy 2016
• Wildlife policy 2016
51
• Forest Policy 2016
• Biodiversity Policy 2016, and Tourism Policy 2016
National Cross Cutting Policies that support climate change policy include;
• National Environmental Policy - FGS, 2020
• Decentralization (Wadajir Framework) - FGS, 2016a
• Statutory land policies FGS, 2016a
• Environmental Health / Public Health Policy - FGS, 2016a
• Population Policy - FGS, 2016a
• Information and Communications Technologies (ICTs) Policy FGS, 2016a
• Education policy FGS, 2016a
• Gender Policy (FGS 2014)
• National Housing Policy (FGS 2016a)
• Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Policy FGS, 2016a
• Transport Policy FGS, 2016a
• National Disaster Management Policy FGS, 2016a
6.2.3. International Obligations
The nature of climate change calls for extensive cooperation, coordination and international
response. Somalia has been a Party to the UNFCCC since December 2009, as a non-Annex I
country. Somalia also ratified the Kyoto Protocol in July 2010. The first enabling activity was
carried out to develop the National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) with United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and Global Environment Facility (GEF) support to
the Ministry of National Resources, Federal Government of Somalia. The overarching goal of
the NAPA was to make the Somalians more resilient to climate change, in the highly vulnerable
economy that is dependent on subsistence agriculture and livestock rearing and further
undermined by the heterogeneity of clan-based conflicts. The NAPA was submitted to the
UNFCCC in June 2013.
By ratifying the Paris Climate Agreement, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) and Kyoto Protocol, Somalia shows dedication and obligation to the
implementation of strategies to mitigate the effects of climate change and adapt to its impact.
The global consensus under UNFCCC is operationalized according to each country’s ability
and Green House Gas emission index. Development of a national climate change policy will
52
enable Somalia to meet its obligation under the UNFCCC, hence become an essential player in
the fight against climate change. Somalia vision and strategies recognize the importance that
climate change plays in enhancing social and economic development. The government of
Somalia is prioritizing its efforts towards mitigating the effects of climate change by developing
a planning framework. Somalia’s Vision 2030 aims at transforming the country’s economic
capacity and make it a competitive global player. This pathway shall also help the Government
achieve Development Agenda and other internationally agreed development objectives without
compromising the environment and the natural resource base.
Somalia is a party to the following international environment-related agreements:
1. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES);
2. Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals;
3. Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden
Environment;
4. Protocol concerning Regional Co-operation in Combating Pollution by Oil and other
Harmful Substance in Cases of Emergency;
5. UN Convention on the Law of the Sea;
6. UN Convention to combat desertification (UNCCD);
7. UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC);
8. Kyota Protocol to the UNFCCC;
9. Convention on Biological Diversity;
10. Protocol on Bio-Safety (Cartagena Protocol);
11. Basel, Stockholm and Rotterdam Conventions;
12. Protocol concerning Protected Areas and Wild Fauna and Flora in the Eastern Africa
region;
13. Protocol concerning Co-operation on Combating Marine Pollution in cases of
Emergency in the Eastern African region; and
14. Convention for the protection, Management and Development of the Marine and
Coastal Environment of the Eastern Africa Region (Nairobi Convention).
15. Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone layer (Montreal Protocol)
16. Convention on the protection of the Ozone Layer (Viana Convention);
53
7. CLIMATE CHANGE OPPORTUNITIES
Notwithstanding numerous and wide-ranging undesirable impacts posed by climate change, it
also presents economic opportunities to the Federal Government of Somalia, the private sector
and the public at large, which this Policy aims to exploit fully. The climate change interventions
can bring economic opportunities to Somalia, including but not limited to:
1) The goals are in harmony with the current global trend to check GHG emissions,
thus providing high possibilities of accessing financial support for the projects that
have low carbon co-benefits. It will further be possible to access resources
earmarked for specific accomplishments for instance to emerging environment
financing mechanism, such as NAMAs, the green climate fund, INDC, among
others.
2) As envisaged in the NAPA final report, the government can hold follow up
discussions with prospective donors and other international development partners,
including Sweden, Japan, Norway, and UN agencies, GEF, EU and the Africa
Development Bank (AfDB) on technical and financial cooperation.
3) There is an opportunity to embrace the Green Economy, which is proven to be
resilient to climate shocks.
4) At a time when most of the development agenda is new because of the overall
institutional, policy and economic reconstruction, there is an excellent opportunity
to embed mitigation and adaptation strategies in policy and witness the associated
benefits in a sustainable environment and growing economy.
54
8. MONITORING AND EVALUATION
The NCCP will continue to evolve, based on new scientific and technical knowledge as they
emerge and in response to the evolution of the multilateral climate change regime including
arrangements for international cooperation. Monitoring and reporting are essential to ensure the
effectiveness and accountability of climate change actions for development in Somalia.
Monitoring and Evaluation of climate change initiatives and programs are equally of significant
importance in determining; achievements made by stakeholders, challenges faced and gaps in
design and strategies as well lessons learned for future improvement as established under the
UNFCCC. Somalia has an obligation to submit data and progress on climate change action
after every four years, and a periodic update report after every two years.
Continuous collection and recording of data during implementation of this policy by
stakeholders involved will be crucial for milestones made and performance on climate change
interventions. This will be purposely linked and synchronized to the National Integrated
Monitoring and Evaluation System. With the institutional framework in place on climate
change monitoring and reporting verification systems monitoring and evolution will provide
timely and reliable on progress, outcomes and inadequacies of the policy implementation which
will inform stakeholders and decision makers. Close consultation and public participation will
be conducted to enable periodic reviews of the policy and its economic contribution to the
nation.
Through the MRV system climate change implementation inputs by different stakeholders
tracked and mainstreamed both by the respective states and the national government. It will be
desirable for the government to put in place performance evaluation tool that will determine
and evaluate targets, inputs and the resultant outputs. The MRV system will synchronise the
different stakeholder’s input to provide timely and reliable data that will be utilized for effective
planning for the National and State level reporting on Climate change.
Policy Statements
1) Closely work with the state governments in establishing climate change policy
monitoring and evaluation procedures.
2) Timely share climate evaluation reports with; the public, stakeholders for their input
and for parliamentary and state government debate and oversight.
55
3) Develop climate change performance indicators and include them in the MRV
System.
4) Create an integrated MRV framework that will measure performance and document
the benefits of adaptation, mitigation and climate finance actions.
5) Prioritise the usage of the current processes of MRV, data collection, and
management information systems to make sure that there is efficiency in climate
change measurement, reporting and benefit measurement.
6) Create more awareness and build capacities of both state and national levels and
sectoral entities to take part in the MRV systems and processes.
7) Take into consideration the integration of parameters of climate change,
information and data required for MRV into the National Statistical Management
System.
8) Make sure that the national MRV system is blatantly linked with the planning,
budgeting, and monitoring systems of national sustainable development.
56
REFERENCES
Abdirisak, M. (2017). Report on Climate Change Policy Formulation Workshops.
Adam-Bradford, A. SECIL, 2013.Urban environmental sector study: Mogadishu (Annex 25). Nairobi: EU
Mission to Somalia.
ADESO (African Development Solutions). 2014. Natural Resources Management presentation. Your
Environment is Your Life Project.
ADESO. (2018). Climate Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment Report: Sustainable coastal restoration and
development for Somalia phase II project.
Adeso. Interim Narrative Report: September 2015 - February 2016. Submitted to the European Union by
Mohamed Ali, Country Director, and Somalia.
Adle, N. 2014. Interview by Dullo F. Water supply to Mogadishu: Key environmental issues. Ministry of
Water.
AfDB. 2015. Somalia Water and Sanitation sector need assessment and Investment Programme. Volume III.
Somaliland.
Ali Salim. 2013. Status, needs, and priorities for sustainable soil management in Somalia. A Presentation at
the Launch of Global Soil Partnership for Eastern and Southern Africa25th -27th March 2013,
Nairobi, Kenya.www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/GSP/docs/South_east.../Somalia.pdf
Anjili Parin. 2014. Five challenges for Somalia’s economic reconstruction.
http://www.irinnews.org/report/99647/five-challenges-somalia%E2%80%99s-economic-
reconstruction.
Anyah, R. &. (2011). Characteristic 20th and 21st-century precipitation and temperature patterns and changes
over the Greater Horn of Africa. International Journal of Climatology Volume 32, Issue 3, pp. 347-
363.
Bai, Z.G., Dent, D.L., Olsson, L., and Schaepman, M.E. (2008). Global assessment of land degradation and
improvement 1: Identification by remote sensing. (2008/01) Rome/Wageningen: FAO/ISRIC.
Barry, M., and Bruyas, F. 2007. Land Administration Strategy Formulation in Post Conflict Situations: The
Case of Hargeisa, Somaliland. Strategic Integration of Surveying Services, FIG Working Week 2007,
Hong Kong SAR, China, 13-17 May 2007.
Basnyat, D. B. and Gadain H. M. 2009. Hydraulic Behaviour of the Juba and Shabelle Rivers: Basic Analysis
for Irrigation and Flood Management Purposes. Technical Report No W-13, FAO-SWALIM, Nairobi,
Kenya, (GCP/SOM/EC045) project.
Buontempo, C. et al.: 2014. An ensemble climate projection for Africa. Climate Dynamics. Butt, B. and
Turner, M. (2012) "Clarifying Competition: The Case of Wildlife and Pastoral Livestock in East
Africa." Pastoralism: Research, Policy, Practice 2(9)
CAHF [Centre for Affordable Housing and Finance]. 2016. Housing Finance in Africa. A review of some of
Africa’s housing finance markets
CAIT Climate Change Data Explorer. 2017. Washington D.C: World Resources Institute.
http://cait.wri.org/profile/somalia
57
Carpenter, K.E., Abrar, M., Aeby, G., Aronson, R.B., Banks, S., Bruckner, A., Chi iboga, A., Cortés, J.,
Debeak, J.C., Devanter, L., Edgar, G.J., Edwards, A.J., Fener, D., Guzmán, H.M., Hoeksema, B.W. et
al. 2008. One-third of reef-building corals face elevated extinction risk from climate change and local
impacts. Science 321: 560-563.
Centre for Dialogue and Research International. Rapid Value Chain Assessment of the Natural Resources of
Puntland. Garowe: Adeso, 2014.
Christy, JR., Norris, WB. And McNider, RT. 2009. Surface temperature variation in East Africa and possible
causes. Journal of Climate 22: 3342-3356.
Cramer, L., Jones, P. & Herrero, M. 2011. Mapping hotspots of climate change and food insecurity in the
global tropics. Copenhagen, CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food
Security (CCAFS)
Cross, K., Rossing, T., and Oliver, S. (2011) Assessing Climate Change Vulnerability in East Africa: A case
study on the use of CARE’s Climate Change Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment (CVCA)
Methodology within the Global Water Initiative East Africa Program, CARE International Adaptation
Learning Programme
Dalsan Consultants. Baseline Survey Report for Puntland. Deegaankaaguwaanoloshada (Your Environment is
Your Life) Natural Resource Management Project. Puntland: Adeso, 2013. pp. 61
Dinku, T., Block, P., Sharoff, J., Hailemariam, K., Osgood, D., del Corral, J., Cousin, R. and M.C. Thomason
(2014) ‘Bridging critical gaps in climate services and applications in Africa’ Earth Perspectives 2014,
1:15
Dullo, F. I., CARE Somalia. (2011). Situation Analysis: Underlying causes of poverty and vulnerability for
rural women in Puntland and Somaliland. Nairobi: CARE Somalia.
Environmental Study Of Degradation In The Sool Plateau And Gebi Valley: Sanaag Region Of Northern
Somalia, Simon Mumuli Oduori, Musse Shaie Alim, Dr Nathalie Gomes, Horn Relief, February 2006
FAO (2018): Impacts of climate change on farming systems and livelihoods in the Near East and North Africa
FAO’s Work on Climate Change - United Nations Climate Change Conference, 2017, Rome, Italy
FAO [Food and Agriculture Organization]. 2014. Somalia water: data at a glance.
www.fao.org/resources/infographics-details/en/c/241025. Accessed on 27th July 2018.
FAO AQUASTAT. 2013. Water resource sheet: Somalia. Retrieved from
http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/wrs/readPdf.html?f=WRS_SOM_en.pdf
FAO. (2015). Capacity needs assessment study for water, land natural resources and environmental
information management in Somalia.
FAO. (2018). Food Security & Nutrition around the World. Retrieved 2018, from
http://www.fao.org/news/archive/news-by-
date/2018/en/?page=2&ipp=10&tx_dynalist_pi1%5Bpar%5D=YToxOntzOjE6IkwiO3M6MjoiMjkiO
30%3D
FAO. 2017. Charcoal production in South Central Somalia. https://reliefweb.int/report/somalia/charcoal-
production-south-central-somalia.
58
FAO/IPCC Expert meeting on land use, climate change, and food security: 23-25 January 2017, FAO
Headquarters, Rome, Italy
FAOSTAT. 2017. Livestock Sector Factsheet
Federal Government of Somalia. 2015. Somalia’s intended nationally determined contributions (INDICES).
Federal Republic of Somalia. 2013. Somalia National Adaptation Programme of Action on Climate Change.
The Federal Republic of Somalia. 2015. Appropriation Act for 2015 Revised Budget. Act No. 00007.
The Federal Republic of Somalia. 2016. Appropriation Act for 2016 Budget. Act No. 00008.
The Federal Republic of Somalia. 2017. Appropriation Act for 2017 Budget. Act No. 00009.
FGS [Federal Government of Somalia]. 2016. National Development Plan 2017-2019. Final December 2016.
FGS [Federal Government of Somalia]. 2016. Somalia Environment Policy Draft
FGS [Federal Republic of Somalia]. 2012. Provisional Constitution. Adopted August 1, 2012.
Foden, W., Midgley, G.F., Hughes, G., et al. 2007. A changing climate is eroding the geographical range of
the Namib Desert Tree Aloe through population declines and dispersal lags. Diversity and
Distributions, vol. 13, pp. 645–653.
FRS. (2013). National Adaptation Programme of Action on Climate Change.
FRS. (2018). State Of Environment and Gap Analysis for the Federal Republic of Somalia: a desk study.The
Federal Republic of Somalia.
FSNAU. (2015). Food Security and Nutritional Analysis Unit-Somalia. Retrieved 2018, from
http://www.fsnau.org/in-focus/fsnau-fews-net-technical-release-august-31-2015
Garowe Online.29 January 2012. Somalia: “Bossaso port renovation project completes the first phase.”
Achieved from the original on 23 February 2013.Retrieved 13 November 2012.
Gedow, A.O, De Leeuw J, Koch G. 2017. Assessment of the biodiversity in terrestrial and marine landscapes
of the proposed Lag Badana National Park and surrounding areas, Jubaland, Somalia. ICRAF
Working Paper No 251. Nairobi, World Agroforestry Centre. DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP16174.PDF
Goldberg, m. 2002.Un Dispatch: How the charcoal trade fuels terrorism. http://www.undispatch.com/how-the-
charcoal-trade-fuels-terrorism accessed on 21/06/2013
Guha-Sapir D, Vos F, Below R, Pansare S. Annual Disaster Statistical Review 2011: The Numbers and
Trends. Brussels: CRED; 2012.
Haden, Robert Lee. 2007. "The Geology of Somalia: A Selected Bibliography of Somalian Geology,
Geography, and Earth Science." Engineer Research and Development Laboratories, Topographic
Engineering Centre.
HADMA. (2014). Report on Inter-Agency Monitoring of Drought Conditions in Puntland, 14-20 May 2016.
Henderson, R. R. (2018). Climate change in 2018: Implication for business. Havard Business School.
Henry, J. C. 1979. Present and Future Irrigated Agriculture in the Shabelle and Juba River
59
Hussein, M. I., Igal, A.M., Abdullahi, U., Ismail-Gabush, M., (2014, January 25) Interview by Shallow D. and
Dullo, F. Environmental degradation in Somaliland. HARDO.
ICPALD [IGAD Centre for Pastoral Areas and Livestock Development]. 2015. The Contribution of livestock
to the Somali economy.
IGAD. (2013). Somalia Country Programming Paper: IGAD Strategic Plan for Drought Disaster Resilience
and Sustainability Initiative (IDDRSI). Djibouti: IGAD.
IMF [International Monetary Fund]. 2017. Six Things to Know about Somalia's Economy
http://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2017/04/11/NA041117-Six-Things-to-Know-About-Somalia-
Economy.
International Energy Agency. 2016. Carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion (2016 edition) Paris,
France
IPCC (2014) Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. The contribution of Working
Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United
IPCC [International Panel on Climate Change]. 2000. Land-use, Land-use change, and Forestry. ISBN: 92-
9169-114-3.
IPCC. (2014). AR5 Synthesis Report: Climate Change.
IPCC. (2018). Global warming of 1.5 degrees Celsius. Switzerland: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change.
IUCN [International Union for Conservation of Nature] Eastern Africa Regional Office. 2006. Country
Environmental Profile for Somalia. Prepared for the European Commission Somalia Operations
Office, Nairobi, Kenya.
Jean Bogner et at (2008) IPCC: Mitigation of global greenhouse gas emissions from waste: conclusions and
strategies from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report.
Working Group III (Mitigation)
Jeremy Bender. 2015, April 1. These 8 narrow chokepoints are critical to the world’s oil trade. Business
Insider.http://www.google.com/worlds-eight-oil-chokepoints-2015-4
Jibril, F. 2014, February 06. Interview by Shallow, D. Environmental degradation in Somalia.
LAW and NRC. 2014. Housing, Land, and Property in Somalia. Persons of concern in Somaliland and South-
Central Somalia.
Marc, L. 2002, July 25. Mogadishu Journal; Somalia smoulders to fuel the Mideast’s grills, New York Times.
P. 4.
Michele, M., Wai-Tim, N., Rembold, F., Ugo, L., Atzberger, C., Gadain, H., 2016. Invasive alien species,
Prosopisjuliflora, mapping, remote sensing, Somali and. Land Degradation and
Development.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ldr.2611/full.
Ministry of Environment, Tourism, and Wildlife. National Environmental Policy, 2012.Garowe: MOEWT,
2012.
60
Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources of the Federal Republic of Somalia. 2016.A Review of the Somali
Fisheries Law (Law No. 23 of November 30, 1985), in accordance with Article 79, Paragraph (d) of
the Federal Constitution of Somalia.
Ministry of Livestock and Agriculture. Draft Agriculture Sector Policy. Garowe, 2008
Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources. 2016. Petroleum Bill of the Federal Republic of Somalia
Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation. Puntland Second Five Year Development Plan2014 -
2018: Development for All. Garowe: MoE Press, 2013.
Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation. Puntland Second Five Year Development Plan 2014 -
2018: Development for All. Garowe: MoE Press, 2013
Ministry of Planning, Investments and Economic Development of the Federal Government of Somalia. 2017.
toward Drought Recovery and Resilience. The Somalia Drought Impact and Needs Assessment and
Recovery and Resilience Framework.
Ministry of Planning, Investment and Economic Development. (2019, December 24). National development
plan. Ministry of Planning. Retrieved from https://mop.gov.so/index.php/ndp/somali-national-
development-plan/
Ministry of Water. Puntland Water Policy 2007.Bosasso: PSAWEN, 2007.
Moehlman, P.D., Yohannes, H., Teclai, R. &Kebede, F. 2008.Equusafricanus. In: IUCN 2013. IUCN Red List
of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2. Retrieved from www.iucnredlist.org
MoEWR [Ministry of Energy and Water Resources], 2017.Mogadishu Water Quality Assessment and
Monitoring.
MoEWT. (2015). Ministry of Environment Range, Wildlife and Tourism. Retrieved from http://moewtpl.com/
Mohamed, A. E. 2013. Managing shared basins in the horn of Africa – Ethiopian projects on the Juba and
Shabelle rivers and downstream effects in Somalia. Natural Resources and Conservation, 1(2), 35-49.
Retrieved from http://www.hrpub.org/
Mohamed, M. 2012 August 6. Sabahi online: illegal charcoal exports generate huge revenues for Al
shabaabhttp://sabahionline.com/en_GB/articles/hoa/articles/features/2012/08/16/feature-1.
MoPIC [Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation]. 2016. National Development Plan for Somalia
(2016-2019).
Mortimore, Michael. Dryland Opportunities: A New Paradigm for People, Ecosystems, and Development.
Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 2009.
Mumuli Simon and Gadain Hussein. 2013. SWALIM locates the source of the Kismayo charcoal pile.
SWALIM Update. Quarterly Newsletter, May-July, Issue 2.
Mumuli, S. O, Alim, M. and Oduori, G., 2010. Monitoring of Mangroves in Somalia (Puntland, Somaliland
and South-Central Somalia). FAO-SWALIM. Project Report No. L-19. Nairobi, Kenya.
Naumann, G., P. Barbosa, L. Garrote, A. Iglesias and J. Vogt (2014) ‘Exploring drought vulnerability in
Africa: an indicator-based analysis to be used in early warning systems,’ Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci.
18(5): 1591-1604.
Neely, C. &. (2009). Review of evidence on drylands pastoral systems and climate change. Rome: FAO.
61
Obura, D., and Abdulla A, 2004.Assessment of Tsunami Impacts on the marine environment of Seychelles.
CORDIO East Africa, P.O.BOX 10135, Mombasa 80101, Kenya and IUCN Global Marine
Programme, ParqueTecnologico de Andalucia, Calle Marie Curie, 35, Malaga Spain.
Oduori, S.M., et al., Assessment of charcoal driven deforestation rates in a fragile rangeland environment in
North Eastern Somalia using very high-resolution imagery, Journal of Arid Environments (2011), doi:
10.1016/j.jaridenv.2011.05.003
Omuto, C.T., Vargas, R. R., Alim, M.S., Ismail, A., Osman, A., Iman. H.M., FAO SWALIM. 2009. Land
degradation assessment and a monitoring framework in Somalia. (L 14) Nairobi, Kenya.
Oxfam (2014): Drought in the Horn of Africa: Climate Update Brief. Produced for the UK
Perkins, S. E., Alexander, L. V. & Nairn, J. R. Increasing frequency, intensity and duration of observed global
heat waves and warm spells. Geophys. Res. Lett. 39, L20714 (2012)
Petersen, G., and Gadain, H.M. 2012.Water Demand Assessment for the Juba and Shabelle Rivers. Technical
Report No W-22, FAO-SWALIM (GCP/SOM/049/EC) Project, Nairobi, Kenya.
Puntland Development Research Centre (PDRC). Somali Customary Law and Traditional Economy: Cross-
Sectional, Pastoral, Frankincense and Marine Norms. Garowe: PDRC, 2003. P.45
Portland State of Somalia Ministry of Environment Wildlife & Tourism. (2016). Puntland Climate Change
and Drought Management Strategy 2017-2019.
Rangeland Management Plan for Improving Natural Resource Governance in the Puntland State of Somalia,
Abdi Issa Jama, 2014
Rembold, F., Oduori, S.M., Gadain, H., and Toselli P. n.d. mapping charcoal driven forest degradation during
the main period of Al Shabab control in South Somalia. “Energy for Sustainable Development
ScienceDirect, EBSCOhost.
Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnerships (2012). Somalia. https://www.reeep.org/somalia-2012
Rogelj, Joeri, Michel den Elzen, Niklas Höhne, Taryn Fransen, Hanna Fekete, Harald Winkler, Roberto
Schaeffer, Fu Sha, Keywan Riahi & Malte Meinshausen. 2016. Paris Agreement climate proposals
need a boost to keep warming well below 2 °C. Nature. Volume 534. 30 June 2016. Doi:
10.1038/nature18307
SEMG [Somalia Eritrea Monitoring Group]. 2011. Report (S/2011/433) paras 69-71
http://documents.un.org/mother.asp accessed on 03/05/13.
Somali Customary Law and Traditional Economy, Puntland Development PhD thesis Centre, 2003
Somali Spot. 2017. Desertification on the Sanaag plateau in the north. How to fight it and reverse climate
change? https://www.somalispot.com/threads/desertification-on-the-sanaag-plateau-in-north-how-to-
fight-it-and-reverse-climate-change.18034/.
The draft law on exploration and environmental impacts (xeerkasahminayasaameyntadegaanka) issued in July
2015.
The Puntland State of Somalia. (2016). Puntland Climate Change and Drought Management Strategy.
TitiTudorencea Bulletin. 2017. Somalia: Energy Intensity - Total Primary Energy Consumption per Dollar of
GDP. https://www.tititudorancea.com/z/ies_somalia_energy_intensity_consumption_per_gdp.htm.
62
Ullah, S., Gadain, H. 2016. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) of Somalia, FAO-
Somalia.
UN [United Nations]. 2015. United Nations General Assembly Resolution A/RES/70/1 of 25th September
2015.
UN DESA [United Nations Department of Economic and Social Agency], 2017.World Population Prospects.
UN OCHA Somalia. 2006. Livelihoods and food security. Nairobi: UN OCHA Somalia.
UN-DESA, 2017: Disaster Risk Reduction in Africa: Africa Informs Special Issue on Drought 2012, United
Nations International Strategy for Drought Reduction (UNISDR) Africa Office.
UN-DESA, 2017: Disaster Risk Reduction in Africa: Africa Informs Special Issue on Drought
UN-DESA. (2017). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Retrieved 2018, from
https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/
UNDP (2011) Drought and potential conflict scenarios in northern Kenya and other arid lands: a situational
report, UNDP, Nairobi.
UNDP [United Nations Development Programme]. 2012. Somalia Human Development Report 2012.
Empowering Youth for Peace and Development. Available on: http://www.undp.org/en/content/2012-
somalia-human-development-report.
UNDP Somalia. 2016. Federal Government of Somalia establishes Environment Wing in Office of the Prime
Minister with the support of UNDP.
UNDP. (2017). Towards a Climate Adaptation Finance Strategy for Somalia.
UNDP. 2017 Somalia launches Post Disaster Needs Assessment and Resilience Framework as the first step
towards long term recovery and risk reduction. https://reliefweb.int/report/somalia/somalia-launches-
post-disaster-needs-assessment-and-resilience-framework-first-step.
UNEP (2011) Food security in the horn of Africa: the implications of a drier, hotter and more crowded future.
Environment outlook 3: Our environment, our health - summary for policymakers, United Nations
Environment Programme, Nairobi.
UNEP (2011) Food security in the horn of Africa: the implications of a drier, hotter and more crowded future.
Environment outlook 3: Our environment, our health - summary for policymakers, United Nations
Environment Programme, Nairobi.
UNEP (2011) Food security in the horn of Africa: the implications of a drier, hotter and more crowded future.
Environment outlook 3: Our environment, our health - summary for policymakers, United Nations
Environment Programme, Nairobi.
UNEP (2015). Building Resilience of Ecosystems for Adaptation in the Horn of Africa, UNEP, and Nairobi.
UNEP [United Nations Environment Programme]. 2006. Africa Environment Outlook 2. United Nations
Environment Programme, Nairobi Kenya.
UNEP, Regional Office for Africa. 2005. The state of the environment in Somalia: A desk study. Nairobi,
Kenya.
UNEP.(2018). Responding to climate change. Retrieved 2018, from
https://www.unenvironment.org/regions/africa/regional-initiatives/responding-climate-change
63
UNFCCC/IPCC's 48th session of the IPCC's SR15 Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5ºC, 8th October
2018 in Incheon, Republic of Korea).
UNFPA [United Nations Population Fund] Somalia. 2016. Population Composition and Demographic
Characteristics of the Somali People.
UN-HABITAT. 2015. Harmonisation of the Legal Systems Resolving Land Disputes in Somaliland and
Puntland. Report and Recommendations.
UNHCR. (2020, April 9). Situation CCCM Somalia overview. Retrieved from
https://data2.unhcr.org/en/situations/cccm_somalia
Unruh, J. D. (1995). ‘Pastoralist Resource Use and Access in Somalia: A Changing Context of Development,
Environmental Stress, and Conflict.’ In: Sorenson, J. (ed.), Disaster and Development on the Horn of
Africa. London: Macmillan, www.landportal.info/sites/default/files/hornchap.pdf, accessed 18 Aug
2015.
USAID [United State Agency for International Development]. 2014. Environmental and natural resource
management assessment. Version 2013.2. Retrieved from www.iucnredlist.org.
Utkina Irina. 2018. Reaching an important milestone in reducing dangerous “ghost gear.” FAO Media
Relations (Rome). www.fao.org/news/story/pt./item/1099767/code/.
Venema, H. G. (2007). Indicators of Adaptive Capacity to Climate Change for Agriculture in the Prairie
Region of Canada.
Venema, J.H., 2007. Land resources assessment of Somalia. Technical Project Report L-12. FAO-SWALIM,
Nairobi, Kenya.
Vié, J.C., Hilton-Taylor, C. and Stuart, S.N. (eds.) (2009). Wildlife in a Changing World – An Analysis of the
2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. 180 pp.
WHO. (2009). World Health Statistics 2009. Retrieved 2018, from
https://www.who.int/whosis/whostat/2009/en/
Williams, A.P. et al. (2012): Recent summer precipitation trends in the Greater Horn of Africa and the
emerging role of Indian Ocean Sea surface temperature. Climate Dynamics, 39(9-10), 2307-2328
WIOMSA. 2005. Understanding socio-economic changes in coastal communities. New Socio-Economic
Monitoring Network in the Western Indian Ocean. WIOMSA News brief.
Word Bank Group.2017. Climate Change Knowledge Portal. Http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/
Word Bank Group.2018. Climate Change Knowledge Portal. Http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climate portal/
World Bank Group. (2018). Federal Republic of Somalia Systematic Country Diagnostic.
World Bank Group. 2014. Turn down the heat: Confronting the New Climate Normal. Washington, DC:
World Bank.
World Bank. (2017). World Bank Annual Report 2017. Retrieved 2018, from
http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/143021506909711004/World-Bank-Annual-Report-2017
64