The CoESPU Magazine 4-2021

investigation or in prison is more that, Afghan policewomen, Armed Forces (DCAF)
likely to be ensured in the presen- and with them the Afghan wo- 8 Neild, R., (2001), “Democratic Police Refor-
ce of female police officers rather men as a whole, will be able to ms in War-Torn Societies”, Washington, D.C.:
than only men. Finally, we must avoid a new period of repres- WOLA (Reprint from the Journal of Conflict,
not forget a very important cultu- sion of their freedom and rights. Security and Development); available at
ral role for all Afghan women and www.wola.org
girls. A woman in uniform, in fact, 9 Ciorciari reports that UN officials have long
allows many women not only to be pleaded for contributions of more French-spe-
able to turn to a figure perceived aking police, as others are hobbled by reliance
as closer to their needs, but also on scarce translators. Ciorciari, J. D., (2020),
to create an image of accessibility “Sharing Sovereignty in the Streets: Interna-
in institutional and safety careers. tional Policing in Fragile States”, International
Peacekeeping, 27:5, 732-759
Conclusions PICTURES: 10 Durch, W., Ker, M., (2013), “Police in UN
The withdrawal of the US military, - CoESPU Gender Advisor Peacekeeping: improving selection, recruit-
almost completed at the time this -https://www.livornotoday.it/cronaca/afgha- ment and deployment”, Providing for Peaceke-
paper is being written, and the nistan-evacuazione-ambasciata-italiana-foto. eping n. 6, 23-5
spread like wildfire of Taliban tro- html 11 Call, C.T., Stanley, W., (2002). “Civilian
ops, offer a bleak future both for -https://www.raiplay.it/video/2018/11/Sol- security,” in Stedman, S. J., Rothchild, D.,
the Afghan police force and, above dati-d-Italia-E1-388e6781-2c11-4390-adc2- Cousens, E. (editors), “Ending civil wars: The
all, for female police officers. As the 01aa1369c413.html implementation of peace agreements”, Lynne
Afghan ANDSF are in disarray, the Rienner, p. 304
risk to the members of the Afghan note 12 Hurwitz, A., Peake, G., (2004), “Strengthe-
National Police is growing, along ning the Security-Development
with the likelihood that the poli- 1 1 Andersen, L., (2006), “Security Sector Re- Nexus: Assessing International Policy and
ce force will be simply eliminated. form in fragile States, Danish Institute for Inter- Practice Since the 1990s”, New York: Interna-
As a result, we can not draw optimi- national Studies”, Working Paper n. 2006/15. tional
stic conclusions about the success 2 Ball, N., Fayemi, K., (editors), (2004), “Se- Peace Academy, Conference Report, p. 42.
of the efforts to reform the Afghan curity Sector Governance in Africa: A Handbo- 13 Marenin, O. (2005), op. cit., p. 33.
security system. A true and effecti- ok”, Centre for Democracy and Development, 14 Sesay, M. G., Hughes, C., (2005), “Go
ve security-development combina- London. Beyond First Aid. Democracy Assistance
tion has been probably completely 3 This argument can be found in e.g. UN and the Challenges of Institution Building
missing. In this context, the attempt Secretary-General Annan’s report to the in Post-Conflict Sierra Leone”, The Hague:
to promote women to the Afghan 2005-Summit “In Larger Freedom” and in the Netherlands Institute of International Rela-
police could not have been more Canadian report on “Responsibility to Protect” tions, Working Paper 34; available at http://
difficult. The overly optimistic initial ICISS (2001). www.clingendael.nl/cru/project/
plans soon clashed with a strong 4 Mani, R., (1999), “Contextualizing Police Re- 15 Ciorciari, op. cit., p. 26.
cultural resistance to the idea of​​ form: Security, the Rule of Law and Post-Con- 16 S/RES/1325 (2000)
female empowerment, especial- flict Peacebuilding”, International Peacekee- 17 A/52/3, ECOSOC Agreed Conclusions,
ly in a sector like that of security. ping, 6:4, 9-26 1997/2
A stronger presence of female per- 5 Ibidem 18 Karim, S., Beardsley, K., (2017), “Equal Op-
sonnel, as hoped for in the pro- 6 Detzner, S., (2017), “Modern post-conflict portunity Peacekeeping: Women, Peace, and
grams just following the ousting of security sector reform in Africa: patterns of Security in Post-Conflict States”, Oxford Uni-
the Taliban from power, would cer- success and failure”, African Security Review, versity Press Inc, p. 24.
tainly have affected the efforts for 26:2, 116-142 19 Ibidem, p. 25
a police in line with the standards 7 Marenin, O. (2005), “Restoring Policing Sy- 20 Olsson, L., (2000), “Mainstreaming gen-
of a democratic, plural nation and stems in Conflict Torn Nations: Processes, pro- der in multidimensional peacekeeping: A field
with attention to the most fragi- blems, prospects”, Occasional Paper No. 7, perspective”, International Peacekeeping, 7:3,
le components in Afghan society. Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of 1-16
Only a tenuous hope remains 21 Karim, S., Beardsley, K., op. cit., p. 17
22 Skjelsbaek, I., (1997), “Gendered Battle-
fields: A Gender Analysis of Peace and Con-
flict”, PRIO
Report, 6/97, Oslo, 1997, p. 36-37
23 Bertolazzi, F., (2010), “Women with a blue
helmet the integration of women and gender
issues in UN peacekeeping missions”, UN-IN-
STRAW Working Paper Series, UN Internatio-
nal Research and Training Institute for the Ad-
vancement of Women, Washington, DC p. 18
24 Carey, H. F., (2007), “Women and peace
and security’: The politics of implementing
gender sensitivity norms in peacekeeping”,
International Peacekeeping, 8:2, 49-68, p. 53
25 In Iraq because of the dearth of female of-
ficers, men have donned burkas to avoid being
searched at checkpoints. There has also been
a growth of female suicide bombers (from ei-
ght in 2007 to 32 in 2008), which has led the

51

ALUMNI

US and Iraqi forces to step up efforts to train reconstruction essential for the protection Bibliography
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gion of Loy Kandahar (“Greater Kandahar”) in 49 Friesendorf, C., Krempel, J., (2011), Milita- des Deutschen Bundestags”, Berlin.
what is now southern Afghanistan. rized versus Civilian Policing: Problems of Re- • Byrd, W., (2012), Lessons from Afghani-
34 The Durrani Empire, also called the Sadozai forming the Afghan National Police, PRIF-Re- stan’s History for the Current Transition
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Muslim empire of the second half of the ei- nistan’s Endangered Compact, 29 January and security’: The politics of implemen-
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35 Byrd, W., (2012), Lessons from Afghani- Afghanistan, 31 January-1 February 2006 and eping”, International Peacekeeping, 8:2,
stan’s History for the Current Transition and The Afghanistan Compact, Annex I (Security) 49-68.
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36 Giustozzi, A., (2008), Afghanistan, A Tran- National and Border Police, p. 6. gnty in the Streets: International Policing
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ter, 40. ghanistan: A Case Study of Civil Security Re- eping, 27:5, 732-759.
37 Ibidem. form, International Peacekeeping, 14:1, 108- • Collantes Celador, G., (2005), “Police
38 Oliker, O., (2011), Building Afghanistan’s 126. reform: Peacebuilding
Security Forces in Wartime: The Soviet Expe- 54 International Crisis Group, (2007), Refor- • through ‘democratic policing’?”, Interna-
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Struggle to Reform the Afghan National Po- as TAAC-W Police Advisor Team Commander ghanistan’s Endangered Compact”,
lice”, Afghanistan Research and Evaluation (TAAC-W PAT), in charge to train, advise and 29 January 2007. Presented at the
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52

Afghanistan Compact, Annex I (Security) Post-Conflict Peacebuilding”, Internatio- 18, 2002, URL=www.un.org/documen-
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The Struggle to Reform the Afghan Na-
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for Strategic and International Studies,
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eping no. 4”, New York: International
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14:1.
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patterns of success and failure”, African
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• Durch, W., Ker, M., (2013), “Police in shington, D.C.: WOLA (Reprint from the
Journal of Conflict, Security and Deve-
UN Peacekeeping: improving selection, lopment); available at
recruitment and deployment”, Providing www.wola.org.
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• Eckhard, S., (2016) “Political guidance stan’s Security Forces in Wartime: The
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ping: A field perspective”, International
An analysis of the female engagement Peacekeeping, 7:3, 1-16.
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duate School, Department of National •
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• Friesendorf, C., (2011), “Paramilitari- • Perito, R.M., (2009), “Afghanistan’s Poli-
ce. The Weak Link in Security Sector Re-
zation and Security Sector Reform: The form”, United States Institute of Peace’s
Afghan National Police”, International
Peacekeeping, 18:1, 79-95. Security Sector Reform Working Group. Fabio Sappino
• Friesendorf, C., Krempel, J., (2011), • Rasanayagam, A., (2003), Afghanistan:
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• Giustozzi, A., (2008), Afghanistan, A • expediency”, International Peacekee- Federico Vecci
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Transition Without End, Crisis States • Sesay, M. G., Hughes, C., (2005), “Go Lt. Col. Italian Carabinieri
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ce and the Challenges of Institution
sulting, (2011), “Women’s Perceptions of Building in Post-Conflict Sierra Leone”,
the Afghan National Police”.
• Hurwitz, A., Peake, G., (2004), “Stren- The Hague: Netherlands Institute of
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gthening the Security-Development 34; available at http://www.clingendael.
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• Karamé, K. H., (2001), “Military women and State Building: An Assessment
in peace operations: Experiences of the • of the Role of the Afghan National
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98”, International Peacekeeping, 8:2, Skjelsbaek, I., (1997), “Gendered Batt-
85-96. •
• International Crisis Group, (2007), lefields: A Gender Analysis of Peace and
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S/2002/278-A/56/875, 9–12, March
Reform: Security, the Rule of Law and

53

IN DEPTH

THB FOR SEXUAL EXPLOITATION
AND POS

THB for sexual exploitation and man trafficking in the same area. inspect prostitute’s health and wel-
Peace Operations: a troubleso- lbeing in order for them to carry
me mix. Correlation between the increa- out their services. The end of WWII
se in human trafficking and arri- marked the beginning of a new in-
by Roberto Gonella val of peacekeepers. ternational community, united to-
& Maria Margaret Young The strong relationship between gether with the common goal of
human trafficking and complex maintaining peace and security.
During Bosnia and Herzegovi- international operations did not Currently, the U.N. has 12 acti-
commence once the UN started ve peacekeeping operations. Half
na’s armed conflict between 1992 sending its troops abroad. The of them are based in Africa, the
and 1995, many women and gir- link between the two can be tra- others in the Middle East, in Koso-
ls1 were subjected to serious forms ced back to Ancient Rome, when vo and South Asia. As of 31 Octo-
of sexual exploitation and abu- Generals would require sexual ber 2021, the UN reports that the-
se (SEA)2. Human rights investi- services during their military ope- re were 65,579 military personnel,
gator David Lamb says that “The rations4. This would inevitably and 7,694 police personnel, and 1,165
sex slave trade in Bosnia largely indirectly incentivize third parties uniformed experts on mission5.
exists because of the UN (United to traffic women in order to meet The first great instance of peaceke-
Nations) peacekeeping opera- the military’s demand. More re- eper’s request for sexual services
tion. Without the peacekeeping cent examples include the Second was noticed in a 1992 operation in
presence, there would have been World War, the Vietnam War, and Somalia, followed by one the same
little or no forced prostitution in the Korean War, where request for year in Cambodia, then in Bosnia
Bosnia.”3 This delineates a strong transactional sex was significant- and Herzegovina and Eritrea in
cause-effect relationship betwe- ly high. In certain cases, such as the early 2000s.1 Regarding the
en the sexual exploitation and in Vietnam, the activity was well mission in Cambodia, in fact, it
abuse of victims by peacekee- structured, to the point where the is estimated that the number of
pers and the drastic rise in hu- US military medical teams would prostitutes more than quadrupled
after the arrival of peacekeepers6.

54

Among the many missions in whi- cause of this substantial increase therefore traffickers see this as an
ch a great increase in human traf- in peacekeepers, prostitution ra- opportunity to expand their mar-
ficking post troop deployment was tes also skyrocketed, especially in ket and traffic human beings near
recorded, the one in Kosovo was the country’s capital. The UNHCR the location where the peacekee-
particularly significant. By August (United Nations High Commissio- pers will be. Not only is it an easy
1999, 50,000 troops had been ner for Refugees) and U.K. Save source of revenue for traffickers,
but its relatively
deployed, compo- “THE STRONG RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMAN TRAF- low risk primer
sed of the Kosovo FICKING AND COMPLEX INTERNATIONAL OPERATIONS acts as a further
Protection Force DID NOT COMMENCE ONCE THE UN STARTED SEN- stimulus.9 This can
(KFOR) with NATO
peacekeepers and DING ITS TROOPS ABROAD. THE LINK BETWEEN THE be seen throu-
the Interim Admi- TWO CAN BE TRACED BACK TO ANCIENT ROME, WHEN gh the incredible
nistration Mission GENERALS WOULD REQUIRE SEXUAL SERVICES DURING rise of prostitutes
in Kosovo (UN- available whe-
MIK) with UN pe- THEIR MILITARY OPERATIONS” never new pea-

acekeepers, in order to ensure the the Children collaborated on an cekeeping troops are deployed.
safety of the civilian population investigation which found that wo- The UN is aware of the problem
and administer the demilitarization men were being trafficked from Li- and has tried to take the appro-
of the KLA and the Serb regiment. beria and Guinea into Sierra Leo- priate countermeasures to tackle
This massive injection of UN per- ne, to appease the peacekeeper’s it. In 2005, at the request of U.N.
sonnel inevitably increased prosti- demands. The UNHCR explained Secretary-General Kofi Annan, “A
tution rates together with trafficked that UN troops were paid a lar- Comprehensive Strategy to Elimi-
women and girls. Both Amnesty In- ge amount of money in compari- nate Future Sexual Exploitation and
ternational and Human Rights Wa- son to local wages, making both Abuse in United Nations Peaceke-
tch conducted studies that demon- supply and demand more acces- eping Operations” (also known as
strated a massive increase in the sible. The UN recognized this as the Zeid Report) was created. The
inflow of trafficked humans in Ko- an issue and vowed to emend it. report has both formed the basis
sovo, and at least 80 percent of the “The modern scourge of human for action by the Security Council
clients demanding their services trafficking is driven by a number and General Assembly and paved
were not from Kosovo. A year later of supply and demand pressures the way for some of the reforms al-
a police unit created for tackling related to the global economy.”8 ready implemented.10 In fact, the
human trafficking and prostitution As Keith Allred correctly notes, hu- United Nations together with the
was established by the UNMIK. man trafficking is all about supply international community have tried
The efficacy of this police unit is and demand. Peacekeepers crea- to take more concrete steps towards
still contested. However, the cau- te demand for sexual services, and solving the issue. The sensitization

se-effect link between the arrival of

peacekeeping troops and the al-

most tenfold increase in exploited

women between 1999 and 2003

likely created by a spike in traffi-

cked women cannot go unnoticed7.

A surge in trafficked humans was

also recorded in 1999 when troops

from the United Nations Mission in

Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL) were de-

ployed, in order to disarm fighters

and maintain stability for civilians

whilst attempting to provide gover-

nment services, reaching a total of

13,000 troops the year later. Be-

55

IN DEPTH

to sexual exploitation and abuse or attempted abuse of position of ty-one allegations of sexual abuse
of victims by peacekeepers has vulnerability, differential power or and exploitation (which seem very
come a long way since UNTAC’s trust, for sexual purposes”.12 All few, however we need to take into

Head of Mission Yasuki Akashi’s peacekeepers must refrain from consideration how hard it is for vi-

quite symbolic remark on the UN carrying out any act of a sexual ctims to seek help), only nineteen

soldier’s exploitation of prostitutes nature with the local population nationalities are identified. All of

“boys will be boys.” In merely 20 (albeit stated in an oblique way, as these nineteen identified nationa-

years a strict Zero-Tolerance policy in theory having affairs with locals lities belong to developing coun-

has been established, showing a is “strongly discouraged” but not tries, such as Cameroon, Senegal,

remarkable effort and dedication forbidden)13. This ambiguous poli- DRC, Burundi, and so on15. In all

on behalf of the UN to eradicate cy thus prohibits them to even have of these countries gender inequa-

this issue. However, this strict sen- consensual sexual relations, inclu- lity is stagnant, and the idea of re-

sitization has not exactly proved to ding the so-called “solicitation of a spect is interpreted very differently

be as effective as expected. In fact, prostitute” also referred to as “tran- compared to the way the Western

a relatively recent study by Bernd sactional sex.”14 UN regulations, world interprets it. Further, the

Beber et al. conducted on Libe- implemented in order to maintain U.N’s Office of Internal Oversight

rian women in 2016 Services (OIOS)
concluded that for IN 2005, AT THE REQUEST OF U.N. SECRETARY-GE-explains how
every additional tro- SCEOXUMAPLREEHXPELNOSIITVAETSIOTRNATAENGDYcdsoeermptaleoinyed troops
op that was sent from NERAL KOFI ANNAN, “A by
the UN, there was a TO ELIMINATE FUTURE
consequent increase states
ABUSE IN UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPING OPERA-have more alle-
in the probability of a TIONS” (ALSO KNOWN AS THE ZEID REPORT) WASgations against
woman becoming in- them than other
volved in transactio- CREATED” troops from dif-

nal sex for the first t i m e . 1 1 an organized and safe mission in ferent states do16. In other words,

The study randomly selected 475 an area of conflict, focus on the many of these offenses were per-

women within 1,381 households in concepts of respect, integrity, and petrated as a result of being accu-

Liberia and asked them a series of morality. However, it can be ar- stomed to an environment where

questions which they answered to gued that many of these concepts it is acceptable to rape or exploit

anonymously. Over 75 per cent of are based on criteria that are alien women’s bodies. Therefore, a ze-

these women had been involved in to many peacekeepers, belonging ro-tolerance policy will not chan-

sexual activity with UN personnel. to cultures and countries in which ge a lifetime view of women as

While a lack of data, and especial- social norms still do not recognize sexual objects. In order to chan-

ly a reluctance of providing data on certain inalienable principles that ge these dynamics, further rese-

behalf of the UN, limits the extent apparently the UN gives for gran- arch is necessary as a first step.

to which this issue can be resear- ted. In the Western world, althou- Furthermore, the aggregation wi-

ched, understood, and addressed, gh there is still some work to be thin the same definition (SEA) of

studies like these ones demon- done, females theoretically have acts of enormously different beha-

strate that the issue has not been the same rights and opportuni- vioral, moral and, ultimately, penal

eradicated, if not even worsened. ties that men do. In cultures of the value is proving to be an insolvable

developing world such as Africa, problem. Peacekeepers having

Unclear distinction between SEA Asia, and the Middle East, women consensual sex (even if transactio-

and consensual sexual relations are still upholding their conventio- nal sex) should not be dealt with in

Among the possible reasons hin- nal role and are not granted rights the same way as peacekeepers ha-

dering the solution to the problem which are considered inalienable ving abused a local boy or girl are.

lies an unclear distinction betwe- to our everyday life. The UN’s Zero tolerance should be applied

en SEA and consensual sexual re- Conduct in UN Field Mission web- to those who abuse and commit

lations. In particular, UN defines site shares a table of SEA allega- serious crimes. For those who are
sexual exploitation as “Any actual tions (2015 onwards). Of the thir- merely satisfying an inescapable

56

human instinct, further research explicitly tasked to carry out more more peacekeepers are needed to
should be carried out to really un- thorough investigations on THB maintain peace and security lea-
derstand the difference between for sexual exploitation, and mo- ding to even more SEA, and ulti-
an exploitative and non-exploita- nitor the situation more closely, as mately leading to an even greater
tive sexual relation, and whether to also detect any pattern of cor- demand for sexual services increa-
it deserves punishment as to re- ruption which is very likely in are- sing human trafficking17. The Zeid
model a policy that acknowledges as of conflict or post-conflict. The Report invokes the use of technical
a basic, manifest human instin- findings of these investigations investigations of the highest level
ct and regulates it instead of for- could lead to dismantle Organised such as DNA testing to establi-

bidding it. Further, the UN should Crime Groups that are also invol- sh whether a Peacekeeper was in
place more emphasis on the inve- ved, as it frequently happens, in any way involved with a prostitute.
stigative procedures and person- other serious crimes, such as the However, the controversy lies in the
nel they already have in place to smuggling of arms, drugs, and fact that nothing is said of investi-
intercept the serious offenses, fo- other licit or illicit commodities gations aimed at identifying who
cusing the investigative and pre- into the same area of conflict and has kidnapped that same prostitu-
ventive capacity of the UN police. post-conflict in which peacekee- te, raped, and thrown her out on
ping forces are deployed to. The the street to be violently exploited.
Optimization of UNPOL capaci- trafficking of persons, and in par- UNPOL should be given power
ties ticular prostitutes, may contribute and all possible technical and spe-
Peacekeepers must be the solu- in financing the payment of arms, cialized support to fight Organised
tion, not the problem. United Na- military equipment and personnel, Crime Groups involved in THB.
tions Police (UNPOL) should be thus creating a vicious cycle where

57

IN DEPTH

A more adequate and educatio- or doesn’t exist at all because of Take into consideration different
nal training system for the troops a lack of will and resources. This gender roles in different cultures
The Zeid Report sheds light on how lack of pre-deployment training If more focus is placed upon un-
inadequate training has been one is in fact evident in the peaceke- derstanding whether there is va-
of the major causes of Peaceke- eper’s questions and actions du- riation in the amount of sexual mi-
epers SEA. Training should not ring their training sessions abro- sconduct of different T/PCC, then
only improve in quantity but also ad, through many courses such as the behaviors and attitudes of the-
in quality. Technically, according the Protection of Civilians. There- se troops may be identified as well
as factors that would make it more
to UN regulation, all Member Sta- fore, more investigations should probable for them to take part in
tes must vet their troops through be conducted on whether the sta- sexual misconduct. Consequently,
a pre-deployment training within tes carry out these pre-deploy- the UN may decide to suspend the
their territory. Very often however ment trainings in an appropriate deployment of troops from specific
this pre-deployment training con- way, with particular focus on SEA. states (suspending the financing as
sists in a few words at the airport well) until the troops get more ade-
quate training, at least in the short-
term. In the longer term, it is good
to invest in these specific state’s
economies and infrastructure as
to increase the modernization pro-
cess and hopefully gradually chan-
ge the way women are viewed.

Concluding remarks
There has been an incongruence of
the approach taken to tackle SEA in
UN peacekeeping, with strict and

58

absolute policies and frameworks 3 Allred, Keith J. “Peacekeepers and Prostitu- PICTURES:
that neglect to consider part of the tes: How Deployed Forces Fuel the Demand -https://www.ali.org/news/articles/
essence of the issue. A peaceke- for Trafficked Women and New Hope for Stop- child-exploitation-and-trafficking/
eper who solicits a prostitute or ping It.” Armed Forces & Society, vol. 33, no. 1, -UN
creates a consensual relationship 2006, pp. 5–23. JSTOR, Accessed 6 July 2021. -https://www.unhcr.org/our-fight-a-
with a local girl cannot be crimi- 4 Allred, Keith J. “Human Trafficking & Peaceke- gainst-sexual-exploitation-abuse-and-haras-
nalized at the same level as one epers.”  Strategies Against Human Trafficking: sment.html
who rapes, exploits, and sexually The Role of the Security Sector. Geneva: Natio-
abuses. The issue of human traffi- nal Defense Academy, 2009. 299-328. Print. Maria Margaret Young
cking as both a consequence and 5 United Nations Department of Peace Ope-
a cause adds another dimension rations. “Contribution of Uniformed Person- Major in international affairs
to this dynamic. As we have seen nel to UN” xperts on Mission, Formed Poli- with minors in Legal Studies and
in the instances of Bosnia and Her- ce Units, Individual Police, Staff Officer, and Economics at the John Cabot
zegovina, Sierra Leone, Kosovo, Troops as of : 31/10/2021 https://peaceke- University
and others, the increased num- eping.un.org/sites/default/files/01_sum-
ber of deployed troops and con- mary_of_contribution_43_oct_2021.pdf Roberto Gonella
sequently an increased request for 6 Allred, Keith J. “Human Trafficking & Peaceke-
sexual services inevitably leads to a epers.”  Strategies Against Human Trafficking: Lt. Col. Italian Carabinieri
growth in the number of trafficked The Role of the Security Sector. Geneva: Natio- CoESPU’s Chair of Crisis Ma-
persons to supply that demand. nal Defense Academy, 2009. 299-328. Print. nagement and Peace Support
While it is known that peaceke- 7 Alison Brysk, and Austin Choi-Fitzpatrick “From Operations
eping helps maintain a peaceful Human Trafficking to Human Rights : Reframing
environment reducing violence, if Contemporary Slavery.”, University of Pennsyl-
the international community conti- vania Press, 2011.  ProQuest Ebook Central.
nues to “tighten the screw” without 8 Allred, Keith J. “Peacekeepers and Prostitu-
placing effort in trying to eradica- tes: How Deployed Forces Fuel the Demand
te the problem, the whole purpose for Trafficked Women and New Hope for Stop-
of a peacekeeping mission may be ping It.” Armed Forces & Society, vol. 33, no. 1,
lost as new problems are introdu- 2006, pp. 5–23. JSTOR, Accessed 6 July 2021.
ced into post-conflict environments 9 United Nations Department of Peaceke-
that will worsen conditions instead eping Operations.  “Human Trafficking and
of ameliorating them. It is impera- United Nations Peacekeeping-DPKO Poli-
tive for the international commu- cy Paper.” Rep. United Nations, 2004. Print.
nity to understand that peaceke- 10 Elizabeth F. Defeis, “U.N. Peacekeepers and
epers themselves should become Sexual Abuse and Exploitation: An End to Impu-
the solution of human trafficking nity.” 7 Wash. U. Global Stud. L. Rev. 185 (2008)
rather than a contributing cause, 11 Beber, Bernd, Michael J. Gilligan, Jenny
therefore an adequate respon- Guardado, and Sabrina Karim. “Peacekeeping,
se mechanism is needed to help Compliance with International Norms, and
these men in the most understan- Transactional Sex in Monrovia, Liberia.” In-
ding yet appropriate way possible. ternational Organization, 2017, 1-30. Print.
12 United Nations. “Glossary on Sexual Exploi-
Note tation and Abuse- Thematic Glossary of Current
Terminology Related to Sexual Exploitation and
1 For the purposes of this report the word Abuse (SEA) in the Context of the United Na-
“girls” refers to females under the age of tions.” Rep. 2nd ed. United Nations, 2017. Print.
18 who are minors according to the In- 13 Secretary-General’s Bulletin on Spe-
ternational Labor Organization’s Conven- cial measures for protection from sexual
tion on the Worst Forms of Child Labor exploitation and sexual abuse, ST/
2 Human Rights Watch.  “Hopes Betrayed: SGB/2003/13, 09/10/2003, Para 3.2.(d)
Trafficking of Women and Girls to Post-Con- 14 United Nations. “Glossary on Sexual Exploi-
flict Bosnia and Herzegovina for Forced tation and Abuse- Thematic Glossary of Current
Prostitution.” Rep. 9th ed. Vol. 14. New Terminology Related to Sexual Exploitation and
York: Human Rights Watch, 2002. Print. D. Abuse (SEA) in the Context of the United Na-
tions.” Rep. 2nd ed. United Nations, 2017. Print.
15 United Nations. “Sexual Exploitation
and Abuse.” Conduct in UN Field Mis-
sions. 09 Oct. 2017. Web. 04 July 2021.
16 Office of internal Oversight Services, Uni-
ted Nations. 2015. “Evaluation of the Enfor-
cement and Remedial Assistance Efforts for
Sexual Exploitation and Abuse by the United
Nations and Related Personnel in Peace- ke-
eping Operations.” Technical report, OIOS.
17 Bell, Sam R. et al. “U.N. Peacekee-
ping Forces and the Demand for Sex Traffi-
cking.” International Studies Quarterly. 2018.

59

HEALTH AND WELL-BEING



HEALTH AND WELL-BEING

SLEEP AND COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS
– PART 2

Sleep and Cognitive Functions - a hyper simplification and that in mammals and birds may serve
part 2 sleep represents a global altera- more than one function, and sle-
tion of brain functioning that oc- ep-like states on other organisms
by Davide Perego cupies about one-third of each may serve a variety of functions
day and that appears to be in- that may be similar or different.
In the last issue we have seen a dispensable. As long as we do
not understand the total function Brain hypotheses of sleep fun-
relationship between sleep and of sleep, we also do not under- ction can be broadly sub-
cognitive function, in specific how
sleep deprivation is able to in- THE CLASSIC DEFINITION OF SLEEP IS GENERALLY
fluence them. So we have defined BASED UPON PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
sleep as a phenomena present in OBSERVED IN MAMMALS INCLUDING REDUCED
the mammalians where we can BODY MOVEMENT AND ELECTROMYOGRAPHIC
observe a reduction of body mo- ACTIVITY, REDUCED RESPONSIVENESS TO EXTER-
vement and electromyographic NAL STIMULI, CLOSED EYES, REDUCED BREATHING
activity, a reduction of responsi- RATES, AND ALTERED BODY POSITION AND BRAIN
veness to external stimuli, closed WAVE ARCHITECTURE
eyes, reduction of breathing ra-
tes, and alteration of body posi- stand some very important and divided into cognitive (hi-
tion and brain wave architecture. as yet undiscovered physiologi- gher-order) and housekeeping
cal requirement of neural tissue. (restorative and detoxification)
It is clear that this description is We recognize, of course, that sleep categories. Cognitive hypotheses

62

propose that sleep serves functions tamate, typically enhance arousal Sakurai and colleagues found
such as memory or brain plasticity. or wakefulness. Arousal-related that hypocretins in the hypotha-
Housekeeping hypotheses instead cholinergic and monoaminergic lamus regulate feeding behaviorv
propose that the function of sle- neurons have been extensively in- (Orexin peptides are known also to
ep is related to essential neural vestigated though pharmacologic, regulate arousal, food intake, and
processes that support higher-or- genetic, and lesion studies, as well reward-related behaviors through
der cognitive functions. Among as the recent use of transgenic mo- their actions in a different set of
them we recognize restorative dels. In 1998, De Lecea, Killduff brain nuclei). Hypocretins stimulate
and detoxification hypotheses. and colleagues recognized hypo- and maintain wakefulness, in part,
Restorative hypotheses propo- cretin (orexin) as a sleep regulatory through stimulating the release of
se that sleep restores and repairs molecule located in the hypothala- wake-promoting neurotransmit-
neural substrates degraded by wa- mus, a small but important area in ters as norepinephrine, dopami-
kefulness. Detoxification hypothe- the center of the brain located in ne, acetylcholine, and histamine.
ses propose that sleep detoxifies the between the pituitary gland and Hypocretins activate the G-pro-
substances that accumulate du- thalamus, that plays an impor- tein coupled receptors hypocretin
ring wake. We have to consi- tant role in hormone production receptor 1 and hypocretin recep-
der that these different hypothe- and helps to stimulate many im- tor 2 (also known as orexin 1 re-
ses are not mutually exclusive. portant processes in the body. ceptor and orexin 2 receptor). The
The hypothalamus’ main role is to hypocretin receptors are activated,
Molecule involved in sleep keep the body in homeostasis as in part, through phospholipase C
Changes in brain electrical acti- much as possible, in fact this area and Ca2+-dependent and Ca2+
vity falling asleep and during the is involved in all survive’s functions. independent pathways to activate
sleep, reflected in altered EEG fre- protein kinase C, protein kinase A,
quency bands, that are mediated and mitogen-activated protein ki-
by molecules that influence ion nase (MAPK) signaling pathways,
concentrations, such as potassium all of which are inflammatory and
(K+) and Ca2+. Further ions, metabolic pathways that affect
there are neurons release signa- sleep/wakefulness. Enhanced wa-
ling molecules that are involved in kefulness activates the hypocretin
physiological functions: the neuro- 1 receptor, further supporting the
transmitters. There are neurotran- role of hypocretins in promoting
smitters that tend to be excitatory, wakefulness. Neurons that pro-
such as acetylcholine, dopamine, duce hypocretins also co-express
norepinephrine, histamine, sero- multiple receptors including glu-
tonin, hypocretins (also known as tamatergic receptors, adenosi-
orexin), neuropeptide S, and glu- nergic A1 receptors, muscarinic

63

HEALTH AND WELL-BEING

M3 receptors, and serotonergic scle tone (cataplexy), which can be transmitter because it blocks, or
5-HT1A receptors, allowing hypo- triggered by strong emotion. Nar- inhibits, certain brain signals and
cretin the ability to rapidly indu- colepsy that occurs with cataplexy decreases activity in your nervous
ce changes in sleep/wake states. is called type 1 narcolepsy. Narco- system. When GABA attaches to
Many studies have described dy- lepsy that occurs without cataplexy a protein in the brain known as a

GABA receptor, it pro-
duces a calming effect.
This can help with fee-
lings of anxiety, stress,
and fear. It may also
help to prevent seizu-
res. Benzodiazepines
(BZs) produce most, if
not all, of their phar-
macological actions
by specifically enhan-
cing the effects of en-
dogenous and exoge-
nous GABA that are
mediated by GABA
receptors. GABA fun-
ctions to largely inhi-
bit the activity of glu-
tamatergic neurons
and their respecti-
ve receptors, thus
enhancing NREMS.

sfunction of hypocretin and its re- is known as type 2 narcolepsy. Glutamate is pre-
ceptors in the sleep disorder narco- sent in most neu-
lepsy, again suggesting its unique In added to excitatory molecules, rons and, acting as
role in vigilance state regulation. there are inhibitory molecules, and an excitatory neuro-
It is important to remember that one of them is the gamma-Amino- transmitter through
narcolepsy is a chronic sleep di- butyric acid (GABA). GABA is one either the α-amin-
sorder characterized by overwhel- of the well-characterized neuro- o-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxaz-
ming daytime drowsiness and sud- transmitters found to induce sleep olepropionic acid (AMPA) or
den attacks of sleep. People with and sleep wave activity (SWA), whi- N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)
narcolepsy often find it difficult ch occurs, in part, through its abi- receptor, predominantly promo-
to stay awake for long periods of lity to modulate the neuronal rele- tes arousal and inhibits sleep.
time, regardless of the circumstan- ase of excitatory neurotransmitters GABA acts on both ligand-gated
ces. Narcolepsy can cause serious including glutamate, acetylcholine, ion channel complex GABA-A re-
disruptions in daily routine and norepinephrine, and hypocretin. ceptors and G protein-coupled
sometimes, narcolepsy can be ac- Gamma aminobutyric acid is GABA-B receptors. Both GABA-A
companied by a sudden loss of mu- considered an inhibitory neuro- and GABA-B receptor antago-
nists enhance wakefulness while
GABAergic receptor agonists pro-
mote NREMS. Moreover, well-k-
nown GABA-A receptor agonists,
including benzodiazepines, bar-
biturates, imidazopyridines, and

64

cyclopyrrolones, enhance NREMS. is mostly 6-hydroxylated by he- Restorative Function of sleep
Substance P is a neurotransmitter patic P450 monooxygenases and Without a doubt everyone are
that regulates sleep wave activi- excreted as 6-sulfatoxymelatonin. agree that sleep has a restorati-
ty and possibly sleep duration. Pyrrole-ring cleavage is of higher ve function though we don’t know
Substance P was first discove- importance in other tissues, espe- what is being restored exactly. The
red by von Euler and Gaddum in cially the brain. The product, N1-a- most ubiquitous conceptualization
1931, and serves multiple fun- cetyl-N2-formyl-5-methoxykynu- of a sleep restorative function in
ctions including the regulation ramine, is formed by enzymatic, the sleep literature is “Process S”
of mood, anxiety, stress, neuro- pseudoenzymatic, photocatalytic, based on the changing expres-
genesis, nausea, pain, vasohe- and numerous free-radical re- sion of EEG slow-wave activity
modynamics and inflammation. actions. Additional metabolites re- as a function of prior wake and
Substance P release is well-known sult from hydroxylation and nitro- subsequent sleep duration. But
to induce cytokines, such as in- sation. The secondary metabolite, a more immediate concept of re-
terleukin (IL)-1beta (IL-1β) and N1-acetyl-5-methoxykynuramine, storative function, can involve re-
tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TN- supports mitochondrial function placement of something depleted
F-α), that enhance sleep duration and downregulates cyclooxygena- as in the energy, or it can involve
and SWA. Recently, neurokinin-1 se 2, acting as anti-inflammatory. the elimination of something accu-
(NK-1) receptors were found to Antioxidative protection, safeguar- mulated above a desirable level.
be co-expressed on cortical sle- ding of mitochondrial electron flux, Elimination of waste products of
ep-active neurons that express and in particular, neuroprotection, metabolism is the focus of a rela-
neuronal nitric oxide synthase have been demonstrated in many tively new hypothesis on sleep fun-
(nNOS), whose activity is positi- experimental systems. Findings are ction – the glymphatic clearance
vely correlated with changes in encouraging to use melatonin as hypothesis (Xie et al. 2013). The
SWA. Moreover, injections of sub- a sleep promoter and in preven- term glymphatic was introduced
stance P fragment 1, 7 enhance ting progression of neurodege- in 2012 in a description of the
SWA locally in the cortical hemi- nerative diseases and in cancer.
sphere where the substance was
applied, and NK-1 receptor an-
tagonists attenuated SWA locally,
indicating that substance P and
the NK -1 receptor regulate SWA.
Another very important molecu-
le in the sleep cycle is melatonin,
Melatonin, originally discovered
as a hormone of the pineal gland,
is produced by bacteria, proto-
zoa, plants, fungi, invertebrates,
and various extrapineal sites of
vertebrates, including gut, skin,
Harderian gland, and leukocytes.
Biosynthetic pathways seem to be
identical. Actions are pleiotropic,
mediated by membrane and nu-
clear receptors, other binding si-
tes or chemical interactions. Me-
latonin regulates the sleep/wake
cycle, other circadian and seaso-
nal rhythms, and acts as an im-
munostimulator and cytoprotecti-
ve agent. Circulating melatonin

65

HEALTH AND WELL-BEING

newly characterized system in the small molecular solutes are distri- the flow through them expand dra-
brain for exchange of cerebral buted to the ISF. The ISF along with matically (up to 60%) during sleep
spinal fluid (CSF), interstitial fluid its solutes leaves the brain paren- in comparison to wake facilitating
(ISF), and blood. In summary, the chyma through the perivascular the flow of ISF through the brain
evidence supports a model in whi- spaces around venules and veins parenchyma. The volume of the in-
ch subarachnoid CSF enters the draining into cervical lymphati- terstitium and hence the flow of ISF
brain through perivascular spaces cs and venous blood in the dural appear to be controlled by at least
around penetrating arteries. These sinuses. This drainage of ISF car- one neuromodulator that is high
spaces are bounded by the end-fe- ries with it waste products of brain during wake and low during sleep
et of astrocytes and the endothe- metabolism such as beta amyloid, – norepinephrine (Xie et al. 2013).

lium and smooth muscle of the soluble proteins, lipids, ions, and The glymphatic clearan-
vessel walls (Iliff and Nedergaard small molecules such as lacta- ce hypothesis for the fun-
2013). Water and small molecular te (Lundgaard et al. 2016). The ction of sleep has possible
solutes enter the astrocytes throu- connection of the newly described connections with the brain
gh aquaporin (Aqp4) channels in glymphatic system with sleep co- energy restoration hypothe-
the astrocyte end-feet membranes. mes from the observation that the sis. The brain depends on
From the astrocytes the water and perivascular spaces and therefore glucose and its breakdown
product lactate for energy,
and the astrocytes mediate
the delivery of these energy
substrates to the neurons.
First, glucose is transferred
to astrocytes from the blo-
od via glucose 1 transpor-
ters (Glut1). The astrocytes
deliver glucose to the ISF
and thereby to neurons via
Glut1. Second, astrocytes
also synthesize glucose into
glycogen by means of series
of enzymatically control-
led steps notably including
glycogen synthase. Third,
astrocytic glycogen is an im-
portant and rapidly activa-
ted energy reserve, but the
process of glycogenolysis
produces glucose-6-pho-
sphate moieties that cannot
leave the astrocyte. Instead,
they enter glycolysis pro-
ducing lactate molecules
that can leave the astrocyte
and be an energy source for neu-
rons (reviewed in Falkowska et al.
2015). The high-energy demands
of neural activations during wake
call upon the glycogen reserves of
the astrocytes causing increases in
lactate levels in the ISF, and indeed

66

studies have shown higher brain ces among disease and syndrome. along with decreased total sleep
lactate levels during wake than du- A disease is a condition of the li- time that coincides with jet tra-
ring sleep (Lundgaard et al. 2016). ving animal or plant body or one vel across at least two time zo-
In addition, neuronal activations of its parts that impairs normal nes (east to west or west to east)
are associated with transient rises functioning and is typically ma- 2. Generalized fatigue or presen-
in glycolysis resulting in neuronal nifested by distinguishing signs ce of somatic symptoms occur-
contributions of lactate to the ISF and symptoms. Disease is typi- ring within 2 days of travel onset

(Prichard et al. 1991). Thus, slee- cally manifested by distinguishing 3. No other disorder or con-
p-related clearance of lactate from signs and symptoms. A disease dition can be attributed
the brain is one potential function usually has a defined or understo- for the sleep disturbance.
of the glymphatic system (Lundga- od cause, process, and treatment. Despite its limited duration, jet lag
ard et al. 2016) and that clearan- Syndrome as a group of signs can produce deleterious health
ce function would pertain to many and symptoms that occur to- effects in high functioning indivi-
other components of the ISF as well. gether and characterize a parti- duals. It is important not confu-
cular abnormality or condition. se Jet lag with travel fatigue. The
Sleep disorders: an example with Another definition is a set of con- travel fatigue syndrome involves
Jet-lag current things, such as emotions generalized fatigue, occasional
Such a complex system can’t be im- or actions, that form an identi- headache, and mental weariness
mune from problems, so linked to fiable pattern. It is not a disease. as a result of distorted sleep rou-
the sleep, its function and its com- So Jet lag, often deemed as a trivial tine. This occurs due to stress of
ponents, there are the sleeping di- inconvenience, recognized like sle- travel. An important distinction
sorders that are all of pathological ep disorder. In fact the International is that travel fatigue does not de-
origin. It exist also a disorder that, Classification of Sleep Disorders, pend on number of time zones
normally, is not of pathological Third Edition, lists the following traversed. It can occur after nor-
origin: jet lag syndrome. Before to criteria for diagnosis of Jet lag: thbound or southbound travel.
continuing with the analysis of jet 1. Excessive daytime sleepi- Restful sleep generally abolishes
lag is useful to explain the differen- ness or distortion of sleep cycle the symptoms of travel fatigue.

67

HEALTH AND WELL-BEING

Jet lag occurs owing to of disrup- tion can be sped up by utilizing na- lays (evening response) and phase
tion of the circadian rhythm due turally existing clock-resetting me- advance (morning response) di-
to rapid transition across time chanisms to compensate for minor minishes. Since people normally
zones, resulting in asynchrony differences between the 24h solar sleep in darkness with closed eyes,
between the local time and the time and the natural body clock. sleep timing by itself does not
human circadian clock (which is To have a clear understanding resynchronize the rhythm. Sleep
normally regulated by the solar of the phenomena it need to halts exposure to light temporarily,
light–dark cycle). Internal signals explain something about cir- thereby assisting in circadian clock
for wakefulness and sleep are cadian cycles and its role. modulation. The human circadian
thrown in disarray due to misma-
tch with the local light–dark cycle. “THE IMPORTANCE OF SLEEP FOR LEARNING AND
In the absence of specific treat- MEMORY HAS BEEN ABUNDANTLY DOCUMENTED IN
ment, the natural circadian rhythm ANIMALS AND HUMANS, AND VIRTUALLY EVERYONE
adjusts to the destination time by CAN ATTEST TO THAT WHEN IS DEPRIVED OF SLEEP
approximately 1 time zone/day IS IN DIFFICULT TO LEARN OR TO REMEMBER SO-
for eastbound travel and 1.5 time METHING”
zones/day for westbound travel. In
more detailed way as the circadian It is believed that the timing of li- rhythm is intimately intertwined
rhythm slowly synchronizes with ght exposure is a vital cue for cir- with the sleep/wake cycle and is
the local time zone, symptoms of cadian rhythm realignment and affected by melatonin secretion
jet lag gradually wane. It has been we can find this phenomenon in and changes in the core body tem-
postulated that the circadian clock most animals as well as humans. perature (CBT). During a normal
resets an average of 57 min earlier To compensate for any deviation circadian phase, dim light causes
after eastward travel and 92 min from a 24h cycle, morning light melatonin to increase approxi-
later after westward travel. A study mately 2 h before habitual sleep

corroborated these findings using exposure moves the inside clock onset in opposite way to cortisol
melatonin secretion timing as a in the hypothalamus to an earlier levels. This physiological respon-
marker of circadian timing. The cir- time while evening light exposure se is known as dim light melato-
cadian clock is slightly longer than moves it to a later time. At night, nin onset. A concurrent decrease
24h. The process of resynchroniza- the separation between phase de- in CBT results in reduced levels of

68

alertness, which in turn creates a evening after a westward journey. Bibliography
strong propensity for sleep (at ni-
ght). At dawn, melatonin levels Avoidance of light can be discon- Jet lag: Heuristics and therapeutics - Paurush
drop and become undetectable. tinued after few days, at the point Ambesh, Vijay Shetty, Sahitya Ambesh, Su-
The CBT rises thereby accentua- when the circadian rhythm will shilkumar Satish Gupta, Stephan Kamholz,
ting the circadian alerting signal. have readjusted. Some studies Lawrence Wolf www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
This has the overall effect of pro- show that an alternative to direct articles/PMC6069654/pdf/JFMPC-7-507.pdf
moting wakefulness. For approxi- avoidance of bright light is the use New perspectives on the role of me-
mately 16h during daytime, the of sunglasses. More research ne- latonin in human sleep, circadian
circadian alerting signal counters eds to be done in the field of light rhythms and their regulation - Nava Zi-
the increasing homeostatic sleep avoidance before conclusive gui- sapel - British Journal of Pharmacology
drive. Natural bright light is the delines can be established. It can
most potent modifier of the circa- be done something before your Sleep Homeostasis and the Function of Sle-
dian cycle. However, after a chan- trip, adjust sleep-wake schedule ep - Joel H. Benington www.researchgate.
ge in the light–dark cycle due to to be in sync with new time zone net/publication/12243399_Sleep_Ho-
air travel, phase shifts do not occur simply staying awake once reach meostasis_and_the_Function_of_Sleep
instantaneously. These phase shifts the destination or delaying sleep
may take many days to adjust to until the usual bedtime in the new Sleep-Wake Neurobiology and Pharmacology –
the new time zone. As a result, the time zone. The duration of jetlag
internal circadian clock is still set to symptoms may also depend on Hans-Peter Landolt - Derk-Jan Dijk
the original time of travel onset. In- direction of travel.It may be more
terestingly, the amount of dys-syn- pronounced in travelers with pre- Chapter in Handbook of Experimen-
chrony is dependent on the num- travel-inverted circadian rhythms,
ber of time zones traversed. Jet lag for example, night shift workers tal Pharmacology Springer January 2018
manifests as daytime sleepiness, or a traveler on a prolonged east-
mood changes, gastrointestinal bound flight. This is because clock Sodium Oxybate (Xyrem®): A New
discomfort, psychomotor retarda- advancement is harder than clock
tion, and insomnia. Symptoms of delaying. Thus, some experts re- and Effective Treatment for Narcolepsy
jet lag can become chronic in fre- commend that any flight that tra-
quent travelers, for example, flight verses more than eight time zones with Cataplexy- Bahamman-Neubau-
crew and international executives. should be regarded as westward.
Intentional exposure to bright light Above we have seen as many er – Prandi Perunal November 2014 Mi-
at local day times may expedite molecules are involved in the sle-
the process. It is recommended to eping. One of them is melatonin, lestones in Drug Therapy 49:231-248
seek bright light exposure in the an hormone secreted by pineal
evening after westbound journey gland for about 10 h each night DOI:10.1007/978-3-319-11514-6_11
and in the morning after east- in tandem with the light–dark cycle
bound journey. This may be useful and influenced by cortisol. It is a The Function(s) of Sleep - Marcos G. Frank , H.
when the individual has traversed darkness signal, with effects which Craig Heller - Chapter in Handbook of Experi-
as many as eight time zones of tra- antagonize those of light exposure. mental Pharmacology · Springee January 2018
vel. Avoiding bright light exposure If melatonin is taken in the mor-
may be helpful in circumstances ning, it resets the circadian clock Davide Perego
where eight or more time zones to a later time, and if taken in the Neuroscientist, Psyco-Neuro Phy-
have been crossed so that light evening, it resets it to an earlier siologist, expert in Psychopatho-
which was previously experienced time, so to ease jet lag, try taking logy and neuropsychology
as “morning” is now experienced melatonin two hours before the
as “evening”. The reverse is true bedtime at the destination, star-
as well. Thus, it is also recommen- ting a few days before the trip.
ded to avoid 1st h of daylight after But as always before to take every
an eastward journey and 1st h of drug, ask and advice to a doctor.

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C ESPUOCOESPU TRAINING TRAINING

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COESPU TRAINING

1ST UN STAFF OFFICERS COURSE

OCTOBER 8 – OCTOBER 27, 2021
1st United Nations Staff Officers Course at CoESPU’s premises, for International Stu-
dents. The main objective of the course was to train military, police and civilian He-
adquarters Staff in planning and decision making process, also on the basis of the
extensive experience gained by CoESPU through the delivery - along the years - of 26
courses on Civilian, Military and Police Relations in Peace Operations. Based on the
United Nations Police (UNPOL) Strategic Guidance Framework for International Poli-
cing (SGF), the activity followed the most recent UN doctrine and the UN New Police
Architecture Program, which in particular foster mutual cooperation and understanding
in Peace Operations, due to their integrated and multidimensional nature.

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22ND (ENHANCED) COMPREHENSIVE PROTECTION OF CIVI-
LIANS COURSE

NOVEMBER 24 – DECEMBER 7, 2021
First day of the 22nd (enhanced) Comprehensive Protection of Civilians Course, with
students and tutors coming from Benin, Burkina Faso, Senegal and Thailand, plus
interns and assistants from SIOI, the Italian Society for International Organization,
Pisa Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, Padua Campus Ciels and Cagliari University, in the
context of CoESPU internship projects. Based on the recently released United Nations
CPOC for Police Training Materials (2020), the course encompassed all the most re-
levant UN policies, standards and manuals, promoting an effective knowledge and
supporting the development of the necessary skills to effectively implement POC in UN
Peace Operations.

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COESPU TRAINING

1ST CULTURAL HERITAGE PROTECTION COURSE

NOVEMBER 24 – DECEMBER 7, 2021
As part of the initiatives of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Coo-
peration in favour of the Countries belonging to the ASEAN, the Association of Southe-
ast Asian Nations, a 2-week course on the protection of Cultural Heritage took place
at CoESPU. The training activity was carried out by Subject Matter Experts from the Ca-
rabinieri Command for the Protection of Cultural Heritage. The course hosted students
coming from Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam.

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AROUND THE WORLD

AROUND THE WORLD

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AROUND THE WORLD

AMMAN (JORDAN)

NOVEMBER 30, 2021
In the framework of the Italian Defence Staff 2021 Cooperation Plan, a delegation
from CoESPU visited the Jordanian Gendarmerie Headquarters in Amman. Stability
Policing was the main topic of the meeting.

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NEW YORK (USA)

DECEMBER 3, 2021
In the premises of the Permanent Mission of Italy to the United Nations - New York in
New York, the Deputy Permanent Representative of Italy to the United Nations, Ambas-
sador Stefano Stefanile, opened the ritual semi-annual consultations between the UN
- in the person of the Assistant Secretary General Alexander Zouev from the UN De-
partment for Peace Operations, the Italian Defense Staff, represented by the Defence
Attaché and Military Adviser of the Italian Mission to the UN, Carabinieri Maj. Gen. Fa-
brizio Parrulli, the CoESPU, represented by its Director, Brig. Gen. Giovanni P. Barbano,
and the Military Councillor Office at the United States Mission to the UN, in the person
of Col. Glenn Sadowsky.
The United Nations recognises the efforts made by Italy and CoESPU, not only for the
resources promptly deployed, but also for culture and the “way” of peacekeeping, ba-
sed on an integrated approach that emphasises civil, military and police collaboration
and dialogue with civilian populations, with particular attention also to the environ-
mental impact of Peacekeeping missions and the protection of Cultural Heritage in
post-conflict scenarios.

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AROUND THE WORLD

DJIBOUTI

OCTOBER 10 – DECEMBER 5, 2021
As part of the Training activities undertaken by MIADIT (Missione Addestrativa Italiana,
Italian Training Mission) in the Horn of Africa, a “Formed Police Unit” (FPU) was course
carried out by the Carabinieri through their specialized instructors, being two of them
from the Center of Excellence for Stability Police Units ( CoESPU).
Following a request by the Djiboutian National Gendarmerie, the FPU course, in favor
of 63 local Gendarmes, was held at the Artà Gendarmerie Academy.
The purpose of the activity was to train new specialized Gendarmes to be included wi-
thin the FPU for imminent deployment, on January 2022, to the operational theater of
the Central African Republic as part of the MONUSCO, and which will become the first
police force exclusively provided by the Republic of Djibouti in a Peacekeeping opera-
tion.
The course was addressed to personnel of the Gendarmerie Nationale Djibutienne as
the inherent characteristics of this national security force can be profitably oriented to
perform typical tasks of a mobile police unit. Therefore it is a military police force that
has been effectively trained to carry out the FPU tasks and which will be able to provi-
de protection to local civilians, as well as to personnel and logistical structures of the
United Nations.

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ONSITE VISITS

COESPU ONSITE VISITS

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ONSITE VISITS

H.E. MS. HELGA MARIA SCHMID AND LT. GEN. TEO LUZI

OCTOBER 1, 2021
The Carabinieri General Commander, Lt. Gen. Teo Luzi, and the OSCE Secretay Gene-
ral, H.E. Ms. Helga Maria Schmid, visited the Center of Excellence for Stability Police on
the occasion of the closing of the “Combating Human Trafficking along Mediterranean
Migration Routes” 5-day OSCE / CoESPU exercise in Vicenza. The last working day
was open to the prestigious visits of the leaders of the two Bodies that gave life to the
activity, welcomed by the CoESPU Director, Brig. Gen. Giovanni Pietro Barbano. The
two Authorities had the opportunity to appreciate what the 41 participants from Au-
stria, Canada, Denmark, Germany, Georgia and Spain had done during the exercise,
underlining, in particular, how important the multi-agency collaboration and the rela-
tionships between components civilians and military are, especially in such a delicate
issue as human trafficking. During the complex operations, the various actors who took
part in the important initiative were able to investigate the multiple interconnections
existing between migration and human trafficking, identifying the most significant criti-
cal issues in the fight against this specific form of crime. In particular, the attention was
focused, on the one hand, on strengthening the legislative means to prosecute human
traffickers operating along migration routes and, on the other hand, on providing the
necessary tools for the competent authorities to identify the victims of the trafficking and
to best guarantee the protection of Human Rights. A joint effort supported by CoESPU
in co-operation with OSCE, to promote respect for human rights in the world through
a better coordination at international level. General Luzi then visited the Permanent
Headquarters of the European Gendarmerie Force and the NATO Stability Policing
Center of Excellence, which, together with CoESPU, constitute the Stability Policing Hub,
something unique in the world.

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NORTH MACEDONIA SECURITY FORCES

NOVEMBER 23, 2021
A delegation from North Macedonia Security Forces visited the Center of Excellence for
Stability Police Units, exploring new forms of collaboration.

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AROUND THIENWDOEEPRVTLHDENTS
INAUGURATION OF COESPU ACADEMIC SEASON
2021-2022

OCTOBER 27, 2021

For the inauguration of CoESPU Academic Season 2021-2022, the floor was taken by LTG Enzo
Bernardini, Carabinieri Deputy Commanding General, Mr. Alexandre Zouev, United Nations ASG
OROLSI, Police Commissioner Luis Carrilho, United Nations Police - UNPOL Adviser, and Ms. Jenni-
fer Pulliam, U.S. Department of State Peace Operations Capacity Building Division Chief/Programs
Director (GPOI - Global Peace Operations Initiative & APRRP). Then, a Lectio Magistralis delivered by
Hon. Professor Franco Frattini, Chairman of the SIOI, the Italian Society for the International Organi-
zation, opened the way to a roundtable held by several International Professors. The ceremony ended
with the remarks of BG Giovanni Pietro Barbano, CoESPU Director, who gave a panoramic view on
the starting training activities and their related news, just before officially declaring the opening of the
CoESPU Academic Season 2021-2022.

86

Center of Excellence for Stability Police Units -Sub Iure ad Pacem tuendam Milites paro The 3 - 2019

CMoEASGPAUZINEThe online quarterly Journal of Stability Policing

ININPTEEARCNEATOIPOENRAALTIPORNOSTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS
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