029_HANDB OF FRUITS_AND PROSESSING_2006_688

34 Nutritional and Medicinal Uses of Prickly Pear Cladodes and Fruits 659
Conditioning of raw
nopalitos

Nopalitos for processing

Nopalitos in 12% Dicing and cutting Marmalades: Cooked
brine of Nopalitos milled Nopalitos with

Stirring and covering Mixing and heating of sugar, pectin and
vinegar (2%) and preservatives
Desalting sauted vegetables
Sauces: Milled
Cutting and filling Filling and Nopalitos with
sterilization and air differents proportions
Addition of spices and of various chilis,
preservatives and drying of jars tomato, onions and
often preservatives
covering with liquid Cooling and air drying
of jars Jam: Cladodes, sugar
Sterilization and air and citric acid
drying of jars Labelling, packing,
storage and market Candies: Processing of
Labelling, packing, Nopalitos with sugar
storage and market Pickled Nopalitos and ingredients

Juice: Juice obtained
by scalding, milling and
filtering of youg pads is

supplemented with
sugar and aspartate

Nopalitos in brine

Figure 34.3. Flow diagrams for processing nopalitos in brine, pickled nopalitos, and other products prepared with
mille nopalitos (adapted from Saenz et al., 2002a).

that the jam was acceptable with or without any fla- Nopalitos Products
vor added. Blanching resulted in no significant dif-
ference to the sensory quality of the jam (Sawaya The fresh product is marketed directly after harvest-
et al., 1983). The sensory evaluation of the color ing and cleaning. The cleaned pads are cut into small
acceptability of concentrated juice of prickly pears pieces and preserved by various methods (Fig. 34.3).
(Opuntia ficus indica) indicated that reconstituted The minimally processed nopalitos washed with
juices were more acceptable at shorter storage times cold, clean water to eliminate adhering pectines
than the respective concentrated juices (Saenz et al., and mucilages can be used for various products,
1993). e.g., nopalitos in salt brine with 2% NaCl, pickled

660 Part III: Commodity Processing

nopalitos preserved in vinegar, and marmalades pre- FERMENTATION PROCESSING
pared using milled nopalitos with various concentra- OF OPUNTIA PRODUCTS
tions of sugar, pectin, and preservatives (Saenz et al.,
2002a). Prickly pear juice, which contains high concentra-
tions of glucose and fructose, offers a potential sub-
Mucilage as Functional Foods strate for fermentation processes.

The functional components from cactus pear open Production of Single-Cell Protein
new possibilities for adding value to a crop of the
arid and semiarid regions of the world. Mucilage, a The protein production with Candida utilis, using
complex carbohydrate with a great capacity to ab- prickly pear juice in batch and in continuous culture
sorb water, should be considered a potential source was studied (Paredes-Lopez et al., 1976). In batch
of gelatinous colloid, dietary fiber, and thickening culture, the maximum specific growth (␮m) rate and
agents (Amin et al., 1970; Saenz, 2002; Saenz et al., the substrate yield coefficient (Ys) varied according
2004). Fractionation studies indicate that the mu- to sugar concentration. At 1% sugar, ␮m and Ys were
cilage of O. ficus-indica is essentially homogeneous 0.47/h and 42.6%, respectively, the best yields occur-
(McGarvie and Parolis, 1979). The rheological prop- ing in a chemostat at pH 3.5–4.5 at 30◦C. A beneficial
erties of aqueous solutions of the mucilage isolated effect on Ys as observed when the dilution rate (D)
from O. ficus-indica have been examined. Steady- was increased. At a D of 0.55/h, the productivity was
shear viscosities in a range of shear rate from 1 to 2.38 g/l.h. The maintenance coefficient was 0.09 g of
300 s−1 were observed as a function of mucilage sugar/g of biomass. Increases of D produced higher
concentration, temperature, pH, and ionic strength. protein content of the biomass.
Mucilage aqueous solutions showed non-Newtonian
shear-thinning behavior with high elastic properties, Since the prickly pear juice contains fermentable
similar to the high elastic synthetic polymers like sugars (glucose and fructose), it could find use as a
polyisobutylene (Medina-Torres et al., 2000). raw material for baker’s yeast production. The min-
eral and vitamin contents of prickly pear juice also
The mechanical properties of gels formed by either favor good growth of yeasts.
mixtures of mucilage gum obtained from O. ficus-
indica and K-carrageenan or i-carrageenan have been Fermentation Substrate for Wine
examined using dynamic shear and uniaxial com- and Alcohol Production
pression measurements. A total polymer concentra-
tion of 2% (w/w) was used, the proportion of mu- The prickly pear juice is used in Mexico to produce
cilage gum varying from 0% to 80% (w/w), and KCl the traditional fermented drinks Tequila, Colonche,
or CaCl2 in the range from 12 to 60 mM. For the and Pulque (Bonnassieux, 1988). The transformation
mixed gels of i-carrageenan and mucilage gum, no of fruit juice into wine is essentially a microbial pro-
enhancement of the mechanical properties with re- cess. A pure yeast culture, inoculated in a pasteur-
spect to the pure i-carrageenan was observed. For ized fruit must digest the available sugars into ethanol
the K-carrageenan/mucilage gum system, at an 80:20 and carbon dioxide. Fermentation has a relatively low
ratio and 12 mM KCl, higher gel rigidity than the capital and operating costs, and it is a simple tech-
pure K-carrageenan gels was observed, and failure nology. The effect of fermentation on foods produces
stress and strain increases as mucilage gum concen- few deleterious changes to the nutritional and sensory
tration increases. The main feature of the mucilage properties. The aroma of fermented foods is due to
is to enhance elasticity on the final gels (Medina- the large number of volatile chemical components
Torres et al., 2003). The use of prickly pear cactus like amines, fatty acids, aldehydes, esters, and ke-
mucilage (Opuntia ficus indica) as an edible coat- tones, and products from their interactions of these
ing to extend the shelf life of strawberries leads to compounds during fermentation and maturation.
increased shelf life (Del-Valle et al., 2005). The ad-
dition of cactus pear flour in oatmeal cookies con- The sugar and energy conversions by Saccha-
siderably increases the dietary fiber content in this romyces cerevisiae into ethanol were 99% and 32%,
type of product and could comprise a part of the respectively (Retamal et al., 1987b). The final ethanol
daily intake requirements of this nutrient (Saenz et al., concentration obtained on the twice diluted prickly
2002b). pear juice was 5.45% v/v. These experiments were
used to determine the optimal area of prickly pear

34 Nutritional and Medicinal Uses of Prickly Pear Cladodes and Fruits 661

crop necessary to supply an industrial fermentation and 0.21 g/g for lipids. The quality of lipids pro-
plant processing 50,000 l/day of ethanol for 5 months duced by UfaM3 approached cocoa butter composi-
of the year. In Spain, and with production of 1500 l tion. The extracted lipids were mainly oleic (C 18:1)
of ethanol/ha, the theoretical radius of the cultivated and palmitic (C16:0) acids (Hassan et al., 1995).
land would be approximately 4 km.
The growth of Kluyveromyces marxianus on five
The ethanol production by S. cerevisiae using agroindustrial residues proved the feasibility of using
prickly pear cladodes as a substrate (Retamal et al., cassava bagasse and giant palm bran (O. ficus-indica)
1987b) was useful when enzymatic hydrolysis us- as substrates to produce fruity aroma compounds by
ing cellulase followed by acid hydrolysis of the sub- the yeast culture (Medeiros et al., 2000).
strate considerably improved the release of sucrose.
The highest ethanol concentration obtained by direct FUTURE PROSPECTS
fermentation was 0.86% (v/v). This is not economi-
cal because final ethanol concentration did not reach The prickly pear cladodes and fruits are a potential
7–10% (v/v). food reserve for humans and animals, especially in
arid and semiarid regions of the world. However,
Prickly Pear Juice Substrate for some constraints limiting the expansion of the planta-
Microbial Metabolites Production tion of cactus pear are low productivity and quality,
the poor value of crops, and the modest consump-
The use of agricultural by-products as substrates tion. Much research still needs to be done to promote
for the production of red pigments by Monascus is the commercial potentials for foods, cosmetics, and
interesting and economically feasible. The juice from medicines.
the prickly pear fruit can be used as a medium for
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Handbook of Fruits and Fruit Processing
Edited by Y. H. Hui

Copyright © 2006 by Blackwell Publishing

35
Speciality Fruits Unique to Hungary

Mo´nika Ste´ger-Ma´te´

Introduction stone fruits, 7% berries, and 5% shelled fruits (KSH,
Pome Fruits 2002).

Apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) POME FRUITS
Pear (Pyrus communis L.)
Stone Fruits Hungary provides an excellent environment for the
Plums (Prunus domestica L.) production of pomes. The most significant pomes are
Sour Cherry (Prunus cerasus L.) apples and pears. Quince and naseberry can also be
Cherries (Prunus avium L.) found; however, these are mainly produced in house-
Peaches (Prunus persica L.) hold plots.
Apricots (Prunus armeniaca L.)
Berries Apple (MALUS DOMESTICA Borkh.)
Raspberries (Rubus idaeus L.), Bramble
Strawberries (Fragaria ananassa L.) Production
Currants (Ribes nigrum, rubrum L.)
Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) Apples are produced and processed in the highest
Other Fruits (Wild, Special) quantity of pome fruits. Annually 58–60 million
References tons are produced worldwide, with Europe producing
28–30%. The largest apple producing countries of
INTRODUCTION Europe are Turkey, Italy, France, Germany, and
Poland. Apples are also the predominant fruit of
Hungary is located in Central Europe, at the western- Hungary.
central half of the Carpathian Basin; its territory
is 90,036 km2. It is located midway between the Total production was more than 500,000 tons in
equator and the North Pole and the northern latitudes 2001 and 2002 (Table 35.1); meanwhile, producing
of 45.7◦ and 48.5◦. The area is dominated by flat- areas were between 40,000 and 45,000 ha (KSH,
lands with elevations reaching 200–400 m but only 2002).
4% above 400 m. Hungary is ideal for fruit produc-
tion because of its location in the northern temperate Varieties
zone and within the influence of the ocean and the
Mediterranean Sea (Czella´r and Somorjai, 1996). The Hungarian apple production is in transition because
continental climate of Hungary with mean annual of the change in varieties that are grown. Before
temperatures of 9–10◦C and precipitations of 500– the 1990s, Jonathan (50–80%), Golden Delicious,
800 mm enable production of all fruit varieties native and Starking were the most common varieties. At
to the temperate zone (Ka´llay, 1999). The distribu- present, varieties that are hardy and easy to store
tion of the total fruit production area (approximately and process are being selected for production. The
90,000 ha) is as follows: 48% pomaceous, 40%

665

666 Part III: Commodity Processing

Table 35.1. Fruit Production Trends (1000 tons)

World Europe Hungary

2000 2001 2002 2000 2001 2002 2000 2001 2002

Apple 59,963 60,965 57,095 15,679 17,984 15,820 711 564 510
17,115 3641 3691 3626 40 27 27
Pear 16,627 17,044 2408 2659 2661 75 85 75
9315 566 665 651 38 46 47
Plum 8223 8760 883 884 926 921 16 16 15
1787 4674 4548 4640 70 50 29
Sour cherry 884 996 13,815 811 855 811 20 20 12
2708 298 306 342 77 10
Cherry 1769 1839 414 1425 1339 1276 68 9
3238 609 675 648 9 11 12
Peach 13,457 13,470 653

Apricot 2742 2741

Raspberry 355 364

Strawberry 3110 3175

Currant 613 680

Source: Horticultural Bulletin (2002).

importance of Jonathan has decreased, while Idared, Processing
Jonagold, Starking, and Golden varieties have be-
come popular. One of the most significant advantages of apples is
that there are many different ways in which apples
Composition can be used, processed, and sold.

Apples constitute 90% water and contain small Processing and utilization opportunities are as
amounts of energy, proteins, and carbohydrates. Ap- follows:
ples are rich in certain vitamins (B1, B2, B6, and folic
acid), minerals (magnesium, iron, and potassium), r Fresh apple: immediate use, storage
organic acids, and dietary fiber (Tables 35.2 and r Semiprocessed products: aseptic pulp, concentrate
35.3). Sugar content and organic acids may vary ac-
cording to apple varieties. Apples contain twice as (70–72 Brix), semiconcentrate (40–45 Brix), pulp
much fructose (8.2 g/100 g) as glucose (Barta, 2000) concentrate, opalescent concentrate
and are high in fiber (1.3%). In addition, the Hungar- r Juices: clarified filtered apple juice, apple juice
ian climate produces an apple with a unique flavor with fiber, opalescent apple juice, nectar, syrup,
that is desirable. infant drinks
r Products preserved by heat: canned apples, apple
pudding, jams, jellies, marinated apples, apple
strudel, apple sauce, and infant foods

Table 35.2. Vitamin Compositions of Fruit Species (In 100 g Fruit)

Carotene Tocopherol Thiamin Riboflavin Pyridoxine Folacin Ascorbic
(␮g) Acid (mg)
(mg) (E) (mg) (B1) (␮g) (B2) (␮g) (B6) (mg) 6.0
1.9 5
Apple 0.05 0.6 50 50 0.07 5.3 5
2.5 6
Pear 0.03 0.4 30 30 0.01 3.0 10
8
Plum 0.2 0.8 50 20 0.04 5.2 7
10
Sour cherry 0.3 50 20 0.05 30
20
Cherry 0.08 0.3 50 20 0.02 40
30
Peach 0.4 0.6 20 20 0.07 160
5
Apricot 1.8 0.5 20 30 0.06

Raspberry 0.08 1.4 20 30 0.05

Blackberry 0.3 40 40 0.05

Strawberry 1.2 30 70 0.06

Red currant 0.04 0.2 40 30 0.02

Black currant 0.1 1.0 60 10 0.02

Grape 0.3 50 50 0.07

Source: B´ıro´ and Lindner (1999).

35 Speciality Fruits Unique to Hungary 667

Table 35.3. Mineral Compositions in Fruit Species (In 100 g Fruit) Cu Zn
K Ca Mg P Fe
0.028 0.046
mg/100 g 0.050 0.073
0.029 0.071
Apple 112 5.5 6 8 0.3 0.057 0.142
Pear 100 15.7 10 20 0.2 0.040 0.110
Plum 240 16.0 16 30 0.2 0.034 0.090
Sour cherry 186 31.3 15 50 0.6 0.032 0.163
Cherry 174 16.3 16 20 0.3 0.095 0.214
Peach 183 5.7 10 12 0.3
Apricot 226 13.8 14 20 0.3 0.029 0.063
Raspberry 172 27.3 24 45 0.4 0.024 0.033
Blackberry 160 22 35 1.3
Strawberry 145 52 18 35 0.3 0.042 0.136
Red currant 316 28.1 10 35 4.5
Black currant 187 56.8 17 35 4.5
Grape 195 39.8 14 75 0.7
28.2

Source: B´ıro´ and Lindner (1999).

r Dried products: dehydrated apple (slices, cubed), Varieties
powder, flakes, instant powder, apple chips, and
crystallized apple There are a large number of pears, which are har-
vested from the middle of June until the end of
r Fermented products: cider, sparkling cider, October. Varieties can be divided into three cate-
distilled products, calvados, and vinegar gories:
r Early summer varieties (harvested in July): small-
r Others: pectin, flavoring
sized fruit, good for raw fresh consumption, tend
Apples are mainly processed as juice or concen- to overripen, e.g., Korne´lia, Mirandino Rosso,
trate. Hungary’s special apple product is the Szabolcs Napoca.
Almapa´linka, which has had protected origin status r Summer varieties (harvested in August): short
since 2000, according to the Hungarian Council of storage period (1–2 months), e.g., Clapp’s
Origin Protection. Products with “szabolcsi” denom- favourite, Jules Guyot dr, Williams.
ination must be made of apples produced in Szabolcs- r Autumn varieties (harvested at the beginning or in
Szatma´r-Bereg county, and processed using the tradi- the middle of September): when harvested at
tional method in a small-scale copper distillery. The optimal maturity, they can be stored for
product is clean, colorless, with a pleasant apple taste 4–5 months, e.g., Conference, Beurre´ Bosc.
and aroma, and 40–50 v/v% alcohol content. Ap- r Winter varieties (harvested in late September,
proximately 1 million liters of this distilled product October): excellent for storage, even for
is produced annually in the Szabolcs-Szatma´r-Bereg 5–7 months, e.g., Packham’s Triumph, Beurre´
region (Drexler and Pa´ll, 2001). d’Hardenpont, Olivier de Serres.

Pear (PYRUS COMMUNIS L.) The most widespread varieties in Hungary are
Beurre´ d’Hardenpont, Bosc Kobak, and Williams
Production (Go¨ndo¨r, 1998).

Pears are one of the most valuable fruits, rich in fla- Composition
vors and aroma and very popular in both fresh and
processed forms. The world’s pear production was Pears are high in minerals and fiber (2.6%), and con-
about 17 million tons in the past years, 20–22% of tain substantial amounts of tocopherols, carotene, and
which was produced in Europe. The most signifi- vitamins B1 and B2 (Tables 35.2 and 35.3). Fructose
cant pear producing countries are China, USA, Italy, is the predominant carbohydrate, with a level three
and Spain. In Hungary, pears are produced on 2000– times higher than glucose.
2500 ha (KSH, 2002); the annual production can be
seen in Table 35.1.

668 Part III: Commodity Processing

Processing ones that belong to the European plum species
(Prunus domestica L.). These are elongated, waxy,
Only a small part of the annual pear production is and dark blue, although there is a great diversity
sold as fresh fruit (primarily the Bosc Kobak vari- within the species. Fruits may vary in size from small
ety). The market for processed pears is of far greater to large, in shape from round to oblong, in skin color
importance. Varieties intended for processing should from blue to greenish yellow, and in the flesh color
be tasty and rich in aroma, with flesh that does not from greenish yellow to gold. Greengage varieties
tend to turn brown, for example, Williams, Packham’s are mainly round and are in a variety of colors.
Triumph, and Conference varieties (Go¨ndo¨r, 1997).
In Mediterranean and subtropical areas, Japanese
Pears can be processed as canned fruit, juice, nec- type plums (Prunus salicina L.) are produced. This
tar, puree, jam, dried fruit, or pa´linka (an alcoholic species originated in China, thus are called Chinese
drink made by distillation). Because of their high and Chinese–Japanese plums. China produces one
fructose and low glucose content, pears are a suit- fourth of the world’s plums. The fruit is usually round
able raw material for lowered sugar products. Sucrose and large with a low proportion of stone (2–3%) to
can be substituted with high fructose content sweet- flesh.
eners, e.g., Jerusalem artichoke concentrate, without
changing the carbohydrate content of the fruit (Barta, In Hungary, Cherryplum (Prunus cerasifera E.) is
1993). primarily used as rootstock and as the pollen donor
for Japanese-type plums (Szabo´, 1997a).
One of Hungary’s unique products is the spicy
Halasi Kiffer ko¨rtepa´linka (a spirit) with intense Besztercei plums variety is still important in
aroma and an alcohol content of at least 40 v/v%. Hungarian plum production, with 40% of the total
This product is exported to the United States and commercial production. The varieties produced
Italy as well (Edele´nyi, 2001). in Hungary have expanded in recent years. Plum
varieties produced in Hungary are as follows:
STONE FRUITS
r European varieties: Ageni, Besztercei (in
Among stone fruits, plums are produced in the largest Hungary, only its clones are allowed for
volume in Hungary but the production of sour cher- propagation), Bluefre, Cacanska lepotica,
ries and peaches is substantial as well. However, cher- Cacanska rana, Cacanska rodna, Debreceni
ries and apricots are of less importance in Hungary. muskota´ly, President, Silvia, Stanley

Plums (PRUNUS DOMESTICA L.) r Greengage varieties: Althann ringlo´, Sermina,
Zo¨ld ringlo´
Production
r Japanese varieties: Nagrada, Oilnaja (Szabo´,
Plums have an important role in both production 1997a)
and consumption worldwide. Plums are usually
second behind apple production in temperate zones. Composition
Both fresh and processed plums are popular in
Hungary, because of the unique characteristics Among fruits, plums are highest in carbohydrates,
(sweetness, taste, flavor) of the fruit and the long mainly sucrose and glucose, but plums also contain
harvest period (from the middle of July until the end substantial amounts (3 g/100 g) of sorbitol (B´ıro´ and
of September). The world’s annual plum production Lindner, 1999) that has a slight laxative effect.
exceeds 9 million tons, approximately one third in
Europe, primarily in Germany and France. Its vitamin and mineral contents are remark-
ably balanced. Plums contain high quantities of
In Hungary, plums are produced on 6800 ha (KSH, vitamins E, B1, and B6 as compared with other
2002), second to that for apples. fruits. As far as minerals are concerned potassium
(240 mg/100 g), magnesium (16 mg/100 g), and zinc
Varieties (0.07 mg/100 g) contents are outstanding (Tables 35.2
and 35.3).
Varieties may differ in each country depending
on ecological conditions and utilization. The most Processing
widespread varieties are—in Hungary as well—the
Varieties that are harvested early, European ones
(Cacanska rana and lepotica), greengage varieties,
and Japanese types are consumed primarily as fresh
fruit. Varieties that ripen later and plums high in

35 Speciality Fruits Unique to Hungary 669

dry matter are suitable for processing. Besztercei and in Europe, primarily in Poland and Turkey. Hungary
Stanley are excellent raw materials for high-quality is a significant sour cherry producer, and is number
canned and frozen plums. Due to the high sugar con- one in breeding improvement (Apostol, 1995).
tent, Besztercei is good for jam and spirit (pa´linka)
production. Moreover, its small size makes it a popu- Varieties
lar raw material for plum dumplings. For dried plum
production, Ageni and its derivatives are used world- Hungary’s own sour cherry selection is the largest
wide. Stanley, Bluefre, and President varieties can in the world, from light-colored to deep claret-
also be processed as delicious dried plum, jam, or colored varieties. Hungarian varieties are produced in
canned fruit (Szabo´, 1997a). Greengage type plums the world’s leading sour cherry producing countries
are consumed in fresh and canned form as well. Be- such as the USA (Michigan), Germany, and Poland.
sides consumption and exportation of fresh plums, Hungarian varieties are unique and suitable for
Hungary plays an important role in the processed preservation, because of the high acid–sugar ratio,
plum market. Plum products are considered tradi- and are good for raw consumption because of the lack
tional Hungarian goods that are popular all over the of bitter substances (Apostol, 1998). From the end
world. Canned plum products are important, partic- of the 19th century, Pa´ndy meggy and Ciga´nymeggy
ularly products made with rum or vinegar, and those varieties dominated in sour cherry production. The
stuffed with garlic. quality of Pa´ndy meggy is considered a standard;
thus, it is a unique Hungarian variety (Nye´ki et
The Szatma´r region—located in Northeast Hun- al., 2003). However, due to production and prop-
gary, beside the river Tisza—is known as “plum- agation difficulties nowadays only certified clones
country.” Tarpa is a significant village in this area, can be used. Pa´ndy meggy was substituted by vari-
where a famous and traditional Hungarian product— eties improved in the past three decades (e.g., E´rdi
sugar-free plum jam—is produced. The raw mate- b´o´term´o´, E´rdi jubileum, Maliga emle´ke) and by the
rial is from a small variety called “nemtudom szilva” ones selected in Northeast Hungary (e.g., U´ jfehe´rto´i
found only in this region and having a very sweet taste fu¨rto¨s, Ka´ntorja´nosi 3, Debreceni b´o´term´o´) (Nye´ki
and rich in aroma. This plum jam is made by long, et al., 2003). Korai pipacsmeggy, Meteor korai, and
gentle cooking to form a concentrate, while nothing Cseng´o´di varieties are produced to expand the selec-
is added, not even sugar. tion of sour cherries (Harsa´nyi and Ma´dy, 2003).

Another well-known product of this region is Composition
Szatma´ri szilvapa´linka (a spirit), which has a pro-
tected denomination of origin. It is also made of The acid–sugar ratio is 1 : 6, providing a refresh-
the “nemtudom szilva” variety, with the traditional ing sweet taste. As far as vitamins are concerned,
method of aging in oak barrels for 1–3 years carotene and vitamins B1 (50 ␮g/100 g) and B6
(www.tarpa.de/magyar/szilva.htm). are outstanding. Its minerals are valuable too. The
level of calcium (31.3 mg/100 g), magnesium (15
Distilled plum products, with a protected denom- mg/100g), and phosphorus (50 mg/100 g) is remark-
ination of origin, are also produced in the Be´ke´s re- able compared with other fruits. In addition, sour
gion, Be´ke´si szilvapa´linka. cherries contain high amounts of iron (0.6 mg/100 g),
copper (0.057 mg/100g), and zinc (0.142 mg/100g)
Sour Cherry (PRUNUS CERASUS L.) (Tables 35.2 and 35.3).

Production Processing

The Hungarian climate is excellent for sour cherry Hungarian sour cherry varieties are unique, since they
production; currently it is our number one unique are suitable for processing and fresh consumption as
fruit. It is the only fruit, which is known as a popular well.
fruit of our predecessors, even before the Hungarian
conquest (Rapaics, 1940). Hungary is considered a Sour cherries, intended for processing, are mainly
significant sour cherry producing country because of used by the canning industry for canned fruit and
its traditions, varieties, technology, and market op- jam production (about 60%) and about 20% are pro-
portunities (Nye´ki et al., 2003). cessed by the refrigeration and the soft drink industry

The world’s sour cherry production is above
900,000 tons per year. More than half are produced

670 Part III: Commodity Processing

(Ka´llay, 1999). Meteor korai is the earliest variety of this fruit is consumed fresh around the world. The
and is only used for fresh consumption. Meanwhile, amount of magnesium, vitamin B1, and folic acid is
E´rdi nagygyu¨mo¨lcs´u´ variety is good for juice, syrup, remarkable (B´ıro´ and Lindner, 1999).
and jam production; moreover, it is an excellent raw
material for canned fruit, due to its large size and The direction of cherry processing primarily de-
slightly acidic, staining juice. Deep claret-colored pends on fruit color, flesh stiffness, ripening period,
varieties, possessing staining juice (Ciga´nymeggy and composition. Red and claret-colored early ripen-
clones, Pa´ndy meggy clones, Cseng´o´di) are signif- ing varieties (Mu¨nchenbergi korai, Biggareau Burlat,
icant, in terms of juice, concentrate, syrup, and pro- Valerij Cskalov) are consumed fresh. Crispy and
duction of food colorants. claret-colored varieties (Solyma´ri go¨mbo¨ly´u´, Vega,
Linda, Germersdorfi clones, Van) are mainly ex-
Pipacsmeggy varieties, that have white or pale- ported or used for canned cherry production. Black
pink fruit flesh, nonstaining juice, and sourish-sweet varieties with staining juice (e.g., Szomolyai fekete)
taste, are primarily used for confectionary application are suitable for juice, concentrate, and food coloring
(for cakes) and are sold in Western Europe, mainly (G. To´th, 1997b). Dark purple colored, sweet tasting
in Germany (Apostol, 2000). varieties are purchased by the refrigeration industry
as well. In addition, cherries are used as a raw mate-
Sour cherries can also be processed as dried fruit, rial for confectionary products, crystallized fruit, and
fruit tea, crystallized fruit, spirits, and as a special distilled spirit products (cseresznyepa´linka).
Hungarian confectionary product called “konyakos-
meggy” (sour cherry bonbon with alcohol).

Cherries (PRUNUS AVIUM L.) Peaches (PRUNUS PERSICA L.)

Production, Varieties Production

In contrast with other countries, in Hungary, cher- Peaches are considered the queen of fruits. Produc-
ries and sour cherries are known as distinct species. tion began some 4000 years ago, and only Prunus
In Hungary, cherries are produced on approximately persica varieties have become widespread. The ma-
12,000 ha, or one-tenth of the sour cherry produc- jority of them are produced between the northern
ing area (KSH, 2002). For a long time Germersdorfi latitudes of 30◦ and 45◦; however, peach produc-
o´ria´s was the main variety in Hungary but now the tion is rapidly growing in tropical and subtropical
selection of varieties has widened. areas (Szabo´, 1998). Peaches were acclimatized in
Hungary, thus these climatic conditions are not op-
Varieties produced in Hungary are as follows: timal for peach production. However, under the mi-
r Selected regional varieties: Poma´zi hosszu´sza´ru´, croclimatic circumstances of the Carpathian Basin,
peaches are superior in both taste and aroma com-
Szomolyai fekete, Solyma´ri go¨mbo¨ly´u´ pared to the larger fruits produced in the Mediter-
r Selected clones of widespread varieties: ranean countries. Peaches are produced on some
7000 ha in Hungary (KSH, 2002).
Mu¨nchebergi korai, Germersdorfi o´ria´s (only its
clones can be propagated in Hungary), Varieties
Hedelfingeni o´ria´s
r Varieties improved in Hungary: Margit, Linda, More than half of the varieties produced in Hungary
Katalin, Kavics, Alex, Vera came from the United States and 40% of these
r Acclimatized varieties: Bigarreau Burlat, Valerij originated in California. Only one tenth of Hungary
Cskalov, Vega, Van, Stella (Apostol and Bro´zik, varieties were derived from Hungarian breeding
1998) (Horva´th, 2003).

According to fruit-flesh quality, cherries can be Peach varieties produced in Hungary are as
classified as crispy, stiff, or mellow; the latter being follows:
well known for its heart shape (G. To´th, 1997b). r yellow fruit-flesh, tomentose varieties: Dixired,

Composition, Processing Early Redhaven, Redhaven, Springcrest, Suncrest
r white fruit-flesh, tomentose varieties: Champion,
Because of its early ripening and delicious taste, it is
the most significant summer delicacy. The majority Michelini, Nekta´r H, Springtime

35 Speciality Fruits Unique to Hungary 671

r nectarines: Andosa, Fantasia, Flavortop, In Hungary, apricots are produced on some
Independence 5700 ha (KSH, 2002); production yields are shown in
Table 35.1.
r industrial varieties: Babygold 5, Babygold 6,
Babygold 7, Baladin, Loadel (Szabo´, 1998) Varieties

All categories contain white- and yellow-flesh va- Since apricots cannot adapt easily to different con-
rieties and both freestone and clingstone peaches. ditions, one or two dominant varieties are grown lo-
cally. Selected varieties should guarantee a high yield
Composition and be suitable for fresh consumption, as well as for
processing.
Peaches are a very delicious and refreshing fruit eaten
fresh, processed (canned), and as juice. The energy, In Hungarian apricot production, Magyar kajszi
carbohydrate, and protein contents are low compared varieties are predominant, but only the clone Go¨nci
with other stone fruits. Sucrose is the most significant magyar kajszi can be propagated. The production of
carbohydrate, which is 7–8 times higher than glucose giant apricots is significant, whereas rose apricot pro-
and fructose (B´ıro´ and Lindner, 1999). As far as acids duction has declined. The most substantial varieties
are concerned, malic acid is predominant, but citric produced in Hungary are Bergeron, Cegle´di arany,
acid and succinate acid can also be found in peaches. Cegle´di b´ıbor, Cegle´di Piroska, Cegle´di o´ria´s, Go¨nci
Industrial varieties are usually less acidic than vari- magyar kajszi, Mandulakajszi, and Pannonia (Szabo´,
eties eaten fresh. Nectarines are higher in acid. 1997b). Harmat and Korai zamatos varieties have
been improved in the past few years. Furthermore,
The vitamin and mineral contents of peaches are the Canadian frost resistant Harcot variety and the
insignificant, except for high carotene content in late ripening Romanian Sulmona and Comondor va-
yellow-flesh varieties (Tables 35.2 and 35.3). rieties are also promising in Hungary (Szalay, 1998).

Processing Composition

Most of the annual peach production is consumed as Due to its valuable nutrients, apricot is an impor-
fresh fruit (50–70%), a smaller amount (10–20%) is tant supplement to our diet. The balanced sugar–
processed by the canning industry as jam and canned acid proportion and intense aroma contribute to its
fruits; however, there is an increasing demand for popularity. Amounts of carotene (1.8 mg/100 g) are
peach juices and nectars made of peach pulp. Only significant and are higher in apricots than that in
varieties that do not turn brown or red around the other fruits grown in Hungary. As far as minerals
stone are used for canning. Due to the improvements are concerned, potassium (226 mg/100 g) and zinc
in breeding, industrial varieties are excellent for pro- (0.16 mg/100 g) are significant. Due to its high
cessing. These varieties do not soften, even when fiber content (0.8 g/100 g), apricots have nutritional
ripe, but remain hard and elastic. Most industrial va- benefits (Tables 35.2 and 35.3).
rieties have yellow flesh and are clingstone, though
some are freestone and semiclingstone types. Processing

Peaches are a popular raw material for infant foods Apricots can be processed in many ways, as canned
and drinks as well as for spirits. fruit, jam, pulp juice, nectar, infant drinks, dried fruit,
and pa´linka.
Apricots (PRUNUS ARMENIACA L)
Early ripening varieties (Cegle´di Piroska, Cegle´di
Production o´ria´s) are primarily used for fresh consumption,
due to their clingstone characteristic. Varieties,
Apricot varieties belong mainly to Prunus armeniaca which ripen later, are good for fresh consump-
L. species. In the past years, apricot production has in- tion and processing as well (Balla and Koncz,
creased worldwide, with Asia taking the lead. Africa, 1996; Fekete et al., 1997). Go¨nci magyar ka-
North and Central America are also involved in apri- jszi, Panno´nia, and Cegle´di arany are excellent
cot production. The United States produces 90% for canned fruit and jam production. The fruit
of the total produce of North and Central America of Mandulakajszi, that looks like an almond, and
(Kerek and Nyujto´, 1998).The most ideal conditions
are the warm Mediterranean climates in the temper-
ate zone.

672 Part III: Commodity Processing

the late ripening Bergeron variety are very good raw In Hungary, first the Nagymarosi variety was
material for processing (Szalay, 1998). predominant; then came the Malling Promise and
Malling Exploit varieties (De´nes, 1997a).
Hungarian apricot producing regions have their
own special products that are well-known worldwide. New varieties have been produced that meet spe-
Kecskeme´t apricot jam, which possesses a unique cial requirements, for example, yellow and white in
aroma and taste, is made of Magyar kajszi, pro- addition to red varieties are now available. Beside
duced in the Kecskeme´t region. Distilled spirit prod- traditional varieties that produce only once a year,
ucts such as Go¨nci barackpa´linka and Kecskeme´ti there are commercial varieties that produce twice a
barackpa´linka are also very popular; the latter has year (autumn varieties) or continuously. In the im-
had a protected denomination of origin since 2000; provement of bramble varieties, the main target is
therefore, it is protected in 17 countries, according to to develop and select thornless varieties, like the
the Lisbon Agreement (Gerencse´r, 2001). Scottish Loch Ness variety.

BERRIES The main Hungarian raspberry and bramble vari-
eties are as follows:
Among berries in Hungary, raspberries and straw- r summer raspberry: Fancsalszki egyszerterm´o´,
berries are significant, while red and black currants
are less important. Gooseberries are mainly grown in Fert´o´di zamatos, Malling Exploit, Malling
household gardens. Promis, Nagymarosi, Willamette, Tulameen
r autumn raspberry: Autumn Bliss, Fert´o´di
Raspberries (RUBUS IDAEUS L.), ke´tszerterm´o´, Golden Bliss, Zeva Herbsternte
Bramble r bramble: Dirksen, Thornfree, Loch Ness, Hull

Production Composition

Rasberry production is greater than that of other Raspberries and brambles are remarkably valuable
berries. Raspberries can be used in many ways: regarding their composition (Tables 35.2 and 35.3).
fresh, frozen, juice, juice concentrate, drinks, and Both are low in energy and carbohydrate content with
jams. The majority of European varieties and some substantial amounts of fiber (4–5.6 g/100 g). As far
early American varieties were derived from Rubus as vitamins are concerned, the tocopherol content of
ideaus L., and new American varieties were derived raspberry (1.4 mg/100 g) is outstanding compared to
from Rubus strigous (De´nes, 1997a). other fruits. They are also rich in minerals. Raspberry
contains high amounts of potassium, calcium, and
Some 80–85% of the world’s raspberry produc- magnesium (24 mg/100 g). Moreover, the level of
tion is in Europe (Table 35.1), although Canada, microelements, particularly zinc (0.214 mg/100 g),
the United States, New Zealand, and Australia is outstanding.
produce substantial amounts as well. In recent years,
raspberry production has stagnated or decreased in In the case of bramble, calcium (52 mg/100 g),
Europe because of labor costs associated with hand- magnesium (22 mg/100g), and iron (1.3 mg/100 g)
picking. However, in Eastern European countries need to be emphasized. Both fruits contain signifi-
including Hungary and (Vinic, 2002), especially cant level of flavonoids, primarily anthocyanins that
Poland, which has become the main producer, are responsible for the color. Flavonoids have an an-
raspberry production is increasing. tioxidant effect and also have an important role in
the prevention of several diseases (e.g., heart attack,
Varieties cancer, thrombosis).

Most countries that produce substantial amounts of Processing
raspberries develop varieties to suit their ecologi-
cal conditions. In England, mainly the Malling se- Raspberries are soft and deteriorate easily, and there-
ries varieties are produced, but other countries— fore fresh raspberry consumption is only possible
Switzerland, Poland, the United States, and with household production. However, there are new
Australia—have developed varieties suitable for the packaging techniques for the storage of fresh raspber-
environment and contributing to a greater selection. ries, e.g., modified atmosphere packaging (Jacxens
et al., 2001a).

35 Speciality Fruits Unique to Hungary 673

As the fruit of bramble is harvested with the pe- Composition
duncle, it can be transported more easily.
Strawberries are a very popular fruit, because it ripens
The refrigeration industry purchases substantial early, making it one of the first fruits to be harvested
amounts of both fruits. The frozen rolling raspberry after winter. It is mainly consumed in fresh form.
is an important Hungarian export product. Mainly Strawberries are high in water and low in energy and
Willamette, Fert´o´di zamatos, and Autumn Bliss vari- carbohydrates contents. Among the vitamins, toco-
eties are used for freezing, since the fruit does not pherols (1.2 mg/100 g), vitamin C (40 mg/100 g),
tend to crumble (De´nes, 1997a). Fruits are required and vitamin B2 (70 ␮g/100 g) are outstanding. The
to keep their texture and color even after melting. The mineral content is also substantial, especially potas-
canning industry prefers dark colored varieties with sium, calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus (Tables
intense aroma for producing concentrate. Raspberry 35.2 and 35.3).
concentrate is the raw material of nectars, drinks,
and syrups; meanwhile, bramble is used for mixed Processing
fruit drinks or applied as a natural coloring agent.
Both fruits are excellent for jam and jelly production. Strawberries are primarily consumed fresh, frozen
These can be made of fresh fruit and fruit pulp pre- and in several heat-preserved forms. According to
served by aseptic technology. Raspberries and bram- recent research, high oxygen packaging can increase
bles are also raw materials for dairy fruit products the shelf life of fresh strawberries (Jacxsens et al.,
(e.g., yoghurt, cottage-cheese cream) and confec- 2001b). As far as preserved foodstuffs are concerned,
tionery goods such as cake decorating and jam fillings frozen strawberry production and export is consid-
for baking. ered significant. The industry produces preserved
aseptic pulp, which can be the raw material of jams,
Strawberries (FRAGARIA ANANASSA L.) jellies, and dairy products. Strawberry concentrate is
used for syrup, juice, nectar, and jelly production.
Production
Currants (RIBES NIGRUM, RUBRUM L.)
Strawberries are one of the most popular fruits. Since
the Second World War, the world’s strawberry pro- Production
duction has been increasing continuously. Almost
one third of the world’s production is from the United Currants (red and black) are also considered as impor-
States, but strawberries are also produced in signifi- tant berries. The world’s annual currant production is
cant amounts in Spain, Italy, Poland, and Japan. Ap- more than 600,000 tons, and 99% of that is produced
proximately one third of the world’s production is in Europe. The main currant producing countries are
in Europe. In the past few years, domestic produc- Poland and Germany. Hungarian production is ap-
tion was between 11,000 and 14,000 tons annually proximately 12,000–14,000 tons (Table 35.1); black
(Table 35.1). and red currant producing areas are greater than 2000
ha (KSH, 2002).

Varieties Varieties

Strawberries are a cosmopolitan species, which is Red and white currants produced in Hungary belong
produced almost everywhere except in the tropics. to Ribes petreanum W. or Ribes rubrum L. species;
Varieties have been developed for different climatic meanwhile, black currants are derived from the Ribes
conditions. nigrum L. species.

These varieties can be divided into three main Red currants can be produced on larger areas than
groups: traditional, continuously yielding, and day the black ones. Hungarian large-scale production
neutral varieties. of red currants began with the importation of the
Jonkheer van Tets variety. Hungarian varieties such as
German and Dutch varieties are predominant in Fert´o´di hosszu´fu¨rt´u´ were not widespread at that time.
Hungary. The Gorella variety has been planted for
a long period, but Cambridge Rival and Korona Since Hungary is located at the southern border of
are also significant. Nowadays, Elsanta is the most black currant production, sprouts budding too early in
widespread variety (De´nes, 1997b). Among Hungar- the spring often suffer from frost damage. Therefore,
ian varieties, Fert´o´di 5 and Kortes are produced. new frost-resistant varieties need to be developed.

674 Part III: Commodity Processing

The main Hungarian currant varieties are as fol- and were produced 4000–5000 years before Christ.
lows: The production over 2000–3000 years led to the im-
r Red currant: Fert´o´di hosszu´fu¨rt´u´, Jonkheer van provement of Vitits vinifera L., with bigger berries
and bunches. In taxonomy, it is an individual species.
Tets, Rondom, and Red Lake
r White currant: Blanka Nowadays, grapes are produced on about 8 mil-
r Black currant: Altajszkaja deszartnaja, Fert´o´di 1, lion ha, with 70% being processed in Europe. Europe
also produces the largest volume, about 60%, ahead
Hidas b´o´term´o´, Silvergieter F. 59, Titania, Triton, of America and Asia. However, Italy, France, and
and Wellington XXX (Harsa´nyi and Ma´dy, 2003) the United States are the most significant grape
producing countries. Also, Italy, Turkey, and the
Composition United States lead in the production of dessert grapes,
whereas the United States and Iran lead in raisin pro-
The nutrient value of currants is significant. Both are duction.
low in energy and quite acidic, with black currant
being one of the most acidic fruits. Their fiber content In wine production, Europe and some countries
is outstanding (3.8–4.3 g/100 g) when compared with like Italy, France, and Spain are outstanding (Kozma,
other fruits. 2000; http://mail.bbkvtar.hu).

As far as vitamins are concerned, the level of vi- In 2002, Hungarian vineyards covered about
tamin C is significant (160–180 mg/100 g), partic- 83,000 ha, with 501,000 tons of grape production,
ularly in the case of black varieties (Ste´ger-Ma´te´ et 23,000 tons of which were used for raw consump-
al., 2002). Both fruits possess remarkable amounts of tion, and the rest for winemaking. That year’s wine
biotin (2.4–4.2 mg/100 g) (B´ıro´ and Lindner, 1999). production was 333 million liters (KSH, 2003).
In addition, black currant varieties contain substan-
tial amounts of tocopherols and vitamin B1. Their Varieties
iron content is very high (4.5 mg/100 g), compared
with other fruits, as is potassium and calcium (Tables There are two main groups of grape varieties: white
35.2 and 35.3). Black currants contain high amounts and red. In Hungary, the most widespread variety,
of flavonoids, mainly anthocyanins, which have an in terms of high-quality white wine raw materials,
antioxidant effect, offering protection against the de- is the Olasz Rizling (produced on some 10% of the
velopment of chronic diseases. vineyards). It is followed by Rizlingszilva´ni (about
4%), Chardonnay, Muscat Ottonel, Ha´rslevel´u´,
Processing Furmint, Rajnai Rizling, and Lea´nyka. Regarding
the high-quality red wine raw materials, Ke´kfrankos
The majority of currants are processed by refriger- leads, produced in about 5% of the vineyards,
ation and heat preservation. Black currants, which ahead of Zweigelt, Ke´koporto´, Merlot, Cabernet
are acidic and aromatic, are used by the industry. Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Pinot noir (www.
Currants are used for concentrate, the raw material pannonwine.hu).
for juices, nectars, and syrups. Aseptic black currant
pulp is used for jams, jellies, and dairy products. It is Wine quality is primarily determined by the qual-
also used for fruit wine making. ity of the grape, dependent on technological ripeness.
For table wines, the minimum requirement is 15
Currants are also used as a coloring agent. Coloring MF (i.e., 15 g sugar/100 g grape). For high-quality
effect is due to the presence of anthocyanins, which wines, the minimum is 17 MF. In the case of varieties
are extracted from the concentrate or fruit. that are rich in aromas and those used for sparkling
wine production, the optimal harvest occurs before
Red currants are reprocessed in large quantities full ripeness. On the other hand, special high-quality
both by the canning and the cooling industries. The wines are usually made of overripe grapes exceeding
refrigeration industry usually purchases handpicked 19 MF (www.boraszat.hu).
fruits and freezes only the berries, without peduncle.
The famous Tokaj region—possessing 5500 ha
Grape (VITIS VINIFERA L.) of vineyard—provides unique conditions for wine
making. The traditional aszu-wine has been pro-
Production duced for more than 350 years. The climatic and
soil circumstances of the region enable the produc-
Grape production and wine making originated in Asia tion of high-extract white wines that are rich in min-
(Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Iran). In those regions, erals. Tokaj is a closed or restricted wine district;
small-berry Vitis sylvestris varieties were available

35 Speciality Fruits Unique to Hungary 675

therefore, only four wine varieties (Furmint, important role in folk medicine. Elderberries, rose
Ha´rslevel´u´, Sa´rgamuskota´ly, and Oremus) are al- hips, and dogwood berries can be found everywhere
lowed for wine making. To protect the unity of the re- in the country; wild-growing blackthorn, rowan-
gion and the wine growing traditions of the past thou- berry, hawthorn species, and blackthorn also grow in
sand years, the UNESCO declared the Tokaj wine Hungary.
district as a part of the World’s Heritage.
The most significant special fruits are elderberries,
Composition rose hips, and sea blackthorn; these are produced on
plantations as well.
The fruit of the grape contains important and valu-
able nutrients. Its vitamin—B1, B2, B6, and folic The Haschberg elderberry variety is rich in vitamin
acid—contents are remarkable. As far as minerals are C (131 g/100 g) and in micro- and macroelements
concerned, the level of potassium, calcium, magne- (Szabo´ et al., 2002).
sium, and microelements is substantial (Tables 35.2
and 35.3). Both the fruit flesh and the skin of red This variety, produced under Hungarian condi-
grapes contain high amounts of flavonoids, such as tions, is richer in nutrients as compared to varieties
anthocyanides, flavonols, and tannins, responsible grown in other European countries. In addition, elder-
for the red color of the berries. Some of these lat- berries are high in anthocyanin content that is used
ter compounds have antioxidant effect. Furthermore, as a coloring agent. In the case of Haschberg vari-
the grape seed oil is rich in valuable unsaturated fatty ety, produced in Hungary, the anthocyanin content is
acids (linoleic acid, oleic acid, and palmic acid). between 8000 and 12,000 mg/l (Ste´ger-Ma´te´ et al.,
2001).
Processing
REFERENCES
Only a small proportion of the grape is consumed
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Handbook of Fruits and Fruit Processing
Edited by Y. H. Hui

Copyright © 2006 by Blackwell Publishing

Index

1-MCP (1-methylcyclopropene), 299 Amino acids, 461, 466–467, 471, 474–475
␣-ketoglutarate, 301 Arginine, 466, 468, 474
␣-, ␤-sinensal, 304 Proline, 463, 466, 468
␤-carotene, 492–494, 500, 510
␤-cryptoxanthin, 300, 492, 493, 510 Anaerobic respiration, 117
␤-pinene synthase, 304 Anteraxanthin, 493, 510
␤-sitosterol, 508, 513 Anthocyanidins, 302
␥ -terpinene synthase, 304 Anthocyanin, 218, 493–494, 498, 501
␰-carotene, 300 Antimicrobial agents, 134–135

A 2-(E)-hexenal, 135
Essential oils, 135
Acetate, 301–302 Hexanal, 134, 135
Acid, 492–493, 498–502, 504, 508–511 Hexanol, 134, 135
Hexyl acetate, 135
Acetic, 502 In wash water, 122
Amino, 492 Antioxidant, 493, 508, 654
Ascorbic, 492 Ascorbic acid, 654
Butyric, 502 Betanine, 654
Caffeic, 509, 518 Betacyanine, 654
Elenolic, 501 Carotenoid, 654
Fatty, 492, 505, 507, 509, 511 Flavonoid, 654
Free, 499, 504, 511 Pigment, 654
Homovanillic, 509 Polyphenols, 657
Hydrochloric, 498 Quercetin, 654
Lactic, 499, 501, 503 Apocarotenoids, 300
Organic, 492–493, 498–499, 503 Apparent density of fruits, 91
Propionic, 503 Apples (Malus domestica B.), 174–181, 265–278,
Acidity, 298–299, 301
Activation energy, 546 665–667
Active packaging system, 118–119 Biochemistry, 269
Additives, 233, 236
Adsorption, 538 Brix/acid, 271
Aeration, 498, 511 Flavor volatiles, 271–272
Alcohol, 492–493, 507, 509 Malic acid, 268, 271
Aliphatic, 507, 509 Plant flavonoids, 272–273
Terpene, 492, 507–508 Sugars, 271
Allomerized, 502 Total antioxidant capacity, 272, 274
Alpeorujo, 504, 506 Composition, 271
Alteration, 491, 498, 502, 510–512 Consumption, 265, 267
E.coli 0157:H7, 273
Glass transition theory, 277
Harvest, 268

679

680 Index

Apples (Malus domestica B.) (Cont.) Storage, 282
In Hungary U.S. Standards of quality and styles, 285–287
By-products, 174, 179
Composition, 666 Canned apricots, 285
Pomace, 181 Dried apricots, 287
Processing, 666–667 Frozen apricots, 286
Production, 665 Varieties, 282
Varieties, 665–666 Vitamins, 289
Waste volume, 176 World production, 279–281
Non-enzymatic browning, 277 Area harvested, 280
Nutritional quality, 272, 275 Leading countries, 280
Patulin, 273 Yield per hectare, 281
Pectin esterase, 275 Aquaporins, 463, 466
Pectin lyase, 275 Aroma, 303, 493, 502–503, 505, 507–509
Polygalacturonases, 275 Arrhenius
Postharvest, 268 Kinetics, 116
Processed products, 272–277 Relationship, 546
Dried, 276 Ascorbic acid (see Vitamin C)
Freeze-dried, 277 Aseptic
Infused dried, 277 Preservation, 213, 235
Juice and cider, 272–273 Process, 45–47, 50–51, 56–57
Processed, 276 Technology, 218–219, 226
Sauce, 276 Ash, 492, 500
Slices, 276 Atmospheric composition, 117
Production, 265–266 CO2, 117
Leading fruits, 266 Ethylene, 117
Leading countries, 266 O2, 117
Storage, 268 Auroxanthin, 510
Varieties, 269 Authentication, 493
Water activity, 277 Auxins, 297, 298
Avenasterol, 508, 513
Apricots (Prunus armeniaca L.), 279–291, 671–672 Average apparent diffusion parameter, 84
Composition, 288–289
Consumption, 279, 281 B
Dietary benefits, 288
Harvest, 282 Baby food, 235
In Hungary Bacteria, 494, 502, 509
Composition, 671
Processing, 671–672 Gram negative, 499, 502
Production, 671 Lactic acid, 499
Varieties, 671 Bacteriocins, 468
Waste volume, 176 Leucocin, 468
Maturity and fruit quality, 282 Pediocin, 468
Minerals, 289 Baking, 81
Nutrient profile, 288–289 Fillings, 218, 220, 223, 226
Physiological disorders, 283
Chilling injury, 283 Fruit filling, 225, 227–228
Pit burn, 283 Pie filling, 227
Plant breeding, 282 Products, 223, 226–228, 235
Post harvest physiology, 282–283 Stability, 226–227
Processed products, 284–288 Banana, 635–638, 645–647
Canned, 284 Color index, 636
Dried, 286 Cultivars, 636
Frozen, 285 Flavor, 646
Jam, 287 Nutritional values, 645
Juice, 287 Phenolics and antioxidant capacity, 647
Puree, 287 Processed products, 636–638
Chips, 637
Essence, 638

Index 681

Fermented products, 638 Potassium chloride, 135
Flakes, 637 Sodium chloride, 135
Frozen, 638 Sodium erythorbate, 136
Intermediate moisture, 638 Control of, 119
Juice, 638 Enzymatic browning, 133, 135, 138
Puree, 637 Fresh-cut fruits and vegetables, 120, 242
Powder, 637 Phenolic substrates, 133
Production and consumption, 635 Polyphenol oxidase, 133, 135
Starch and sugars, 646 Quinones, 133, 135
Storage, 635 By-products, 173–175, 178–183
Transportation and ripening, 636
Vitamins and minerals, 647 C
BAT (best available techniques), 173
Berries, 672–675 Calcium in plant tissues, 119
Beverages, 234 Calculation method, 46–57
Bioactive compounds, 37–41
Carotenoids, 37–38 Container load and deformation, 46, 53–54
Flavonoids, 38–40 Finite difference method, 51–52
Phytosterols, 40–41 Flow-through type process, 47, 56–57
Biogenesis, 409 Heat transfer, 51–53
Biogenic amines, 474 Inactivation kinetics, 46–47, 55–57
Biomass, 174 Pressure difference for container, 53–54
Biotic, 494–495 Quality attributes variation, 47, 55–57
Bitter, 492–493, 496, 498, 501, 503, 511 Candied
Bitterness, 302 Fruits, 219–220
Blueberries, 380–385 Peel, 177
Classification, 380–382 Candying, 220
Characteristics of wild blueberries, 382 Capacity, 231, 236–237
Varieties, 381 Cubic, 236
Nutritional values, 385 Capillary, 538
Physicochemical qualities, 383–384 Capillary-porous structure, 541
Antioxidant capacity, 383 Forces, 541
Brix, acidity and sugars, 383 Capsicum, 565–567
Flavor, 383 Carbohydrates (see Sugars), 492, 500
Production and consumption, 380, Carbon dioxide, 502
Carotene, 566–567, 576
382–383 Carotenoid, 299, 492–494, 498, 500–502, 509,
Products, 384–386
510, 512
Canned, 385–386 Cell, 492, 501, 505, 509
Freeze-dried, 386 Cellulose, 303
Infused-dried, 386 Centrifuge, 491, 504, 506–507, 512
Infuse-frozen, 384 Cherries (Prunus avium L.), 670
Juice, 385
Puree, 385 Composition, 670
Bonding forms of water, 82 Processing, 670
Bottled fruit, 235 Production, 670
Bottling, 507 Varieties, 670
Bramble, 672–673 Chilling injury, 119
Brine, 496–503 Chlacone synthase, 302
Browning, 133, 135, 137 Chlorine, 122
Antioxidant agents, 130 Chlorophyll, 492–494, 498, 500–503, 509–512
Ascorbic acid, 133, 135–136 Chlorophyllase, 501, 510
Citric acid, 134–136 Chlorophyllide, 501, 510, 518
Cysteine, 135, 136 Chloroplast, 297, 300
4-hexylresorcinol, 135, 136 Chopping, 233
Isoascorbic acid, 136 Chromophore, 501, 518
N-acetylcysteine, 136 Chromoplast, 297, 300
Citric acid, 301, 303

682 Index

Citron, 295 Sugar, 533, 544, 546–547
Citrus aurantifolia (see Lime) Water, 547
Citrus aurantium (see Sour orange) Condensation, 541
Citrus fruit, 293–307 Confectionery products, 81, 219, 223, 225, 234
Chocolate covered fruits, 225
Abscision, 298 Chocolates with fruit fillings, 225
Albedo, 297, 301, 303 Sour cherries in rum, 225
Bitterness, 297 Container, 498–499, 506, 518
Carotenoids, 298–301 Food, 46–47, 53
Carpel, 296
Color, 298, 300 Critical load, 54–55
Constituents, 299–300 Inside pressure, 54
Crops, 293–294 Load and deformation, 46, 53–54
Cuticule, 297 Pressure difference, 53–55
Endocarp, 296–297 Contaminant, 506, 518
Exocarp, 297 Control of browning, (see also Browning), 119
Flavedo, 297 Controlled atmosphere, 116
Juices, 309 Cooling methods, 119
Mesocarp, 297 Corinth, 219
Parthenocarpic, 297 Coumaric, 509
Peel Cranberry, 369–380
Classification, 370
Chilling injury, 299, 303 Cultivation, 370
Cracking, 297 Harvesting, 370–371
Pitting, 299 Health considerations, 373, 376
Puffing, 295 Historical, 369–370
Rind breakdown, 299 Nutritional values, 373
Pericarp, 296 Physicochemical quality, 372–373
Postharvest, 297–299 Anthocyanins, 372
Production, 293–294 Antioxidant capacity, 372–373
Pulp, 295–297 Composition, 372
Quarantine, 299 Total phenolics, 372
Septa, 296, 297 Products, 374–375, 376–379
Storage, 298, 303 Flavored fruit pieces, 375, 377
Citrus grandis (see Pummelo) Frozen whole/sliced, 374, 377
Citrus lemon (see Lemon) Juice and concentrate, 374, 376–379
Citrus maxima (see Pummelo) Puree, 374
Citrus medica (see Citron) Powder, 374, 377
Citrus paradisi (see Grapefruit) Sweetened dried cranberries, 377–379
Citrus reticulata (see Mandarin) World production and consumption, 371–372
Citrus sinensis (see Orange) Critical point or zone, 45–47, 56
Classification, 91, 233, 498, 507, 512, 518 Crushing, 235, 504–505, 510
Cleaning, 89, 91, 233, 235–236, 505–507 Crust formation, 86–87
Secondary, 91 Cryoconcentration, (see also Concentration), 2
Climate, 492, 507, 518 Crytosporidium parvum, 121
Controlled space, 83 Cultivar, 491–496, 498, 500, 502, 505, 509, 510
Cold point, 45–46, 56 Culture, 498–499
Color, 180, 493–494, 496–498, 500–502, 507, 509–512, Starter, 499
Currants (Ribes nigrum, rubrum L.), 387–390, 673–674
565–567, 569–570, 573–576 Black currant juice, 389
Methods for determination of, 573–574, 576–577 Composition, 674
Component, 491–493, 498, 500–502, 505, 507, 510 Jelly and jam, 389–390
Composition, 491–494, 500–503, 505, 507, 509, Nutritional values, 389
Physicochemical qualities, 388
510, 513 Processing, 674
Concentration, 210–211, 235 Production, 387, 673
Varieties, 388, 673
Cryoconcentration, 222
Evaporation, 210
Freezing, 211
Reverse osmosis, 211

Index 683

D Dried fruits, 81–83, 176, 219, 227
Apples, 81–83
Dairy products, 219–225, 234 Apricots, 81–83
Cheese, 219, 224–225 Bananas, 81
Functional drinks, 224 Berries, 81
Milk-fruit desserts, 224 Cherries, 81
Milky beverages, 225 Dates, 81
Milky dessert, 224 Figs, 81
Yogurt, 219–220, 223–225 Peaches, 81
Chemical composition, 225 Pears, 81, 573
Pineapples, 81
Damage, 493, 498, 505, 518 Prunes, 83
Darkening, 501, 518 Raspberries, 82
Date fruits, 391 Sour cherries, 82
Stone fruits, 82
By-products, 408 Strawberries, 82
Chemical composition, 397 Walnuts, 81
Cultivars, 396 Waste volume, 176
Fruit morphology, 396
History and cultivation, 393 Dried products, 81–83, 219, 227, 234–235,
Nutritive value, 408 238
Postharvest handling, 401
Processed products, 404 Drink production, 211
Production and marketing, 395 Packaging of fruit drinks, 211
Decantation, 506–507, 512 Preservation of fruit drinks, 211
Decimal reduction time, 45, 55–57
Defect, 498–500, 508–509, 511 Drop, 499, 505
Dehydration, 219, 541 Drupe, 491, 492
Density, 505–507 Dryers, 87–89, 569–571
Apparent, 534
Deodorizing, 508, 511 Atmospheric, 89
Desiccated fruits, 219 Batch, 89
Desserts, 219–220, 223–225 Bend, 89
Frozen dessert, 219, 225 Combined, 89
Ice-cream, 219–220, 223, 225 Conduction (contact) heat, 89
Parfait, 225 Continuous, 89
Deterioration, 83, 238 Convection heat, 89
Diabetic products, 221 Counter flow, 89
Diacetyl, 472–473 Cross-flow, 89
Diene, 511 Dielectric, 89
Dietary fibers, 181 Radiation heat, 89
Diffusion Tray, 89
Fick’s Law, 545 Tunnel, 89
Liquid, 541 Vacuum, 89
Surface, 541 Drying, 81–93
Transient, 545 Artificial means, 81
Vapor, 541 Batch, 541
Diffusivity, 544 Counter drying, 87
Effective, 545 Cross-counter drying, 87
Moisture, 544 Curve, 84, 85, 84–85, 534
Dimensionless terms, 53 Cycle, 542
Distillery products, 225–226
Brine cherries, 225 Pears, 533
Fruit cocktail, 225 Strawberries, 537
Maraschino cherries, 225–226 Direct drying, 87
Maraschino cocktail, 225 Efficiency, 88
Distilling industry, 81 Energy, 83
Drainage, 136 Fruits, 81–82, 573
Hindered, 543
Kinetics, 533–534, 541, 543–544
Krischer rate-moisture, 541

684 Index

Drying (Cont.) Erythrodiol, 508–509
Period, 85–86 Essential oils, 297, 303
Process, 86 Ester, 470–471, 492–493, 507, 509
Rate, 85–87, 543 Esterification, 501, 503, 510, 512
Sun, 81 Ethyl carbamate, 473–474
Temperature, 85, 88 Ethylene, 297, 299
Unhindered, 542 Evaporation, 506
Extension of shelf life, 234
D-values, 124 Extraction, 500, 505–507, 509–511

E Oil, 493–494, 504–505, 509, 512

Edible coatings, 138 F
Alginic acid, 138
Casein, 138 Farnesyl pyrophosphate, 302
Cellulose, 138 Fat, 494–495
Chitosan, 138 Fermentation, 234, 461–462, 465–468, 470–474, 492–493,
Lauric acid, 138
Lipids, 138 496–503, 505, 507, 509, 511, 660–661
Polysaccharides, 138 Alcoholic, 460, 465–466, 469
Proteins, 138 Ethanol , 660–661
Glucose, 652, 660–661
Efficiency, 232, 236, 240 Lactic, 496, 498, 501, 503
Egute, 220 Malolactic, 460–462, 465, 468, 470, 472, 474
Elderberries (Sambucus nigra), 675 Red-orange pigment, 661
Emission effects, 237 Single cell protein, 660
Endocarp, 492 Sluggish or stuck, 465, 467, 472
Energy, 231–237 Tequila, 660
Unusual lipids, 661
Activation, 55 Wine, 660
Balance, 231 Yeast, 657, 660–661
Carriers, 231 Fibers, 181, 492, 500, 506
Consumption, 231 Filtration, 504, 506, 512
Demand, 237 Selective, 506
Requirements, 231 Fingerprint, 493, 507
Environmental, 172–183 Finished product, 233, 236
Guidelines, 181 Fish-eye, 502
Impact, 172 Flavanols, 302
Information system, 183 Flavanones, 302
Risks, 182 Flavones, 302
Enzymes, 95, 104–112, 178, 460, 464, 467, 469–470, 473, Flavonoids, 302
Flavonols, 302
501–502, 505, 509–510, 654 Flavor, 303, 500, 502, 509, 511
Acid ␤-fructofuranosidase, 654 Flesh, 491–493, 501, 509
Arabinofuranosidase, 469 Flow charts, 232–233, 242
Chitinase, 463–464, 468–469 Flow rate, 84
Esterase, 459, 470–471 Flow-through type heat treatment, 46–47, 50–51, 53,
Glucanase, 463—464, 468–469
␤-Glucosidase, 470, 473–474 56–67
Glycosidase, 460 Flow-types for liquid food, 53
Lysozyme, 468 Fodders, 180–181
Pectinase, 459–460, 469 Food additives, 146
Pectin esterase, 654
Protease, 466, 469 Acidulants, 151, 154
Epicarp, 492 Antifoaming agents, 147, 160
Epidermis, 492, 494 Biopreservatives, 157
Epoxide, 510–511
Equilibrium state, 82 Nisin, 157
Equipment, 568–569, 574, 576–577 Chelating agents, 147, 158
Equivalent heat treatment time, 45, 56–57
EDTA, 158, 160
Clostridium botulinum, 157

Index 685

Coloring agents, 147, 160–161 Food-borne pathogens, 117–123
Natural colorants, 147, 161 Clostridium botulinum, 122
Synthetic colorants, 161 E. coli, O157:H7, 121–123
Uncertified colors, 161 Listeria monocytogenes, 117, 120, 123
Salmonella, 121, 123
Direct food additives, 146–147 Shigella spp. h, 122
Chemical classes, 147
Functional classes, 147 Formate, 301
Fortunella spp. (see Kumquat)
Emulsifiers, 147, 165–166 Freezing rate, 60–61, 64, 67, 75
Enzymatic browning, 159
Crystallization, 59–60, 67
Polyphenol oxidase, 158–160 Drip loss, 60–61, 64, 71, 74
Enzymes, 147, 166 (see also Enzymes) Freezing curve, 60
Freezing point, 60
Anti-clouding, 166 Osmotic dehydration, 65
Antifouling, 166 Thermal center, 59
Flavoring additives, 147, 162 Freezing systems, 74
Flavor products, 150, 162 Cryogenic freezing, 75
Natural flavors, 162 Freezing by contact with cooled liquid,
Food additive industry, 150–151
Functionalities, 152, 160, 162 74
Multifunctional additives, 148 Freezing by contact with cooled solid, 74
Governmental regulations, 148 Freezing with cooled gas, 74
Codex alimentarius, 149 High-pressure freezing, 75
Food and Drugs Act, 148, 160, 162 Fresh-cut fruits, 120
GRAS substances, 148, 152, 163–164 Frozen fruit quality, 62
Indirect food additives, 146–147, 149 Antioxidant capacity changes, 72
Nutritional additives, 147
Preservatives, 147, 155–156 Antioxidant carotenoids, 72
Anti-browning agents, 147, 158–160 Phenolic compounds, 71–72
Antimicrobials 147, 155 Color changes, 61, 63, 67
Antioxidants, 147, 150, 158 Anthocyanins, 69–70
Range of products, 153 Carotenoids, 68–69, 72
Beverages, 146, 151, 153, 164 Chlorophylls, 67–68, 72
Candies, 146, 150, 153 Enzymatic browning, 60, 67, 70
Canned fruits, 164 Anti-browning additives, 64
Diet drinks, 164 Enzymes, 62–63, 70
Fruit fillings, 150 Catalase (CAT), 62–64, 72
Fruit gums, 153 Lipoxygenase (LOX), 62–63, 68, 72
Jams and jellies, 146, 150, 157, 164 Peroxidase (POD), 62–64, 68, 70–72
Safety of additives, 148, 167 Polyphenoloxidase (PPO), 63–64, 70, 72
Sweeteners, 146–147 Flavor and aroma changes, 62–63, 71
Texturizing agents, 165 Microbiological quality, 73
Thermophilic bacteria, 153 Fruit microflora, 73
Unit operations, 146 Outbreaks related with frozen products, 73
Vitamins, 147, 166–167 Nutritional value changes, 62, 65, 71
Food processing, 651, 654–658 Dietary Fiber, 62, 72
Chilling injury, 656 Vitamin A, 62, 71–72, (see also Vitamin A)
Deterioration, 655–656 Vitamin C, 62–63, 72–73, (see also Vitamin C)
Dried foods, 658 Physical changes, 67
Edible young cladodes, 654–655 Recrystallization, 6l, 67
Functional foods, 657–658 Sublimation: Freezer burn, 67
Jam, 658 Volume expansion, 67
Juices, 658, 660–661 PPP-factors, 62
Minimally processed, 657 Blanching, 61, 63, 68
Modified atmosphere packaging, 657 Chemical additives, 64
Nopalitos 651, 659–660 Package, 65
Postharvest, 651, 655 Permeability of materials, 65–66
Wrapping, 655 Preparatory operations, 63

686 Index

Frozen fruit quality (Cont.) Gram negative bacteria, 4–5, 7, 9
Pretreatments, 61, 63 E.coli, 4, 14–15, 18–21
Raw product quality, 62 Lactobacillus, 4, 9–10, 20
Pseudomonas, 4–5, 7–8, 10
Textural changes, 61–64, 71 Shigella, 4, 8, 19, 21
TTT-factors, 62, 72 Salmonella, 4, 8, 11, 16, 18–21
Vibrio parahaemolyticus, 4, 7
Cold chain, 73
Frozen storage, 72 Gram positive bacteria, 4, 7, 9
High quality life, 72 Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris, 4, 13, 16
Practical storage life, 72–73 Bacillus, 4, 6, 8, 19
Frozen fruits, 223 Clostridium, 4, 6, 8–9, 16, 19
Frozen products legislation, 74
Fructose, 219, 223, 225, 303, 492 Heat resistant fungi, 4
Fruit beverages, 205–215 Aspergillus, 4–5, 7, 10, 15, 20
Cloudy fruit drink, 207 Bysochlamys fulva, 15
Filtered fruit drink, 207 Paecilomyces, 4,
Fruit nectar, 205 Penicillum, 4–5, 8, 10–11, 20
Juices, 205
Fruit drink raw materials, 206–208 Maintaining fruit quality, 10
Reception, 207 Microbial growth, 4–5, 7
Selection, 208 Microbial quality, 10, 14, 16
Stem elimination, 208 Normal microflora, 4
Washing, 207 Pathogen, 11, 21
Fruit drying, 81 Processed, 4
Dehydrated fruit, 81 Quorum sensing, 9
Evaporated fruit, 81 Rapid methods, 15
Fruit powder, 81 Safety, 11, 14, 20
Fruit juice clarification, 210 Sanitation, 20
Mechanical clarification, 210 Sanitizing agents, 18
Filtration, 210 Spoilage microorganisms, 7, 10, 12, 16,
Physical-chemical clarification, 210
Fruit juice concentrates, 222–223, 225 20–21
Fruit juice, 176, 208–209, 234 Unconventional methods, 16
Extraction, 209 Fruit nectar containing fruit flesh, 212–213
Diffusion, 209 Aseptic preservation and storing, 213
Pressing, 209 Preheating, 212
Waste volume, 176 Sieving, 212
Fruit chopping, 208 Fruit plant sanitation, 245
Fruit preparation, 208–209 Biofilms, 257
Enzymatic preparation, 209 Chlorine based sanitizers, 251
Mechanical preparation, 208 Critical control points, 249
Preparation with heat treatment, 208 Foodborne outbreaks, 246
Fruit microbiology, 4 Foodborne pathogens, 245–246
Antimicrobial compounds, 7, 9 Fruit processing operations, 249
Antibacterial, 7–8, 18 Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP),
Antifungal, 7–8
Phenylic, 7 245, 249
Bacteriocin, 9, 21 Novel treatments, 252
Biofilm, 9–10 Sanitary processing environment, 254
Climacteric, 8, 12 Sanitation program, 255, 257
Contamination, 19, 20 Sanitizers, 251
Conventional methods, 3, 14 Storage and transport, 253
DNA based tests, 15, 21 Wash water, 250
Edible film packaging, 18 Fruit processing, 175, 231, 233, 235
Fresh cut, 4, 7 Plant, 231, 233
Fruits, 3–4, 7, 10 Technology, 231
Enzymatic preparation, 209 Water usage, 175
Fruit pudding, 222
Fruit pulps, 218, 221
Fruit rate, 221

Index 687

Fruit purees, 217, 221 Grapefruit, 295–296, 300–304, 339
Sweetened fruit puree, 221 Duncan, 296
Flame, 296
Fruit quality, 95–96, 104–112, 238–239 Juice, 339, 342
Chemical properties, 104–112 Marsh, 296, 301
Color, 107–108 Production statistics, 310
Conductivity, 100, 104, 109, 112 Red, 296
Flavor, 108, 111–112 Redblush, 296
Losses, (energy, protein, nutrients), 238–239 Rio Red, 296
Sensory properties, 107–108 Ruby Red, 296
Shelf life, 95–96, 107–108, 111 Star Ruby, 296–297, 301
Soluble solids (Brix°), 107–109 White, 296
pH, 104, 107–110
Physical properties, 104–112 Grapes (Vitis vinifera L.), 439, 674–675
Vitamin C, 108 Canning grapes, 439
Chemical changes, 442
Fruit waste, 176–182 Composition, 675
Characteristics, 181–182 Consumption, 421
Disposal, 182 French paradox, 421
Solid, 176, 182 Mediterranean diet, 421
Drying, 441
Furanoid, 510 Kinetics, 443
Fusty, 509, 511 Technology, 445
F-value, 45, 56–57 Fruit anthocyanins, 448
Harvesting, 440
G Processing, 675
Production, 674
Galactose, 303 Raisin grapes, 439
Gas transmission rates, 118 Table grapes, 439
Gas-pocket, 502 Types, 421
Genome shuffling, 462 Euvitis, 421–422
Gibberellins, 297 Muscadinia, 421–422, 424, 426
Glazing, 219–220 Varieties, 674
Glucose, 303, 492 Wine grapes, 439
Glutarate, 301
Glyceride, 492, 507 Grapevine
GMO (genetically modified organism), 458–460, Biotechnology, 458, 460, 461–465
Cultivars, 457, 460, 462, 464–465, 471, 478
478 Genome, 461, 464
Good agricultural and management practice, 122 Transformation, 462
Gooseberry, 387–390 Transgenic, 457, 459, 463–465, 478
Vitis vinifera, 459–465
Jelly and jam, 389–390
Nutritional values, 389 Green staining, 502
Physicochemical qualities, 388 Guava, 597
Production, 387
Varieties, 388 By-products, 605
Grape juice Chemical composition, 600
Color, 424 Cultivars, 599
Composition, 422 Ethylene production, 599
Ripening, 599
Carbohydrates, 422 Physiology, 599
Lipids, 423, 429 Postharvest handling, 602
Mineral compounds, 423 Processed products, 602
Nitrogen, 422–423
Vitamin content, 423–424 H
Flavor, 424
Quality, 426–427 HACCP plan, 122
Postharvest factors, 426 Harvest, 494–497, 504–505, 509–510
Preharvest factors, 426 Haze proteins, 469
Regulations, 427
Ripeness indicators, 427

688 Index

Heat, 45–53, 234–235, 299 Method of manufacture, 198
Conduction, 46–47, 51–52 Polymer network, 190
Convection, 46–47, 53 Recipes, 197–198
Pasteurization, 45
Sterilization, 45 Apple jam, 197
Mango jam, 197
Hesperidin, 296–297, 302 Mixed jam, 198
HHP processing, 124 Jellies, 189–191, 197–198, 200, 222, 234
Hungary, 665–675 Fruits, 191
Apple, 191, 198
Apple, 665–667 Grapes, 191
Apricots, 671–672 Guava, 191
Cherries, 670 Mango, 191
Grape, 674–675 Pineapple, 191, 198
Pear, 668 Gelling agents, 192
Plums, 668–669 Gel formation, 196
Raspberries, 672 Gum Arabic/acacia, 192
Sour cherry, 669 Pectin, 192
Hydrocarbon, 493, 507, 509 Starch/modified starch, 192
Hydrolysis, 498, 503, 509 Method of manufacture, 198
Acid, 501 Packaging material, 200
Alkaline, 496 Pectin, 189–191, 193–194
Triglyceride, 507 High methoxy, 194–196
Hydroxylation, 511 Low methoxy, 194–196
Hydroxytyrosol, 493, 501, 509 Preparation, 195
Hygiene, 234, 236 Recipes, 197–198
Strength, 190
I Sweetening agents, 195
Cane and beet sugar, 195
Ingredients, 217 Corn syrup, 190
Inhibition of pathogenic bacteria, 122 Honey, 190
Invertase, 303 Invert sugar, 195
Ionizing radiation, 123 Sucrose crystallization, 195
Iron, 492, 501 Sweeteners, 195
Irradiation, 123 (see also Non-thermal Jerusalem artichoke, 220–221, 225
Juice vesicle (sacs), 296–297, 303
physical treatments)
Juices, 124 K
Isomerization, 502–503, 510–511
Isonaringin, 302 k232, 508, 511
Isoprenoids, 299 k270, 508, 511
Kinetic, 501
J Kumquat, 295

Jams, 189–190, 197–200, 218, 221, L
234–235
Lactic acid bacteria, 461–462, 473–474
Fruits, 191 Lactobacillus, 461–462, 469, 472, 474
Apple, 191, 198 Lactococcus, 472, 499
Grapes, 191 Leuconostoc, 461–462, 468
Guava, 191 Oenococcus, 461–462
Mango, 191 Pediococcus, 461–462, 468–469
Pineapple, 191, 198
Lactobacillus, 499 (see also Lactic acid bacteria)
Gelling agents, 192 Lampante, 507–509, 512
Gel formation, 196 Latitude, 492–493, 507, 509
Gum Arabic/acacia, 192 Lemon, 295–296, 300–301, 303, 342
Pectin, 192
Starch/modified starch, 192 Eureka, 296

Glass container, 201
Ingredients, 190

Index 689

Femminelo, 296 Mandarin hybrids, 295–296, 301
Fino, 296 Encore, 295
Juice, 342 Fortune, 295, 297
Lisbon, 296 Fremont, 296
Production statistics, 310 Michal, 295
Verna, 296 Wilkings, 295
Villafranca, 296
Light tightness, 238 Mandarin, 295, 300–301, 303, 312
Lime, 295–296, 301, 303, 343 Clementine, 295, 297–298
Juice, 343 Clemenules, 301
Mexican, 296 Dancy, 301
Persian, 296 Ponkan, 295
Production statistics, 310 Satsuma, 295, 301, 304
Tahiti, 296
Limonene, 303–304 Mango, 638–643, 645–648
Limonin, 302 Composition, 641
Limonoids, 302 Cultivars, 639
Linoleic, 492, 507, 509 Flavor, 647
Linolenic, 509 Nutritional values, 646
Lipids, 492, 500, 507, 509, 653, 661 Phenolics and antioxidant capacity,
Fatty acids, 653, 661 647
Glycolipids, 653 Processed products, 640–643
Neutral lipids, 653 Aseptic-packed beverages, 641
Phospholipids, 653 Canned, 640
Seed, 653 Chutneys, 643
Sterols, 653 Dried, 642
Tocopherol, 653 Flakes, 643
Lipophilic, 510 Freeze-dried, 642
Lipoxygenase, 509 Infused dried, 646, 648
Liquid foods, 101, 108 Jams, 643
Luminosity, 507 Juice and concentrate, 640, 642
Lutein, 300, 493, 510 Leather, 642
Luteoxanthin, 510 Marmalades, 643
Lychee, 606 Pickles, 643
Chemical composition, 607 Puree, 640, 642
Cultivars, 606 Scoops, 641
Fruit cracking, 607 Slices, 641–642
Physiology and ripening, 607 Spray-dried powder, 642
Postharvest handling, 608 Squash, 641
Processed products, 610 Production and consumption, 638
Lycopene, 296, 301
Lye, 498–501 Mannitol, 492
Lyophilization, 82, 222 Mannose, 303
MAP (modified atmosphere packaging), 115, 118,
M
121 (see also Non-thermal physical
Macronutrients, 29–33 treatments)
Carbohydrates, 30–31 Marketing, 499, 507
Fiber, 31–32 Marmalades, 217–218, 221–222
Fats, 32 Chemical composition, 222
Proteins, 32–33 Mineral content, 222
Water, 29, 30 Vitamin C content, 218, 222
Marzipan, 223
Maintenance, 237 Mass flow, 236
Malate, 301 Mat, 506
Malolactic bacteria, 459–461, 466–467, 469, Material
Balance, 233, 236
474, 478 Handling, 233, 237
Maturity index, 297, 299
Mechanical burdening, 238

690 Index

Mechanical operations, 133 Migration
Cutting and/or slicing, 130, 133–134 Moisture, 543
Peeling, 130, 133–134 Sugar, 545

Mechanical, 492, 495, 505–506, 512 Mill, 505–507, 512
Medicine, 655 Minerals, 666–674 (see also Micronutrients)

Alcohol hangover, 655 Apples, 666–667
Constipation, 655 Apricots, 667, 671
Diarrhea, 655 Cherries, 667, 670
Diuresis, 655 Currants, 667, 674
Gastric ulcer, 655 Grapes, 667, 675
Human diet, 655 Peaches, 667, 671
Hypercholesterolemia, 655 Pears, 667
Hypoglycaemic, 655 Plums, 667–668
Meliaceae, 302 Raspberries, 667, 672
Melons, 122 Sour cherries, 667, 669
Mesocarp, 492 Strawberries, 667, 673
Metabolism, 502, 510 Minimally processed foods, 115
Metabolomics, 458 Mixing, 504–506, 510–511
Metal, 505, 511 Moisture, 82, 85–93, 238, 569–572
Mevalonate, 302 Content
Microbial
Hazards, 120 Critical, 85, 543
Impurities, 89 Distribution, 84
Safety, 45–57, 120 Equilibrium, 538, 543, 545
Final, 82
Control of spoilage, 45–46 Initial, 545
Safety aspects, 45–46 Limiting, 543
Surviving microbes, 45–46, 55–57 Relative, 82
Microbiology, 4 Residual, 538
Micronutrients, 33–37 Diffusion, 534, 546
Vitamins, 33–35 Diffusivity, 544
Vitamin B-1, B-2, B-3, B-6, Folate, Gradients, 542
Migration, 543
34–35 Ratio, 544, 546
Vitamin C, 33–34 Transfer, 534, 541–542, 545
Vitamin E, 34–35 Mold, 502, 509
Minerals, 35–37 Monoterpenes, 303–304
Calcium, 36 Muddy, 509, 511
Cooper, 37 Muesli, 234–235
Iron, 35 Musty, 509, 511
Magnesium, 36, 37 Mutatoxanthin, 510
Phosphorus, 36
Potassium, 37 N
Selenium, 37
Sodium, 37 Naringinin, 297
Zinc, 37 Natural colorants, 223
Microorganisms, 46–47, 55–57, 95–114, 492, 499–500, Nectarine, 519–531

502, 509 Antioxidant capacity, 529
Bacterial spores, 101, 104, 112 Beta-carotenes, 529
Cell membrane, 95–97, 114 Breeding practices, 521
Chilling injury, 522
Permeabilization, 107–108, 113 Composition, 527–528
Rupture, 95, 104 Consumption, 519, 521
Transmembrane potential, 95–97, 101 Fruit classification, 522
Gram-negative bacteria, 101, 104 Harvest, 522
Gram-positive bacteria, 101, 104 Liquid media, canned peaches, 523
Inactivation, 45–47, 55–57, 95–114 Maturity, 522
Vegetative bacteria, 101
Yeast, 101, 104, 112–113

Index 691

Minerals, 528 Orange, 295, 300–303, 309
Nutrient profile, 527–528 Acidless, 295
Processed products, 522–527 Beverages, 335
Blond, 295
Canned, 522 Blood, 295
Dried, 525 Byproduct utilization, 337
Fresh-cut, 526–527 Common, 295
Frozen, 524 Hamlin, 295
Jam, 526 Juice, 310
Jelly, 526 Cloud stabilization, 326
Juice, 526 Concentrate, 332
Procyanidins, 524 Debittering process, 324
Pruning, 521 Factors affecting, 314
Storage, 522 Freeze drying, 335
Total ascorbic acid, 529 Maturity characteristic, 313
Total phenolics, 529 Packaging and storage, 327
U.S. styles, 523, 525 Pasteurization, 320
Canned peaches, 523 Production, juice, 317
Frozen peaches, 525 Types, juice, 315
Vitamins, 528 Lane late, 295
World production, 519–521 Moro, 295, 302
Area harvested, 520 Navel, 295, 298–299, 301
Leading countries, 519–520 Navelate, 295, 297
Yield per hectare, 521 Navelina, 295
Neochrome, 510 Parson Brown, 295
Neoxanthin, 301, 493, 510 Pera, 295
Nobiletin, 302 Pinapple, 295
Nomilin, 302 Production statistics, 310
Non-thermal physical treatments, 115, 123–124 Salustiana, 295
High hydrostatic pressure treatment, 124 Sanguinelli, 295, 302
High voltage pulsed electric field, 124 Shamouti, 295, 299
Irradiation, 123 Sweet, 295–296
Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), 115 Tarocco, 295, 302
Non-thermal processing, 648 Thompson, 295
Nootkatone, 304 Valencia, 295, 297, 301
Nut varieties, 223–224 Varieties for juice, 311
Chemical composition, 224 Washington navel, 295
Nutritional values, 29
Organic acids, 301
O Organoleptic, 234–235, 492–494, 496, 500–502, 504–505,

Oil, 177, 491–494, 503–512 507–508, 511–512
Gland, 297, 303 Orthogonal distance regression (ODR), 539
Olive, 491–495, 503–513 Orujo, 504, 506
Olive-Pomace, 508–509, 511–512 Osmosis, 499
Refined-olive, 507–508, 512 Oxalate, 301
Vegetable, 504, 507–509 Oxidation, 493, 496–497, 502–503, 505, 507–511,

Oleaceae, 491 572–573
Oleic, 492, 507, 511 Reactions, 567, 570, 572–573
Oleoresin, 566, 568–569, 574–577
Oleuropein, 493, 498, 501, 503, 509 P
Olive fruit, 491–494, 496, 502–503, 509, 512
Opuntia, prickly pear, 651 Packaging, 91, 136, 211, 231–233
Anaerobic conditions, 136, 138
Cactus forage, 654 Anaerobic pathogenic microorganisms, 138
Cladodes, 654–655, 660 Fermentative processes, 136, 138
Fruits, 651–652 Materials, 231
Pads, 657 Modified atmosphere packaging, 136–137

692 Index

Packaging (Cont.) Processed products, 522–527
Carbon dioxide, 136–137 Canned, 522
Oxygen, 136–137 Dried, 525
Fresh-cut, 526–527
Packing, 91, 211, 231–233, 497, 499, Frozen, 524
504 Jam, 526
Jelly, 526
Materials, 231 Juice, 526
Palmitic, 492, 507
Palmitoleic, 492 Processing, 671
Panel, 509 Procyanidins, 524
Papaya, 612 Production, 670
Pruning, 521
By-products, 621 Storage, 522
Chemical composition, 614 Total ascorbic acid, 529
Cultivars, 612 Total phenolics, 529
Minimally processed, 621 U.S. styles, 523, 525
Physiology and ripening, 612
Postharvest handling, 616 Canned peaches, 523
Processed products, 618 Frozen peaches, 525
Paprika, 566–570, 572–577 Varieties, 670
Parameter, 501, 508, 510–513 Vitamins, 528
Passion fruit, 643–647 Waste volume, 176
Flavor, 647 World production, 519–521
Juice and concentrate, 643–645 Area harvested, 520
Nutritional values, 646 Leading countries, 519–520
Starch and sugar, 646 Yield per hectare, 521
Varieties, 643 Peas (Pyrus communis L.) 176, 667–668
Paste, 234–235, 504–506, 510 Composition, 667
Pasteurization, 502 Processing, 668
Pasteurizers and sterilizers, 46–57 Production, 667
Batch-type, 47–48 Varieties, 667
Continuous, 48–49 Waste volume, 176
Flow-through type, 50–51, 56–57 Pectic enzyme, 492, 501
Process diagram, 49 Pectin, 177, 179–180, 218, 221–222, 224, 226–227, 303
Pathogenic bacteria, 134–135, 139 Amid-pectin, 224
Campylobacter jejuni, 134 Low-methoxy pectin, 224
Cyclospora cayetanensis, 134 Low methyl-ester pectin, 227
Escherichia coli O157:H7, 134, 139 Pectinates, 303
Listeria monocytogenes, 135, 139 Peeled, 235–236
Salmonella enteritidis, 135 PEF-system, 124
Salmonella spp., 134, 139 Penicillium, 299
Shigella spp., 134 Peptides, 461, 466, 468, 473–474
Pathogens, 117, 462–465 Permeability of plastic film, 118
Patulin, 121 Peroxide, 508, 511
Peaches (Prunus persica L.), 176, 519–531, pH, 499–502
Phenolic, 492–493, 501, 503, 507, 509
670–671 Pheophorbide, 501–502, 510
Antioxidant capacity, 529 Pheophytin, 501–503, 510–511, 517
Beta-carotenes, 529 Phospholipid, 492, 507
Breeding practices, 521 p-hydroxybenzoic, 509
Chilling injury, 522 p-hydroxyphenylacetic, 509
Composition, 527–528, 671 Phytoene, 300
Consumption, 519, 521 Phytofluene, 300
Fruit classification, 522 Picked, 498
Harvest, 522 Pigment, 493–494, 501–503, 507, 509–511
Liquid media, canned peaches, 523 Pit, 492, 494–496, 498–499, 506–507, 512
Maturity, 522 Pitting, 235
Minerals, 528
Nutrient profile, 527–528

Index 693

Plan, planning, 231–233, 238 Preservation, 496, 498–499, 501–502, 505, 507
Plant cell structure, 66 Preservatives, 218–219, 221
Press, 498, 506
Cell membrane, 61, 66, 71 Pretreatment processing, 119
Cell wall, 61, 66–67
Chloroplast, 66–67 Tissue shearing, 119
Chromoplast, 66–67 Washing, 119
Vacuoles, 66 Process parameters, 427
Plastic films for MAP, 118 Centrifugation, 428, 430
Plums (Prunus domestica L.) 176, 553–564, 668–669 Cleaning, 427–428
Antioxidant capacity, 562 Concentration, 428, 432, 434, 436
Breeding and production, 556 Crushing, 426, 428
Chilling injury, 556 Deaeration, 428
Chlorogenic acid, 562 Dejuicing, 428–429
Classification, 555 Detartarization, 428
Composition, 560–561, 668 Enzyme treatment, 428, 436
Consumption, 555 Filtration, 428, 430–432, 436
Dietary benefits, 560 Packaging, 428, 432–436
Functional attributes of dried prunes, 558 Preservation, 428, 432–436
Harvest, 556 Pressing, 427–430
Internal browning, 556 Process waste, 234, 236
Maturity, 556 Processing, 566–567, 569–576
Minerals, 561 Conditions, 566, 570–576
Nutrient profile, 560–561 Dehydration, 566, 568–576
Plum-based bakery ingredients, 559
Processed plum products, 559–560 Techniques, 569
Description, 569, 573–575
Fresh-cut, 559 Extraction, 574–576
Jam and jelly, 560
Juice, 559 Organic solvent, 574–576
Paste, 559 Supercritical fluid, 575–576
Processing, 668–669 Harvesting, 566, 568
Production, 668 Influence on components, 570, 576
Storage, 556 Milling, 568–570, 572–574
Total phenolics, 562 Properties
Varieties, 668 Geometrical
Vitamins, 561 Roundness, 534
Waste volume, 176 Shape, 534
World production, 553–554 Size, 534–535
Area harvested, 554 Sphericity, 534
Leading countries, 554 Surface area, 534–535, 542
Yield per hectare, 554 Volume, 534–536
Pollution, 498 Nutritional, 548–549
Prevention and control, 175 Physical
Polygalacturonic acid, 303 Texture, 534, 543
Polymers, 653 Protein, 492, 500
Arabinogalactan, 653–654 Proteomics, 458
Cellulose, 653 Protocatechic, 509
Fibre, 653, 655 Protopectina, 303
Gelatinous colloid, 655 Prunes, 553–564
Mucilage, 653, 655 Antioxidant capacity, 562
Pectin, 653, 655 Breeding and production, 556
Xylan, 653–654 Chilling injury, 556
Polymethoxiflavones, 302 Chlorogenic acid, 562
Polyol, 492 Classification, 555
Pome fruits, 665–668 Composition, 560–561
Poncirus trifoliate, 295 Consumption, 555
Postharvest treatment, 234 Dietary benefits, 560
Functional attributes of dried prunes, 558

694 Index

Prunes (Cont.) Raisin paste, 448
Harvest, 556 Raisin shrinkage, 442
Internal browning, 556 Sensory evaluation, 447
Maturity, 556 Sorption equilibrium, 441
Minerals, 561 Storage, 448
Nutrient profile, 560–561 Waste volume, 176
Processed prune products, 556–559 Rancidity, 509
Canned, 559 Raspberries (Rubus idaeus L.), 589–595, 672–673
Dried, 557 Black raspberries, 589
Juice, 558 Composition, 672
Juice concentrate, 559 Nutritional quality, 594
Storage, 556 Physicochemical quality, 591
Total phenolics, 562
U.S. prune facts, 555 Anthocyanins and color pigments, 591
Vitamins, 561 Antioxidant capacity, 592–593
World production, 553–554 Ellagic acid, 593
Area harvested, 554 Flavor, 591–592
Leading countries, 554 Phenolic components, 592–593
Yield per hectare, 554 Sugars, acidity and color, 591
Processing, 672–673
Pulp, 234–235, 492–494, 496, 498–499, 502, 506 Production and consumption, 589–590, 672
Pulping, 218 Raspberry products, 594–595
Pulsed electric field (PEF), 95–114 Red raspberries, 589
Varieties, 672
Critical breakdown, 95–96 Raw material, 234–235
Dielectric breakdown, 95–99, 107, 114 Reactions in food, 55–57
Electric field strength, 96–101, 104, 107 Ready-made meal, 227–228
Electrode, 95, 97, 100, 110, 112 Dressings, 227
Electroporation, 95, 112 Frozen ready-made meals, 228
Exponential decay pulse, 99, 102–107, 114 Fruit-filled pastas, 228
Pulse frequency, 97, 100–101 Heat treated ready-made meals, 227–228
Pulse number, 101, 104 Sauces, 227
Pulse width, 100–107 Receptacles, 46–47, 53
Square wave pulse, 97–107, 114 Red pepper, 565–568, 570, 573
Voltage, 95–98, 100 Fruit composition, 566–568
Pummelo, 295–296 Capsaicin, 567, 576
Hybrids, 296 Carotenoid, 566–567, 569–577
Oroblanco, 296 Fatty acid, 572–573, 576
Pungent, 511 Flavonoid, 566
Puree, 234–235 Provitamin A, 566
Purge, 507 Vitamin C, 567, 570
Purification, 506 Vitamin E, 567
Pyropheophytin, 511 Plant description, 565–566
Pyruvate, 301 Variety, 570–571
Reference temperature, 45, 55–56
Q Refining, 504, 509, 511
Re-formed fruit pieces, 177
Q10 values, 116 Refrigerants, 182–183
Quality, 533–534, 547, 549, 566–567, 569–570, 573–577 Regulation, 500, 507–509, 511–512
Rehydration, 538
Attributes of food, 46, 55–57 Repilo, 494–495
Of fitting, 535, 539 Residence time, 56–57
Of product, 233, 238 Respiration, 116
Quasi-aseptic process, 46–47 Respiratory activity, 117
Resveratrol, 464, 473–474
R Reverse osmosis, 222, 234
Rhamnose, 492
Raisins, 176, 219, 225, 227, 448
Modified atmosphere storage, 448
Raisin juice, 448

Index 695

Ripening process, 131 Slicing, 91, 235
Climacteric fruits, 131 Sodium hydroxide, 497–498, 501
Ethylene, 131, 133, 137 Softening, 134, 136, 502

Ripening, 491, 493–494, 505, 509–510 Antisoftening agents, 130
Rootstock, 296 Calcium chloride, 135–136
Rose hips, 81–82, 236 Calcium lactate, 136
Rotting, 242
Rutaceae, 295, 302 Pectic acids, 136
Pectinolytic enzymes, 134, 136
S
Pectin methylesterase enzyme, 136
Saccharide, 492, 501 Polygalacturonase enzyme, 136
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, (see also Yeast), 461–462, Proteolytic enzymes, 134
Solubility, 501
466–474 Soluble solids, 297, 299
Safety, 231–238 Solvent, 512
Sorption, 82–83
Management, 231 Isobar, 82
Product, 231, 235, 238 Isostheta, 82
Techniques, 238 Isotherm models
Work, 236 BET, 539
Salt, 492–493, 498–502, 505 Chen, 539
Sanitizers agents, 130, 132 Chung-Pfost, 539
Acetic acid, 132 GAB, 539
Chlorine dioxide, 132 Halsey, 539
Chlorine, 130, 132 Henderson, 539
Hydrogen peroxide, 132 Iglesias-Chirife, 539
Organic acids, 132 Oswin, 539
Ozone, 130, 132 Isotherms, 82–83, 534, 538
Peroxyacetic acid, 132 Soughs, 219–220
Sodium hypochlorite, 132 Sour cherries (Prunus cerasus L.) 176, 669–670
Ultraviolet light, 130, 132–133 Composition, 669
Saponifiable, 507 Processing, 669–670
Scalding, 235 Production, 669
Sea blackthorn, 675 Varieties, 669
Secondary processing, 234 Waste volume, 176
Sediment, 502, 507, 509, 511 Sour orange, 296
Seed, 492, 508, 512, 566–570, 572–54 Sources of microbiological contamination, 121
Semi-finished products, 234 Sous-vide treatment, 123
Sensory, 493, 509, 511 Spice, 496, 565–566, 575
Separation, 505–507 Spoilage, 507
Liquid-liquid, 504, 506–507 Squalene, 507
Liquid-solid, 504, 506 Squeezing, 235
Shadock, (see Pummelo), 295–296 Stability, 493, 505, 507–508, 570, 572–573,
Shape, 491, 494, 505
Shell fruits, 223–224 575–576
Almond, 223–224 Oil, 493
Hazel-nut, 223–224 Oxidative, 509
Nut, 223–224 Starch, 303
Shrinkage, 534, 536–537 State of water in fruits, 82
Bulk shrinkage coefficient, 536 Stearic, 492, 507
Dimensional, 534 Sterilization, 497
Volumetric, 534 Sterilizers, 46–49
Sieving, 235 Sterol, 492–493, 507–508, 513
Sinensetin, 302 Stilbene, 464, 473
Siringic, 509 Stone fruits, 668–672
Size, 492, 494, 496–499, 505 Stone, 492, 505
Skin, 493, 498, 502, 506 Storage, 91–93, 138, 233, 238, 493, 497, 500, 503,

506–507, 509–511, 567, 570, 572–573, 576

696 Index

Strawberries (Fragaria ananassa L.) 176, 581–589, 673 Nova, 296
Composition, 673 Orlando, 296
Nutritional quality, 585–586 Terpene, 297, 303
Phenolic compounds, 585 Tangeretin, 302
Physicochemical quality, 583 Tangerine, (see Mandarin), 295
Anthocyanins, 584 Tangors, 296, 301
Antioxidant capacity, 584, 586 Ellendalle, 296
Characteristics of strawberries, 583 Murcott, 296
Color, 584 Ortanique, 296
Flavor, 583–584 Temple, 296
Organic acids, 583 Tannin, 503
Processing, 673 Taste, 492–493, 507, 509, 511
Production and consumption, 582–583, 673 Tea, 234–235
Hepatitis A outbreak, 583 Technological scheme, 235
Products, 587–588 Temperature, 130, 134–135, 138, 498–499, 501, 505, 507,
Freeze dried, 588
Frozen, 587 511, 569–572, 575–576
Infused dried, 588 Terpene, 492–493, 507–509
Jelly, preserves and jam, 588 Texture, 492, 494, 498, 500–501
Juice and concentrate, 587 Thaumatin-like proteins, 464, 469
Puree, 587 Thawing, 61, 63–64, 70, 73–75
Stabilized frozen, 588 Thermal methods, 45, 116–119
Varieties, 581–582, 673
Waste volume, 176 Cooling and temperate controlling, 119
Thickening agents, 234
Stress Time, 569–570, 572, 575–576
Abiotic, 463
Alcohol, 467 Operating, 572, 575
Chemical, 466 Residence, 569–570
Conditions, 467, 470 Tocopherol, 492–493, 507–508
General response, 463, 466 Transfer
Osmotic, 464, 466–467 Heat, 541, 543
Protein, 466 Heat transfer coefficient, 542
Resistance/tolerance, 462, 466 Mass, 543
Salt, 463 Mass transfer coefficient, 542
Moisture, 545, 547
Stuffing, 496, 497 Transporting, 238
Succinate, 301 Trehalose, 466
Sucrose, 303, 492 Triene, 511
Sugar, 303, 492, 499–501, 503 Troje, 505
Sulfur dioxide, 466, 468 Tropical fruits, 648
Sultanas, 219 Tuberculosis, 492, 495
Sweetened fruits, 219–220 Tyrosol, 493, 501, 509

Dehydrated, 220 U
Purees, 221
Sweeteners, 180 Ultrafiltering, 234
Swelling, 82 Uvaol, 508–509
Synapic, 509
Syrups, 234 V

T Valencene, 304
Vanillic, 509
Table olive, 491–503 Variety, 491–492, 494, 509–510
Californian-style, 493, 497, 503 Vat, 507
Greek-style naturally black, 494, 497, 503 Ventilation, 81–86
Spanish-style green, 496–497, 499, 501–503
Natural air, 81
Tangelo, 296, 301 Quiet, 86
Minneola, 296 Verticilosis, 494–495

Index 697

Vinegars, 178 Waxes, 297, 299, 492, 507
Vinegary, 509, 511 Weight, 491–492, 494–495, 505, 507
Violaxanthin, 300, 493, 510 Wine, 178–179
Vitamin A, 300
Vitamin C, (see also Ascorbic acid), 300–301 Biotechnology, 453, 462, 478
Vitamins, 492–493, 499–500, 508, 666–675 Grapevine, 457, 459–465, 475
Waste utilization, 179
Apple, 666 Yeast, 457, 459–462, 465–475, 477–478
Apricots, 666, 671 Winey, 509, 511
Cherries, 666, 670
Currants, 666, 674 X
Grape, 666, 675
Peaches, 666, 671 Xanthophylls, 300, 493, 510–511, 567, 572
Pear, 666–667 Xylose, 492
Plums, 666, 668
Raspberries, 666, 672 Y
Sour cherry, 666, 669
Strawberries, 666, 673 Yeast, 498, 502, 509
Volatiles, 303, 493, 502–503, 507, 509 Candida, 461, 473
Hanseniaspora, 461, 469
W Kloeckera, 461
Kluyveromyces, 469
Washed, 498, 500–505, 512 Metschnikowia, 461
Washing, 91 Pichia, 461, 469
Waste, 174–183 Saccharomyces genus, 461
Schizosaccharomyces pombe, 472
Management, 183 Willopsis, 469
Utilization techniques, 174 Zygosaccharomyces, 467, 469
Wastewater, 498
Water, 492, 498, 504–507, 509 Yield data, 236
Absorptivity, 87 Yielding norm, 236
Activity, 82, 219, 225–226, 534, 538–540,
Z
543
Content, 535–536, 544, 547 Zapateria, 502
Diffusion, 545 Zymocin, 467–469
Evaporation, 533 Z-value, 45, 55–56
Removal, 533–534