22_ENVIRONMETAL PHISIOLOGY OF ANIMAL 2005_779

736 INDEX

luteinizing hormone (LH) (continued) egg development 376 marine vertebrates see birds, marine; fish, marine;
roles 593 female sexual behavior 376–9 mammals, marine; reptiles, marine
secretion 591 fertilization 595
in temperature-dependent sex determination fur 192–3, 206, 207, 505, 579, 658 marlins, respiratory system 409
592 growth hormones 369, 370 Marmota marmota (rodent), nests 667–8
guts, conditions 693 marshes, productivity 494
luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH), in hairs, mechanoreceptor linkage 268 marsupials
temperature-dependent sex determination heart 157
592 kidney 94–6, 98 body temperature 211, 580, 592
lungs 146 digestion 608
Lymnaea spp. (snail) fermentation 607
respiration 507 oxygen uptake 509 jumping 337, 598
water uptake 361 respiratory gas exchange 153 licking 211
male sexual physiology 375–6 metabolic rate 41
lymphocytes, roles, in adaptive immunity 701 marine 86, 415, 417, 428–9, 432–42, 681 reproduction 592–3
lysopine, synthesis 117 swimming 332 torpor 214, 579
maternal behavior 380–1 see also kangaroos
M4-LDH see muscle lactate dehydrogenase maximum metabolic rate 132 mass exponent, definition 38
(M4-LDH) metabolic rates 41 mass spawning 382
and ambient temperature 205 master control genes, encoding 23
mackerels, endothermy, regional 406 and body mass 129, 130 maternal behavior 380–1, 383
Macrobrachium spp. (crustacean), amino acids migration 45, 207, 216–17, 662 mating behavior, pheromones 382–4
nasal turbinal systems 104–5, 220, 583, 583, copulation 383
498 courtship 383
macrofauna 644 mate location 382–3
osmoregulation 86, 92, 93–8, 435, 557, 633 postnatal care 383
littoral habitats 451 ovulatory (estrous) cycle 376, 378, 379 reproductive synchrony 383–4
vent habitats 535 oxygen consumption 41 Mauremys spp. (turtle)
macrophages, production 701 body temperature 504
Macrophthalmus spp. (crab), distribution 450 mass-specific 130 lung ventilation 510
Macropus spp. (kangaroo), digestion 608 panting 211–12, 580, 640 maximum metabolic rate (MMR)
macula 271 parasites 681, 682 definition 127
magnesium precocial young 671 high 219
cell concentrations 71–2 reproduction and resting metabolic rate 219
levels, freshwater animals 501 scaling 132
transport 90, 400 hormonal regulation 379 MDH see malate dehydrogenase (MDH)
magnetoreceptors 287 implantation 379 MDOC see minimum depth of occurrence (MDOC)
marine fish 429 placenta 379 mechanical adaptation, terrestrial animals 596–9
major histocompatibility complex (MHC) 701 respiration 146, 153 mechanical senses 269–72
and self-recognition 697 sexual characters development 375 freshwater animals 515
malaria 521 skins, structure 556 littoral animals 479–80
malate, synthesis 683 strides, scaling 44 marine animals 427–8
malate dehydrogenase (MDH) sweating 211 roles 171, 427–8
catalysis 683, 684 terrestrial 552, 592–3, 595, 601 terrestrial animals 599–600
expression 178 torpor 579, 655 mechanoreceptors 266, 268–72
thermal acclimation 404, 404 characteristics 215 information processing 287
malate dismutation, mechanisms 683, 684 seasonal strategies 661 muscle stretch receptors 320–1, 321
male sexual physiology 375–6 urine concentration 563, 633, 640 sensory adaptation 268
Malpighian tubule 362 vasomotor index 206 mediators, intracellular, roles 30–1
freshwater insects 499 visual fields 282 Mediterranean
hormonal regulation 362 water loss, tolerance 80, 562 habitats, characteristics 550
hypersaline insects 531 water loss rate 82, 83, 555, 557, 632, 642–3 pollution 431
model 92 water permeability 83–94 medulla oblongata 251
roles 89, 90 mandibular gland 349 medulla (of kidney)
and toxins 605 Manduca spp. (moth) mammals 98
urine production 92, 560–1 metamorphosis inhibition 695 rodents 98
water permeability 109 neural sheath 265, 266 structure 95–6
xerophilic arthropods 560–1 nicotine pumps 605 meiofauna see interstitial fauna
mammals peptide hormones 362 meiosis, mechanisms 25
birth processes 595 mangrove swamps melanocyte-stimulating hormone 351
blood concentration 78, 86, 553 fauna 453 Melanophila (fire beetle), thermoreceptors 285
blood vessels, properties 160 thermal adaptation 470 melanophores 372
blood volume 40 Manorina flavigula (bird), evaporative cooling Melanoplus spp. (grasshopper)
body mass 36, 44, 46 basking 667
639 cuticles 556
and lower critical temperature 199 marine animals 393–442, 396 life cycles 671
and metabolic rate 129–30 marine flora, and productivity 394–5 melatonin 345, 360
patterns 47 marine habitats effects in ectotherms 371
body temperature 188, 192, 202–8, 218, 220,
anthropogenic problems 430–2 body color changes 372
440, 510, 573, 574–80, 642, 657–62 biota 393–6 Melophorus spp. (ant), upper critical temperatures
brain 250, 251, 252, 254, 254, 602 chemistry of 393–4
depth effects 415–16 628
cooling, selective 210, 640 and light 423–4 melting points, body fluids 186
sensory/motor fields 255 pollution 430–2 membrane potential, resting 60–1, 225
brown adipose tissue 205, 576 pressure effects 415–16 membranes see cell membranes
circulatory systems 159 shorelines and estuaries 444–85
countercurrent multiplication in 96 thermal adaptation 400–8
developmental plasticity in nervous system 255,

257–8
ears 272, 274

memory 254, 255, 261 metachronal rhythm 322, 326 INDEX 737
long-term 261 swimming 330, 332
short-term 261 walking, arthropods 334 locomotion methods 216
storage 381, 381 locusts 640, 641
metalimnion, lakes 491 long-range 651
Mercierella enigmatica (polychaete), nerve function metamorphosis 364–9, 366 maximum distances 216
465 mechanisms 215–17
crustaceans 366 and navigation skills 216
Meridacris spp. (grasshopper), freeze tolerance insects 365–7, 367 nematodes 690–1
668 vertebrates 368–9 parasites 678
methane routes 216
mesencephalic locomotor region 324, 325 frozen 539 scaling effects 45–6
mesencephalon 251 roles, in greenhouse effect 612 tundra animals 656
Mesidotea spp. (crustacean), permeability 459, methyl farnesoate 368 milk
2-methylbutyrate, synthesis 684 composition, terrestrial mammals 592
460 2-methylvalerate, synthesis 684 production 380, 595
mesophilic animals, use of term 549 Metopaulias spp. (crab), in water pools 526
mesotocin 351 MHC see major histocompatibility complex ruminants 608
messenger RNA (mRNA) see mRNA milk ejection 380
metabolic conformers, characteristics 133 (MHC) millipedes
metabolic depression, mechanisms 125 mice
metabolic homeostasis, restoration 473 locomotion, speeds 597
metabolic rates 40–2, 126–33, 203–4 burrows 625, 667 metabolic rates 629
critical arousal temperature 661 terrestrial 548, 564, 588, 589
active 127 feeding 637 tracheae 583
and activity 127–8 kidneys 97, 562 see also centipedes
and ambient temperature 128–9, 203, 205, 581 nest temperatures 574 minerals, unusual, coping strategies 538
and anoxia 473 water loss 669 miniature end-plate potentials 303
and body mass 45, 129, 129–30, 130, 131 water retention 633 miniature postsynaptic potentials 239–40, 242
Michaelis–Menten constant see Km minimum depth of occurrence (MDOC), marine
mass exponents 130 Michaelis–Menten equation 63, 63
and body temperature 202–3, 579 microclimates 547 animals 417
desert animals 628–9, 640 animal effects 546–7 miracidia see flukes
determination 126 beetles 623 Mirounga leonina (seal), migration 657
diving 440 boreal forests 650 mites
ectotherms 371–2 burrows 625
and estivation 638 cold climate 656–7 Antarctic, freeze intolerance 185
factors affecting 133 and coping strategies 566 deserts 623
field 127 deserts 622–3, 635–6, 651 freeze avoidance 654–5
and flight velocity 45 exploitation 198 lifespans 655
high-altitude animals 668 high-altitude habitats 667 polar zones 648
hormonal regulation 369 insects 566, 567, 568 water vapor uptake 564
and osmoregulation 108 lizards 566, 567 see also arachnids; chelicerates; ticks
and oxygen availability 133 plants 546, 547, 566, 587, 605, 622–3 mitochondria
peak, species differences 128, 128 polar habitats 647–8 and aerobic metabolism 132
polar animals 659, 659 snakes 566 cristae 683
scaling 40–2, 129–33 snow 650, 650 density 98, 108, 202
soil effects 544–5 fish, temperature differences 178
environmental implications 42 terrestrial habitats 543–7 muscle 293, 311
and shivering 574 tundra 649
species differences 128 variations 544 flight muscles 339
specific, concept of 41 vegetation effects 546 proton pumps 64
sustained 128 microfauna, characteristics 451 thyroid hormone effects 372
and swimming velocity 44 microfilaments 263, 265 volume densities 132, 202, 403
and torpor 215, 660 microhabitats mitochondrial membrane
see also basal metabolic rate (BMR); maximum and avoidance 198 acyl-CoA transfer 123
selection 13 roles, in lipolysis 122
metabolic rate (MMR); resting metabolic rate users of 13 MMR see maximum metabolic rate (MMR)
(RMR); standard metabolic rate (SMR) microtubules 263, 265 molality, aqueous solutions 53
metabolic regulators, characteristics 133 fish 182 molarity, aqueous solutions 53
metabolic scopes Microtus agrestis (vole), huddling 657 mole rats
concept of 41 midges see chironomids (midges); mosquitoes burrows 625
species differences 128, 128 midgut ectothermy 190, 639
sustained 128 amino acid uptake 65–6 molecular chaperones
metabolic water 107–8 salt uptake 102, 459 roles 21
in food 126 water balance 102 synaptic transmission 236
processes 564 migration see also heat shock proteins (HSPs); stress proteins
production, and metabolic rate determination anadromous 216 moles
126 birds 45–6 burrows 626
metabolism 112–39 cold climate animals 651, 656–7 locomotion 626
energy losses in 134 desert animals 640 molluscs
evolution 112 and evasion 212 active secretion 92
hormonal regulation 370 factors affecting 45 adenosine triphosphate 115
intermediates 112–15 fish 45–6, 124 anoxia resistance 474
resting, allometry 40–1 hormonal regulation 381 body mass, and gill surface area 409
specific, allometry 41 katadromous 216 circulatory systems 155
see also aerobic metabolism/respiration; anaerobic extracellular fluids 497
metabolism/respiration; hypometabolism; feeding 603–4
metabolic rates freshwater, excretory systems 500
metabotropic receptors 240–1, 243, 255

738 INDEX

molluscs (continued) mudflats, estuaries 452–3 organelles 292–3
gait 327 Mus spp. (mouse) phasic 318
gas floats 419 tetanus 318
growth hormones 369 heritability 613 tonic 318
heart 156 kidney 97 twitch 318
larvae 412 see also mice
littoral habitats 451 Musca domestica (fly), blood concentration 553 fast 309, 309, 310, 311
lungs 145 muscarinic receptors 240, 241, 244 slow 309, 309, 310, 311
nervous system 249, 251 muscle 223, 290–340 summation 318
neurosecretory peptides 347–8 activation 291, 291 type I 311, 311
pelagic, buoyancy mechanisms 417, 418 cardiac (vertebrates) 316–18, 317 type IIA 311, 311
reproduction 373 cells type IIB 311, 311
salt uptake 84 muscle lactate dehydrogenase (M4-LDH),
size 36 equilibrium potentials 60
smooth muscle 314 solute composition 71 occurrence 178
species diversity 452 excitation/contraction coupling 303–6, 307 muscle spindles 320, 321
terrestrial 548, 587–8, 596, 603–4 function, and ion levels 463–5 muscle stretch receptors 320–1, 321
ultrafiltration 89 heat production 202, 211, 574 muscular activity
urine concentrations 499 heater organs 406
water loss, tolerance 79–80 locomotion 325–40 involuntary see shivering
water uptake, hormonal regulation 361 mechanics 305–11 voluntary 204, 300–6
see also bivalves; cephalopods; gastropods; snails efficiency 307 mussels
power output 305–10 colors 468
molt-accelerating hormone 368 variations in performance 310–11 dislodgment 477
molt-inhibiting hormone 349, 368 work 305–10 energy budgets 138, 139
molting work loop studies 307–8, 309 gaping 473
mitochondria 311 kidney 400
crustaceans 368 organization 311 limiting factors 485
insects 365–7, 367 phosphagens 114 membranes 57
suppression 695 protein isoforms 311 osmoconformity 457, 464
vertebrates 368 scaling 43 temperature changes 468
Moniliformis spp. (acanthocephalan) smooth 291, 312, 312–14, 315 volume regulation 464, 497
and cestodes 704 striated 291, 315–16 see also bivalves; molluscs; Mytilus spp.
parasitism 683 structure 291–8
monkeys, digestion 608 gross anatomy 212, 291–2 (bivalve)
monogeneans see flukes myofibrils 292, 293–6 mustard oils see glucosinolates
montane animals 664–73 thermal acclimation 404, 503 mutualism see symbiosis
montane habitats 663–6 tissues Mya arenaria (bivalve), amino acids 74
Montreal Protocol (UN) (1987) 614 equilibrium potentials 60 mycoplasmas, size 36
mortality rates, and energy budgets 138 solute compositions 71 myelin 224, 230–1
mosquitoes, mouthparts 686 types 312, 312–18 myelin sheath 233
see also Aedes spp. (mosquito); Anopheles spp. see also actin; flight muscles; myosin myofibrils 292, 293–6
muscle contraction 14, 291, 298 –305
(mosquito); Culex spp. (mosquito) acetylcholine effects 32 A (thick) filaments 293, 295–6, 298
moss cushions, aquatic habitats 527–9 ATP hydrolysis 114, 299, 300–1, 309–10 cross-bridges 294–5, 295
mosses, deserts 623 calcium 31, 303, 304 cytoskeletal proteins 296, 297
moths regulatory mechanisms 314 filament spacing 296, 296
cross-bridge formation 300, 301 H zone 294, 298
and diapause 218 calcium ions 303, 304 I (thin) filaments 293, 298
feeding 636 experimental evidence 301, 302–3 M line 295, 296
olfactory receptors 277 mechanics 306, 309 organization 311
pheromones 601 molecular sequence 300–3 protein components 294, 303
shivering 575 energy consumption 309–10 striation 293
toxins 702 excitation–contraction coupling 303–5, 304, Z line 293, 296–7, 304
tympanic organs 273 myogenic muscle 314
water gain (larvae) 108 307 myoglobins 168
see also butterflies; silkmoths force–velocity relationship 307–9, 308 cell diffusion 168
motilin 357 as oxygen store 168
motor control 318–25, 325 fish myotomes 331–2, 333 structure 163
motor cortex 324 frequency 306 myosin 291, 293, 294
motor neurons 318–19, 319 initiation 303–5 activity 178
motor unit 318 isometric 307, 308 adaptation 402
mountain ranges isotonic 307, 308 ATPase activity 300, 309–11
characteristics 664 length–tension relationship 302, 302, 307 cross-bridge formation 294–5, 300, 301,
floral patterns 665 metabolic pathways 33
formation 663 regulation 303–5 302–3
geological instability 664 sliding filament theory 298–303 filaments in sarcomere 294–5, 295
global distribution 663 strain 306 heavy chains 294, 312
temperatures 664 tension (force/unit area) 306, 309, 310 isoforms 311
vegetation 664 tetanus 309, 309 light chains 294, 312
mouthparts, blood feeding parasites 686 tonic 303 muscle contraction regulation 312, 313
movement 290–1 twitch 309, 309 smooth muscle 312
see also locomotion structure 294–5, 295
mRNA summation 309, 310 thermal acclimation 404, 503
binding 181 muscle fibers 291, 292, 292, 293–4 see also actin; muscle
roles 21 myosin light chain kinase 312
fish myotomes 331–2, 332 myotactic reflexes 320
motor innervation 318–19 myotomes 331

Myrmecocystus spp. (ant) mouthparts 686 INDEX 739
food storage 637 nervous system 247
water loss 632 neurohormones 347 neurohypophysis 351
nutrient absorption 685 neuroligins 239
Mytilus spp. (bivalve) occurrence 650, 675 neuromasts 270, 271
aminopeptidase-I 462 oil habitats 534 neuromodulators 237, 241
body temperature, changes 468 osmotic adaptation 681 neuromotor systems 318–25, 325
color changes 468 respiration 682, 683 neuromuscular blocking drugs, shivering mediation
conformity 457 superoxide dismutase secretion 702
energy budgets 138, 139, 139 surface antigen turnover 703 204–5
environmental changes, smoothing 466 terrestrial 548 neuromuscular junction 254, 292, 297–8, 300
growth rates, and heterozygosity 138 in terrestrial habitats 688
kidney 401 thermal adaptation 681 acetylcholine receptors 298, 300
limiting factors 485 nemertines end-plate potential 303
metabolic neurohormone 370 cerebral organs 347 miniature end-plate potential 303
osmoconformation 464 larvae 412 neuronal integration 244
see also mussels terrestrial 557, 558, 587, 596 neuronal oscillators 322, 323
Neoceratodus spp. (lungfish) neurons 223–4
NAD see nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) lungs 507 afferent (sensory) 247
NADH see nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide urea production 502 conduction 225–6
neocortex 252 connectivity 262–3
(reduced) (NADH) neonates, thermal regulation 593 development 261–6
NADH-Q reductase, electron transfer 119 nephridia 89, 499, 557 efferent (motor) 247, 318–19, 319
Nanomia spp. (cnidarian), gas floats 420, 420 structure 557, 558 maintenance 263–6
Nanorchestes antarcticus (mite) ultrafiltration 89, 91 pacemaker 230, 322, 323
nephrons pioneer 262
freeze avoidance 654 functions 94–5 polarization/depolarization 226–8, 227, 229
occurrence 648 refractory phase 228
nasal epithelium 277 birds 562 types 224
nasal heat exchange 104–5, 220, 583, 583, 635, 643, freshwater fish 500, 502 see also nerves
mammals 562 neuropeptides 237–40, 345
644 marine fish 434, 435 neurotensin 357
see also countercurrents; turbinates structure 95 neurotransmitters 223, 233–4, 237–9, 239, 343
nasal salt glands 435, 562, 633 Nereis spp. (polychaete) amines 237, 240
Natica spp. (gastropod), littoral habitats 451 hyperosmotic regulation 457 amino acids 237
natural killer (NK) cells, roles 698 oxygen consumption 143 degradation/recycling 242–3
natural selection permeability 457–9 gases 238
concepts 4 Nernst equation 59, 60, 266 peptides 237–8
and genotypic variation 4 Nerodia sipedon (snake), thermal regulation
and optimality 7 amino acid sequences 241
and thermal environments 178 503–4 postsynaptic receptors 240–1
Nautilus spp. (cephalopod) 149 nerve growth factor 262 release 234–5, 236–7, 238
gas floats 419 nerve nets 247, 247, 248 roles 32
Navanax inermis (gastropod), trail pheromones nerves 223–90 neurulation 262
neutrophils, roles, in adaptive immunity 701
427 enzyme regulation 177 newts, male sexual physiology 376
navigation, and migration 216 equilibrium potentials 60 nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)
nebulin 296 functional aspects 223–32 catalysis 117
Necator americanus (nematode) proton transfer 119
and ion levels 463–5 regeneration 117
host entry 691 and osmotic dilution 465 nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (reduced)
life cycle 689 roles 109
Nectophrynoides spp. (frog), reproductive strategies (NADH)
in thermal biology regulation 217 hydrogen donation 121
590 solute compositions 71 oxidation 473, 683
negative feedback see also neurons synthesis 119
nervous systems 223, 247–54 nicotine
hormonal control systems 386 autonomic 248 excretion 605
hypothalamic releasing hormones 354 bilateral 247–8, 248, 249 occurrence 604
mechanisms 33 evolution 247–8 nicotinic receptors 240, 244, 255
nekton, use of term 396 higher neural processes 254–61 regulation 257
nematodes neural integration 254–61 ninhydrin positive substances (NPS), changes 74
and adaptive immunity 699–700 neural plasticity 255, 257–8 Nippostrongylus spp. (nematode)
antigen changes 703 segmentation 248–9, 250 acetylcholinesterase excretion 687
circulatory systems 155 somatic 248 and adaptive immunity 699–700
desert 623, 624, 638 nests antigen changes 703
eggs 688, 689, 692, 693 birds 593 NIS see nonindigenous species (NIS)
feeding strategies 685 desert ants 636, 636 nitrates, pollution 520
guinea worm 688 desert spiders 635–6 nitric oxide (NO) 238–9, 359, 360
heat shock proteins 681 termites 636 as signaling molecule 32, 238
host defense exploitation 703 neural crest 262 nitrogen
host tissue modification 694 neural integration 254–61 excretion 100–1
intermediate hosts 682 neural plasticity 255, 257–8 in plants 603
intestinal distribution 692 neural tube 262 solubility 144
life cycles 682, 688, 689 neurofilaments 263, 265 nitrogen oxides, and acidification 615
locomotion 596 neurogenesis 261–2 NK cells see natural killer (NK) cells
malate dismutation 684 neurohormones 343, 344 NMDA receptors 240, 242, 260
metabolism 682, 683 NO see nitric oxide (NO)
migration 690–1
molting 368

740 INDEX Ocymyrmex barbiger (ant), upper critical gazelles 643
temperatures 628 iguanas 468
nociceptors, localization 170 insects 567
nodes of Ranvier 231, 234 Ocypode spp. (crab) nests 636
noncolligative cryoprotectants, occurrence 184 communication systems 600 see also posture, and temperature
nonindigenous species (NIS), invasions 483, 524 reproductive strategies 588 ornithine cycle 101
nonshivering thermogenesis (NST) water uptake 564 Ornithorhynchus anatinus (platypus), insulation

and brown adipose tissue 661 odorant-binding proteins 274, 277 668
mechanisms 205, 215 Oestrus ovis (fly), maggots, parasitism 677 orogenesis, mechanisms 663
occurrence 204–5, 505, 575, 629, 661 oils
terrestrial endotherms 575 see also mountain ranges
see also brown adipose tissue (BAT) habitats 534 Orthocladius spp. (midge), in lakes 492
noradrenaline see norepinephrine increase, and buoyancy 419 Orthoporus spp. (millipede)
norepinephrine 237, 355 pollution 430–1, 482
activity 33 Okanagodes gracilis (cicada), evaporative cooling metabolic rates 629
binding 32 rectal tissue 564
cardiac muscle regulation 317–18 639 water vapor uptake 634
roles, in lipolysis 122 olfaction 274–7 orthopterans
sodium pump regulation 360 olfactory bulb 277 desert 623, 629, 631
see also catecholamines; epinephrine olfactory epithelium 277 jumping 597
norm of reaction see reaction norm olfactory glomeruli 277 spermatophylax 589
nostril flies, parasitism 677 olfactory organs 277 see also grasshoppers; locusts
Notomys spp. (rodent) Oryx beisa (gazelle), strategies 641–3
kidney 97, 98 fish 427 osmoconforming 12, 77, 432–3, 464, 499
loop of Henle 562 see also chemical senses osmolality, aqueous solutions 53–4
water retention 633 olfactory receptors 276–7 osmolarity, aqueous solutions 53–4
Notoplana (flatworm), nervous system 247, 248 oligochaetes osmolytes
Notothenia spp. (fish) circulatory systems 155 compensatory 73
antifreeze glycoprotein 437 respiration 507 in desert animals 633
membranes 181 see also Alma spp. (oligochaete); earthworms; in freshwater animals 496–7
specific dynamic action 137 in marine animals 77
NST see nonshivering thermogenesis (NST) Lumbricus spp. (oligochaete) see also amino acids; osmotic effectors
nucleic acids, processing 25–6 oligodendrocytes 224, 230, 233 osmoreceptors 274
nutrients OML see oxygen minimum layer (OML) osmoregulation 76–110
comparisons 126 ommatidia 282, 284, 284 cellular 61–74, 462
direct absorption 537, 685 Onchocerca spp. (fluke) costs 108–9
in estuaries 452–3 countercurrent multiplication 94
in lakes 492 parasitism 691 cryptozoic animals 557
in milks 592, 592 superoxide dismutase secretion 702 endoparasites 680–1
in oceans 432 onychophorans estuarine animals 455–66
in plants 606, 607 excretory organs 560 and excretion 88–102
in rivers 489 locomotion 596 external body surfaces 84–7
in terrestrial systems 543 terrestrial 548 freshwater animals 495–503
in thermally extreme waters 537 tracheae 147, 583 hormonal regulation 360–3
Onymacris spp. (beetle) littoral animals 455–66
oases, vegetation 623 activity patterns 627 marine animals 396–7
oceans color changes 629, 630 mechanisms 61–74, 76–110, 457–66
metabolic rates 629 parasites 680–1
chemistry of 393 sun–shade shuttling 626 strategies 456–8
cold, and dilute body fluids 436–7 water loss 631 terrestrial animals 552–65
communication systems 428–9 water uptake 633 see also ion balance; ionic adaptation; water
currents 394 wax blooms 631
see also beetles, desert; tenebrionid beetles balance
patterns 394 operant conditioning 259 osmoregulatory organs, excretory products 88–102
extent 393 operators, localization 23 osmoregulatory systems
high pressures, coping strategies 536–7 operons, regulatory mechanisms 23
high temperatures, coping strategies 536–7 Operophtera spp. (moth), body temperature 566 mechanisms 88–102
light attenuation 423 Opsanus spp. (fish) schematic 87
mean temperatures 403 excretion system 435 osmosensing 274
modern 394 muscle contraction 305 osmosis
photic zones 423, 423 opsins 278 membranes 57–8
productivity 395 optimality, and natural selection 7
salinity 398 Oreamnos americanus (goat), insulation 668 semipermeable 58
temperature gradients 402 Oreochromis grahami (fish) see also water uptake
thermal environments 400–1 acidosis 534 osmotic biology
see also marine habitats urea 533–4 avoidance in 77–9
ocelli 282 organ of Corti 272, 273 conformity in 77–9
octapeptides, occurrence 125 organochlorines, pollution 520, 617 regulation in 77–9
octopamine 237, 314 organophosphates, pollution 617 tolerance in 77–9
in insect flight 125 organs osmotic concentrations 54, 54
octopine, synthesis 117, 473 blood supply 158 of cells 70, 400, 471
Octopus spp. (cephalopod) regulatory 557–63 and freezing 184, 471
direct development 414 orientation and temperature freshwater animals 499
kidney 401 birds 644 in kidneys 96–7
locomotion 326, 327 desert beetles 631 in parasitic habitats 681
endotherms 576 of salt lakes 530
freshwater animals 503–4

INDEX 741

of sea water 400 freshwater animals 507 desert animals 640
on shores 455 and heat production 126 disadvantages 211–12
terrestrial animals 552, 553, 564 mammals 41 dogs 580
osmotic effectors mass-specific 131–2 lizards 573
roles 72 mechanisms 211–12
solutes as 73–4 mammals 131 occurrence 211–12, 580
species differences 462 and metabolic rates 133 respiratory patterns 213
use of term 462 and pressure 417 see also cooling; respiratory evaporative water loss
see also amino acids; glycerol and running velocity 43
ospreys, body mass vs. latitude 620 temperature coefficients 177 (REWL)
Osteopilus septentrionalis (frog), jumping 599 oxygen demand, and body mass 132 PAr see phosphoarginine (PAr)
ostracods, kidney 401 oxygen equilibrium curves 164, 165, 167 paracrine communication 343, 343
ostrich see Struthio camelus (ostrich) see also oxygen, affinity parafollicular cells (C-cells) 357
Otala spp. (snail) oxygen minimum layer (OML) 408, 409 Paralvinella spp. (polychaete), sulfide-binding
estivation 638 oxygen partial pressures (Po2) 142
permeability 555 and burrowing 625 proteins 537
otoliths 271 determination 144 paramyosin 315
otters oxygen regulators, characteristics 142 Parartemia spp. (crustacean), habitats 530
insulation 658 oxygen stores, temporary 472 parasite habitats 677–80
and polluted environments 521 oxygen uptake
ouabain, effects on sodium pumps 63–4 desert beetles 635 blood 677, 678
outgroup comparisons 7, 8 endoparasites 682 components 677
ovary maturing parsin 373 fur animals 505 guts 678
overheating littoral animals 472 microenvironments 678
problems 467–70 mammals 509 and parasite speciation 680
responses 84, 207, 209–11, 467–70, 566–7, 572, marine animals 408–9 respiratory systems 677
parasites 682 skins 677
644, 658–9, 668 respiratory systems 105, 144–9 tissues 678
see also behavior, thermal effects sites, switching 472 parasite–host relationships see host–parasite
Ovibos spp. (ox), feeding 649 and specific dynamic action 136
oviparity, control 595 terrestrial animals 583 relationships
oviposition see also respiration parasites
chemical cues 605 oxytocin 351, 379, 386
crabs 588 milk ejection 380 adaptations 676
deterrents 604 parturition 380 amino acid biosynthesis 685
freshwater insects 589 ozone anaerobic respiration, pathways 685
and microclimate 106, 655 depletion 614–15, 663 antienzyme release 687
Thermobia spp. 568 stratospheric, decline 615 antigen changes 703
Ovis spp. (sheep), feeding 649 UV-B absorption 141 blood feeding, mouthparts 685, 686
ovulation 376, 378, 379 chemical warfare between 704
terrestrial vertebrates 595 P50 167 620 cuticles 687
ovulatory (estrous) cycle 376, 378, 379 bird embryos 591 distribution, factors affecting 680
owls, burrowing, acidosis tolerance 586 carnivores 670 eggs 688–9, 692
oxaloacetate littoral animals 472 energy sources, carbohydrates 683
and Krebs cycle 119 mammals, altitude comparisons 670 feeding 678, 684–8
metabolism 684 in parasites 682 and fevers 220
reduction 683 vent animals 538 heat shock proteins 681
oxyclines, lakes 491 see also respiratory pigments host behavior modification 695–6
oxygen host-like molecule synthesis 703
affinity 164 P-450 aromatase, roles 592 host physiology regulation 694–6
P-ATPases immunosuppressant release 703
crabs 472 infection routes 688–90
marine animals 410 evolution 65 ionic adaptation 680–1
modulation 165–8 proton pumps 64 larval stages, problems 681
pigments 164, 166 P-glycoprotein 266 life cycles, environmental changes 681
atmospheric P product, use of term 560 lifespans 688
accumulation 141 pacemaker neurons 230, 322, 323 migration 678
history 112, 113 Pacinian corpuscle 269, 269 movement between hosts 688–90
patterns 142 Pagothenia borchgrevenki (fish), antifreeze occurrence 676
availability, factors affecting 141–2, 142, 408, osmotic adaptation 680–1
glycoprotein 437 permeability 680–1
471 PAH see para-aminohippuric acid (PAH) physiological tolerance 677
delivery 163–4, 585 Palaeomonetes spp. (crustacean) reproduction 677, 678, 688–93
profiles, lakes 506 respiratory adaptation 683
solubility 144 hyposmotic regulation 459 senses 692–4
storage 168 hypoxia, responses 473 settling sites, detection 688
oxygen conformers, characteristics 141–2 salinity tolerance 466 speciation 680, 680
oxygen consumption tolerance 79 surface antigen turnover 703
bats 661 palms, occurrence 623 temperature sensitivity 681
and body mass 131 Palola viridis (polychaete), larvae 414 thermal adaptation 681–2
determination 126 pancreatic hormones 357–8 transmission 688, 691–2
and diving 440–1 pancreatic polypeptide 357 water balance 680–1
and fasting 135–6 Pandion haliaetus (bird), body mass vs. latitude see also ectoparasites; endoparasites; flukes;
fish 417 panting
advantages 211 host–parasite conflicts; host–parasite
birds 580, 644 relationships; nematodes; parasitoids;
tapeworms

742 INDEX

parasitic flies pericardium, invertebrates 156 mating behavior 382–4
blood feeding 685 Periophthalmus spp. (crab), breathing modes 473 copulation 383
immunologically privileged sites 702 Peripatus (onychophoran), locomotion 329 courtship 383
occurrence 676 Periplaneta spp. (cockroach) postnatal care 383
see also flies; mosquitoes; nostril flies reproductive synchrony 383–4
resorptive epithelium 93
parasitic habitats 675–705 sequestration 101 odor plume 382, 383
parasitic wasps perissodactyls 608, 609 olfactory receptors 277
peristalsis 326 in sex change 476
detoxification mechanisms 702 permafrost, occurrence 648 as sexual attractants 427, 588, 594, 601
host habitat effects 681 permeability terrestrial animals 588, 600–1
occurrence 676 acclimatory changes 84, 109, 461
parasitism brackish-water animals 458–9 functions 601
as contramensalism 675 cell membranes 56–8, 220 territorality 384
and immune responses 697 cryptobiotic animals 528 trail 384
occurrence 675 cuticles 80–1, 564 Philaenus spp. (bug), energy budgets 138
and predation compared 675 desert animals 631, 632, 640 phloem, excretion 606
and sex evolution 705 and diffusion 55 Pholas spp. (bivalve), boring 478
and species diversity 680 freshwater animals 496 phosphagens
use of term 675 ionic 84, 459 as adenosine triphosphate precursors 113–14
parasitoids kidney tubule 109, 362–3 in flight muscles 125
host defense suppression 703 marine animals 400 hydrolysis 654
host manipulations 695 and osmosis 57 roles, in metabolism 113–15
idiobiont 695 parasites 680–1 structure 114
koinobiont 695 selective 59–60 phosphates
use of term 675 skins 82, 82–3, 554 hormonal regulation 364
parathyroid glands 355–7 terrestrial animals 555, 556, 557 inorganic, synthesis 112, 113
parathyroid hormone 357 see also cell membranes; ion channels; water loss; organophosphates 617
calcium balance regulation 364 pollution 520
phosphate balance regulation 364 water permeability phosphatidyl cholines, structure 57
Pardosa spp. (spider) pernicious anaemia 687 phosphoarginine (PAr) 310
life cycles 670 Perognathus longimembris (mouse), critical arousal hydrolysis 654
montane habitats 664 resting levels 473
parental care temperature 661 structure 114
insects 595 pesticides, pollution 520, 617 phosphocreatine (PCr) 310
large desert endotherms 657 Petrolisthes spp. (crab), breathing modes 473 concentration 115
pheromones 383 PFK see phosphofructokinase (PFK) hydrolysis 654
partial pressures 142 pH roles 115
in air bubbles 510 structure 114
at altitude 670 and blood temperature 166 phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase
critical 142, 143 homeostasis 603 catalysis 683
of oxygen 103–4, 144, 164, 409, 473 hormonal regulation 363–4 roles 684
in respiratory systems 144 levels, effects on oxygen-carrying capacity 165–6 phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)
see also carbon dioxide; oxygen regulatory mechanisms 90, 97, 97 as substrate 474, 684
parturition 380, 380 sensitivity, parasite eggs 693 synthesis 683
parvalbumins 305 soils, and acid rain 615–16 phosphofructokinase (PFK), inhibition 118
“patch clamp” technique 229 thermal responses 178 phospholipase C 274
Patella spp. (gastropod), anaerobic respiration 471 see also acidification activation 30
patterned activity 322, 323 phagocytes 701 inositol triphosphate release 31
Pavlovian (classic) conditioning 259 distribution, in vertebrates 701 phospholipids, fatty acids 178, 181
PCBs see polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) mononuclear 700–1 see also lipids
PCr see phosphocreatine (PCr) phagocytosis, occurrence 67, 697, 698, 700, 701 phosphorylase kinase, subunits 31
PCT see proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) phagostimulants, strategies 605 phosphorylases, activation 177
pedal waves 326–7 phasic receptors 267, 268 phosphorylation
pelago-benthic lifestyles, marine animals 412 phenol red see phenolsulfonphthalein cells 19, 20
penguins phenolsulfonphthalein, as kidney function marker enzymes 34, 177, 660
basking 656 glycogen 125
buoyancy 418 91 mechanisms 125
diving 440 phenotypes, environment–genotype oxidative 119, 121, 203, 406–7
and global warming 662 proteins 19
huddling 657 interrelationships 4 pumps 64, 114
insulation 439, 658 phenotypic modulation see continuous lability receptors 19, 31–2
migration 656 phenotypic plasticity photoreceptors 277–85
occurrence 648 adaptation 278, 280
shivering 574 environmental effects 10, 11 cones 279, 281, 282
size factors 620 factors affecting 10–11 eyes 281
PEP see phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) freshwater animals 513 information processing 282, 287
peptide hormones 344, 344–6, 345 and global warming 613 ocelli 282
prohormone synthesis 344–5 in montane animals 613 pigments 278, 423
see also neuropeptides outcomes 6
Perca fluviatilis (fish), membranes 181 use of term 10 spectral sensitivity 278
perfusion, patterns, control signals 170 see also continuous lability rods 279, 281, 282
Perga spp. (sawfly), cooling 573 Pheretima spp. (oligochaete), nephridia 557 transduction process 278, 279
pericardial organ 349 pheromones 381–6
aggregation 384 insect eyes 282
alarm 384 vertebrate retina 281–2, 282
caste 384
littoral animals 479
marine animals 426–7

photosynthesis, and UV-B radiation 615 energy exchanges 546 INDEX 743
Phyllomedusa spp. (frog) ephemeral 623
evolution 141, 541 temperatures 542
cooling 573 as food sources 141, 480, 515, 566, 602–3, seasonal 646–7
excretory modes 100
permeability 555 604–6, 607, 648, 662, 667 terrestrial animals 648
water permeability 83 freshwater 494 vegetation 648
phylogenetic inertia, use of term 7 and humidity increase 546 see also Antarctic; Arctic; boreal forests; cold
phylogenetic relationships, and adaptation 10 microclimates 546, 547, 566, 587, 605, 622–3
phylogenetic trees nitrogen content 603 habitats; tundra
DNA-derived 8 pitcher 527 polar ice, habitats 538–9
single character distribution effects 9 toxins 604–5 pollution
Physalia spp. (cnidarian), gas floats 419, 420, 420 water pools 526–7
Physeter spp. (whale), migration 217 see also vegetation freshwater habitats 518–21
physoclists plasma, protein contents 162, 162 and disease 521
gas glands 420 see also blood; extracellular fluid (ECF);
swim-bladders 421 marine habitats 430–2
physostomes urine/plasma ratios natural degradation 431
buoyancy mechanisms 421 plastrons shorelines and estuaries 482
gas glands 421 susceptibility, freshwater animals 519, 520
Phytobius spp. (beetle), plastrons 511 in eggs 588 terrestrial habitats 616–17
Pieris spp. (butterfly) freshwater insects 147, 510 polychaetes
chemoreceptors 278 Plathemis spp. (dragonfly), flight muscles 598, bioturbation 450, 451
hemolymph concentration 554 epitoky 368
phagostimulants 605 673 hyperosmosis 457
pigeon platyhelminths larvae 414
color effects 195 locomotion 327
panting 580 blood feeding 685 metamorphosis 368
pigments feeding, direct absorption 685 osmoconforming 464, 465
and aerobic respiration 472 infection routes 688 permeability 458–9
and color 211, 472, 631, 666 larvae, free-swimming 689–91 respiratory system 409
oxygen-carrying 162–5, 166, 473, 507–8, 585, neurohormones 347 spawning 414
reproduction, hormonal regulation 372 ventilation 149
670 size 36 in vents 537
photoreceptors 278, 423 teguments 685 see also annelids
see also flukes; helminths; tapeworms polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), pollution 432,
spectral sensitivity 278 Platyptilia spp. (caterpillar), hemolymph
terrestrial animals 585 520–1
see also color; respiratory pigments; vision concentration 554 polyDNA viruses
pineal gland 360 platypus, electroreceptors 287
pinnipeds, communication systems 428 Plecoma spp. (beetle), body temperature 668 origins 703
Pipa spp. (frog), eggs 590 plutonium parasitic release 703
Pirata spp. (spider), eggs 589 polymorphisms 11
Pista pacifica (polychaetes), hemoglobins 472 destructive power 617 enzymes 26–8, 138, 404, 470, 511
pit organs 285–6, 286 pollution 617 freshwater animals 513, 513
pitcher plants, water pools 527 Po2 see oxygen partial pressures (Po2) genetic 11, 697
pituitary gland 350, 353 Podopus spp. (rodent), reproduction 657 resource 5, 513
anterior lobe 351, 354 Poekilocerus bufonius (grasshopper), evaporative trophic 5, 513
Polymorphus spp. (acanthocephalan), host behavior
hypothalamic regulators 354, 354, 355 cooling 639
hormones 352, 353 Pogonomyrmex rugosus (ant), nests 636 manipulation 696, 696
posterior lobe 351 pogonophorans polyols
PKs see protein kinases (PKs)
placenta 380 direct chemical uptake 430 as cryoprotectants 184
hormones 359 in thermally extreme waters 537–8 as osmotic effectors 74, 633, 668
placental lactogen 380 poikilothermy, use of term 189, 190 synthesis 652
plaice, specific dynamic action 137 point mutation Polypedilum vanderplanki (fly), in puddles 526
plankton genomes 17 Polypodium spp. (cnidarian), parasitic behavior 512
aerial 602 occurrence 26 Polypterus spp. (fish), respiration 507
blooms 454, 482, 512 polar animals 648, 652–62 Polystoma spp. (fluke), life cycle 677
buoyancy mechanisms 417, 419 basking 656, 666 polysubstrate monooxygenase, herbivores 605
diurnal migration 518 countercurrents 659 Pomacea spp. (snail), lungs 145, 150
as food source 429, 430 food supplies 662 Ponder’s R-value 72
in ice 538, 539 freeze avoidance 668 ponds
life cycles 512 freeze tolerance 668 brine 529–32
and pheromones 427 fur 192, 657–8 characteristics 493–4
use of term 396 heat exchangers 210, 658–9 thermal, habitats 538
planktotrophic larvae 414 heat loss 658–9 see also lentic waters
Planocera (flatworm), nerve net 248 huddling 657 pons 251, 253
plant growth, and acid rain 615 metabolic rates 659 population density, species 42
plantigrade posture 334 migration 656–7 Porichthys notatus (fish), bioluminescence 426
plants small ectotherms 651–5 porins, roles 57
attractants 604 thermal tolerance 175, 185, 471 positive feedback, mechanisms 33
chemical defenses 604–5 thermoneutral zones 659 postcommisoure organ 349
polar habitats postgastric fermenters 608–9
deserts 637 albedo 646, 646 postnatal care, pheromones 383
digestion of 606 characteristics 646–7 postprandial thermogenesis, use of term 135
as cold deserts 647 postsynaptic potentials 240, 242
fauna 648 post-tetanic potentiation 245, 245
posture
size factors 620 plantigrade 334
microclimates 647–8 reflexes 320

744 INDEX

posture (continued) in reproduction 595 Pseudothelphusa spp. (crab)
and temperature 208, 219, 576–7, 629–31 roles 436 hemocyanins 165
desert animals 629–31 lungs 145
see also orientation and temperature in vertebrate taxa 385, 386 oxygen-affinity curves 472
unguligrade 334 prolactin-releasing hormone, roles 595
walking/running 334–5 proline Pterocles spp. (bird)
evaporative cooling 639
Potamobius spp. (crayfish), osmoregulation 108 as antifreeze compound 539 hyperthermia tolerance 640
Potamocorbula amurensis (bivalve), invasion 483 as cryoprotectant 184 water carrying 639
Potamonautes warreni (crab), respiration 669 as fuel 126
potassium roles, in aerobic metabolism 125 pterygote insects
pro-opiomelanocortin 354 abundance 551
concentration in cells 60, 70, 71, 400 propionate, synthesis 473, 684 tracheae 583
equilibrium potential 60 proportionality constant, definition 38 see also insects
permeability 60 prosencephalon 251, 252
regulatory mechanisms 90, 399, 460, 500 prostaglandins 285, 345, 359, 360, 387 Ptychadena spp. (frog), eggs 526
renal regulation 363 activity 30 puddles, habitats 526
potassium channels 59–60 precursors 32 pulmonates see gastropods; slugs; snails
blockade 229 regulatory mechanisms 218 pumps (ATPases) see calcium pumps (Ca2+-ATPase);
voltage-gated 227, 228 protein complexes, formation 28
power formulae, concept of 38 protein isoforms hydrogen pumps (H+-ATPase); ion pumps;
predation formation 28 sodium pumps (Na+/K+-ATPase)
in cold climates 655 see also isozymes; polymorphisms Pygospio spp. (polychaete), sediment accumulation
in cold water 404, 426, 444 protein kinase A 255, 257, 276 450, 451
in deserts 637 activation 30, 32, 654 pyrethrum, occurrence 604
in ectotherms 218 roles 30 pyrogens, fever induction 682
and parasitism compared 675 protein kinase C 255, 257, 276, 312 pyruvate
predation avoidance roles 31 carboxylation 119
freshwater animals 517–18 protein kinases (PKs) decarboxylation 683
littoral animals 481 activation 30 removal 117
marine animals 426, 444 cyclin-dependent 19 variations 402
terrestrial animals 643, 662 regulatory mechanisms 19 pyruvate kinase
premotor cortex 324 roles 19 isoenzymes 118
pressure protein phosphatases, regulatory mechanisms roles 474
adaptation, marine animals 415–16 Python spp. (snake)
and altitude 669 19 oxygen consumption 136
colloid osmotic 162 protein synthesis 20–6 shivering 575
in high-altitude habitats 669–70 thermogenic incubation 575
and oxygen consumption 417 effects on protein evolution 26–7
see also blood pressure; critical partial pressure; regulatory mechanisms 21–4 Q10 see temperature coefficients (Q10)
proteins queen substance, roles 595
oxygen partial pressures (Po2); partial and adaptation 17 quiescence, definition 637
pressures allosteric, models 20
pressure receptors 269–70 degradation, regulatory mechanisms 24 r-selection 5
presynaptic inhibition 254–5 encoding 17 desert animals 638
prey, storage 220–1 evolution 26–8 and global warming 614
primary active transport see ion pumps helix-turn-helix motif 22, 22 terrestrial animals 587
primary productivity homeodomain 22
freshwater 492, 506 inactivation 187 rab proteins 233, 235–6
littoral 444, 445, 445, 452 information transfer, from DNA 21 rabbits, adipose tissue 122
marine 394–5 morphology 21 rabphilin 235
terrestrial 543 numbers of, theoretical 21 radiation, global, reduced 646
primates phosphorylation 19 radioimmunoassay 347
color vision 279 receptors 28–9, 33 rainfall
feeding 607 regulatory mechanisms 17
jumping (saltatory locomotion) 337 structural diversity 17 acidic 522–3
pheromones, mate location 383 sulfide-binding 537 as biome determinant 549
Procambarus spp. (crustacean), eyes 514 see also antifreeze proteins (AFPs); G-proteins; and global warming 524
production, energy supply 137–9 Rana spp. (frog)
profundal habitats, lakes 492 gene regulatory proteins; heat shock proteins freeze tolerance 654
progesterone 359 (HSPs); ice-nucleating proteins (INPs); stress glucose levels 654
body temperature regulation 372 proteins occurrence 650
gestation 379 prothoracic gland 348 temperature studies 11
roles, in fetal development 595 prothoracicotropic hormone 348, 365 ureo-osmoconforming 433
progestins 345 protists, in rumen 608 Rangifera spp. (caribou), migration 649
prohormones 344–5 protocerebrum 249 Rapoport’s rule 621
multiple products 354, 354 proton pumps see hydrogen pumps (H+-ATPase) rapsyn 297
signal group 345 protonephridia, structure 499 rays, electroreception 429
projection centers 289 Protopterus spp. (lungfish) RBCs see erythrocytes
prokaryotic cells, membranes 181–2 ammonia excretion 502 reaction norm
prolactin 350, 354, 374 lungs 507 graded 11
gestation 380 proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) 94 use of term 11
in osmoregulation 84, 435, 461 Psammodes spp. (beetle) receptive field 266
fish 361 carbon dioxide loss 635 receptor potential 266
release 595 feeding 637 receptors 28–9, 55, 223, 239–40, 266–8, 346
oxygen uptake 635 on cell membrane 55, 67
pseudogenes, use of term 27 cell signaling 28–9
hormone specificity 346

INDEX 745

postsynaptic 240–1 osmoregulation 86, 435 resting metabolic rate (RMR)
transduction processes 266 permeability 83, 557 definition 127
see also chemoreceptors; electroreception; preferred body temperatures 198 and maximum metabolic rate 219
regional endothermy 190 species differences 128
mechanical senses; photoreceptors; reproduction 414
respiratory receptors; stretch receptors; resting potential 224, 225
thermoreceptors strategies 514, 590 retes see carotid rete; heat exchangers
rectal gills 507, 508 respiratory systems 171 retina 281–2
rectal glands 87, 433 running 44
rectal papillae, terrestrial insects 93, 561 sex determination 375 cell types 281–2, 283
rectum 102–3 sex ratios 591, 591 information processing 288
terrestrial insects 65, 93, 98–9, 362, 531, 561 skins 83 neural arrangements 282, 283
vertebrates 102, 564 temperature-dependent sex determination 10, retinula 282
water uptake 362, 565, 633 reversal potentials 243
see also cryptonephridial system 591 see also ion channels
red blood cells (RBCs) see erythrocytes thermal regulation 208, 213, 371, 570, 571, 572, reverse molecular endocrinology 347
redox potential discontinuity (RPD), use of term 451 REWL see respiratory evaporative water loss
reflectance 639, 666
insects 571 thermal time constants 197, 206 (REWL)
materials 194 thermal tolerance 175, 185, 197 rhabdom 282
see also color torpor 213, 655 Rhagada spp. (snail), estivation 638
reflectances 194 uric acid 103 Rhagoletis spp. (fly), regurgitation 606
reflex arc 320, 320 urine 562 Rhea americana (bird), survival strategies 644
reflexes 320–2 ventilation 150 rheoreception 268
refractometers, applications 54 viviparity 655 rhinoceroses, survival strategies 641
refractory phase 228 water balance 103, 435, 557, 572 Rhinoderma spp. (frog), reproductive strategies
regulatory volume decrease (RVD), mechanisms water loss 557, 572, 573
463 see also dinosaurs; lizards; snakes; tortoises; turtles 590
reindeer, migration 649 resilin 337 Rhodnius spp. (bug), feeding 609
relaxin 380 resins, occurrence 604 rhodopsin 278, 282, 424
renin 358 resistance acclimation, use of term 201
blood volume regulation 363 resistance vessels, use of term 161 absorbance 600
renin–angiotensin system 358, 360 respiration 141–53, 170–3 and bioluminescence 426
reproduction amphibians 171 rhodoquinone, as electron carrier 683
asexual 411–12 bimodal breathers 510–11 rhombencephalon 251
budding 412 discontinuous 584–5 ribosomal RNA (rRNA) see rRNA
cold climate animals 655 rice paddies, characteristics 494
control systems, terrestrial animals 593 silkmoth pupae 585 Riftia pachyptila (pogonophoran)
desert animals 638–9, 643, 657 diving, strategies 440–1 bacteria 538
energy budgets 137–8 freshwater animals 505–11 sulfide-binding proteins 537
energy expenditure 587 gas losses 144–9 Rimicaris exoculata (crustacean), habitats 537
freshwater animals, problems 495 gas solubilities 144 river blindness 521, 691
and gametogenesis 412 gas uptake 144–9 river continuum, concept of 489
hormonal regulation 372–81 high-altitude animals 669–70 rivers 487–90
insects, regulatory mechanisms 593 integration 170 dams 523
parasites 678, 688–93 marine animals 408–11 discharge rates 489
strategies marine vertebrates 440–1 drainage areas 489
brackish-water animals 475 models 153 effluent discharge effects 519
freshwater habitats 511–14 oxygen uptake 144–9 nutrient levels 489
littoral animals 475–6, 587 parasites 677, 682–4 pollution 520–1
marine animals 411–15 shore and estuarine animals 471–3 zonation 488–9
terrestrial animals 587–93 terrestrial animals 171–3, 581–6 RMR see resting metabolic rate (RMR)
in thermally extreme waters 538 terrestrial insects 584–5 RNA
reproductive effort, index of 137 in thermally extreme waters 537 processing 25–6
reproductive synchrony 383–4 and water exchange 103–5 roles 17
reproductive systems, water loss in 105–6 see also aerobic metabolism/respiration; anaerobic synthesis 25
reptiles RNA polymerases
basking 208, 569–70 metabolism/respiration roles 21
blood shunting 572 respiratory alkalosis 169 types of 21
brains 602 respiratory evaporative water loss (REWL) RNA splicing, mechanisms 25, 26
color vision 279 rock pools, microenvironment 470
cuticles 557 desert animals 645 rodents
deserts 624 desert insects 631, 634 basal metabolic rate 10, 41, 626
eggs 106, 107, 592 and evaporative cooling 572 basking 576
evaporative cooling 431 reduction 585 desert 209, 624, 626, 629, 633, 637
excretory systems 103, 137, 563 supplementary 211 digestion 608
freeze tolerance 185 terrestrial animals 80, 81, 581 food storing 637
hearts 157 terrestrial endotherms 580 heat production 577
lungs 150 see also evaporative water loss (EWL)/cooling medulla (kidney) 98
marine 440, 441 respiratory pigments 162–9, 163, 472, 507–9, 585, medulla (loop of Henle) 633
buoyancy mechanisms 417 montane habitats 666
salt glands 435, 435 669–70 thermal tolerance 577, 638
montane habitats 666–7 respiratory quotient (RQ) torpor 190, 214
water gain 637
determination 126 water loss 83
food 126 see also Dipodomys spp. (kangaroo rat); lemmings;
respiratory receptors 170, 442, 507–9
respiratory turbinals, vertebrates 104, 220, 583, mice; mole rats

583, 635
see also nasal heat exchange

746 INDEX

rods 279, 281, 282 littoral animals 462 scrublands, temperate, terrestrial animals 550
receptive fields 281 parasites 691 Scutigera spp. (centipede), locomotion, speeds 597
see also photoreceptors terrestrial animals 561 SDA see specific dynamic action (SDA)
see also osmoregulation sea butterflies, locomotion 327, 327
Romalea spp. (grasshopper) saltatory locomotion 232, 336–7 Sea Empress (ship), pollution 431
cuticles 557 saltbush, as food source 637 sea-ice dwellers 538–9
water loss 635 Salvelinus alpinus (fish), polymorphisms 513, 513 sea slugs
Samia spp. (moth), warm-up recordings 578
Root effects 166, 167 sand-hoppers, littoral habitats 451 direct development 414
rotation, vestibular system response 271–2 sarcoglycans 296 trail pheromones 427
rotifers sarcomere 292, 293, 293–6 sea snakes, reproduction 415
actin filaments 293, 294, 294, 296 sea water
brooding 512 cross-bridges 294–5, 295 carbon dioxide in 408
cryptobiosis 539 myosin filaments 294 –5, 295 composition 396
extracellular fluids 497 organization 311
life cycles 512 patterning of filaments 296, 296 stability 393–4
metamorphosis 368 Sarcophaga spp. (fly), excretory modes 101 density 52, 415
pheromones 427 sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) 292, 296–7, 298, 299 freezing 52
roughage see cellulose calcium accumulation 304 oxygen in 408
RPD see redox potential discontinuity (RPD) calcium release 304, 406–7 see also marine habitats; oceans
RQ see respiratory quotient (RQ) receptors 31 seafloor methane ice, habitats 539
rRNA, roles 21 T-tubule system triad interface 304–5, 306 seals
rumen 607–8 thermogenesis 406–7 basking 656
ruminants 607–8 satellite DNA, repeats 24 blood distribution 441
running 334–6, 337 scaling blood pressure, patterns 441
scaling of 42–3 allometric 37–40 communication systems 428
terrestrial arthropods 597 analyses 39 heat loss 658–9
terrestrial vertebrates 598 animals, issues 36–47 huddling 657
transport costs 45 concept of 36 insulation 658
velocity, and oxygen consumption 43 ecological density 42 occurrence 648
RVD see regulatory volume decrease (RVD) interpretation problems 40 parasites 681
ryanodine receptors 297, 305, 306 isometric 36–7 reproduction 415
linear 39 see also mammals, marine
Sabella spp. (polychaete), neuronal responses 464 of locomotion 42–5 seas see marine habitats; oceans
Sacculina spp. (crustacean) logarithmic 39 seashores see littoral habitats; shorelines
of metabolic rate 40–2 Sebastolobus spp. (fish), enzymes, pressure sensitivity
host behavior manipulation 696 strides 44
host reproduction modification 695 Scaphiopus spp. (toad) 416
molting suppression 695 burrowing 625 second messengers, roles 30–1, 239, 342, 342
sense organs 692 estivation 638
see also barnacles reproduction 638 see also calcium; cyclic AMP (cAMP)
sacculus, hygrophilic arthropods 560 water loss 633 secondary active transport, mechanisms 65–6
salamanders, walking 598 Sceloporus spp. (lizard) secretin 357
salinity body temperature 566, 667 sediments, coastal 448
global variations 398 color changes 667 segmentation 248–9, 250
littoral habitats, variations 456 Schistocerca spp. (locust)
mixing patterns 397 digestion 606 metachronal rhythms in locomotion 322
tidal variations 453 migration 640–1, 641 command interneurons 322
salinity tolerance 465 Schistosoma mansoni (fluke)
ectoparasites 681 anaerobic respiration 682 vertebrate neural organization 250, 251, 252
flukes 681 eggs 678 selection
isopods 469 endorphins, secretion 703
salivary glands hiding strategies 703 and environments 4–5
roles 102 host antigen incorporation 703 types of 5, 6
ticks 103 host defenses 702 see also A-selection; K-selection; natural selection;
water uptake 87, 564, 638 host reproduction modification 695
Salmo spp. (fish) larvae 689–90, 692 r-selection
thermal tolerance 504 life cycle 678–9, 679, 684 selective adhesion 262
tolerance polygons 201 respiration 683 semelparity, occurrence 5, 414
salmonids skin penetration 691 Semibalanus spp. (crustacean)
in lakes 492 schreckstoff phenomenon, fish 384, 385, 427, 515
parasites 681 Schwann cells 224, 230, 233 occurrence 484
salt excretion, and hyperosmotic regulation 84–6 see also myelin pheromones 427
see also osmoregulation scolopidia 274, 276 see also barnacles
salt glands scorpions semicircular canals 271–2
function 86 burrows 625 seminal fluid, buffering 595
hypersaline animals 531 sense organs 268–90
marine birds 435 temperatures 623 multireceptor systems 268
marine tetrapods 86, 435, 436 deserts 624 receptor topography 268
eggs 589 spatial topography of central connections 288, 289
performance 435 energy budgets, seasonal 628 see also receptors
terrestrial vertebrates 100, 563, 633 locomotion 597 senses 265–8
see also rectal glands water loss 631 freshwater animals 514–15
salt lakes 529–32, 531, 531 see also arachnids littoral animals 479–80
salt marshes, estuaries 453 marine animals 423–9
salt uptake parasites 692–4
freshwater animals 84, 496–7 terrestrial animals 599–602
herbivores 603–4 see also chemical senses; electroreception;

magnetoreception; mechanical senses;
photoreceptors; thermoreceptors; vision
sensitization 259, 259
sensorimotor integration neurons 290

INDEX 747

sensory adaptation 268 mechanisms 204–5 mating behavior 594
sensory coordination, terrestrial animals 602 mediation 204 pedal waves 326–7
sensory receptors 265–8 terrestrial endotherms 574–5 pheromones 427
see also nonshivering thermogenesis (NST) reproductive strategies 587
accessory structures 266 shore height, vs. burrow depth 470 terrestrial 558–9, 559, 596, 603–4
adaptation 268 shorelines water loss, tolerance 79
comparative aspects 287, 288 beaches, sorting 450 see also gastropods; sea slugs; snails
dynamic range 266, 267 exposure 448 small nuclear ribonucleoproteins, roles 26
information processing 287–90, 289 food supplies 445 smell sensation (olfaction) 274–7
marine habitats 444–85 smooth muscle 291, 312, 312–14, 315
convergence 288 rocky, biota patterns 448–9 invertebrates 314
divergence 288 sandy
lateral inhibition 288–9 catch state 314–15, 315
peripheral feedback 289 biota patterns 449–51 myogenic 314
spatial patterning 288 grain size 449 vertebrates 314
multireceptor systems in sense organs 268 zonation 448
range fractionation 268 see also coastlines; littoral habitats latch state 314, 315
signal averaging 268 shrimps multiunit 314
phasic 267, 268 egg care 476 single-unit 314
receptive field 266 hemolymph, oxygen-binding curves 410 SMR see standard metabolic rate (SMR)
receptor potential (generator potential) 266 respiratory pigments 411 snails
saturation range 266, 267 see also crustaceans desert 627, 630, 633, 637, 638
subthreshold range 266, 267 shunt vessels 161, 577 estivation 638
tonic 267, 268 in aquatic endotherms 209, 510 excretory modes 100, 558–9
transduction processes 266 and blood distribution 209, 572, 577, 668 freshwater, temperature balance 505
amplification 266 signaling growth rates 476
sensory systems 266–8 extracellular 32 herbivory 603–4
Sepia spp. (cephalopod) intracellular 28–9 hermaphroditism 373, 383
cuttlebone 420 see also chemical signaling; hormones; neurons; as intermediate hosts 682
gas floats 419 locomotion 596
sulfate levels 417 pheromones; receptors; transduction pedal waves 326–7
serotonin (5-HT) 237, 255 silage, pollution, freshwater habitats 519 lungs 145, 150, 582
adenyl cyclase activation, in parasites 683 silkmoths parasites 695
command network regulation 322 permeability 554–5
effects diapause 369 respiratory sites 507
on spawning 512 pupae, discontinuous respiration 585 shells 194, 638
on water balance 109, 512 see also butterflies; lepidopterans; moths sperm release 595
Sesarma spp. (crab), in water pools 527 similarity, principle of 36–7 temperature balance 505
sewage pollution simple eyes 280, 281–2 terrestrial 554–5, 558–9, 587–8, 596, 603–4
freshwater habitats 519 Simulium spp. (fly), station-keeping mechanisms uric acid secretion 101
marine 431, 432 water loss, tolerance 79, 572
sex change 514 see also gastropods; slugs
littoral animals 476 sinus gland 349 snakes
marine animals 413 sinus venosus, vertebrates 157 basking 652
sex determination 375, 591 Siphonaria spp. (snail), metabolism 471 burrows 626
mechanisms 10, 592 siphonophores, buoyancy mechanisms 418, 420 epidermis 557
sex evolution, and parasitism 705 Sipunculus spp. (worm), hemoglobin levels 472 heat sensors 602
sex hormones 372–81 sizes of animals 36, 36–47 incubation 575
see also estrogens; progesterone locomotion 626, 626
sex ratios, reptiles 591, 591 and aquatic locomotion 422 microclimates 566
sexual attractants, pheromones 381–6, 427, 588 determinants 45–6 oxygen consumption 136
sexual characters in extreme terrestrial habitats 620 as predators 637
primary 375 and gas exchange 142 respiration problems 511
secondary 375 and kidney design 98 sea, reproduction 415
sharks and metabolic rates 129–33 shivering 575
body fluids 433 and migration 216, 216 thermoreceptors (pit organs) 285–6, 286
brains 602 optimal 45–6 viviparity 655
buoyancy mechanisms 419 and thermal strategies 190, 204, 218, 469, 580–1 water uptake 633
electroreception 429 skins see also reptiles
endothermy, regional 406 color 194, 211, 629–31 SNAP-25 235
pressure variations 415 ectoparasites 677 SNARE complexes 235, 238
thermoreceptors 286 as exchange surfaces 80–4, 86, 137, 147, 194, snow
see also elasmobranchs albedo 662
shells 399, 459, 499, 572 burrows 668
and buoyancy 419 layers 81, 83 melting, and pH 523
and burrowing 477 as parasite habitats 677 microclimates 650, 650, 662, 668
and heat loss 194, 467, 575 parasitic penetration 691 thermal conductivity 648
in littoral animals 78, 457, 467 permeability 58, 82, 83, 84, 147, 435, 554, 569 sociality
microstructures 477 respiratory systems 147, 171, 441, 473, 507 in desert animals 639
permeability 83 structure 82–3, 556 and endothermy 208, 566
see also eggs terrestrial animals 554–7 in extreme habitats 639
shivering 204–5 thermal conductance 206 insect pheromones 384
and arousal 215, 661 water uptake, hormonal regulation 361 and nests 589
birds 574 see also cuticles; epithelia parental care 595
and heat production 203–5 sleeping sickness 703 thermoregulation 577
sloths, digestion 608
slugs
hermaphroditism 373
lungs 582

748 INDEX

soda lakes 531, 533–4 species squirrels, torpor 660, 660, 662
sodium comparisons, hypothesis testing 8 SR see sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
interactions 675 standard metabolic rate (SMR)
influx, brackish-water animals 461 population density 42
permeability 84, 458, 461, 496 see also nonindigenous species (NIS) definition 127
renal regulation 363 measurement, problems 127
transport 85 species diversity starvation, desert animals, coping strategies 629
sodium channels 32, 59–60, 109, 230, 460–1 deserts 623–4 statocysts 269, 269, 271
blockade 229 estuarine habitats 452 mechanisms 427
voltage-gated 227, 227, 228 freshwater habitats 494–5 statolith 269
montane habitats 666 stemmata 282
neuromuscular junction 297 and parasitism 681 Stenocara spp. (beetle), sun–shade shuttling
sodium chloride terrestrial animals 550–2
tundra animals 649 626
dissociation 54 Steno’s gland 583
levels, in teleosts 437 specific dynamic action (SDA) stenothermal, use of term 191
resorption 90 definition 135 stenotherms 565, 613
sodium concentrations and diets 136 stereocilia 270
in body fluids 400, 461 and oxygen uptake 136
in cells 70, 71, 400 auditory sensors 272, 274
effects 73 specific metabolic rate, concept of 41 Sterna paradisaea (bird), migration 656
in hemolymph 461 sperm, transfer systems, terrestrial insects 589 steroid hormones 344, 344, 345
in salt glands 435 Spermophilus parryi (squirrel), torpor 660
in seawater 400 Sphincterochila spp. (snail) adrenal glands 355
sodium equilibrium potential, determination 60 androgenic–estrogenic ratios 591
sodium pumps (Na+/K+-ATPase) 63 – 4, 72, 84, 92, color 629, 630 binding 29
daily rhythms 627 nuclear receptors 345
114, 225, 400, 461, 465, 497, 511, 531, 560, estivation 638 roles 436
645 feeding 637 types 345
electrogenic 63 water loss 633 steroid sex hormones 359, 372, 374, 375
electroneutral 63 Sphyraena spp. (fish), lactate dehydrogenase 404 stick insects, water vapor uptake 634
electrophoretic 63 spiders stickleback, male sexual physiology 376
mechanisms 20, 63 air bubbles 510, 510 still waters see lentic waters
photoreceptors 278 book lungs 582 stomachs
protein kinase regulation 360 burrows 625 acidification 64
sodium uptake 65, 86, 92, 95, 460, 461, 603 desert 624, 635–6, 637, 638 in mammals 607–8, 608
soil animals eggs 589 parasites in 678, 682
abundance 551, 551, 569 freshwater 510, 510 ruminants 607–8, 608
excretory systems 557 jumping 597 temperature 406
soils life cycles 670 Stomoxys calcitrans (fly), blood feeding 685
acidification 615–16 locomotion 626, 626 storks, leg, skin temperature 579
biomass 551, 551 stratification
deserts 621 hydrostatic legs 329 lakes 491, 492–3
diffusivity 545 montane habitats 664 lentic waters 490
diurnal temperatures 544 prey storage 220 stress proteins
effects on microclimates 544–5 water uptake 86, 564 thermal induction 182–3
humidity profiles 546 see also arachnids see also heat shock proteins (HSPs); molecular
properties 545 spiracles 147
temperature profiles 546 closure 171–2, 172, 584 chaperones
thermal conductivity 545 stress responses 371, 372
water retention 545 mechanisms 172
solanine, occurrence 604 control 583–4 corticosteroids 381
solute movements directional effects 150, 584 stretch receptors 108, 479, 685
extracellular pathways 68 in parasites 682 striated muscle 291, 315–16
nonpassive movements 61–70 variations 584 strides, scaling 44
paracellular movements 68 and water loss 583–4, 634 strombine, synthesis 117
passive movement Spirometra spp. (tapeworm), host gigantism 695 Strongyloides spp. (nematode), host defense
through membranes 55–8 Spisula solidissima (bivalve), survival strategies
through solutions 55 exploitation 704
transepithelial movement 66 477 Struthio camelus (ostrich)
see also diffusion; osmosis spliceosomes, roles 26
solvent drag, mechanisms 58 sponges survival strategies 211, 644
somatic nervous system 248 urine volume 644
Somatocholora alpestris (dragonfly), diapause 213 circulatory systems 155 subelytral cavity, desert beetles 634
somatostatin 357 extracellular fluids 497 subesophageal ganglion 348
release 32 larvae 412 succinate
somatotopic projection 289–90 springboks, urine concentrations 643 metabolism 684
somersaulting locomotion 328 springtails synthesis 473
sorbitol, synthesis 185 freeze avoidance 654 succinyl-CoA synthetase, in Krebs cycle 119
in Eurosta spp. 652 jumping locomotion 337 sugars
sound detection 427, 671 lifespans 655 as cryoprotectants 184
see also auditory systems; mechanoreceptors Squalus spp. (shark), body fluids 433, 434 symport 66
sound waves 272 see also elasmobranchs see also carbohydrates; glucose
spatial summation 254–5, 256 squids sulfates, roles, in buoyancy 417, 419
speciation, parasites 680, 680 buoyancy mechanisms 418 sulfide-binding proteins, occurrence 537
direct development 414 sulfur dioxide, and acidification 615
giant axons 230 sun–shade shuttling
ion levels 417 desert animals 626
see also cephalopods high-altitude animals 666

INDEX 749

supercooling chemical 232–3, 235 larvae, protective coats 692
aqueous solutions 53, 185, 185–6 developmental aspects 262–3 larval coats 692
in endotherms 668 migration 678
and freeze intolerance 185 maturation 263, 264 nutrients, competition 685
in freshwater animals 504 developmental plasticity 257 reproduction, hormonal regulation 372
in insects 652, 668 electrical 246–7, 247 teguments 687
in polar fish 437 excitatory 240 vitamin B12 affinity 687
inhibitory 240 tardigrades, cryptobiosis 527, 529
supercooling points (SCPs) neuromuscular junction 297 taste (gustation) 274–7
alpine ground beetles 668 postsynaptic structure 239 central pathways 277
animals in very cold habitats 653 presynaptic terminal 232–3 see also chemoreceptors
seasonal patterns 652 signal transduction proteins 239 taste bud 277, 277
variarion 245–6 taxonomy
superoxide dismutase, secretion 702 synapsin I 235 and basal metabolic rate 41, 42
superoxide, reactivity 141 synapsins 233 and physiology 41, 638
supplementary motor cortex 324 synaptic depression (fatigue) 244–5, 245 TBTs see tributyltins (TBTs)
surface area/volume ratios 36–7, 37 synaptic facilitation 146, 245 tectorial membrane 272
synaptic integration 254–5, 257 teguments
brackish animals 471 synaptic plasticity 244–5, 246 functions 692
freshwater animals 496 homosynaptic (short term) 244 parasites 687
marine animals 417, 439 synaptic transmission 232–46, 343 structure 685
and respiration 143, 146 calcium ions 234, 235 see also cuticles; epithelia; skins
and temperature 14, 186, 193, 211, 218 delay 234, 237 teleosts
terrestrial animals 572, 580–1 neural integration 254–5 active secretion 89, 90
and water balance 41, 80 postsynaptic events 239–43 antifreeze glycoprotein 186
surface areas, isometric objects 36 postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs/IPSPs) 243–4, antifreeze proteins 186
surface deposits, Wentworth classification 450 blood, regulatory mechanisms 434–5
surface gliding 326 244 body color changes 372
swamps presynaptic events 233–6 body fluids
characteristics 494 presynaptic inhibition 254–5
productivity 494 SNARE complexes 235 hyposmotic 434–5
see also mangrove swamps spatial summation 254–5 sodium chloride levels 437
sweating 211 temporal summation 254–5 brains 602
desert animals 639 transmitter release 236–7, 238 buoyancy mechanisms 417–19
disadvantages 211, 639 synaptic vesicles 233, 236 electroreception 429
frogs 83, 211 cycle 233–4, 236 excretion systems 434, 435
heat loss 211 protein components 236 heart 157
insects 84, 572, 639 synaptobrevins 233, 235 myotome muscles 331
mechanisms 211 synaptogenesis 262 salt uptake 85
occurrence 211, 580, 639 neuromuscular junction 297 urophysis 359
and permeability 83 synaptotagmins 235 ventilation 151
see also cutaneous evaporative water loss syntaxin 235 see also elasmobranchs; fish
temperature 175–221
(CEWL); evaporative water loss (EWL)/ T6P see trehalose 6-phosphate (T6P) compensation 188
cooling T cells, accumulation 701 and development time 188, 189
swim-bladders T-helper cells 701 diurnal, terrestrial animals 544
and buoyancy 419 effects
freshwater fish 507, 514 division 701 biochemical 176–83
gas glands 421–2 T-tubule system 292, 296–7, 298, 299, 304 on membranes and cells 180–2
as lungs 146 physiological 183–8
structure 421–2 sarcoplasmic reticulum triad interface 304–5, and enzymes 177–80
swimming 329–32 306 and exposure time, mortality 199
aquatic arthropods 330–1 extremes, animal tolerance 175, 175
birds 332 tachycardia 472 of habitats
fish 331–2, 332, 333, 334 Tachygonetria spp. (nematode), intestinal fresh water 503, 504
flapping 327, 327 global 544, 611
helical 327 distribution 692 hot springs 538
hydrostatic skeleton 327 tachymetabolic, use of term 189 littoral 52, 456
marine mammals 332 tadpoles marine 400
mechanisms 422, 479 terrestrial 566, 621–2, 662
metachronal rhythm 322, 330, 332 behavioral adaptation 503–4 hormonal regulation 371
scaling of 44 in puddles 526 increase, biphasic effects 183
sinusoidal 327, 327 see also frogs; toads and ingestion rates 135
transport costs 45 Taenia solium (tapeworm), larvae, protective coats lowest 175
velocity, and metabolic rates 44 and metabolic rates 128–9, 203, 205
swordfish, endothermy, regional 406 692 and natural selection 178
symbionts, cellulase-providing 603 Taeniopoda spp. (grasshopper) and oxygen-carrying capacity 165
symbiosis, use of term 675 thermal vents 535–8
symport metabolic rates 629 transition, arthropods 83
mechanisms 62 respiratory evaporative water loss 634 see also body temperature; heat; lower critical
sodium-linked, models 66 taiga see boreal forests
use of term 65 Talitrus spp. (crustacean), littoral habitats 451 temperature (LCT); upper critical
symporters, roles 65 tannins temperature (UCT)
synapses 223, 232 occurrence 604
adhesion proteins 239 as phagostimulants 605
tapeworms
and acanthocephalans 704
anaerobic metabolism 683
and bile acids 687
elastase inhibitors 703

750 INDEX

temperature coefficients (Q10) male aggression 381 thermal regulation 14, 190, 202–17
in biological processes 176, 200 male sexual physiology 376 behavioral 191, 218, 219, 404, 466, 506–7,
desert animals 629 production 594 651–2, 667
determination 176–7 roles 593 color changes 211, 371–2, 570–2
tetraethylammonium 229 and endothermy 218–19, 372
temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) tetrapods honey-bee swarms 577
591 brain 250, 252, 254 hormonal control 371
walking/running 334–6 neonates 593
mechanisms 591–2 tetrodotoxin (TTX) 229 physiological vs. behavioral 190
reptiles 10, 591 as sodium channel blocker 60 reptiles 570
temperature maintenance see thermal regulation Thais kiasquiformis (snail), growth rates 476 small cold climate ectotherms 651
temperature profiles, soils 544, 546 thalamus 251 terrestrial ectotherms 565, 566, 567–72
temperature quotients see temperature coefficients Thalarctos maritimus (bear), occurrence 648 terrestrial endotherms 573, 574–81
thallophytes, distribution 394 terrestrial insects 570
(Q10) Thamnophis spp. (snake), respiration problems
temperature rise (global) thermal survival zone, definition 198
511 thermal time constant, and body mass 197
direct effects 613 thermal acclimation 200–2 thermal tolerance 198–9, 210
and greenhouse effect 610–14
indirect effects 613–14 freshwater animals 503 crustaceans 200
models 611 littoral animals 466 desert animals 628–9, 637
see also global warming marine animals 402–4 fish 200, 504
temporal summation 254–5, 256 mechanisms 200–2 measurement, limitations 198–9
tendons 335–6 rates 201 mechanisms 198–200
jumping (saltatory locomotion) 337 terrestrial animals 574, 661 montane animals 666
Tenebrio spp. (beetle) types of 200–1, 201 organisms vs. cells 187
antidiuretic hormones 362 thermal adaptation 196–217 parasites 677, 681–2
cryptonephridial system 562 freshwater animals 502–5 polygons 198–9, 504
vapor uptake 565 littoral animals 466–71 range 198
tenebrionid beetles, deserts 624 marine animals 400–8 terrestrial ectotherms 566
Teredo spp. (bivalve), boring 478 membranes 181 terrestrial endotherms 574
termites parasites 681–2 thermal vents, deep-sea 535–8
digestion 606 terrestrial animals 565, 565–81 Thermobia spp. (apterygote insect)
nests 636, 636 see also thermal regulation oviposition 568
trails 626 thermal avoidance 197–8, 209 vapor uptake 565
terpenes 345 terrestrial ectotherms 566 thermoclines
occurrence 604 terrestrial endotherms 574 lakes 491
terrestrial animals 541–618 thermal balance, determination of 196 marine 400
anthropogenic problems 609–17, 644, 662–3 thermal conductance thermoconformers, characteristics 190, 566
categories 547 and blood shunting 209 thermogenesis see heat production
desert 623–44 definition 192, 204 thermogenic incubation, Python spp. 575
evolution 541 insects 581 thermoneutral zones (TNZs)
as food sources 602–9 and insulation 206–7, 579 differences 203–4
hormonal regulation of water balance 362 marine endotherms 439 endotherms 203
montane 663–73 nests 574 polar animals 659
taxa 547, 548, 552 skin 206 terrestrial 574
very cold habitats 645–63 snow 648 thermoreceptors 217, 219, 285–7, 286, 639
terrestrial habitats terrestrial endotherms 579 thermoregulation see thermal regulation
and aquatic habitats compared 542–3 vertebrates 581 thermoregulators, characteristics 190
climate 543–7 thermal conduction thigmothermy, use of term 569
destruction 610 definition 192 thirst 363
and ectoparasites 677 mechanisms 192 THPs see thermal hysteresis proteins (THPs)
feeding habits in 543 thermal conductivity, definition 192 thymopoetins 360
manmade 617 thermal convection, mechanisms 193 thymosins 360
microclimates 543–7 thermal denaturation, studies 178 thymus 360
thermal exchanges thyroid 355–7
animal effects 547 mechanisms 192–6 thyroid hormones 345
soil effects 544–5 body temperature regulation 372
vegetation effects 546 regulatory 217 development regulation 369
pollution 616–17 terrestrial animals 196 metabolism regulation 370
productivity 544 thermal hysteresis, concept of 186 thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropin) 346,
properties 542 thermal hysteresis proteins (THPs), roles 186
salt availability 543 thermal inertia, and body mass 197 354
trophic structures 543 thermal insulation metamorphosis regulation 368
waste 616–17 biological materials 193 molting regulation 368
see also extreme terrestrial habitats definition 192 thyrotropin-releasing hormone 357
terrestrial life 541–618 effects, on heat gain 206–7 thyroxine 355, 369
advantages 542–3 see also air sacs; feathers; fur; insulation effects, on thermal regulation 218
disadvantages 542–3 thermal performance breadth, concept of 198 metamorphosis regulation 368
evolution thermal radiation ticks
freshwater routes 549, 552 emissivity 193 cuticle 557
littoral routes 549, 552 mechanisms 193–4 excretion 681
marine routes 552 spectra 194 hygroreceptors 286
territorality 384 and surface color 194 salivary glands 103
hormonal regulation 381 terrestrial animals 195 water balance 677
testosterone 359, 374, 375, 376, 379
courtship behavior 376

INDEX 751

water vapor uptake 564–5 tortoises trees
see also arachnids; mites burrows 625 deserts 623
tides energy budgets, seasonal 628 as osmotic effector 515
cycles 447 feeding 637 premature ageing 615
mechanisms 446 lungs 150 see also phylogenetic trees
neap 446 parasites 692
salinity variations 453 reproduction 638 trehalose 528
spring 446 seasonal behavior 628 in aerobic metabolism 125
tight junctions see also reptiles as cryoprotectant 184
roles 67 in cryptobiosis 184, 528
structure 68 touch sensitivity 268–72 synthesis 185
Tigriopus spp. (crustacean) tourism, impacts, on coastlines 482–3
glutamate-pyruvate transaminase 462 toxification, strategies 605–6 trehalose 6-phosphate (T6P), catalysis 528
glycoproteins 427 toxins TREK-1 285
water loss tolerance 465 trematodes see flukes
Tineola spp. (moth), water gain 107 avoidance strategies 604–5 triacylglycerols, energy storage 122
Tipula trivittata (fly), ice-nucleating proteins as defenses 698 tributyltins (TBTs)
detoxification (liver) 158
653 antifouling activity 482
tissues parasites 702 toxicity 520–1
occurrence 432, 604–5, 616–17 tricarboxylic acid cycle see Krebs cycle
gas delivery 162–9 secretion 90 Trichinella spp. (nematode)
and immune systems 700 tracheae hiding strategies 703
as parasite habitats 678 aquatic systems 148, 507 host defense resistance 702
thermal limits 187–8 condensation 583 host tissue modification 694
see also epithelia insects 147, 581, 583 Trichostetha spp. (insect), hemolymph concentration
titin 296 parasites in 677
TMAO see trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) ventilation 583 553
TNZs see thermoneutral zones (TNZs) water conservation 103–4 triglycerides see triacylglycerols
toads water loss 104, 105, 583–5 Trigona (bee), trail pheromones 384
ammonotely 100 tracheoles, structure 147 tri-iodothyronine 355
cutaneous drinking 363 trail markers 600–1
desert 625, 633, 639 social insects 626 metamorphosis regulation 368
eggs 590 trail pheromones 384 trimethylamine, occurrence 101
hygroreceptors 286–7 traits trimethylamine oxide (TMAO)
osmoreceptors 274 and adaptation 6, 7
reproductive strategies 590 evolution 6, 7 levels 432
respiration 171 transcription, regulatory mechanisms 21–3 retention 101, 432, 435
surfacing 511 transducin 278 roles, in buoyancy 417
water uptake 564 transduction 266 see also osmotic effectors
see also anurans; frogs amplification 266 tritocerebrum 249
tolerance auditory sensors 272 Tritonia (sea slug)
in osmotic biology 77–9 encoding signal 266–8 escape swimming mechanism 322, 324
species differences 198 hair cells 269, 270 magnetic sensitivity 287
in thermal biology 198–200 olfactory receptors 274, 276 trophic webs, lakes 517
of water loss 79–80 photoreceptors 278, 279 trophoblast 379
see also freeze tolerance; salinity tolerance; thermal tropical rain forests
insect eyes 283 characterization 550
tolerance postsynaptic membrane proteins 239 soil animals 550
tolerance polygons 198–9 thermoreceptors 285 terrestrial animals 550
transgenic studies, hormones 347 tropomyosin 294, 303
fish 200 transient water bodies 526–9 invertebrate smooth muscle 314
tonic receptors 267, 268 transition temperatures, arthropods 83 troponin C 294, 303, 304
Torpedo (electric fish), nicotinic acetylcholine transmitter-gated ion channels 240–1 troponin H 316
transport, cellular 61–70 troponin I 294, 304
receptors 257 epithelia 66 troponin T 294, 303
torpor mediated 62 troponins 294, 303–4, 305
processes actin-filament control of muscle activation 304,
arousal 215, 661
times 661 primary 62 306
secondary 62 trout, acetylcholinesterases 178
bats 579, 579, 661 see also active transport; antiport; symport; trypanosomes, surface antigen turnover 703
and body temperature 215, 215 tryptophan, biosynthesis, coding 22
conditions 213, 214 uniport TSD see temperature-dependent sex determination
entry times 661 transporters
and heat conservation 579 (TSD)
large cold climate endotherms 659–60 roles 61–2, 65–6 tsetse flies see Glossina spp. (fly)
mammals see also calcium pumps (Ca2+-ATPase); hydrogen tuatara, eggs, cleidoic 591

characteristics 215 pumps (H+-ATPase); ion pumps; sodium see also reptiles
seasonal strategies 661 pumps (Na+/K+-ATPase) tube feet 329
and metabolic rates 215, 215, 660 transposable elements see transposons tuberous organ 287
occurrence 655 transposition bursts, activation 27 Tubifex spp. (oligochaete)
regulatory mechanisms transposons, roles 24–5
ectotherms 213 treefrogs feeding 515
endotherms 215 jumping 599 respiration 507
squirrels 660, 662 permeability 555 tubulins, mammals 182
terminological issues 214–15 reproductive strategies 590 tuft gills 145
see also dormancy; estivation; hibernation; in water pools 526 tuna
see also anurans; frogs anaerobic metabolism 409–10
hypothermia body temperature 406
endothermy, regional 404–5, 405

752 INDEX

tuna (continued) urate crystals, accumulation 102 v-SNARE 235
food digestion rates 407 urbanization, effects, on terrestrial animals vagus nerve 317
gill ventilation 149 valitocin 351
muscle temperature, and water temperature 406 616–17 van’t Hoff relation 72
respiratory pigments 411 urea vapor uptake

tundra 648 accumulation 94, 417, 638 mechanisms 87, 564–5, 633, 634
biomass 649 channels 56 problems 109
boundary definitions 647 concentration in kidney 94 see also insects; mites; ticks; woodlice
herbivores 649 cycle 101 Varanus spp. (lizard), temperature patterns 571
lichens 649 as excretory product 100–1, 534, 563 Vargula spp. (crustacean), bioluminescence 424,
microclimates 648–9 as osmotic effector 77, 90, 417, 432–3
vegetation 648–9 permeability 94–6 425, 426
properties 100 variables
tundra animals regulatory mechanisms 101
abundance 649 retention 633 dimensions of 37
Allen’s rule 649 roles 100 units of 37
basking 656 varroa 677
migration patterns 656 in buoyancy 417 vascular shunts see shunt vessels
species diversity 649 synthesis 100 vasoconstriction, mechanisms 160
uniporters 62 vasodilation, mechanisms 160
Tunga penetrans (flea), parasitism 688 ureo-osmoconformers, marine animals 432–3 vasomotor index (VMI), mammals 205–6
tunicates ureotelic animals 100 vasopressin 238, 351, 386, 436
uric acid drinking behavior regulation 363
buoyancy mechanisms, and sulfate extrusion desert vertebrates 633 water balance regulation 362–3, 363
419 properties 100 see also antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
roles 100 vasopressin receptors 363
central nervous system 250 secretion 101, 558 vectors
larvae 327, 412 synthesis 100 and fever 220
turbinates 220 uricotelic animals 100 and parasite transmission 688–90
see also respiratory turbinals urine 88–99 vegetation
turtles filtration 88, 500, 558–9 boreal forests 650
body temperatures 504 final, composition 99 deserts 622–3
eggs 514 freshwater animals 499 effects on microclimates 546
heterothermy 408 primary high-altitude habitats 667
lactate 511 montane habitats 664
respiration problems 511 concentrations 94–5 mountains 664
sex ratios 591 production 88–90 polar habitats 648
see also reptiles secretion 89–90, 435 tundra 648–9
Tylos spp. (crustacean), respiratory rhythms 478 volume, regulatory mechanisms 92–8 see also plants
tymbal muscles, cicadas 133 water removal 92 veins
tympanic membrane 272 see also hyperosmotic urine; hyposmotic urine countercurrent heat exchange 104, 106, 151, 153,
tympanic organs 273 urine concentrations
tyramine 237 camels 643 206, 208, 406–8, 562, 572, 578, 640
desert vertebrates 640 roles 161
ubiquinone, electron transfer 119 hyperosmotic 88, 92, 109, 435, 531, 534, 560, ventilation 149–53
ubiquitin, as marker 24 characterization 151
Uca spp. (crab) 562, 633, 640 cocurrents 151
hyposmotic 92, 108, 499, 561, 562, 563 countercurrents 151
habitats 530 insects 99 crosscurrents 151
reproductive strategies 588 isosmotic 499, 500 exchange rates 149–53
UCT see upper critical temperature (UCT) regulatory mechanisms 92–8, 361–3 exchange sites 143
ultimobranchial body 357 species differences 99, 99 freshwater animals 509
ultrafiltration springboks 643 mechanisms 149–51
kidney 550 terrestrial animals 563, 563 muscle-related 149
mechanisms 88–9, 89, 90, 91 via compartmentalization 92–3 paddles 149
studies, markers 88, 90 via countercurrents 93–8 passive suction 584
ungulates urine/plasma ratios pumps 149
fur depth, and body mass 642 desert vertebrates 640 tracheae 583
metabolic rates 629 species differences 99, 99 volume, control 170
migration 217 terrestrial animals 563 see also discontinuous ventilation cycle (DVC)
unguligrade posture 336 Uromastyx spp. (lizard), metabolic rates 629 ventilation rate, changes 170, 408, 471, 509
unicellular organisms, metabolic rate–temperature urophysis 359 ventral roots 250
uropygial glands, roles 207 ventricles
curves 131 Urosaurus ornatus (lizard) invertebrates 156
Unio spp. (bivalve), parasitic behavior 512 color changes 572 vertebrates 157
uniport, mechanisms 62 and global climatic change 671 ventricular septum, vertebrates 157
units, of variables 37 urotensins 359–60 venules, roles 161
univoltinism UV-B radiation vertebrates
absorption 141 altitudinal limits 666
freshwater animals 512 effects on photosynthesis 615 blood vessels 160
small polar ectotherms 655 protection 614, 615 brains 250–1, 253, 254
upper critical temperature (UCT) carbon dioxide, dissociation curves 168
acclimation 201 V-ATPases 65 cardiac muscle 316–18, 317
desert animals 628 activation 109 carotid bodies 172
freshwater fish 504 evolution 64–5 circulatory systems 155, 158
marine animals 188 proton pumps 64
raised 628
species differences 188, 188
uranium, pollution 617

ears 272–3 voltage-gated calcium channels 234 INDEX 753
endocrine systems 350–60, 351, 352 muscle contraction 303
endoskeletons 329 sound velocity 542
extracellular fluids 497 voltage-gated ion channels 226–7, 227, 228, 228, supercooled 53
230, 234–5, 297 surface tension 53
composition 499 undercooled 53
eyes 281–2 voltage-gated sodium channels, neuromuscular as universal solvent 53
junction 297 viscosity 542
visual pigments 280 see also fresh water; ice; metabolic water; sea water
growth hormone 369, 370 volume regulation water acquisition
hair cells 270 cells 72 desert beetles 635
jumping (saltatory locomotion) 336–7 freshwater invertebrates 497 terrestrial animals 563–4
kidney function 94–6 littoral animals 451, 463, 464 see also drinking; water uptake
kidney tubules 98 marine animals 399 water balance 76–110
major histocompatibility complex 697 mechanisms 462–3, 464 antennal glands 560
metabolism, hormonal regulation 369, 370 behavioral regulation 553–4
metamorphosis 368–9 volumes, isometric objects 36 and burrowing 563
motor neurons 318, 319 voluntary movements 323–5 and circadian rhythms 554
nervous systems vomeronasal organs 278, 383 components 76
desert animals 632–3, 639–40, 642–3
central nervous system 249–54 wading birds ectoparasites 681
developmental plasticity 255, 257 beak lengths 482 eggs 105–7
myelination 230–1 food sources 481 estuarine animals 455–66
segmental organization 250, 251, 252 and evolution 76
neuronal development 261–2 Waldsterben phenomenon 615 flux rates 557, 643
peptide hormones 345, 345 walking 334–6 freshwater animals 495–503
reproduction in gut 102–3
egg development 376, 377 metachronal rhythm 322, 334 high-altitude animals 668–9
female sexual physiology 376–9, 377, 378 quadripedal 598 hormonal regulation 360–3
hormonal regulation 374–81, 375 terrestrial arthropods 597 larvae 105–6
male sexual physiology 375–6 terrestrial vertebrates 598 littoral animals 455–66
sex determination 375 walruses marine animals 400, 442
sexual characters 375 huddling 657 parasites 680–1
smooth muscle 314 parasites 681 problems 76
taste buds 277, 277 reproduction 415 respiratory systems 103–4, 581–2
terrestrial 548, 563–4, 569–90, 583, 583, 590, warm blooded, use of term 188 terrestrial animals 76, 77, 552–65
wasps water-breathers, in air 472
595, 598 –9, 681 ice-nucleating proteins 652 water channels, membranes 56, 57, 92
walking/running 334–6, 336 prey storage 220 water exchanges, respiratory, regulatory mechanisms
water permeability 83 see also gall-wasps; parasitic wasps; parasitoids
see also amphibians; birds; fish; mammals; reptiles wastes 103–5
Vespula maculata (wasp), ice-nucleating proteins categories 617 see also cutaneous evaporative water loss (CEWL);
chemical 616–17
653 excretory 100–1 respiratory evaporative water loss (REWL)
vestibular system 271, 271–2 freshwater habitats 518–21 water loss
vibration sensitivity 268–72, 599–600
Vipera spp. (snake) categorization 519 body fluids 79–80
industrial 616–17 desert animals 631–2, 632
occurrence 649 nuclear 617 in reproductive systems 105–7
viviparity 655 terrestrial habitats 616–17 respiratory 104, 581, 673
viruses, size 36 water 51–3 respiratory systems 105
vision 277–85 amphoteric 53 terrestrial animals 554–7
color 278– 80, 423–4, 479, 600–1 availability, deserts 621–2 tolerance 80, 465–6, 552, 632–3
freshwater animals 514–15 binding 53 tracheae 104, 105, 583–5
littoral animals 479 biochemical advantages 51–3 see also cutaneous evaporative water loss (CEWL);
marine animals 423–4 boiling point 51
and refractive indices 542 boundary layers 53 evaporative water loss (EWL)/cooling;
terrestrial animals 600–1 in cells, structure 52 excretion; osmoregulation; panting;
see also eyes; photoreceptors; pigments chlorination 521 respiratory evaporative water loss (REWL);
visual cortex 282 compressibility 53 sweating
developmental plasticity 257 contribution to body mass 51 water permeability 80–3
visual fields 282, 283, 284 density 542 factors affecting 109
visual pigments 278, 423 measurement 80
insect eyes 282 maximum 52 water pools, habitats 526–7
spectral sensitivity 280 dipole effects 51 water potential, determination 54
Vitalli organ 270 electrical conductivity 53 water pressure detectors 269–70
vitamin B12, tapeworm affinity 688 ionization capacity 53 water regulation
vitamin D 360 latent heat of vaporization 53 costs 108–9
calcium balance regulation 364 membrane permeability 56–8 energetics 108–9
vitamins, in food 607 molecular bonding 51 see also ionic adaptation; osmoregulation; water
vitrification, cytoplasmic 528 molecular structure 52 balance
viviparity 379–81, 595, 655 natural, chemical characteristics 488 water sources, global distribution 487
freshwater animals 514 and osmotic physiology 51–74 water-striders, univoltinism 655
marine animals 415 passive movement water transport
terrestrial animals 591, 595 model 93
VMI see vasomotor index (VMI) through membranes 55–8 solute-linked 69, 69
voles, huddling 657 through solutions 55 water uptake
“voltage clamp” technique 229, 229 properties 51–3, 542 desert evaders 633–4
chemical 542
thermal 542
refractive index 542

754 INDEX wingbeat frequencies 133 RNA roles in 26
wings sodium pumps 67
water uptake (continued) surfacing 511
hormonal regulation 361 mechanisms 597–8 see also amphibians; anurans
mechanisms 107–8 muscles 598 Xerobates agassizii (tortoise), feeding 637
osmotic 86, 495 see also flight muscles xerophilic animals 560
spiders 86, 563 winter sleep see dormancy; hibernation; torpor arthropods 560–1
terrestrial animals 86–7 wombats, digestion 608
woodlice Malpighian tubules 560–1
water vapor uptake see vapor uptake deserts 623, 624 regulatory organs 560–1
waves osmosis 564 epidermis 557
urine 560 excretory systems 557
damage 477 water uptake 560, 633 habitats 549
mechanisms 447 see also crustaceans; isopods lipid barriers 557
wax blooms, desert beetles 630, 631 worms vertebrates 557
weasels, fur 657 buoyancy mechanisms 418 water balance, strategies 554
weather see climate freshwater flatworms 517 Xiphias gladius (fish), depth variations 407
Weberian ossicles 427 littoral habitats 451 xylem, water content 606
wetlands terrestrial 548
characteristics 494 ultrafiltration 89 Y-organ 349, 368
fauna 494 see also annelids; earthworms; flukes; hookworms; yaks, montane habitats 666
use of term 494
see also bogs; fens; marshes; swamps platyhelminths; tapeworms zinc finger motif, mechanisms 22
wetting, and insulation 505 Wuchereria bancrofti (nematode) zonation
whales
communication systems 428, 428 migration 691 biotic analysis 449
echolocation 428 surface antigen turnover 703 estuarine habitats 453, 483
heat loss 658 littoral habitats 448, 483
hyperosmotic urine 435 X-organ 349, 368 rivers 488–9
insulation 658 Xanthippes spp. (grasshopper), metabolic rates
migration 217 plants 489
occurrence 648 668 schemes 449
see also cetaceans; dolphins; mammals, marine Xenopsylla spp. (flea), water vapor uptake 87, 565 shorelines 448
white blood cells see leucocytes Xenopus spp. (toad) zooplankton, seasonal blooms 519
white matter 252 Zygaena spp. (moth), sequestration 702
winds, patterns 394 ammonotelic 100
respiratory systems 171

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Plate 1 Marine environments (Courtesy of L. Newman & A. Flowers.) (c) Marine plankton, including
(a) Marine benthos. Shallow soft mud with sea pen Virgularia mirabilis and the invertebrate larvae, fish eggs, and phytoplankton. (Courtesy of P. Parks,
anemone Sagartiogeton laceratus, Loch Laxford, Scotland, UK. (Courtesy of Imagequest.) (d) Coral reef: underwater scene with soft corals, off Madang,
R. Holt/Joint Nature Conservation Council). (b) Marine nekton. A shoal of Papua New Guinea. (Courtesy of L. Newman & A. Flowers.)
fish (hussars Lutjanus amabilis), Heron Island, southern Great Barrier Reef.

[Facing p. 386]

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Plate 2 Littoral environments (Courtesy of Lucy Crooks.) (d) Rock pools and rocky shore, Jervis Bay, southern
(a) Sea cliffs, Lundy Island, UK. (Courtesy of A.S. Edwards.) (b) Vertical Australia. (Courtesy of P.J. Sunnucks.) (e) Sand-dunes with marram grass, South
zonation on a moderately exposed temperate shore, Devon, UK. (Courtesy of Wales, UK. (Courtesy of P.G. Willmer.) (f ) Volcanic lava shore, with basking
P.G. Willmer.) (c) Mixed sandy/rocky shore with sea lions, Galápagos islands. iguanas, Fernadina, Galápagos. (Courtesy of Lucy Crooks.)

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
(f)
(e)
Plate 3 Littoral and estuarine environments
(a) Boulder beach, Cape Nat, Australia. (Courtesy of P.J. Sunnucks.) (b) Muddy
shore, Jervis Bay, Australia. (Courtesy of P.J. Sunnucks.) (c) “Ria” type estuary
(drowned river valley), South Devon, UK. (Courtesy of P.G. Willmer.) (d) Aerial
view, River Eden estuary, Scotland, UK, with sand spit at mouth and enclosed
mudflats and salt marsh. (Courtesy of D.M. Paterson.) (e) Mudflats, intertidal
creeks and salt-marsh formation, Skeffling, Humber estuary, UK. (Courtesy of
D.M. Paterson.) (f ) Mangrove swamp with emergent roots (pneumatophores),
northeast Brazil. (Courtesy of I.A. Johnston.)

(a) (b)
(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Plate 4 Freshwater lotic environments in arid zone, southern Chile. (Courtesy of J.M. Lambert.) (d) Upland stream,
(a) Lowland tropical river, Trauna River, Mt Hagen, Papua New Guinea. cool temperate Kyrgyzstan. (Courtesy of J.M. Lambert.) (e) Tropical eutrophic
(Courtesy of G.N. Stone.) (b) Dry river bed in summer in “Mediterranean”-type stream, Java, Indonesia. (Courtesy of G.N. Stone.) (f ) Humic river in rain forest,
climate, Mootwingee, Australia. (Courtesy of P.J. Sunnucks.) (c) Upland stream northern Queensland, Australia. (Courtesy of I.A. Johnston.)

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Plate 5 Freshwater lentic environments (Courtesy of G.N. Stone.) (c) Small mesic lake, Bosherston Ponds, Pembroke,
(a) Upland oligotrophic lake, Mt Rugby, New Zealand. (Courtesy of P.J. UK. (Courtesy of D.M. Paterson.) (d) Crater lake, Rinjani, Lombok, Indonesia.
Sunnucks.) (b) Tropical lowland seasonal eutrophic lake, Dindira, Tanzania. (Courtesy of G.N. Stone.)

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

Plate 6 Unusual aquatic environments (f)
(a) Pitcher plant, Mt Kinabalu, Borneo. (Courtesy of J.M. Lambert.) (b) Soda
lake, hypersaline and sulfurous, northern Chile. (Courtesy of J.M. Lambert.) dominated by flamingos. (Courtesy of I.A. Johnston.) (e) Hot-water springs and
(c) Salt flat (resulting from completely dried out salt lake), northern Argentina. small geysers feeding soda lake, with thermophilic algae, El Tatio, Chile.
(Courtesy of J.M. Lambert.) (d) Rift Valley soda lake, Lake Magadi, Kenya, (Courtesy of J.M. Lambert.) (f ) Deep-sea vent fauna: giant, tubicolous,
pogonophoran worms, Riftia pachyptila, found abundantly around deep-sea
fumaroles. (Courtesy of R.R. Hessler.)

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Plate 7 Semiterrestrial and terrestrial environments (Courtesy of J.M. Lambert.) (d) Tropical grassland, Mt Hagen, Papua New
(a) Tropical flooded forest, Amazonas, Brazil. (Courtesy of I.A. Johnston.) Guinea. (Courtesy of G.N. Stone.) (e) Temperate moorland, Isle of Hoy, Orkney,
(b) Melaleuca swamp (swamp cypress), southern Australia. (Courtesy of P.J. UK. (Courtesy of A.S. Edwards.) (f ) Mediterranean “garigue”, Mt Carmel, Israel.
Sunnucks.) (c) Temperate southern beech (Nothofagus) forest, Tierra del Fuego. (Courtesy of B. Vulliamy.)

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)

Plate 8 Terrestrial environments
(a) Tropical rain forest, New World, Ecuador. (Courtesy of J.M. Lambert.) (b)
Monsoon forest, Kakadu, northern Australia. (Courtesy of P.J. Sunnucks.) (c)
Temperate upland grassland (“paramo”), with llama, Ecuador. (Courtesy of
J.M. Lambert.) (d) Subtropical savanna thorn scrub dominated by Acacia,
Kenya. (Courtesy of G.N. Stone.) (e) Sand desert, windblown dunes, Namibia.
(Courtesy of N.P. Ashmole.) (f ) Semidesert scrub with goats, Turkana, northern
(f) Kenya. (Courtesy of G.N. Stone.)

(a) (b)
(d)
(c)
(f)
(e)
Plate 9 Extreme terrestrial environments
(a) Cold mountain desert, Andes, northern Chile. (Courtesy of J.M. Lambert.)
(b) Rock desert, with dry river bed (wadi), Sinai, Egypt. (Courtesy of S.A.
Whiten.) (c) Arctic ice floes with seals, Spitsbergen. (d) Tundra with reindeer,
Siberia. (e) Northern coniferous woodland (taiga), Canada. (Courtesy of A.S.
Edwards.) (f ) High-altitude mountain peaks, Mt Kinabalu, Borneo. (Courtesy
of J.M. Lambert.)

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Plate 10 Manmade environments
(a) Rice paddy, eastern Java, Indonesia. (Courtesy of G.N. Stone.) (b)
Industrialized river with transport and heavy chemical influences, River Severn,
UK. (Courtesy of D.M. Paterson.) (c) Intensive agriculture, ploughed field,
southern Australia. (Courtesy of P.J. Sunnucks.) (d) Extreme urbanization,
Athens. (Courtesy of B. Vulliamy.) (e) Arpley landfill site, Warrington, Cheshire,
(e) UK. (Courtesy of David Drain/Still Pictures.)