003_[John_S_Lucas,_Paul_C_Southgate,_Craig_S_Tucker]_A(z-lib.org)

has driven producers of salmon in Norway and shrimp The Future of Aquaculture 627
in Thailand to reduce their dependence on forage
fisheries. aquaculture (IMTA) systems, especially in the marine
environment, have been designed to capture nutrients
Although the efficiency of resource use is better in ani- released from fed fish in cages. Shellfish and seaweed
mal agriculture than in natural food webs, it is inherently rafts are placed near fish cages to grow secondary prod-
inefficient. Each time a unit of food is consumed, more ucts. Vast areas of coastal southern China have been
energy and nutrients are lost than are recovered in the developed with this system, even before fish cages were
animal consuming the food. Efficient resource use is added. Although development of the seascape at sufficient
therefore inextricably tied to the concept of making scale in this way can provide valuable ecological services,
better use of feed. This can be accomplished in two ways: the recovery of feed nutrients by extractive species is low.
There are also difficulties with synchronising production
1) Improve feed conversion efficiency (that is, capture a cycles of the many species that are part of the system.
greater proportion of the feed energy and nutrient
content in the animal). Aquaponics is a form of recirculating aquaculture
system that uses waste nutrients derived from feeding
2) Recover and beneficially use waste products. fish to produce a vegetable crop. With respect to nutrient
uptake, very large plant growing areas are needed to
At the farm level, the best way to improve overall resource ‘balance’ nutrient production from a relatively low biomass
use efficiency is to improve feed conversion ratio (Boyd of fish. Aquaponics can be locally important by supply-
and McNevin, 2015). Feed typically represents 40–60% ing fish and vegetables to niche markets but it is unlikely
of total costs and so there is a strong economic incentive that aquaponics will make significant contributions to
to improve feed conversion. There is considerable the global food supply (Edwards, 2016).
embodied energy (and other resources) in feed, repre-
senting about 50% of the carbon footprint of pond Fresh water in pond aquaculture can be conserved and
aquaculture and about 80% of cage aquaculture. Thus, reused but in most areas there is little incentive to do so.
improving feed conversion improves the efficiency of the Pollution of source water and biosecurity concerns have
use of all the resources used to grow crops, catch fish, led some fish farmers to recirculate water through
produce feed ingredients and feeds, and all associated storage and treatment reservoirs, but these remove land
transport. These resources include the supplies of renew- from fish production and require large inputs of energy
able fresh water for irrigation, energy, fertiliser nutrients, for pumping.
and stocks of forage fish. In addition to being cost‐effec-
tive and resource efficient, improving feed conversion Resource‐use efficiency can be improved at the farm
also reduces emissions from aquaculture. level through implementation of best management prac-
tices (BMPs). Efficient production in pond aquaculture
Resource efficiency can also be enhanced by resource can be achieved by using good‐quality feed, careful feed-
capture and recycling. Although this is an intuitively ing practices, and aeration to manage water quality. A
appealing approach, the practical realities of aquaculture commitment to continuous improvement is a core ele-
production indicate that effective resource recycling is dif- ment of BMPs, although it is seldom emphasised in BMP
ficult. For example, 70–80% of feed nutrients are lost as programs, including ecolabeling certification systems.
metabolic waste, yet efforts are seldom made to recover Producers can use a set of standard efficiency indicators
and recycle those nutrients in the world’s major aquacul- to benchmark their farm operation and then track the
ture production systems. Waste nutrients have a low eco- indicators over time to demonstrate improvement in
nomic value, are difficult to recover as a practical matter, resource use efficiency.
and traditionally have been treated internally or discharged
to the environment at no direct cost to the producer. 27.3.2  Increasing Aquaculture Production

In some traditional integrated agriculture‐aquaculture It is clear from the preceding discussion that producing
farming systems, the fish component was used to recover more fish from aquaculture is a necessity that will be
nutrients from feeding ducks, chickens, or pigs. The constrained by resource availability and other environ-
dike‐pond system of southern China had an elaborate mental and social challenges. A range of approaches to
system of nutrient flows between components. These increasing the food supply have been proposed
systems have largely been replaced by a simplified fed (Table 27.2) some of these with relevance to aquaculture
carp polyculture with 80% fed carps and 20% sanitary are discussed here.
species (Edwards, 2016).
27.3.2.1  Intensification and Closing the Yield Gap
Despite the practical difficulties with nutrient recov- Culture system intensity is a useful framework to under-
ery, systems have been developed to recycle nutrients stand and manage environmental impacts, but here we
into higher value products. Integrated multi‐trophic consider how production intensification will be the main

628 Aquaculture with intensification. With high‐quality feeds and aera-
tion to maintain water quality, the full growth potential
Table 27.2  Perspectives on how to feed 9 billion people. of cultured fish, especially genetically improved strains,
can be realised.
Godfray et al. (2010)
●● Close the yield gap The scope for increasing yields from the existing
●● Increase production limits infrastructure of ponds is tremendous. While the average
●● Reduce waste fish pond in the world produces only 2–3 t/ha, aerated
●● Change diets and fed ponds can produce 5–6 t/ha, and intensively‐
●● Expand aquaculture managed fish and shrimp ponds can produce 15–20 t/ha.
Ponds used to grow air‐breathing fish like pangasius
Foley (2011) catfish can produce 400–500 t/ha (Figure  27.7). The
●● Stop expanding agriculture’s footprint experience in China with the transition from traditional
●● Grow more on existing farms to close the world’s yield gap carp polyculture to a feed‐based system over the span of
●● Use resources much more efficiently three decades is an example that has the potential to be
●● Shift diets away from meat repeated elsewhere (Edwards, 2016). Less than half of
●● Reduce food waste the total fish pond area in the world is fed, indicating that
significant production gains can be made by expanding
Clay (2011) the area of fed aquaculture.
●● Eliminate waste in the food chain
●● Harness technology to advance plant breeding Significant attention has been given to aquaculture in
●● Share better practices more quickly recirculating systems as an intensive approach with
●● Rehabilitate degraded land potential to make a significant contribution to future
●● Establish greater property rights fish supplies (Klinger and Naylor, 2012). Although such
●● Balance the disparity between under and over consumption systems are attractive on the basis of the high degree of
●● Restore soil carbon control over production and the high efficiency of land
and water use, the degree of technical sophistication for
Forum for the Future – The Protein Challenge 2040 proper operation, the capital intensity of the infrastruc-
(www.forumforthefuture.org/sites/default/files/The_Protein_ ture, and the high risk of business failure suggests that
Challenge_2040_Summary_Report.pdf ) there are limits to the value of recirculating systems to
●● Increase the proportion of plant‐based protein consumption produce more fish.

by consumers 27.3.2.2  Area Expansion
●● Scale up sustainable feed innovation to meet demand for In agriculture, about 90% of production growth in
recent decades has come from the intensification of
animal protein land use and only 10% from expanding into new areas.
●● Close the protein nutrient loop In aquaculture, the potential for finding and developing
●● Develop indigenous plants as protein sources for indigenous new, good production sites is better in Africa and Latin
America than it is in Asia because those areas are simply
communities less developed. In Asia, conversion of rice fields to fish-
●● Scale up sustainable aquaculture for food and animal feed ponds represents perhaps the greatest opportunity to
●● Restore soil health increase aquaculture production through expanding
area (Edwards, 2016). Even converting 1% of the more
approach to providing more fish in the future. Simply than 230 million ha of rice fields in Asia (Figure  27.8)
put, intensification means producing more fish with the would result in an enormous expansion of productive
same land and water. In the inverse, the land area and capacity. There is considerable potential for aquaculture
water volume needed to produce a ton of fish will be less to occupy lands that are not suitable for crop production
as systems intensify. Compared to increasing aquaculture or as range land, such as sites with saline soils, but are
production by expanding area, it is likely that most future acceptable for fish or shrimp farming. Area expansion
gains in aquaculture production will be derived from requires a land use change that, depending on specific
intensification on the existing land area. location and type of prior land use, could negatively
impact ecosystem function and biodiversity.
A large part of the gains in aquaculture production
since the 1980s has been from intensification. These In recent years, the case has been made that we live on
gains are mainly attributable to two technological a ‘water planet’ and that land and freshwater availa-
advances. Firstly, the development and adoption of high‐ bility will limit aquaculture (and agriculture in general).
quality feeds that fully meet the nutritional requirements According to this line of thought, the future of aquaculture
of fish allowed development of efficient production
systems as measured by the conversion of inputs to fish.
Secondly, the increasingly widespread adoption of aera-
tion permitted higher‐density culture through oxygen
provision for life support. The increased profit per hec-
tare is justified by the higher production costs associated

The Future of Aquaculture 629
Figure 27.7  Feeding pangasid catfish on a farm along the Mekong River in Vietnam. Aquaculture of air‐breathing fish permits high pond
carrying capacity, in this case around 500 t/ha. Source: Reproduced with permission from John Hargreaves, 2017.
Figure 27.8  Conversion of a small proportion of rice fields, like these in Tamil Nadu, India, to aquaculture ponds represents one of the
greatest opportunities to expand global aquaculture production. Source: Photograph by Thamizhpparithi Maari. Reproduced under the
terms of the Creative Commons Attribution share licence, CC BY-SA 4.0.

630 Aquaculture species that currently make the largest contributions to
global fish supplies.
should be to move more production to the sea and in
particular from nearshore to offshore. Although this is 27.3.3  Technological Innovation
an appealing idea, the extreme environment of the high A key megatrend is the acceleration of technological
seas and the large capital investment necessary are major change, especially biotechnology, nanotechnology, and
risk factors in developing a marine aquaculture sector information and computer technology. Research and
that can make a meaningful contribution to global fish development of science and technology around the world
supplies. Although use of the coastal environment is is accelerating, driven by economic growth and public
much more competitive, the example of the develop- investment. China and India will become the largest
ment of the coastal zone in China indicates considerable investors in technological innovation and development of
scope for similar development elsewhere in Asia, where a skilled workforce and China is expected to overtake the
aquaculture is culturally accepted. USA as the largest global spender on research and develop-
ment in the next decade. Knowledge industries will become
27.3.2.3  Genetic Improvement more important as a proportion of overall economy. These
Professional breeding programmes for salmonids, carps, will support increased resource efficiency and the shift to a
channel catfish, and tilapia have more than doubled low‐carbon energy economy. The threats of climate
growth rates and will continue to be one of the main change and environmental pollution will stimulate inno-
drivers of the increase in global aquaculture production, vation in more efficient, less polluting technologies.
especially among the more widely cultured species.
Production gains of 10–15% per generation have been Technology will evolve to allow improved yields.
demonstrated in several commercially‐important spe- Precision farming and automation are influential trends
cies. One of the best documented examples is the in agriculture. Sensors, software, and wireless connectivity
Genetically Improved Farmed Tilapia (GIFT) program allow collection and analysis of data in real time. Linked
in the Philippines, which contributed to increased con- to output devices, these allow timely responses to data
sumption. The average consumption rate of tilapia in inputs. For example, video monitoring of salmon feeding
that country increased by 144% over the 8 years follow- allows efficient feeding with better feed conversion, less
ing its introduction and, along with a number of other wasted feed, and less pollution. Oxygen sensors in ponds
breeding programs continues to improve growth of Nile linked to analysis and control software can activate
tilapia by nearly 7–8% per year. Genetic improvement aerators to control pond oxygen concentration. The
programs are discussed in more detail in other chapters. ‘Internet of Things’ will be supported by the develop-
With the culture of about 300 species, the scope for gains ment of sensors, automation, autonomous machines,
from genetic improvement through standard selective drones, and submersibles. Digital and robotic technolo-
breeding techniques is enormous. Selective breeding in gies will increasingly augment or replace workers.
aquaculture is still in the early phase, compared to the
thousands of years of selection in terrestrial livestock. Technology is central to improving the productivity
Currently, only about 10% of the fish grown in aquacul- and environmental performance of aquaculture. Key
ture are derived from genetically improved strains. areas for innovation are in feeds, genetic improvement,
disease control, seed production, and grow‐out produc-
The importance of biotechnology will likely increase, tion systems. Overall, increasing productivity through:
especially given its role in the security of food, water, ●● faster growth;
and energy. Development of genetically modified ●● reduced waste;
crops, including fish and other culture species, will be ●● feeds designed for individual species;
aided by new biomolecular tools. New precision gene‐ ●● more efficient aeration; and
editing tools, genotype‐sequencing technologies, and ●● feedstuffs that consume less water and land in their
marker‐assisted selection will be applied to conven-
tional breeding and genetically‐modified crops for production
growth rate, feed conversion, carcass traits, and dis- will continue to be major drivers of sustainable growth.
ease resistance.
Aquaculture will only grow to meet its maximum potential
As public perceptions of other methods of genetic if it can adapt to local conditions and adopt new technology
enhancement become more sophisticated, gene transfer, to minimise waste, while optimising the amount of fish
and the introduction of novel genes will further improve produced relative to the amount of land, water, feed, and
productivity. At the current time, the cultural acceptance energy used. Fortunately, technological change in aquacul-
of GMO crops—especially animals—is low. This is espe- ture is in its early stages and there is tremendous scope for
cially true in developed countries. Although there is increasing technological efficiency.
less resistance to GMO crops in developing countries,
the technology has not yet been applied to aquaculture

Use of increasingly more efficient technology is likely The Future of Aquaculture 631
to have negative consequences for the many small‐scale
farms that currently produce an estimated 80% of aqua- Figure 27.9  Larvae of the black solider fly Hermetia illucens are
culture products. Increasing capital costs for new tech- being considered as a replacement for fishmeal in aquaculture
nology and the adoption of BMPs will undoubtedly drive feeds, although the challenge of scaling to an appropriate level
consolidation. Although small‐scale farmers will always remains. Source: Photograph by MD‐Terraristik – Laut [1] ist Dennis
be a part of aquaculture, in the future it is likely that Kress Mitinhaber des Unternehmens (www.MD‐Terraristik.de)
there will be fewer, larger, and more sophisticated farms. [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons.
The consolidation of the salmon industry in Norway is
perhaps illustrative of the future of commercial aquacul- results (Figure  27.9). Meal derived from insect larvae
ture elsewhere. grown for this purpose has been analysed for nutritional
composition and trials have been started with different
27.3.3.1 Feed farmed animals. Several insect species (black soldier fly,
Although feeds have improved significantly since the housefly, mealworm and crickets, among others) are
early days of aquaculture, diets for most fed species being tested as substitute protein sources in the diet of
remain somewhat generic with major gains yet to be farmed fish. Key constraints to future use of insect meals
made. Specific nutrient requirements have been defined include the cost, especially transport costs, producing
for only about 20 species of fish. Since the beginning of sufficiently large quantities needed by an expanding
fed aquaculture, the main impetus for feed research has aquafeed sector, availability of by‐products to serve as a
been to reduce and replace the most limiting and expen- food source for insect larvae, and consumer acceptance
sive ingredients: fishmeal and fish oil. Even while aqua- of fish produced with insect larvae meal. Single‐cell
culture has been expanding, the shares of fishmeal and proteins and microalgae produced in intensive fermenta-
fish oil in farmed fish diets have fallen significantly since tion systems have shown promise as sources for more
1995 and are projected to further decline by 2020 (Tacon sustainable protein and oils for aquaculture, but still
and Metian, 2015). In recent years, the ratio of the require large amounts of energy and/or land to produce
amount of forage fish in feeds to farmed fish output (fish the sugars needed to drive growth.
in‐fish out ratio; see section 5.6) for global aquaculture
has declined from 0.6 in 2000 to 0.3 in 2010, while aqua- Ultimately, reducing the energy demand of aquacul-
culture production nearly doubled. Fish oil is more likely ture and the indirect use of land and water in feeds will
to limit the expansion of aquaculture, especially marine require fishmeal and fish oil replacements that can be
aquaculture, than fishmeal. produced in the oceans and the most likely source of
these materials will be seaweeds. The dry‐matter com-
Currently available alternatives to fishmeal include by‐ position of seaweeds ranges from 10–30% protein and
products of terrestrial animal agriculture and fish pro- 1–5% lipid. Assuming an average composition of 19%
cessing wastes and by‐catch. Animal by‐products include protein and 3% lipid, 500 million dry t of seaweed would
meat and bone meal from swine and cattle, poultry by‐ produce about 150 million t of protein and 15 million t of
product meal, and feather meal. Some of these products oil. Based on the amino acid profile and some issues with
have favourable amino acid profiles compared with plant anti‐nutritional factors in seaweed and soybean meal,
protein feedstuffs and are used in feeds for many fish algae protein can be thought of as roughly similar in
species. High‐quality meals and oil derived from fish‐ value to soy protein. Algae oils, however, can contain
processing waste and from the by‐catch of wild fisheries long chain omega‐3 fatty acids, which make them more
can partially replace feedstuffs obtained from pelagic
fisheries. Major obstacles to greater use of fish‐process-
ing waste include certain nutritional deficiencies and
possible bioaccumulation of contaminants in the recy-
cled feedstuffs.

Early gains were made through research into better
balanced diets (e.g., protein to energy ratio) and the use
of meals produced from animal and fish processing by‐
products. Synthetic amino acids, especially taurine, have
been used to complement plant protein quality to make
it more suitable for fish diets, and new work will likely
further improve these diets.

Recently, investigations using proteins derived from
insects as a substitute for fishmeal have shown promising

632 Aquaculture to implement new production systems technology as
it develops.
comparable to fish oils in nutritional value. Currently,
about 1 million t of fish oil and 250 million t of soybean Moving aquaculture production into the oceans would
meal are produced annually. The 500 million t of sea- generally reduce land and freshwater demand from
weed would represent about 20% of current soy‐protein aquaculture but is itself constrained by conflicts with
production and algae oils could represent a 750% increase other users of crowded coastal zones. More efficient
over current fish oil production. Given the importance of work boats and deep anchoring technology will create
oils containing long chain omega‐3 fatty acids, this could opportunities over the horizon, while new submersible
provide a significant boost to human health, while elimi- cage‐based systems might be deployed nearshore in
nating the need for fish oil in aquaculture and animal some locations.
feeds.
27.3.3.3  Disease Control
27.3.3.2  Production Systems New approaches have reduced disease incidence and
Improvements in production systems technology and reliance on antibiotics and chemical therapeutants. In
management are leading to greater efficiency in the use Norway, development of vaccines and improved biose-
of water, land, energy resources, and reduction in the curity (control and containment of diseases) has greatly
unit emissions of waste in aquaculture. While global reduced the need for antibiotics in salmon production.
freshwater finfish production grew from 1.2 million t in Required investments in biosecurity to minimise the risk
1970 to 32.1 million t in 2010 (a 27‐fold increase), the of disease outbreaks will vary by place and scale, but the
release of nitrogen from aquaculture systems into the need for improved diagnostic and surveillance capacity
freshwater aquatic environment grew from 0.06 million t of national veterinary services is one common element.
to 1.2 million t (only a 20‐fold increase) and phosphorus Although aquaculture will continue to be challenged by
release grew from 0.01 to 0.1 million t (only a 10‐fold new diseases, new health management technologies will
increase) during that period. Results were similar for be developed to meet these challenges. The cost of
marine finfish production. Although it is difficult to dis- genome sequencing is falling exponentially. This will
aggregate these gains from those engendered through allow the development of diagnostic testing methods
improved feeds and breeds, the importance of improved and drugs and other therapies customised for specific
culture practices, such as aeration, fish health manage- pathogen strains, in a form of customised disease
ment, feeding practices, and stock management, cannot treatment.
be overstated.
27.3.4  Policy and Governance Approaches
The overwhelming majority of aquaculture production
(aside from seaweeds) occurs in conventional, shallow There are several key structural and behavioural attrib-
aquaculture ponds. In recent years, as pond aquacul- utes of aquaculture sectors that make it vulnerable to
ture has intensified, new models of production systems disease losses and negative environmental impacts that
have been developed, and some of these new systems constrain growth. First and foremost, effective disease
have been adopted on a limited commercial scale. One and water quality management transcend the boundaries
example is the use of partitioned ponds, where the fish of individual farms. Area management systems are
containment and waste treatment functions of the pond essential and these will require governments and indus-
are physically separated but linked by pumped water that try to revise their approach to regulation.
is circulated between the two basins. These systems have
been adopted by several ictalurid catfish farmers in the To live within the boundaries set by nature, estimation
USA, with annual fish production rates increasing from of the carrying capacity of the watershed or water body
about 5 t/ha in traditional ponds to 15–20 t/ha in the in which aquaculture is being conducted requires spatial
partitioned systems (section 19.3.2.5). Another example mapping of production systems and their related hydrol-
is biofloc production systems that use vigorous aeration ogy. A major constraint to effective disease management
to maintain a suspension of organic particles that serve in many forms of aquaculture is the lack of co‐operation
to maintain water quality and provide supplemental food among producers. Encouraging management planning at
to culture animals, such as shrimp or tilapia that can har- the ecosystem level rather than farm level serves not only
vest the floc. In Thailand and Vietnam, some intensive to define the space over which biosecurity rules should
shrimp farms have been reconfigured with smaller ponds be implemented but creates a context in which farmers
that have central drains to capture waste solids. China has may be better able to understand the need for collective
been undertaking a major program of pond renovation action. Only through an ecosystem approach can the
and modification, where pond size was reduced and industry reduce volatility, improve profitability, and
aeration was added. Such large‐scale modifications to approach greater sustainability.
existing pond infrastructure may be necessary periodically

27.3.4.1  Spatial Management The Future of Aquaculture 633
Inappropriate spatial arrangement and the management
of aquaculture have more than once undermined sus- ●● Aquaculture should be developed in the context of
tainable development and expansion of aquaculture. ecosystem functions and services (including biodiver-
Repeated disease and water quality catastrophes in sity) with no degradation of these beyond their
Chilean salmon and shrimp in Southeast Asia are but resilience.
two examples of how overcrowding and short‐sighted
planning have led to massive losses of fish and revenues. ●● Aquaculture should improve human well‐being with
Because disease and negative environmental impacts are equity (e.g., access rights and fair share of incomes) for
the major exogenous risk factors in aquaculture and are all relevant stakeholders.
determined primarily by water management, production
intensity, and the proximity of fish farms to one another, ●● Aquaculture should be developed in the context of
there are clear incentives for responsible farmers to sup- other sectors, policies, and goals as appropriate.
port zoning and ecosystem monitoring to ensure sus-
tainability and protect their investments. The ecosystem approach provides a planning and man-
agement framework to effectively integrate aquaculture
Risks of adverse consequences from poor spatial man- into local planning. It affords clear mechanisms for
agement affect not only existing aquaculture facilities, engaging with producers and government for the effec-
but also affect the potential of new facilities to meet tive sustainable management of aquaculture operations
future demands for farmed seafood. New investments of by taking into account local and national environmental
at least USD100 billion are needed to meet anticipated matters addressing the social, economic, and governance
demand. The generally small scale and organic growth of objectives.
aquaculture has made it difficult to regulate and contrib-
utes to the high levels of risk perceived by potential new Knowing and growing with the carrying capacity of the
investors. Clearly, a new approach to managing growth is environment is the key to success. A variety of carrying
needed to improve the economic climate for aquaculture capacity models have been developed and used in
investment so that it can sustainably meet food security Norway, Ireland, the UK, New Zealand, Australia,
and economic development targets without causing Mexico, Brazil, Indonesia, and other leading aquaculture
environmental degradation. countries. Systems to ensure ecosystem‐level sustaina-
bility of aquaculture should aim to sustain the abundance
27.3.4.2  Ecosystem Approach to Aquaculture and diversity of wildlife at desirable levels and will
One of the major challenges for sustainable aquaculture require: 1) spatially explicit regulatory/zoning instru-
development is the sharing of water, land, and other ments to define the boundaries over which aquaculture
resources with alternative uses, such as fisheries, agri- sustainability should be assessed and 2) sustainability
culture and tourism. Spatial planning for aquaculture— indicators and monitoring systems in respect to the local
including zoning, site selection, and the design of ecological carrying capacities of these zones. Institutional
aquaculture management areas—should consider the arrangements that assure compliance and transparency
balance between the social, economic, environmental will be needed to operationalise the system.
and governance objectives of local communities and
sustainable development (Figure 27.10). It is now widely Planning at ecosystem level will simplify permitting
recognised that further aquaculture development and ensure that farms occupy less environmentally sensi-
should be planned and designed in a more responsible tive areas. Within zones, collective action among farms
manner so as to minimise negative social and environ- and with veterinary services to control diseases would
mental impacts as much as possible. Although many of be made easier. Once established, zoned aquaculture
the social and environmental concerns surrounding areas could be certified collectively so that all farms
impacts associated with aquaculture may be addressed have access to markets. Norway and Scotland (salmon)
at the individual farm level, most are cumulative and and Ireland (bivalves) have pioneered user‐friendly
insignificant when an individual farm is considered, but approaches to ecosystem‐level management based on
potentially large and highly significant when the entire extensive, heuristic carrying capacity datasets that could
sector is considered. The process and steps through inform initiatives elsewhere. Australia and New Zealand
which aquaculture is spatially planned and managed, are exploring aquaculture park leasing arrangements for
integrated into the local economy and ecological con- salmon and shellfish.
text is termed the ecosystem approach to aquaculture.
Three principles govern the implementation of the 27.3.4.3  Public Policy
ecosystems approach: With shifting economics and continued scrutiny from
governments and consumers, investments in aquacul-
ture must be thoughtfully undertaken with consideration
of the entire value chain of the seafood industry and its
interaction with natural ecosystems and other sectors of
the economy. Policies should provide an enabling

634 Aquaculture

Figure 27.10  Rafts for the cultivation of Pacific oysters in Bizen, Okayama, Japan. Extractive species will play an important role in future
aquaculture by providing ecological services of food provision and water quality regulation. Aquaculture planning/zoning. Source:
Photograph by 松岡明芳 (Own work). Reproduced under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution share licence, CC BY-SA 4.0.

business environment that fosters efficiency and techno- Almost all European countries have environmental
logical innovation in aquaculture feeds, genetics and impact assessment as a pre‐requisite for establishing
breeding, disease management, product processing, and aquaculture operations.
marketing and distribution. ●● Spatial planning and zoning helped establish resource
use rights, protect vulnerable and valuable ecosystems,
Changes in public policy played a role in improving and encourage more sustainable aquaculture develop-
productivity and performance. Policy changes have ment in Thailand (away from mangrove areas), Norway
helped to correct market failures and stimulate technol- (away from wild salmon areas) and the United States
ogy innovation and adoption, curb pollution, direct (downstream from protected ‘buffer zones’ to main-
aquaculture development onto appropriate sites, ensure tain coastal water quality).
food safety, and ensure the economic viability of the ●● Land use policies in China designed to combat crop-
aquaculture sector. For example: land loss have halted expansion of aquaculture farms
●● Strong regulation of the salmon farming industry in and forced farmers to further intensify production.
●● Many governments now have fish quality (food safety)
Norway has driven technological innovation, reducing standards in place, to protect domestic consumers, or
production costs and environmental impacts. to provide producers access to international markets
Norway’s Aquaculture Act of 2005 requires that all fish where consumers’ demands are transmitted through
farmers have licences to operate, guides the siting of retail chains.
new farms, and mandates environmental monitoring.

●● Fiscal incentives  –  such as tax holidays for domestic The Future of Aquaculture 635
(including small‐scale) or foreign investors, subsidised
loans, or price stabilisation policies—have helped The development of corporate social responsibility
establish new farms, protect farmers from price fluc- (CSR) and business ethics is an important political meg-
tuations, and stimulate local supplies of feed and seed atrend (see sections 5.9 and 5.10). In aquaculture and
in many countries. other productive activities, certification and labelling
schemes have been developed and will be likely to con-
●● Publicly‐funded research, extension, and training tinue as a way for farms to comply with sets of voluntary
encouraged the development and spread of improved standards of good practice that simultaneously support
technology and production practices in China, environmental protection goals of the state. It is not clear
Vietnam, Thailand, Europe, and the United States. if the proliferation of these standards will continue or if
there will be coalescence around standards that claim
Aquaculture industry associations have encouraged greater market share. Meaningful incorporation of
increases in environmental performance through the small‐scale producers in certification systems will con-
development of standards, certification programs, and tinue to be a challenge.
codes of conduct in response to economic and reputa-
tional risks and to open up market opportunities To date, environmental certification systems in aqua-
(especially for exports to industrialised countries). culture have focused on the most widely traded species
Other companies, non‐governmental organisations, (e.g., shrimp and salmon) and have essentially ignored
and universities have helped the industry improve species such as carps that are less involved in interna-
farm management, productivity, and performance tional trade but are far more critical for food security.
through research (e.g., in support of IMTA in Canada), Such certification systems have arisen in response to
advocacy, and service delivery. consumer demand and concern about the environmental
impacts of aquaculture. A more meaningful system for
27.3.4.4  New Models for Governance certification of aquaculture products would consider the
One important political megatrend is the development of extent to which a product provides nutrition and food
new models and approaches to environmental regulation security as well as its environmental performance. At
and governance, including multilateral agreements and this time, there are no incentives in the global seafood
public‐private partnerships. New models are needed market to create such a system.
because 1) market prices do not internalise the full cost of
resource use and pollution, 2) there are weak incentives for 27.4 ­Summary
sustainable management of common property resources,
such as the oceans, global atmosphere, and transboundary ●● Demand for nutritious seafood will require aqua-
water resources, 3) there is social and environmental harm culture production to at least double in the medium
associated with current global value chains and 4) citizens term.
are increasingly demanding transparency and accountabil-
ity from governments and businesses. ●● Inland aquaculture in ponds is likely to continue to be
the major source of farmed seafood. However, compe-
Traditionally environmental governance was con- tition for fresh water and suitable sites will drive sus-
trolled by hierarchical state institutions, but increasingly tainable intensification of land‐based aquaculture,
that role has been assumed by businesses (such as inter- characterised by the use of new production systems,
national food corporations) and civil society groups genetically improved breeds, and improved disease
working to defend the global environmental commons. management technologies.
The authority of state institutions is limited by national
borders, but that of market actors is limited only by ●● China will continue to be the dominant global aqua-
global trade agreements. These actors and their associated culture producer, fish exporter and importer, and the
governance approaches operate across national borders, major consumer of fishmeal, soybeans, and other feed
often bypassing government, and undermining its ingredients.
authority. In general, there is a trend towards fragmenta-
tion and layering of governance, ranging across high‐ ●● Alternative feeds that include less fishmeal will allow
level multilateral agreements among nations, hierarchical carnivorous finfish aquaculture to expand, increas-
state laws and regulations, and mixed governance ingly into the open oceans.
approaches that include non‐state actors such as envi-
ronmental non‐government organisations (eNGOs) and ●● Consolidation will reduce the number of farms and
businesses that establish standards, norms, and con- increase the scale of aquaculture globally.
sumer labels.
●● The need for collective action to address common
environmental and disease problems will incentivise
stakeholders to work together to keep aquaculture
within the carrying capacity of ecosystems.

636 Aquaculture Klinger, D. and Naylor, R. (2012). Searching for solutions in
aquaculture: Charting a sustainable course. Annual
References Review of Environment and Resources, 37, 247–276.

Béné, C., Barange, M., Subasinghe, R. et al. (2015). Feeding Merino, G., Barange, M., Blanchard, J. L. et al. (2012).
9 billion by 2050: putting fish back on the menu. Food Can marine fisheries and aquaculture meet fish
Security, 7, 261–274. demand from a growing human population in a
changing climate? Global Environmental Change, 22,
Boyd, C. E. and McNevin, A. A. (2015). Aquaculture, 795–806.
Resource Use, and the Environment. Wiley Blackwell,
Hoboken. Naylor, R. L., Hardy, R. W., Bureau, D. P. et al. (2009).
Feeding aquaculture in an era of finite resources.
Cao, L., Naylor, R., Henriksson, P. et al. (2015). China’s Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106,
aquaculture and the world’s wild fisheries. Science, 347, 15103–15110.
133–135.
Tacon, A.G. J. and M. Metian. (2015). Feed Matters:
Clay, J. (2011). Freeze the footprint of food. Nature, 475, satisfying the feed demand of aquaculture. Reviews in
287–289. Fisheries Science & Aquaculture, 23, 1–10.

Diana, J. S., Egna, H. S., Chopin, T. et al. (2013). Troell, M., Naylor, R. L., Metian, M. et al. (2014). Does
Responsible aquaculture in 2050: valuing local aquaculture add resilience to the global food system?
conditions and human innovations will be key to Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111,
success. Bioscience, 63, 255–262. 13257–13263.

Edwards, P. 2016. Aquaculture environment interactions: Verdegem M.C.J. and Bosma R.H.H. (2009). Water
Past, present and likely future trends. Aquaculture, 447, withdrawal for brackish and inland aquaculture, and
2–14. options to produce more fish in ponds with present
water use. Water Policy 11 (Supplement 1), 52–68.
Foley, J. A. (2011). Can we feed the world and sustain the
planet? Scientific American, November, 60–65. World Bank. (2013). Fish to 2030—Prospects for Fisheries
and Aquaculture. World Bank Report Number 83177‐
Godfray H. C. J., Beddington, J. R., Crute, I. R. et al. (2010). GLB. The World Bank, Washington, DC.
Food security: The challenge of feeding 9 billion people.
Science, 327, 812–818.

Hall, S. J., A. Delaporte, A., Phillips, M. J. et al. (2011).
Blue Frontiers: Managing the environmental costs of
aquaculture. WorldFish, Penang, Malaysia.

637

Index

a origins 2 barramundi
policy  630, 631 culture  200, 215
abalone (Haliotis spp.) culture  aquaponics  245–246, 625
573–585 aquaria basa see pangasid catfish culture
aquaculture sources  best management practice (BMP) 
genetics 143
stock enhancement  16, 359–360 589–595, 613 109–110, 524
acclimation  470, 513, 522 corals  588, 607–609 see also Codes of Practice
aeration freshwater 593 biofouling  379, 562
of ponds  73, 81–83 freshwater fish culture  biological filters  53–54
of raceways  88, 90 see also filters and filtration
agri‐aquaculture 24–25 593–600 biological oxygen demand
agriculture industry 587–589
vs. aquaculture  2–4 live rock  611–612 (BOD) 109
cf. seaweed culture  318–319, 325 plants 599–600 bioremediation 323
algae culture see macroalgae and tropical marine  600 biotoxins
wild‐capture sources  592
microalgae aquarium fish aquaculture see shellfish poisoning (from
amino acids tropical freshwater  593–600 bivalves)
tropical marine  601–606
essential (EAA)  161–162, Artemia (brine shrimp)  190–192, bivalve molluscs
165, 175 anaerobic metabolism  551
400, 442, 531, 604 biology and habitats 
non‐essential (NEAA)  161 enrichment 193 550–552
ammonia and ammonium use in hatchery culture (see farming techniques  558–560
nursery culture  558
excretion  70, 75, 77 individual species) production statistics  533, 552
NH3/NH4 equilibrium  76–77 artificial hatchery feeds  spatfall 555–556
toxicity  77, 83
see also water quality tolerances 196–198, 443 ‘Blue Revolution’  9–10, 617
androgenesis  140–141, 143, 398 microbound diets (MBDs)  197 brine shrimp see Artemia (brine
animal welfare  280, 380, 475 microencapsulated diets
antibiotics  105–106, 211–213, shrimp)
(MEDs) 197 broodstock 117–118
261, 380 Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)
antibodies 251–258 see also individual species
antifoulants  57, 388, 562 aquaculture 365–374, bubble‐nesting fishes  598–599
antioxidants  169–170, 290 376–383 business
aquaculture fatty acid profile  413
feed conversion rates  8 diversification 309
vs. agriculture  2–4, 112, harvest and processing  risk 308–310
319, 407 280–282, 387 bycatch (from fisheries)  5–6
production statistics  11
annual production statistics  5–7, c
10, 11 b
cage aquaculture  46–49
vs. capture fisheries  4–7 bacteria see also sea cages
definition 1–2 pathogenic  55, 222–229, 552
diversity 15 probiotic  177, 204 cannibalism see individual species
in food security  633 canning products  295
future 615–634 capture fisheries see fisheries (capture

production)

Aquaculture: Farming Aquatic Animals and Plants, Third Edition. Edited by John S. Lucas, Paul C. Southgate and Craig S. Tucker.
© 2019 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2019 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

638 Index Codes of Practice  613 dissolved oxygen see DO (dissolved
CO2 dissolved  75–78 oxygen)
carbohydrates  159, 164 compound feeds formulations
digestion 170 diversity of aquacultured species  15
see individual species DNA
carbonate/bicarbonate system  condition index (CI)  124
68–69 copepods as larval feeds  193–196, cDNA libraries  135
vaccines 262
carotenoids 176 442–443 DO (dissolved oxygen)  54, 66–67, 71
carps (family Cyprinidae) coral culture see also DO levels required by

commercial species  341 soft  588, 608–609 individual species
common carp (Cyprinus carpio)  stony or hard  607–608 domestication  130–131, 524
crawfish (Procambarus clarkii)
3, 343–344, 350–355, production status  538 e
359–360 see also freshwater crayfish culture
culture 341–353 crayfish economics
culture‐based fisheries  see freshwater crayfish culture of diversification  307
359–360 crossbreeding of scale  306
hybridisation  137, 343 heterosis (hybrid vigour)  129,
production statistics  11 economics of production
catfishes (Order Siluriformes) 137–139 shrimp 309–310
diversity and importance  415 interspecific crossing  138–140
see also clariid catfishes; ictalurid intraspecific crossing  136–140 ecosystem
catfishes; pangasiid catfish culch 555–556 approach 631
charr see salmonids (family culture intensity comparisons  damage 622
Salmonidae) natural 19
chilling (postharvest)  281 22, 504
China effluent 89–90
growth of aquaculture  10, d effluent and wastewater treatment see
12–13
China, production statistic debt–equity ratio  310 bioremediation
abalone 574 decapod crustaceans egg
carp 341
freshwater crayfish  538 growth 121–122 fertilisation  116, 118
freshwater prawns  544 morphology 527 scattering fishes  599–600
global seafood  6 moulting 121 see also individual species
vs. Japanese fish  20 reproduction and life‐cycles  energy partitioning  158–159
mitten crabs  530 environmental impacts  433–446
seaweeds 317 115–116 environmental sustainability  524, 622
shrimp  500, 501 see also individual species environmental optima and
soft‐shelled turtles  485 definition of aquaculture  2
tilapia 392 denitrification  53–54, 70, 81 tolerances 74
Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir depuration 564 see also parameters for individual
sinensis) culture  developing country production  6, 10
530–536 diatoms  183, 186–187 species
Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus see also microalgae epistasis 129
tshawytscha) 366–367 digestibility 171–177 European Seabass (Dicentrarchus
see also salmonids (family digestion and assimilation  170–171
Salmonidae) digestive enzymes of fish  198 labrax) culture  454–456
clam culture  567 dinoflagellates 230 exogenous
see also bivalve molluscs disease
clariid catfishes, culture  431–433 causes 204 larval nutrition  119, 440–441,
climate change  623 control  205–206, 630 479, 610
clownfish/anemone fish (Amphiprion costs to industry  203
spp.), culture  591, and culture density  204–207 extensive aquaculture  21–22
602–606 management 206–208 see individual species
Cobia culture  465–468 see also pathogens and parasites
cockle culture  567 dissolved gaseous carbon dioxide  f
see also bivalve molluscs
75–78 fatty acids
dissolved gaseous nitrogen  66–67 in compound feeds  175–177, 402
dissolved organic carbon (DOC)  53 essential (EFAs)  164
polyunsaturated fatty acids  164

feed
additives (non‐nutritional) 
176–177, 402
composition 428
contaminants 174–175

cost effective  177, 178 food fish Index 639
formulations  402, 428, 429 country consumption  12
protein recovery  103 global needs  617–618 growth 120–124
storage and deterioration  519 see also individual species absolute growth rate  120–121
see also individual species measurement 123–124
feed‐fish 102–105 fouling see biofouling
feeding freezing 288–290 gynogenesis 140–141
frequency and rates  180, 521 freezing products  288–290
methods 520–521 freshwater h
particle size  403
see also individual species alkalinity 69 handling stress  373
feeding rate and N build‐up  83 buffering 69 hapa or pen aquaculture  45, 49,
feed trays  519, 521 carbonate system  68–69
fertilisation of ova by sperm  hardness 69 400–401
freshwater crayfish culture  hatchery culture  59–60, 440–444
116–118, 121
see also individual species 536–543 see also individual species
fertilisers see nitrate; phosphates freshwater ornamental fishes culture  heritability 132–135
hermaphroditism  116, 143, 457,
and P; pond culture 593–600
filter feeding freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium 551, 603, 608
highly unsaturated fatty acids
bivalve larvae  116, 608–609 spp.) culture  543–547
bivalve molluscs  550–551 future challenges  617–618 (HUFAs) see fatty acids
silver carp  342, 346 hormones see reproductive
filters and filtration g
biological 53–54 physiology
mechanical  53–54, 60, 507 genetic engineering and gene transfer  human chorionic gonadotrophin
fish development 146–153
eggs 114 (hCG)  114, 350, 417,
larvae 371 bioreactors 148 455, 460
transformation 119 disease resistance  148–149 human population growth
weaning  198, 372, 443 pleiotropic effects  149–151 food security  616
see individual species sterilisation 151 hybrids
fisheries (capture production) transgenic fish  148, 151–152 heterosis (vigour)  129, 136–139
bycatch 5–6 genotype‐environment interactions  sterile  139–140, 142
cf. aquaculture  7–8, 615 hydrogen sulphide (H2S) 77
environmental impacts  13 152–153 hydroponics 2
production statistics  4–8 giant clam culture  607–610
fish immune systems  254–255 Gilthead Sea Bream culture  i
fish in–fish out (FIFO) ratios  104
fish lice (Branchiura)  241–242 456–459 ictalurid catfishes culture 
see also isopod parasites 421–430
fishmeal  5–6, 103–104, 175, 409, Glofish®  147, 593
immune memory  250,
518, 621 GnRHa  350–351, 458 252–261, 270
flagellates (green and golden‐brown)  gonad stripping
inbreeding 136
183–184 bivalves 557 inorganic N see ammonia and
see also microalgae fish  177, 368
flatfishes culture  468–477 governance and policy ammonium; nitrate; nitrite
flavours from feed  283 new models  633 insurance 309–310
flesh texture  285 policy and governance intensification  87–88, 98, 360, 419,
foam fractionation  53
food conversion efficiency (FCE)  134 approaches 630 426, 475–476, 617, 620, 622,
food conversion ratio (FCR)  8, 21, public policy  631–633 625–626, 630
spatial management. 631 internal rate of return (IRR)  267,
102–103, 108, 374, 620 government 302, 307, 312
and water quality  108 over‐regulation  14, 17, 630 introductions 564–565
see also feed, protein recovery grading isopod parasites  242–243
harvest 283
husbandry  373, 374, 383, 429, l

472–473 laminar‐flow cabinet  184
greenhouse aquaculture  Laminaria (Phaeophyta)  314,

409, 505 316, 318
‘green water’ aquaculture  395 see also macroalgae
grouper culture  47 larval culture see hatchery culture
larval development  118
see also individual species

640 Index marketing products nitrification  53–54, 70, 83,
acceptance 306 89–91, 108, 444
larval feeds demand  302–307, 309
artificial  193, 197–198, 443–444 equilibrium 303–304 toxicity  54, 446, 514
live feeds see Artemia (brine networks  299, 304 nitrifying and denitrifying bacteria 
shrimp); copepods as larval supply  302–304, 306–310
feeds; microalgae; rotifers 54, 70, 71, 73, 81, 109, 445, 611
(Brachionus spp.) culture metabolic rate  3–4 nitrite  52–54, 70–71, 73, 76–77
protocol for fish larvae  196, microalgae
440–444, 605–606 and methaemoglobin  77
concentrated 188 toxicity  55, 77, 91, 427, 514
larval nutrition  183, 184, 186–188 dried 188 nitrogen gas dissolved  54,
exogenous  119, 440–441, 479, 610 as larval diets  183, 441
markets 328 70–73, 444
larval settlement and metamorphosis  morphology 183–186 nori see Porphyra (Rhodophyta)
116, 119, 120 nutritional value  186–187
species 187 culture; macroalgae
laver see macroalgae; Porphyra tolerances 187 nutrient absorption  170–171
(Rhodophyta) culture microalgae culture nutritional requirements (general) 
extensive 329–330
life‐cycle culture methods (general)  hatchery scale  183–186 160–170
116–120 heterotrophic  328–329, 334
photobioreactors 332–334 o
see also individual species products 334–335
life‐cycle diagrams semi‐intensive 330 O2 dissolved  54, 66–67, 71
milkfish (Chanos chanos) culture  off‐flavours and taints  284
abalone 578 offshore, open‐ocean farming  9, 26,
Atlantic salmon  365 449–454
mud crab  118 mineral requirements 325, 376, 445
pearl oyster  116 open channel flow  55, 57–58, 428
shrimp 509 in feeds  167 open culture systems  26–27
liming see pond culture, liming mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis) ornamentals aquaculture  593–611
Linpe method of spawning induction  ornamentals industry  587–589
culture 530–536 oyster aquaculture  565–567
115, 350–351 molecular techniques ozone  53, 55, 190, 207, 267, 371
lipid and fatty acid requirements
genome  135–136, 152 p
carps 535 QTL (quantitative trait locus)
tilapias 412–413 packaging products  290–293
lipids mapping 135–136 pangasiid catfish culture  415–421
biosynthesis 164 monosex populations  139, 143, particulate organic matter (POM)
phospholipids and sterols  164
see also fatty acids 145–146, 398–399, 547 in natural water  60, 64, 70, 96,
live‐bearing fishes  596 mouth‐brooding fishes  143, 393, 197, 207, 505, 507, 523, 549
live transport  276–278
lobsters (marine spiny, rock and 397, 596 in waste water  21, 24, 52–53
mud crabs (Scylla species)  118, pathogenic organisms
squat) 33–35
long‐line aquaculture 528, 529 acanthocephalans 240
mussel aquaculture bacteria 222–229
bivalves 559–563 crustaceans 241–243
seaweeds  319–320, 335 freshwater pearl mussels  554, 569 flatworms (helminths)  236
luteinising hormone‐releasing marine  552, 553, 567–568 flukes 238–239
fungi 229–230
hormone analogue (LHRHa)  n gastropods 209–210
114–115, 345, 350, 424, leeches 240–241
450, 479 natural recruitment  59, 120 nematodes 239–240
natural resources protozoans 230–234
m tapeworms (Cestoda)  236–237
limitations  25, 93–94, 618 viruses  218–222, 258–259
mackerel use as feed‐fish  448, 457 used by aquaculture  618 see also diseases of particular
macroalgae see seaweeds N2 dissolved  66–67
net culture species
(macroalgae) culture for seaweed  321 pearl mussels  554, 569
Macrobrachium spp. new species development  28–33 pearl oyster
nitrate  52, 54, 70–71, 73
culture 543–547 fertilising with  80–81, 107, 568 culture  36–38, 569–570
mangroves  26, 96, 99, 509 nacre 550

in milkfish culture  452–453
in shrimp culture  509

pelleted feeds predators and pests Index 641
binders  165, 197, 461 birds  380, 428, 490
compressed pellets  173, 177 fishes and rays  561 rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
contaminants and toxins  175, marine invertebrates  561 culture  52, 363, 364, 366–374
600, 629 seals 379–381
extruded pellets  172–173, 178, RAS (recirculating aquaculture
403, 426, 461 probiotics  117, 442, 511–512, 522 systems)  52–55, 88–90, 178,
formulation 172 processing (post‐harvest) 445–446
sizes  374, 383
storage  180, 197, 383, 519 Atlantic salmon  283, 291, 387 recirculating systems see RAS
catfish  293, 420, 429–430 (recirculating aquaculture
pH  68–73, 75–79 fishes (general)  281–283 systems)
phosphates and P  70, 72, 73, 167 shrimp  277, 283, 517–518
soft‐shelled turtles  494–495 recruitment (natural)  59, 120
and fertilising  80, 199, 402–403, tilapias 412–413 Red Sea Bream culture  462–465
507–508, 513 product development cycle  304–305 reproductive hormones see
average cost of production
in pollution  107 reproductive physiology
plankton harvesting  199 curve 306 reproductive physiology
pleiotropy  129, 150–151 product safety and health  274–275
plumbing 55–59 profitability 299–302 bivalves 116
protein–energy ratio  154, 333 decapod crustaceans  115
biofouling 56–57 protein requirements fishes 115–116
pollution see also individual species
carnivorous marine fishes  restocking see stock enhancement
of water  96, 100, 101, 107–109, 448–449 rigor mortis  270–280
387–388, 475, 476, 619, 628 rotifers (Brachionus spp.) culture 
carps 352–353
polyculture 23–24 general 161–162 189–190, 441–442
carps 342–358 shrimp 518 enrichment 193
mitten crab  525 tilapias 401–403
tilapias  406–407, 432 proteins s
turtle 485–488 digestion  149, 153
efficiency ratio (PER)  168–169 salinity defined  64
pond culture as an energy source  153–154 see also seawater
aeration (see aeration) sources 154–155
disinfection  107, 108, 506–507 sparing 154 salmon see Atlantic salmon (Salmo
drainage  45–46, 506 see also amino acids salar) aquaculture
ecology 505–506 protein skimming  29
exchange rate  28, 418, 503–504, protozoan pathogens  200 salmonids (family Salmonidae)
514–515 see also disease production statistics  11
fertilisation  79–81, 178, 406, public health issues  274 species 364
504–506, 508, 514–515 pumps and pumping  56–59
liming  72, 78–79, 105, 507, 515 purging and taste  384 scallop culture  568
plankton  23, 505–509, 514 see also depuration seabass see European Seabass
preparation  353, 487, 506–507
recirculation 523 q (Dicentrarchus labrax) culture
stocking procedure  513 sea cages
stratification  46, 67–68, Q10 (temperature quotient)  74
515–516 quality assurance, (QA) and control general  22, 26, 378–383, 438–439,
456, 461, 466, 480
Porphyra (Rhodophyta) culture  314, (QC)  268, 293–294, 517, 518
315, 318, 319, 321 open ocean  9–10, 48, 378, 447–456
r sea lice see isopod parasites
prawns (Family Penaeidae) seawater
see shrimp (marine) raceway aquaculture  27, 50–52
for rainbow trout  52, 373, 376 major ions  64–65
prawns (marine and brackish) for tilapia  408–409 minor elements  65
see shrimps (family Penaeidae) pH 75
culture raft aquaculture seaweeds (macroalgae) culture 
kelp 321
prawns (freshwater) (Macrobrachium marine mussels  559–560, 313–327
spp.) culture  543–547 565–567 production statistics  313–317
Secchi disc  67–68, 513–514
predation countermeasures  380, sediment quality and profiles 
381, 541
71–72, 513–514
selection and selective breeding

correlated responses  134
DNA and protein assisted 

135–136, 147
indirect selection  133–134

642 Index stunning fishes  280, 429 killed or inactivated  260–261
sturgeon culture  477–481 live attenuated  261
sewage substrate or near‐substrate recombinant or subunit 
product contaminant  274
aquaculture 261–262
sex determination bivalves 559 vitamin deficiency  166, 464, 472
fishes  116, 143–144, 396–397 seaweeds 321 vitamins  165–167, 193, 402, 464,
substrate spawning fishes  597
sex reversal and breeding  143–146, suspended solids  53, 109 491–492
384–386 sustainable aquaculture  111, 157,
w
shellfish poisoning (from bivalves)  178, 523–524, 611, 631
563–564 waste water aquaculture  24
t water‐limited aquaculture  523
shrimp (family Penaeidae) culture  water parameter effects on fish and
503–512 temperature and metabolic rate  3–4
tetraploidy  141, 143, 557 crustaceans
production statistics  500–502 tilapias (family Cichlidae) aquaculture  alkalinity 77–78
shrimp (marine)  19, 74, 96, 98, 103, carbon dioxide  76
391–412 general patterns  73
112, 132, 143, 174, 180, 206, fatty acid profile  413 hydrogen sulphide  77
208, 210–212, 283, 303, 624 GIFT Nile tilapia  395 NH3/NH4 77
shrimp species (family Penaeidae) production statistics  392 nitrite 77
Fenneropenaeus indicus 503 species, hybrids and strains  oxygen (DO)  75
Litopenaeus vannamei 501–503 pH 75
Marsupenaeus japonicas  394–395 salinity 74
276, 499 transgenic fish temperature 74
Penaeus monodon  131, 177, 211, water parameter tolerances and
277, 501–503 bioreactors 148
site selection and development  disease resistance  148–149 optima
41–44, 377 growth enhancement  147–148 microalgae 187
smoking products  291, 295–296 pleiotropic effects  149–151 representative fishes  74
soft‐shelled turtles (Pelodiscus Zebrafish  146–149, 152–153 shrimps 513–515
sinensis translocation 396 soft‐shelled turtle  491
culture 483–494 triploidy  142–143, 386, 557 water quality
production statistics  485–486 trout see salmonids (family management  78–89, 427
Southern bluefin tuna (Thunnus monitoring 513
maccoyii) culture  35–36 Salmonidae) water sources
spatfall of bivalves  555–556 tuna aquaculture see Southern artesian 90
spawning induction geothermal  409, 472, 475
abalone 578 Bluefin tuna (Thunnus runoff  63, 99, 274
bivalves  116, 556–557 maccoyii) culture weaning diets  196–198, 403
carps 350–351 turbidity  68, 84–85 weight measurements  123
decapod crustaceans  115–116 whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus
fishes 114–115 u
see also individual fish species vannamei) 502–503
species selection  29–31 Ulva (Chlorophyta)  318, 319 production increase  501
spiny (rock) lobsters (Panulirus spp.) unsustainable aquaculture  615
culture 33–35 UV irradiation  55, 60 y
static aquaculture systems  25
stock enhancement  16 v Yellowtail Amberjack (Seriola
storage of products quinqueradiata) culture 
chilled  280–281, 283, 286–288 vaccine 459–462
frozen 288–290 definition 249–250
strain evaluations  130–131 z
stratification in ponds  67–68, 71, vaccination delivery routes 
515–516 263–266 zooxanthellae  607, 609–610

vaccines and immunostimulants
adjuvants 266
DNA 262–263

WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT

Go to www.wiley.com/go/eula to access Wiley’s ebook EULA.